Class, sect and party The making of the British middle class, Leeds 1820-1850 R. J. Morris oO 34941 Manchester University Press ‘Manchester and New YorkCopy © | Men 50 ‘New Werk, NY 10010, USA iste ci ithe USA nd Cae ct eben sen Ieoptan Cromty| Wet Yahi tet, Mae bo Cong cei peti dat Mee tl fa) se making of he rh mec ees, 1600-18807 8} Mos ns mela: «yng ~ tae Bisse 93H dao tomar ty Wl Cape anda, North Wales Contents ist of maps, figures and ables ‘Acknowledgements 1 Directions 2 eonomic structure, social sats and space 8 Teale seructuse ad chase 4 The labour force 5 Forms of class conflict 6 Party, polities and power 7 "The mie clases andthe voluntary societies 8 Volunary fonds and the reli ofthe poor 9 The Leeds Philosophies and Literary Society 10 The las projec nese in eno ad ala 11 Noreligon, no polities 12 The hegemony of the annul counts: an economic bistoryo the voluntary societies 18 The mthing of the British middle clas: an eiteLet clase Select bibliography toes ane 219 266 ae aa 351‘Maps, figures and tables Maps 1 Suet ol bling acne Leds, 1620-1051 2 Pre 1635 ward bandas Lees Towaeip 23 Towship boundaries alps 138 wd bounds ends roa “Bact es he santry map of he own of Leads, 1842 Plows 21 Occupation! seucaeof eed, 1894 2:4 Teele mutes at prcentag fal masters Lacs, v-atse 228 Status ntcators forte ward nd cutowaships of ee, 1881 SL Sua nian and textile occupation, Leeds, 1892 22 Poors and 4L1_Disubution ofthe reap eel earings of wees ‘a Ler examined a 1854 {2 age and vex struct of the population of Leeds 1841 {42 Miteandfemte woo fer about xe, Leds 1834 {4 Mate and fete woolen cen be fre er 10 poplin, by age, Let 3 43" Agra se ol the ao ce in he x laf Leeds, se “46 Men and women pe 100 oplation in dhe a ils eal ae | 1: The inlace of pode up vsig i the jr occpatoal tats ou, 17 a 1604 {tof map, figures and tables ofvece of votes (62. Voig and exis, 1692 and 1836 te on product od orcopatioal ta "63 Vong aod eae, 8021836 (63 Young and satu, 1632 and 1634 domes Index {63 Young and sbserplns, 1852 and 1838 66 elgoussurctre of Leds, 1851 67, Vocng in selected Lees congregations, 1882 and 184 24 Thrcont sacar othe Leds ibey, 1400-185) 1:3 Thr ince sree ofthe Leede Lary, 130~ 1851 126 Tow acoont of he Late Conran Sey, 1890-1851 129 The cot star othe Lends Gaur Suey, rer 128 The ince srs ofthe Lede Gur Society, 20-1851 129 The accounts of he Lede Benevolent Strange’ Free Sct, 18001881 2.18 Lede Benevolent oe Srange’ Pend Soke: epeaiure perce 1650-188) THAI beds Beneoleot or Sage’ Pend Socity: epee ects an pes 1030-1851 12:12 "Doon othe lafomary and he Sanger Pend 72:15 Rater Jovi, woolsupler income and earumpion, s0-1St 13.1 Puccio of lee occipatonl stats 0p a salle cas lmao, 1652-1858 Tables 21 opultion ofthe Borough of eed, 180-15 22. Soci eros or he ware ad owas Leds 1631 23 Vorr pe 0nd al male i the wan ad oto. ship of Lend 183 24 Sina ndieatr forthe wards and wip of ees, 32 Diibtion of looms in the ottonatip of Lend, 181 2.6 Sorption Ine for he township sd bough a aes, arabs S31 Regarnce fhe mn textile oseypacon a he 1834 wale Gectny 32 Tele aod cape woe, 187-1008 33 Economic nar ond vx manure, 185 ae 130 6 BL Dm os gees 36 mvi (Clase, sect and poy 38 The aur of sen engl xeced le ees upto and “utag he yar 1839 “3 Aad areas capital farmaton nthe West Ring ‘wou exe inde, 1790-1899 {61 average weekly earls of weaves in Armley, 1817-1887 {62 ‘Aterae caning sac othe labour neo healer stuf mautactrers, Lets 1635 "42 Sducare oh abot fore othe woolen faster sae "LA" Stace of the bout xe inthe x ails of Leds, 1a “$5. Le hsoryof Wiliam Cooper 116 Weekly wages and wveage number of months employed ‘er earn selected occupations ees, 139 “GF "Poplin of Leni and ocspein, 199 651, The Leeds tecon of 1832 62) Voce bhetourin the 18 econ 3. Malorcatearie of vei behaviour, Lees 1852 {64 Results of the Leds paeatry lection of 188 5 Changes i voting btn between 183 and 1834 {ha were the voters: ocaptional sats, 183 nd 1836 23 ha were he voto: axaptional snd op, 1832 end “68 Voting nd eecpstonal tas, 1852 {69 Voting nd ecepationa tats 1836 ‘eo “Von and eooom nee 1892 ‘CAL Ving and econ incest, 1934 (C12 orig asc state the Soeeriplons, 1829-1032 XD Leetn te Stelios ceaae 16 Perentage voting whi in eested denorinatons, L832 and itt ‘Ocrptonal composition of commit nd elles, mii aad 1800 1.2 Patption ix susciton by ocupation, 185 1S Subscspins snalyed by cept (1H decay), 1832 14 Partpdon i suseiton by ocupation 139 TLS. ‘Theprofeson andthe eobcipon, 1827 an 184 {Voting aod the vbr, 1652 “The polite of sti the poor eet ands, 189 0d 0 ‘U8 Us of mies who have been rete by the Society forthe Rl the oor in Lets, 1882 ‘Sn onorary member ofthe Leads Milonga ad * o List of maps, fgutes and tables 92. Work sacar Pil an Ut members: 1836 dstny 33. Mamerip ature and cospationa sai, Ph nd Ltimemen, 153 ‘ot Scie ator and Pil and Lit members, 2629. 