Journal of Research in Ecology An International Scientific Research Journal

Original Research

Impact of environmental factors on citral concentration in the lemongrass

oil distilled from Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.
Journal of Research in Ecology

Authors: ABSTRACT:
Sangeeth Thekkan1,
Tamilselvi SS2, Citral, a terpene aldehyde in the lemongrass oil distilled from Cymbopogon
1 citratus determines the market value of the oil, based on its concentration. The
Venkatachalapathy A and
1 quantity of citral present in the oil depends on the environmental factors of the
Paulsamy S
habitats where the grass is growing. To diagnose the factors responsible for higher
Institution: content of citral, lemongrass oil samples collected from 17 sites of different
1. Department of Botany, environmental conditions in Kerala and Tamil Nadu states of India viz.,
Kongunadu Arts and Science Mananthavady, Pulpally, Meppadi, Ambalavayal, Kolamala, Malayalapuzha,
College, Coimbatore-641 Pazhakulam, Vadasserikara, Konni, Marayoor, Kandalloor, Kodanthur, Mavadappu,
029, Tamil Nadu, India. Kulipatti, Kurumalai, Aattumalai and Poochikotambarai in different months in an year
2. R and D, Bharathiar were analyzed. The study revealed that alkaline soil favours more concentration of
University, Coimbatore-641 citral in the oil of C. citratus. However, regression analysis exhibited that soil alkalinity
046, Tamil Nadu, India. in combination with maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall
and altitude exerts synergistic effect over the concentration of citral in the lemongrass
oil. Based on this fact, it was identified that the sites in Anaimalais of Western Ghats,
Tamil Nadu viz., Kulipatti and Kurumalai are having favourable environment for citral
concentration in the oil of C. citratus.

Keywords:
Cymbopogon citratus, citral, essential oil, lower Western Ghats, India.

Corresponding author: Article Citation:

Paulsamy S Sangeeth Thekkan SS, Tamilselvi A, Venkatachalapathy A and Paulsamy S.
Impact of environmental factors on citral concentration in the lemongrass oil distilled
from Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.
Journal of Research in Ecology 2016 4(1): 010-018

Email Id: Dates:

Received: 20 November 2015 Accepted: 10 December 2015 Published: 12 January 2016

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Journal of Research
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INTRODUCTION
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf.
of Poaceae is an important essential oil yielding plant
grown in many parts of tropical and subtropical South
East Asia and Africa (Rangari Vinod, 2009) and the oil is
having diverse medicinal uses (Gupta and Sharma,
2009). In addition to several chemical compounds, citral,
the terpene aldehyde is the chief constituent harbouring
many medicinal uses, and valued in aromapathy and
cosmetic industries (Ghosh, 2005). Owing to its insect
repellent property, in recent decades lemongrass oil is a
most essential requirement for insecticidal drug
manufacturing pharma industries (Ranitha et al., 2014).
The per cent availability of this constituent in the
lemongrass oil extracted from the grass C.citratus varied
according to climatic and soil conditions of the habitats
(Paulsamy, 2004; Peter, 2012).In the low hills of
southern Western Ghats (400–800 m above msl) at
several places of Tamil Nadu and Kerala states, this
grass is cultivated for oil extraction (Paulsamy et al.,
2000). As the commercial value of the oil is decided
mainly by the content of citral, analysis of the effect of
environmental variables on the proportion of citralis
most essential to select the suitable habitat for the
cultivation of C. citratus and for quality oil production.
Thus, in the present study, some habitats of C. citratus
located in the lower Western Ghats were selected to
determine the influence of certain environmental
variables on the content of citral.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Areas
Seventeen study areas situated at different places
of southern Western Ghats (11 in Kerala and 6 in Tamil
Nadu) were selected for the present study (Fig. 1).
Mananthavady (site-I-760m above msl), Pulpally (site-II-
907m above msl), Meppadi (site-III-874m above msl)
and Ambalavayal (site-IV-938m above msl) are the study
areas located in the Western Ghats of Wayanad district,
011
Thekkan et al., 2016
Kolamala (site-V- 48m above msl), Malayalapuzha (site-
VI-136m above msl), Pazhakulam (site-VII-146m above
msl), Vadasserikara (site-VIII-150m above msl) and
Konni (site-IX-152m above msl) are the study areas
located in Pathanamthitta district and Marayoor (site-X-
990m above msl) and Kandalloor (site-XI-1524m above
msl) are the study areas located in Idukki district of
Kerala state. The remaining study areas viz., Kodanthur
(site-XII-520m above msl), Mavadappu (site-XIII-690m
above msl), Kulipatti (site-XIV-700m above msl),
Kurumalai (site-XV-740m above msl), Aattumalai (site-
XVI-620m above msl) and Poochikotambarai (site-XVII-
490m above msl) are located in the Anaimalai hills of
Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu state. The data on soil
pH and climatic factors for the study period of one year
(June, 2014–May, 2015) are presented in Table 1 and
Fig. 2a–2crespectively. These data were obtained from
the respective talukhead quarters for the sites of I–XI and
for the sites of XII–XVII. They were collected from
Kadambarai and Navamalai hydroelectric power stations
and Akkamalai Tea Factory.
Local People of Lemongrass Cultivation and Oil
Extraction
In all study areas, local people of 5 to 20 persons
were involved in lemongrass cultivation and oil
extraction as agriculture based engagement. The grass
was cultivated in small tracts at hilly slopes where no
plant communities were established well. Lemongrass
harvest was made at two months interval and distilled for
oil after 2-3 days of shade drying.
Soil pH
It was determined for ‘A’ horizon of soil (0–10
cm) of all the study areas using digital pH meter.
Estimation of Major Oil Constituents
Each time after distillation, 250 ml of lemongrass
oil samples were procured in every study area for
estimating the major constituent, citral.
Citral estimation
Oil samples were analyzed for citral content by
Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018
Thekkan et al., 2016

