HAND OUT: COMPUTER COMPONENTS

A PC is a general-purpose tool built around a microprocessor. It has lots of different parts -- including memory, a
hard disk, a modem, and more -- that work together. "General purpose" means that you can do many different things
with a PC. You can use it to type documents, send e-mail, browse the Internet and play games.

Computer components:
 The essentials of every computer system
o Motherboard-this is the main circuit board to which all of the other internal components connect. The CPU
and memory are usually on the motherboard. Other systems may be found directly on the motherboard or
connected to it through a secondary connection.
o Central Processing Unit (CPU) - the part of a computer that interprets and executes instructions. The
fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of
stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in
some kind of computer memory. There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch,
decode, execute, and writeback.
o Computer Memory- refers to devices that are used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on
a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer.
 Volatile Memory- is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information.
 Non-volatile Memory- is computer memory that can retain the stored information even
when not powered.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)- is the part of the computer that stores information the computer
needs while it is operating. It is Random Access because the computer can get the data in any order,
not necessarily the order in which it is stored. Generally speaking, the more RAM the better. 512 to
1024 megabytes is common for memory.
 ROM (Read Only Memory)- Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of
storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cannot
be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software
that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates).
o Operating system- this is the basic software that allows the user to interface with the computer. An
operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user; it
is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of
the computer.
 Other computer peripherals
o Hard drive-this is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold information such as programs and
documents. A hard disk drive (often shortened as "hard disk" or "hard drive"), is a non-volatile storage
device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Capacity of a
hard disk drive is usually quoted in gigabytes and terabytes. Older HDDs quoted their smaller capacities in
megabytes, some of the first drives for PCs being just 5 or 10 MB.
o Power Supply-an electrical transformer regulates the electricity used by the computer.
o Floppy Disk Drive- a device invented by IBM, it writes and reads floppy disk. While floppy disk drives still
have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have now been largely
superseded by USB flash drives, External Hard Drives, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, and memory cards
o CD-Rom drive-a drive that is connected to a computer and on which a CD-ROM can be 'played'
o DVD-Rom Drive- a drive that is connected to a computer and on which a DVD-ROM can be 'played'
o Computer Monitor- often called simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays
images generated from the video output of devices such as computers.
 LCD
 CRT
o Keyboard- a hardware device consisting of a number of mechanical buttons (keys) which the user presses to
input characters to a computer.
o Mouse- a common device that allows the user to reposition an arrow on their computer screen in order to
activate desired applications. The term mouse comes from the appearance of the device, with the cord to
the main computer being seen as a tail of sorts.
o Joysticks- joystick is an input device. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or
more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.
o USB Flash Drive- a portable storage device. The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store
personal files such as documents, pictures and videos. Flash drives are impervious to scratches and dust, and
mechanically very robust making them suitable for transporting data from place to place and keeping it
readily at hand.
o Floppy Disk- a floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy")
magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. Floppy disks are read and written
by a floppy disk drive or FDD. Floppy disks have enjoyed many years as a popular and ubiquitous form of
data storage and exchange, from mid-1970's to the late 1990's.
o Optical Disc- an optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read-only (e.g.: CD and CD-
ROM), recordable (write-once, e.g. CD-R), or re-recordable (rewritable, e.g. CD-RW). Optical discs are most
commonly used for storing music (e.g. for use in a CD player), video (e.g. for use in a DVD player), or data
and programs for personal computers.
o Modem- an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from a computer via
telephone or other communication lines.
 VISUAL AID: COMPUTER COMPONENTS

Mother board Central Processing Unit (CPU) Computer Memory (RAM)

(CRT) Cathode Ray Tube Monitor (LCD) Liquid Crystal Display Monitor Hard Drive

CD-Rom Driver Power Supply Floppy Disk Drive

Standard Computer Keyboard Optical Disc USB Flash Drive

Read-Only-Memory Floppy Disk Mouse Modem

HOW STUFFS WORK: COMPUTER MEMORY

Computer Memory Basics
 Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often to identify fast, temporary
forms of storage. If your computer's CPU had to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs,
it would operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it much more quickly. Most
forms of memory are intended to store data temporarily.

As you can see in the diagram above, the CPU accesses memory according to a distinct hierarchy. Whether it
comes from permanent storage (the hard drive) or input (the keyboard), most data goes in random access memory
(RAM) first. The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in a cache, and maintains certain special
instructions in the register.

All of the components in your computer, such as the CPU, the hard drive and the operating system, work
together as a team, and memory is one of the most essential parts of this team. From the moment you turn your
computer on until the time you shut it down, your CPU is constantly using memory.