935 Status domes) ana Poland Lt 1882 2946 lilanLicand sty In pbb ala, 1829-1834 99 Vacngbeheloao Plan Lit members 163 so 1936 38 Relig Ment af Phil an Li member, 189-1894 L1-Pasty enya the schoo societies, 80-1887 12.1 Voluntary and sate pending on poe ele ess sears een 137 sn 1819 12. Member sd szouns tbe Leeds Mechanics Aosiin 6-183 12.3 Membership snd accounts ote Lees Liter Insation, cist 124 Membership and aerons ofthe Leeds Mechanics esi, 18-185 12.8 Lene Ltr ostation:ncome and ing ets, a0 1851 12.7 Tecate bieachy of ets, 1830-1881 ALI Pawipunn of elect occpatna tats soap sole cs formation a Lees 85271804 Fa 10 au ‘Note: Ca ac all en i thee vigil fore, Remeber tat weve roce( Lad} ~ ane sing 7nd ewenty sling 0/-} = oe pon). orton all givens maken et 10 fas. Inala elev eis Paamentry PapeAcknowledgements “This book hasbeen ¢ lng time inthe making. When t sare, easy access to axerax machine was the best thing sa high tech Now the data base on which many conchsions depend sitson the university mantame ‘computer andthe final writing and analyse has been completed oa Inkendly desktop micro. Along the way have resived much help and ‘neared many debts. To name all hose who have given me help with records, interpretation and guidance would be mpunibe. May are ‘scknowledget in fotnotes. I aeme afew itis at ia orget countess ‘conversations in seminars, conference coffee breaks, restaurants 20d public bars, In the early days my Oxford pervsos, Professor HJ FHiabakdkuk and Dr Mix Hartwell sec standards of scholarship and of ‘cothuslasm forthe subject of social scence history to which upc There ‘ne jasice to. Maurice Beresford in the ine tation of mead Place ‘was first supervisor onthe ground n Leeds sd then friend wi guided se with his incomparable vase of documeats. Of the many beens snd achivints who helped ms, Mis [MD Forster, Honorary Libaan ‘lhe Thoresby Society, deserve peal meation Hero-operaion ad nowidge of Leds greatly eased my task of finding information, ‘Material assistance has come rom the benefits Nalfild aden ship fom the award ofa personal ercach fellowship frm the SSRC of blessed memory (now che ESRC) apd from a variety of escarhgeats {om the University of Edinbargh, Now as tne and eaources 0 gattet information and even the oppertanity to pause snd thle sees to gow ‘ore seaee ths assstane a sen ax even more vital end precious then al a the ee ‘Many fiends have sustsined me over the yeus by thet insights, ‘conversation and aboveall encouragement. Derek ase, Catherine Hal, [Richard Trainor and Stans Nena deserve specil mention, Together they have helped me see bow necessary wa o complete this writing nd perhaps without meaning to, they mae me wate how sal apart (ofthe paz realy i Acknowledgements x ‘To scknowlege Bartara Moss's pari all shi sno mere formality. Shesceepted as poral part of eourtshi walking theinner city of Leds Inscurch ofthe abandoned aunts ofthe bourgeelse. Now, mote years later than Teae vo admit, she wil il um sie for her own work 0 ‘cure hat cu complete his wing, Ter he books dedicated ith Tove and respect. noe she il always id the enterprise of ying 0 ‘understand the past worthwhile. RJ Mons, uly 19881 Directions {oe Tho hat made tia wold ut inthe show odes ‘taught by ie Unk oo ~ eat lay stem Mecandiew's yan, yaad Kipg (lass s about power. The history of socal clas is about the way in ‘which men and wamen gained power over others, about how they ved that power, aboot how they hough abot, jstifed wd naicaid that poster, about how those subordinated responded and about how those ‘With power tested tothe conlict eested. lati aboat power in government andthe