Table 1. Soil pH of the lemongrass communities in the study sites during the study period.
Year Sites*
and
month I ΙΙ ΙΙΙ ΙV V VΙ VΙΙ VΙΙΙ ΙΧ Χ ΧΙ ΧΙΙ ΧΙΙΙ ΧΙV ΧV ΧVΙ ΧVΙΙ
2014 6.8 6.5 6.9 6.3 6.6 6.6 6.9 6.9 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.9 7.1 7.5 7.8 6.9 6.9
Jun
Aug 6.7 6.5 6.9 6.2 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.5 6.5 6.4 7.2 6.9 7.3 7.3 7.1 6.9
Oct 6.6 6.5 6.9 6.4 6.5 6.7 6.6 6.8 6.6 6.4 6.5 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.1
Dec 6.7 6.4 6.8 6.3 6.5 6.7 6.6 6.9 6.5 6.6 6.6 6.9 7.1 7.5 7.5 7.1 7.2
2015 6.8 6.6 6.8 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.6 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.6 7.1 7.1
Feb
Apr 6.7 6.7 6.8 6.5 6.6 6.5 6.8 6.8 6.6 6.5 6.6 7.2 7.1 7.1 7.6 7.2 7.2
Mean 6.7 6.5 6.8 6.3 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.1 7.1 7.3 7.5 7.1 7.1
*
Site1-Mananthavady, Site ΙΙ - Pulpally, Site ΙΙΙ - Meppadi, Site ΙV - Ambalavayal, Site V - Kolamala, Site VΙ -
Malayalapuzha, Site VΙΙ - Pazhakulam, Site VΙΙΙ - Vadasserikara, Site ΙΧ - Konni, Site Χ - Marayoor, Site ΧΙ –
Kandalloor, Site ΧΙΙ – Kodanthur, Site ΧΙΙΙ – Mavudappu, Site ΧΙV –Kulipatti, Site ΧV – Kurumalai, Site ΧVΙ – At-
tumalai and Site ΧVΙΙ- Poochikotambarai.
following sodium bisulphate method (Guenther, 1972). of biomass during summer harvest, (Feb. and April,
Ten milli litres of oil were taken in a beaker to which 2015) was greater (76-88 %) than that of the other
30g sodium bisulphite and 100 ml distilled water were months. Generally the environment of higher
added. This mixture was boiled and shaken well for 10 temperature with low rainfall favours more yield of oil
min. After the formation of a white precipitation, the with rich amount of constituents in lemongrass. This
beaker was dipped in water bath for 45 min to dissolve result possibly occurred because of the high temperature
the precipitation completely. Then the beaker was cooled and low soil moisture that generally influence plant
under tap water. The non-citral portion of the oil physiology by causing the plants to defend against
separates as an oily layer which has been measured adverse external condition by producing more secondary
conveniently in the neck of a Cassia flask and there by metabolites like essential oil (Evans, 1996).
determined the citral content of the oil. The range of monthly minimum and maximum
temperatures(16oC and 31oC and 20oC and 40oC
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION respectively) and annual rainfall (604 - 1816mm)
itral, the terpene aldehyde is the most important recorded across the study sites during the study period
constituent of lemongrass oil, which determines the indicated the existence of favourable climate for the
market value of the oil owing to its aromatic and growth of lemongrass and also the synthesis of essential
medicinal properties (Singh, 2012). Its concentration oil and its constituent, citral (Anonymous, 2009) in the
showed much variation among the lemongrass oils lower Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu and Kerala (Fig. 2).
collected from the study sites (Table 2). Generally the However, the moderate annual rainfall (604–917mm)
lemongrass oil of the study sites at Anaimalais (sites-XI- recorded for the study sites of Anaimalais, viz.,
XVII) contained more concentration of citral (78.1%- Kodanthur (site-XII), Mavudappu (site-XIII), Kuliapatti
81.3%) than that of the remaining sites (75.3%-76.8%).It (site-XIV), Kurumalai (site-ΧV), Attumalai (site-ΧVΙ)
indicates that the sites in Anaimalais (sites-ΧΙΙ–ΧVΙΙ) in and Poochikotambarai (site-ΧVΙΙ) were reported to be
general have more favourable climatic and soil factors more condusive for the growth of lemongrass and the
for citral content in lemongrass oil. Further it has been content of citral in its oil than the June–August (south–
estimated that in all sites the citral percentage in the oil west monsoon period) and October–November (north–

Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018 012

 Thekkan et al., 2016
remaining 11 sites where the annual rainfall was

Sites1-Mananthavady, Site ΙΙ - Pulpally, Site ΙΙΙ - Meppadi, Site ΙV - Ambalavayal, Site V - Kolamala, Site VΙ -Malayalapuzha, Site VΙΙ - Pazhakulam, Site VΙΙΙ -
Vadasserikara, Site ΙΧ - Konni, Site Χ - Marayoor, Site ΧΙ – Kandalloor, Site ΧΙΙ – Kodanthur, Site ΧΙΙΙ – Mavudappu, Site ΧΙV – Kulipatti, Site ΧV – Kuruma-
above1100mm. The relative humidity ranged between
60.5 to 76.4% and the soil pH existed between 6.4 and

79.1
ΧVΙΙ 7.5 during the study period across the sites studied for

78

74
77
78
82

86
lemongrass oil analysis. Among the17 study sites, the six

78.1
Table 2. Variation in citral percentage in the lemongrass oil extracted from Cymbopogon citratus in different study sites.

sites Anaimalaisviz., Kodanthur, Mavudappu, Kulipatti,

ΧVΙ
77

73
76
76
82

81
Kurumalai, Attumalai and Poochikotambarai (sites-XII,

78.7
ΧV
76

78
75
77
81

85
XIII, XIV, XVI and XVII respectively) were determined
to have suitable environment for citral content in the
ΧΙV

81.3
80

79
78
78
85

88
lemongrass oil; It is explained that if more alkaline is
79.3
present in the soil, the higher is in the citral content of
ΙΙΙ
78

76
75
79
81

87

the oil, provided the other factors are to be favourable

79.0
ΧΙΙ

(Anonymous, 2009). Qadry (2009) investigated that al-

78

75
78
76
82

85

kaline pH in soil triggers the synthesis of more citral in

76.6
ΧΙ

the lemongrass oil as defence mechanism to resist the

75

76
75
77
78

79

alkaline stress. As the crop and oil yields and the quality
76.8
74

75
74
78
79

81

of the lemongrass oilare better in the habitats of elevation

Χ

upto 900m above msl (Srivastava et al., 2013), it is un-

75.8
Sites*
ΙΧ

derstood that except the study sites at Kandalloor (site -

74

73
75
77
77

79

ΧΙ) and Marayoor (site- Χ with the altitude 990mm

77.0
VΙΙΙ

above msl), all the remaining study sites had better envi-
75

75
77
78
78

79

ronment for lemongrass growth.