Let's take a look at a typical scenario:

1. You turn the computer on.

2. The computer loads data from read-only memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test (POST) to make sure
all the major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory controller checks all of the
memory addresses with a quick read/write operation to ensure that there are no errors in the memory chips.
Read/write means that data is written to a bit and then read from that bit.

3. The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the most basic
information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device recognition) capability
and a few other items.
 4. The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system's RAM. Generally, the critical
parts of the operating system are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on. This allows the CPU to have
immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the performance and functionality of the overall
system.

5. When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM usage, many applications load only the
essential parts of the program initially and then load other pieces as needed.

6. After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that application are loaded into RAM.

7. When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified storage device, and then it and
the application are purged from RAM.

In the list above, every time something is loaded or opened, it is placed into RAM. This simply means that it has been
put in the computer's temporary storage area so that the CPU can access that information more easily. The CPU
requests the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back to RAM in a continuous cycle. In most
computers, this shuffling of data between the CPU and RAM happens millions of times every second. When an
application is closed, it and any accompanying files are usually purged (deleted) from RAM to make room for new data.
If the changed files are not saved to a permanent storage device before being purged, they are lost

Memory management
 TEACHER’S COPY: COMPUTER COMPONENTS
A PC is a general-purpose tool built around a microprocessor. It has lots of different parts -- including memory, a
hard disk, a modem, and more -- that work together. "General purpose" means that you can do many different things
with a PC. You can use it to type documents, send e-mail, browse the Internet and play games.