stat, about power over ideas and calture, but abore [i sci clas about power inthe relaionsipa which produce and ‘itbutegoolsead services, Somewherebetweea 1780 and 1450 te way [which poople in Brain expertenced and cought aboot these relation Ship changed. Ceatal o this change were urban provincial industria ‘ata ike Los wich inked the proces society ofthe noe, with {es emphasis on manufacturing production fr “istant makes tothe ‘economy ofthe south with is emphasis on aricultre services, com- ferce andthe metropolitan functions of finance and goverment." The ‘yeas ofthe etiy TE3e were central to the growing intent of hens ‘anes: They were yee in which men and worben began ota aed respond a dese change inavaily of ew ways. Creat) nveaton, [mapoaton an the ue and e-use of experience fom the past enabled them tobulldan innovator web of eltionships and ocalactions, The imide classes ly at dhe cente of the social structures being create by hose changes. ‘Yet, tobegn with statements bout social cls istossnume toomuch, Wershould Sogn by making clear the concept of social rrvture. The reser generality of thin concept allows us to approach te question of lay structure without making the assumptions plied in the opening pategraph. A socal tractor coslts of pecelved equate in social ctons ad relationships. Those perceptions operate at ewo levels,2 tars, sect ond party the evel ofthe stors those involved inthe reaonships and athe vel folthe observer er theorist. These levels were diferent ntire bot not ‘rata exlurve The actor eould andi theorize Both props oe fch perception to help then to interpret and udeciad what is happening and vo guid scons and aspmations. The generality and value eutal nature of the concep of socal structures source of ts great power bat once he decison hes been made to enti partial oa ‘rac, ike social clas, the fal the community or the ation, then ‘ot only does that suture need 1 be defined and located with eat ‘cision bu the very act of bringing it to theforelront of debate involves important value judgements. Listes to Thomas Pint, accountant, defen ding the authority of the middle clase elite atthe Leeds Temperance Societys 1837 fespakenon cessed prope cnr whats duct therapy ‘wealth snd sation ine ac opponents = en woo have been the Seis end uppsters ol aya the tet hari snd bene! nt {eos which tie or ay ober ation ene aresed they woul have ‘Sstmed moe Becoming one ad'manner This statement identified groups, Wdeatiied relationships and their nutue, stated expectations and made judgements, Clas, status, moral derence and economic interest were songt the many factors that tered int tis processes of deteribing, analyzing and Judging socal The process was as familie for historians who obterve a moment in the pastas forthe atau that ltuation.Jobn Richard Green, one Ue Aloyen af hig historians “The idea of he ery aiocacy war a world wher the ick should ide nd ett the por, who une chi gariaahp sald oben abr ee ‘let customary wage wile te eae oll was secre ys changes fenseuton They were contorted wth new poe when te inde ‘evautlonceseds soy unkaown oe = asec of rg The very Wdenefication of regulary fo bebaviour as «‘etrucare’ involved the jdgement that had continuity and an importance in shapingthe soca fe, welfare and expevience a substantial portion of "he population under diseution. In both quotations the score concerned land observer historian made chice sbout he stcuctues and rein ships which they believed wereimpertantand began to theorize, ops Jdgements and 10 say what ought tobe changed ‘dso beck osocil elas, tot quite. Bycomingtoclass his way Daectons 3 round classbecomes not the inevitable focus of study butone choice we fin mae to help undertand change aod power. Soil elas is one ‘ride range of conceps which describe an ticoriz about rations ipower of saberdination nd dominance, of sonfice, brining and {cepuace, The reat ower of tat concep of scala ai any Suropstes isthe encompaaes uch a wie variety of human ations nd reltes them othe soll material bac of production andthe dst. ‘kon ofthe realtng gods and services Scilla nl one Way In which men and women organite themselves an hee des around ower Gener, pany, community, religion, race, national, language, at, he fry the natry and the