75.3
VΙΙ
77

75
73
74
76

77

The range of soil pH and climatic factors were

considerably varied among the study areas. The soil pH
76.3
VΙ
74

77
78
75
76

78

ranged between 6.2 in Ambalavayal and 7.8 in Kurumalai.

lai, Site ΧVΙ – Attumalai and Site ΧVΙΙ- Poochikotambarai.

The pH indicates that the soils of study areas of Anaima-

76.3
75

76
77
74
76

80

lais (sites-ΧΙΙ–XVII) are alkaline and the soils of sites in

V

Kerala state (sites-I-XI) are acidic. The monthly maxi-

76.6

mum temperature was ranging from 20°C at Kandalloor

ΙV
78

73
75
77
78

79

(site-XI) and Kurumalai (site-XV) to 40°C at Attumalai

77.1
ΙΙΙ
79

77
78
75
76

78

(site-XVI). The minimum temperature existed between

16°C in Poochikotamparai (site-XVII) and 31°C in the
75.8
76

74
77
75
76

77
ΙΙ

areas, Kodanthur (site-XII), Kulipatti (site-XIV) and At-

76.3

tumalai (site-XVI). The relative humidity also varied

75

77
77
75
76

78
I

much across the study areas (53% - 86%). The monthly

month
Year
and

Mean

rainfall occurred in the study areas ranged from 0 mm

2014

2015
Aug

Dec

Apr
Feb
Oct
Jun

(generally during the months of January and Febraury,

2015 in all study areas) to 403 mm (in Ambalavayal dur-
ing June, 2014). Rainfall was most effective during
*

013 Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018

Thekkan et al., 2016

Table 3. Correlation coefficient (r) between citral (%) in the lemongrass oil extracted from Cymbopogon
citratus and certain environmental variables of the study sites.
Lemon grass Max. temp Min. temp Relative humidity Rainfall Soil pH Altitude
attribute (Mat) (Mit) (RH) (Rf) (pH) (alt)
Citral 0.340 0.014 -0.411 -0.695* 0.835** 0.133
**Correlation is significant at 0.01 level. *Correlation is significant at 0.05 level.

east monsoon period).
An analysis of data elucidated from the several
functional relations among the lemongrass variable, citral
and certain climatic, soil and altitudinal factors are given
in Table 3. The soil pH has significant positive
correlation with the constituent, citral (r = 0.835,
P<0.01). Results of several studies reported that alkaline
pH generally enhanced the citral content of lemongrass
oil (Jayasinha et al., 1999; Castelo et al., 2012). It is
evidenced from the present study that the citral content
determined was notably higher in Kulipatti of Anaimalai
hills (site-ΧΙV) (81.35%) where the pH of the soil was
alkaline at all times of sampling during the study period
than the other sites studied (Table 1). Plants growing in
well drained soil at places like hilly slopes were highly
adapted to alkalinity and more sensitive to changes in the
soil pH by producing certain secondary metabolites like
essential oils (Evans, 1996). This is practically true for
lemongrass which is known to grow better in alkaline
soils Qadry (2009) and is producing high citral content in
its vegetal parts. The amount of rainfall also had
significant negative correlation with citral percentage of
oil (r = -0.695, p < 0.05) in the present study. It is
explained that rainfall, the most influencing factor for the
growth of plants, generally not favours the synthesis of
many secondary metabolites including the essential oil
and its constituents (Lohani et al., 2015). This fact was
well shown in the study sites of Anaimalai hills (sites-
ΧΙΙ–ΧVΙΙ) where the rainfall was generally lower with
higher citral percentage in the lemongrass oil than the
other sites.
In Pearson’s correlation, no significant
correlation was found between citral percent in the oil
and the combination of environmental variables viz.,
maximum temperature, minimum temperature and
relative humidity, maximum temperature, relative
humidity and rainfall, maximum temperature, rainfall
and soil pH, maximum temperature, soil pH and altitude,
minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall,
minimum temperature, rainfall and soil pH, minimum
temperature, soil pH and altitude, relative humidity,
rainfall and soil pH, relative humidity, soil pH and
altitude and rainfall, soil pH and altitude. A number of
synergetic effects of climatic, soil and altitudinal factors