Computer components:
 The essentials of every computer system
o Motherboard-this is the main circuit board to which all of the other internal components connect. The CPU
and memory are usually on the motherboard. Other systems may be found directly on the motherboard or
connected to it through a secondary connection. For example, a sound card can be built into the
motherboard or connected through an expansion slot. The motherboard ("mobo" for short) is the
foundation. Everything attaches to the mobo -- the CPU, memory, hard drive, monitor, mouse, keyboard,
add-on cards, even additional peripherals like printers, scanners, and speakers. The motherboard is like the
nervous system and skeleton of the human body -- it provides support for the internal components and also
passes information between the computer parts.
o Central Processing Unit (CPU) - the part of a computer that interprets and executes instructions. The
fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of
stored instructions called a program. The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in
some kind of computer memory. There are four steps that nearly all CPUs use in their operation: fetch,
decode, execute, and writeback.
The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of
numbers) from program memory. Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow
memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do. In the
decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU.
After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. During this step, various portions of the
CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation.
The final step, writeback, simply "writes back" the results of the execute step to some form of memory.
Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.
o Computer Memory- refers to devices that are used to store data or programs (sequences of instructions) on
a temporary or permanent basis for use in an electronic digital computer.
 Volatile Memory- is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored
information.
 Non-volatile Memory- is computer memory that can retain the stored information even
when not powered.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)- is the part of the computer that stores information the computer
needs while it is operating. It is Random Access because the computer can get the data in any order,
not necessarily the order in which it is stored. Generally speaking, the more RAM the better. 512 to
1024 megabytes is common for memory.
The most common type of RAM these days is DDR-SDRAM, which stands for double-data-rate
synchronous dynamic random access memory. We already know what the RAM part means. DDR
means that the data is accessed twice as fast as ordinary RAM.
The latest type of RAM is DDR2. It offers even faster access rates and is quickly becoming the
standard for computer memory.
 ROM (Read Only Memory)- Read-only memory (usually known by its acronym, ROM) is a class of
storage media used in computers and other electronic devices. Because data stored in ROM cannot
be modified (at least not very quickly or easily), it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software
that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to require frequent updates).
Use of ROM for program storage, every stored-program computer requires some form of [[non-
volatile]or erasable] storage to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on
or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to "booting" or
"booting up").
 o Hard drive-this is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold information such as programs and
documents. A hard disk drive (often shortened as "hard disk" or "hard drive"), is a non-volatile storage
device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Capacity of a
hard disk drive is usually quoted in gigabytes and terabytes. Older HDDs quoted their smaller capacities in
megabytes, some of the first drives for PCs being just 5 or 10 MB.
As of April 2009, the highest capacity HDDs are 2 TB. A typical "desktop HDD" might store between 120
GB and 2 TB, rotate at 5,400 to 10,000 rpm and have a media transfer rate of 1 Gbit/s or higher.
The exponential increases in disk space and data access speeds of HDDs have enabled the commercial
viability of consumer products that require large storage capacities, such as digital video recorders and
digital audio players. In addition, the availability of vast amounts of cheap storage has made viable a variety
of web-based services with extraordinary capacity requirements, such as free-of-charge web search, web
archiving and video sharing (Google, Internet Archive, YouTube, etc.).
The main way to decrease access time is to increase rotational speed, thus reducing rotational delay,
while the main way to increase throughput and storage capacity is to increase areal density. Based on
historic trends, analysts predict a future growth in HDD bit density (and therefore capacity) of about 40% per
year. Access times have not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves have not kept up with
growth in storage capacity.
o Operating system- this is the basic software that allows the user to interface with the computer. An
operating system (commonly abbreviated to either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user; it
is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of
the computer. The operating system acts as a host for applications that are run on the machine. As a host,
one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This
relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write applications.
Almost all computers, including handheld computers, desktop computers, supercomputers, and even video
game consoles, use an operating system of some type. Some of the oldest models may however use an
embedded operating system, that may be contained on a compact disk or other data storage device.
Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access
these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these
interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive
the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software
user interface (UI) like typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user
interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is
generally considered part of the operating system.
 Other computer peripherals
o Power Supply-an electrical transformer regulates the electricity used by the computer.
o Floppy Disk Drive- a device invented by IBM, it writes and reads floppy disk. While floppy disk drives still
have some limited uses, especially with legacy industrial computer equipment, they have now been largely
superseded by USB flash drives, External Hard Drives, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, and memory cards
o CD-Rom drive-a drive that is connected to a computer and on which a CD-ROM can be 'played'
o DVD-Rom Drive- a drive that is connected to a computer and on which a DVD-ROM can be 'played'
o Computer Monitor- often called simply a monitor or display, is a piece of electrical equipment which displays
images generated from the video output of devices such as computers.
o Keyboard- a hardware device consisting of a number of mechanical buttons (keys) which the user presses to
input characters to a computer.
In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard, which uses
an arrangement of buttons or keys, which act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A keyboard
typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a
single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters),
other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer commands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word processor, text editor or
other program. In a modern computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. A
computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all keypresses to the
 controlling software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by
using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations.
A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows'
Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down the machine.
Standard keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboard 104-key Windows keyboards, include
alphabetic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys. The internationally-
common 102/105 key keyboards have a smaller 'left shift' key and an additional key with some more
symbols between that and the letter to its right (usually Z or Y).[1]
Keyboards with extra keys, such as multimedia keyboards, have special keys for accessing music, web and
other oft-used programs, a mute button, volume buttons or knob and standby (sleep) button. Gaming
keyboards have extra function keys, which can be programmed with keystroke macros. For example,
'ctrl+shift+y' could be a keystroke that is frequently used in a certain computer game. Shortcuts marked on
color-coded keys are used for some software applications and for specialized for uses including word
processing, video editing, graphic design and audio editing.
The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (that is, carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive
strain injury) to hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent
short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. As well, users should vary tasks
throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When inputting at the keyboard, a person
should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so
that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are
straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used
while typing.
o Mouse- a common device that allows the user to reposition an arrow on their computer screen in order to
activate desired applications. The term mouse comes from the appearance of the device, with the cord to
the main computer being seen as a tail of sorts.
It's no secret that computer keyboards and mice are among the most likely places to harbor immense
populations of bacteria. Iogear promises at least a partial solution to this common problem with a new
mouse that claims to kill germs by simply getting in contact with its surface.
According to the company, the "Germ Free Wireless Laser Mouse" is covered in "nanocoating", consisting
of "titanium oxide (TiO2) and silver nano particles that can prevent or deactivate bacteria with 99%
efficiency. Instead of attracting and growing bacteria, the combination of TiO2 and light kills "parasites" and
creates water, carbon and oxygen.
o Joysticks- joystick is an input device. Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or
more push-buttons whose state can also be read by the computer.
o USB Flash Drive- a portable storage device. The most common use of flash drives is to transport and store
personal files such as documents, pictures and videos.
Advantages. (1)Flash drives are impervious to scratches and dust, and mechanically very robust making
them suitable for transporting data from place to place and keeping it readily at hand. Most personal
computers support USB as of 2009. (2)Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable
media. In mid-2008, 64 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more data than a
DVD. (3)Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts, and for low
capacities are small and light.
Disadvantages. (1)Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of write
and erase cycles before failure. (2)A drawback to the small size is that they are easily misplaced, left behind,
or otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if the data they contain are sensitive (see data security).
(3)Their small size and ease of use allows unsupervised visitors or unscrupulous employees to smuggle
confidential data out with little chance of detection.
Flash drive capacities on the market increase continually. As of 2008[update] few manufacturers continue
to produce models of 256 MB and smaller; and many have started to phase out 512 MB capacity flash
memory. High-speed has become a standard for modern flash drives and capacities of up to 128 GB have
come on the market, as of 2009
o Floppy Disk- a floppy disk is a data storage medium that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible ("floppy")
magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell. Floppy disks are read and written
 by a floppy disk drive or FDD. Floppy disks have enjoyed many years as a popular and ubiquitous form of
data storage and exchange, from mid-1970's to the late 1990's.
o Optical Disc- an optical disc is designed to support one of three recording types: read-only (e.g.: CD and CD-
ROM), recordable (write-once, e.g. CD-R), or re-recordable (rewritable, e.g. CD-RW). Optical discs are most
commonly used for storing music (e.g. for use in a CD player), video (e.g. for use in a DVD player), or data
and programs for personal computers. The various writable and rewritable forms of CD and DVD are
portable storage media supported by the vast majority of computers as of 2008. CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R
can be written to only once., RW varieties up to about 1,000 erase/write cycles. Optical storage devices are
among the cheapest methods of mass data storage after the hard drive. They are slower than their flash-
based counterparts. Standard 12 cm optical discs are larger than flash drives and more subject to damage.
Smaller optical media do exist, such as business card CD-Rs which have the same dimensions as a credit
card, and the slightly less convenient but higher capacity 8 cm recordable CD/DVDs. The small discs are
more expensive than the standard size, and do not work in all drives.
o Modem- an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from a computer via
telephone or other communication lines. A device for transmitting and receiving digital data over telephone
wires. Modems send data by converting it into audio signals and receive it by converting audio signals back
into digital form. The speed at which modems transmit data is measured in bps (bits per second).
o Router-

IBM- International Business Machines Corporation, abbreviated IBM and nicknamed "Big Blue" (for its official corporate
color), is a multinational computer technology and IT consulting corporation headquartered in Armonk, New York,
United States. The company is one of the few information technology companies with a continuous history dating back
to the 19th century. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and offers infrastructure services,
hosting services, and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology.

BYTE- a byte (pronounced /ˈbaɪt/) is a basic unit of measurement of information storage in computer science. In many
computer architectures it is a unit of memory addressing. There is no standard but a byte most often consists of eight
bits.
 HOW STUFFS WORK: COMPUTER MEMORY
Computer Memory Basics

Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most often to identify fast, temporary forms of
storage. If your computer's CPU had to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs, it would
operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU can access it much more quickly. Most forms of
memory are intended to store data temporarily.

As you can see in the diagram above, the CPU accesses memory according to a distinct hierarchy. Whether it comes
from permanent storage (the hard drive) or input (the keyboard), most data goes in random access memory (RAM) first.
The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in a cache, and maintains certain special instructions in
the register. We'll talk about cache and registers later.

All of the components in your computer, such as the CPU, the hard drive and the operating system, work together as a
team, and memory is one of the most essential parts of this team. From the moment you turn your computer on until
the time you shut it down, your CPU is constantly using memory.
Let's take a look at a typical scenario:

8. You turn the computer on.

9. The computer loads data from read-only memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test (POST) to make sure
all the major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory controller checks all of the
memory addresses with a quick read/write operation to ensure that there are no errors in the memory chips.
Read/write means that data is written to a bit and then read from that bit.
 10. The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The BIOS provides the most basic
information about storage devices, boot sequence, security, Plug and Play (auto device recognition) capability
and a few other items.

11. The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the system's RAM. Generally, the critical
parts of the operating system are maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on. This allows the CPU to have
immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the performance and functionality of the overall
system.

12. When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM usage, many applications load only the
essential parts of the program initially and then load other pieces as needed.

13. After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that application are loaded into RAM.

14. When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified storage device, and then it and
the application are purged from RAM.