Table 4. Best multiple regression obtained between citral per cent in lemongrass oil and the environmental
variables viz., maximum and minimum temperatures (Mat and Mit respectively), rainfall (Rf), relative humidi-
ty (RH), soil pH and altitude (alt).
Lemon grass Equation r p
attribute
Citral Y= 59.806 – 0.046 Mat + 0.319Mit– 0.134 RH – 0.004 Rf + 2.944 pH + R=0.693 0.05
0.002 alt
Y= 59.280+0.288Mit– 0.125 RH – 0.004Rf + 2.846 pH + 0.002 alt R=0.692 0.05
Y= 67.088 + 0.099 Mat – 0.135RH – 0.005 Rf+ 2.400 pH + 0.002 alt R=0.661 0.05
Y= 47.479+ 0.039 Mat + 0.320Mit– 0.007Rf+ 3.134 pH + 0.002 alt R=0.666 0.05
Y= 62.403 – 0.124 Mat + 0.365 Mit – 0.188 RH + 3.203 pH + 0.002 alt R=0.683 0.05
Y= 59.667– 0.050 Mat + 0.296Mit– 0.104 RH – 0.004Rf + 2.937 pH R=0.654 0.05
Y= 70.908 – 0.163 RH – 0.004 Rf + 2.540 pH + 0.002 alt R=0.654 0.05

Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018 014

 Thekkan et al., 2016

Figure 1. Location of study areas.

Figure 2a. Monthly maximum and minimum temper-

atures, rainfall and relative humidity of the study sites
during May, 2014- April, 2015.

Sites: Ι - Mananthavady, ΙΙ -Pulpally, ΙΙΙ -Meppadi,ΙV-

Ambalavayal,V – Kolamala and VΙ - Malayalapuzha.

015 Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018

Thekkan et al., 2016

Figure 2b. Monthly maximum and minimum temper- Figure 2c. Monthly maximum and minimum tempera-
atures, rainfall and relative humidity of the study sites tures, rainfall and relative humidity of the study sites
during May, 2014- April, 2015. during May, 2014- April, 2015.
Sites: VΙΙ - Pazhakulam, VΙΙ - Vadasserikara, ΙΧ - Konni, Sites: ΧΙΙΙ -Mavadappu, ΧΙV - Kulipatti, ΧV - Kuruma-
Χ - Marayoor, ΧΙ – Kandalloor and ΧΙΙ - Kodanthur. lai, ΧVΙ - Aattumalai and ΧVΙΙ - Poochikotambarai.

Journal of Research in Ecology (2016) 4(1):010-018 016

 Thekkan et al., 2016

on citral percentage in lemongrass were detected, but for composition of essential oils from two Brazilian native
the sake of brevity, only the best equations for citral arbusive species. Journal of Applied Sciences, 12(8):753-
percentage in oil were presented (Table 4). The 760.
combinations of maximum and minimum temperatures,
Evans WC. (1996). Treasure and Evans Pharmacognosy.
relative humidity, rainfall, soil pH and altitude, minimum
14th ed, WB. Saunders Co. Ltd., London. 248.
temperature, relative humidity, soil pH and altitude,
maximum temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, soil Ghosh ML. (2005). Scientific growing and socio-
pH and altitude, maximum and minimum temperatures, economic value of citral – rich lemongrass for the welfare
rainfall, soil pH and altitude, maximum and minimum of rural people. III WOCMAP Congress on Medicinal and
temperatures, relative humidity, soil pH and altitude, Aromatic Plants, 2:81-87.
maximum and minimum temperatures, relative humidity,
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Jayasinha P, Warnaswriya D and Dissanayake H.
analysis showed relationships involving almost all
(1999). Medicinal and aromatic plantseries. No. 9.
climatic, soil and altitudinal variables studied.
Lemongrass Survey Information Service Centre,
The present study suggests that the citral
Industrial technology Institute, Colombo, Srilanka.
percentage in the oil of C. citratus the function of the
factor, soil pH but its intensity of influence vary Lohani H, Bhandari U, Gwari G, Zafer Haider S,
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Paulsamy S. (2004). Lemon grass oil and tribal welfare in
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