In the list above, every time something is loaded or opened, it is placed into RAM. This simply means that it has been put
in the computer's temporary storage area so that the CPU can access that information more easily. The CPU requests
the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back to RAM in a continuous cycle. In most computers,
this shuffling of data between the CPU and RAM happens millions of times every second. When an application is closed,
it and any accompanying files are usually purged (deleted) from RAM to make room for new data. If the changed files
are not saved to a permanent storage device before being purged, they are lost

Memory management
 Mother board Central Processing Unit (CPU) Computer Memory (RAM)

(CRT) Cathode Ray Tube Monitor (LCD) Liquid Crystal Display Monitor Hard Drive

CD-Rom Driver Power Supply Floppy Disk Drive

Standard Computer Keyboard Optical Disc USB Flash Drive

Read-Only-Memory Floppy Disk Mouse

Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Microcontrollers: The most significant components of computer is its Central
Processing Unit or Processor. The processor is the heart and brain of the computer system. The more powerful the
processor, the faster the system goes. Processor power is often measured by its clock frequency (on the computer slang
- clock speed) in MHz or GHz. However, clock speed alone may not be the determining factor. Real speed of such
functions as calculation or data acquisition for processors with 1 GHz and 2 GHz, can differ essentially by less then 2
times. Best way to choose a processor is through an analysis of its rate. Most modern electronic devices (TVs, VCRs,
microwaves, watches and so on) contain an embedded microcontroller. It's basically a dedicated computer.

Memory: Memory is almost as important as the processor, because it also influences the real speed of the computer.
You may actually get better performance with less-powerful processor and more memory, than you would with the
most powerful processor and less memory. Memory is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB). Memory comes
in a variety of packages, pin configurations, types, and formats. Today, there are three varieties of memory in common
use: SDRAM, DDR SDRAM. and RDRAM

RAM (Random Access Memory ) is the short term temporary workspace that the processor uses to store and
manipulate information
*

SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM) is new standard memory offered in PC. It provides single-channel memory and
is available on our mainstream and value desktop systems
*

DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM) takes all the features of ordinary SDRAM. Allow 1.066
gigabyte transfer rates on a motherboard's 66MHz bus
*

RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM) is able to load a new stream of data before the previous stream has completed,
resulting in faster access speeds Dual Channel RDRAM is shipped on desktop systems powered by Pentium 4 processors.
Can operate at motherboard bus clock of 133MHz. Can transfer data 533Mb/s per channel.

Hard drive ( Hard Disk Drive -HDD) is another type of memory, which stores programs and information. HDD records
data onto fixed platters spinning in an environmentally-controlled container. Hard disks have generally fast access times
and connect to the computer via special interfaces, (IDE, SCSI, etc). Hard drives can be internal (inside of case) and
external. The needed capacity of the hard drive depends on how many applications you will use. Usually, without
games, 20 GB is good enough.

Video and Sound cards: The video card and its performance level are tied tightly to the performance of the other
components in the computer system. A PC with a top caliber processor will have faster video performance than one
with a slower CPU, all else being equal. The type of motherboard (and a chipset), the amount and type of memory, the
size of system cache all also have an effect, as does the system bus. The degree to which video performance is tied to
the processor performance depends on the application. The same is true for sound cards. It is best to not change the
Video and Sound cards, recommended by manufacturer.

Computer cases: The case holds the motherboard, drives, cooling systems, power supply system, and so on. It also
protects the system from the outside world. Case can have the different forms: desktop, tower, mid tower, there are on
the market the computers with everything inside of keyboard (CYBERNET, Inc.) , or flat panel (IBM) and other unusual
forms. Sometimes companies create "form-factor" cases (or type of physical arrangement of a computer hardware
object). For example, IBM used many form-factors: desktop, integrated Flat panel PC, mini desktop, small form factor,
and tower. When buying a computer , make sure that case is expandable. There is nothing worse than needing a new
hard drive and not having any room for it. The case is also the item that helps to connect together all computer
equipment. It means, that it must have all necessary jacks and ports. Also, make sure the case looks good. An ugly case
can be a real reason to swap a good computer.
Power supply unit (PSU). Manufactures offer a variety of computer power supplies for all computing needs. Power
sources range from AC and DC adapters, power inverters, and many more options, helping customers not only work in
office, but also get out of the office and into the world. Usually Power supplies converts 110-115 or 220-230 volt
alternating current (AC) into a steady low-voltage direct current (DC) usable by the computer. AC inputs include input
voltage and input frequency. Choices for input voltage include 115 VAC and 230 VAC. Input frequencies for computer
power supplies can be 50 Hz, 60 Hz, or 400 Hz. Common choices for DC output voltage include +/- 3.3 V, +/- 5 V, +/- 12
V, +/- 15 V, +/- 24 V, and +/- 48 V. Power supplies generate a large amount of heat in the process of converting the high
voltage current into the lower voltage currents. This is reason why active cooling fans have always been placed inside of
computer power supplies. Many of the newer power supplies will often have 2 fans, one to pull air into the unit and one
to expel the hot air out of the unit.

April 19, 2009

To whom it may concern:

I LORENA LOQUINA EGUNA, authorized Ms. JOSEPHINE ROSALES to request a copy of my birth
certificate.