tion all preset themselves 0 ‘mand loyalty, guide and compel scion, o oller opportunities for Andetanding This stdy ofthe ile cases of Lets in the eahy 180 was driven bys crlsity over the nature othe inequalities and ‘ahordnaions of lan The study inesogted tess dough serch forthe insttins the patterns of particpation and regalriis focal Actin nthe ple ofthat mi els. The esl was an ache ‘hogy of soil forms in which many layers of atlon, category aod Serta hed tobe excavated befove ndstanding of theatre aod Sraporeancs of sacl lass was advanced, Was clay dosnan, derivative ‘eomplemenary soci snare nthe formative nme ofthe 18303 When te esctreh for ths atoy began was correct oat that te systemati al been weit about the story ofthe lanes. At ‘hestart my owa eriosty cetel on two features of soil bebo ftp the way in which oupe and individuals created thir unr Banding an perceptions of the wor, thelr werd etre, Seolgy or ommonsenae, an, seconly, the peantentaccepanc of subd talon This ed inevitably to ce sty of soil elas bad a number advantages, ward Thoron in Tho Making ofthe Bngeh Working Clas bd npn that Css was ao ctepry bat a relaton ‘ont of ha ack esac one sd fe relations Tee Iobriour ned tocramine snd understand the otber sida the elation Ship The Making hd alo eed the vestigation oso cls in bistory fromthe isttatona fous on ognized abou apd tprehistry. Thi ‘scoped importa fran apoch ote mide clases “ods in the 1880 snd 1840s wor chosen because ewan large place snd ence key to peodace surviving rear elated oa substantial ‘ange of oc lous, Leedo wae pltce with avaied exo based tn textes, engineering and service Ie wae Healy Heated with sroolene caf the tndates stood with mile le fomation, Tar lacked the ‘dock’ impact of Manchester? The decaderehowes inciaded two poltal events asoctated with midl-cls formation, yulnmentay elon 1982s the repeal ft cor laws i 1846. iW125 mide class had developed two distintive ways of expresing ‘ Claes, sect and party “Tis proved to be «good choice, although ax the sud will how the feauons I would use to justly dhe choles now would he more complex od beoadly based. ighles My inl od naive suatey was to seekou the cultural productions (22 the Lees middle classes sr «basis fr constricting a worl pete ‘laced in context. Iw intlvenced by theexarple of Sheed with he ‘writings of Bbeneeer Eliot, James Montgomery abd others and the Sundant wriings of the industrial clases of Manchester and che Sutounding ares {soon found shat tere was tle material ofthis kind Tdeed, in retrospect, Leds was probably the worst ofthe big towns in gle to star such asearch, That was pechape as well forthe tate sel ions minded Recent esesch as shor that seeking an understanding 1 chee mide clas and high culuze mast pay attention to the con Sumptlonof that culture and not wo therarecxamples focal bourgeois production *I ound severe lacs ay tothe direction [might have taken Inthe Baines papers there was a smal packet of live lerves from the borders ofthe Lake of Thasymete ‘within view ofthe Geld of battle Between the Roman and Cartheginins'/ There were the dealings of ‘Benjamin Gott amily with Scot and Repton* For a moment Ignore these un began toread the local Leeds newspaper. twas clear thatthe 1 ||| seseopinehcrview ofthe word the public meeting snd the voluntary odrftl society the newspapers ‘of the period were sipped of foreign, Daliatnenary, and matket news then 80 percent of what remained Jnvolved these soe and meetings Soca ction andcututl expres sion produced by an forthe middle classes on aoc scale was served tap wenk alter week in these two forms ‘The peat advantege of these Terms tothe historian was that though them the would-be Leader of | the middle clases had eontinally eo explain and justly themselves in| 4 way which would gain the support and subscriptions of potential followers. Their output was prea ler active members by the pes, these end the annul repore. The recent ped of cheaper peting, the faster nem pres and reporter’ shorthand meant thatthe ifr. ‘mation was fller than it had beens decade cri. There was bis in ord survival owade te cular sokete but tit ould be eoreet by thenewspaper. There was a bis towards seivsts snd leaders bat clas war the suction of power and he ection of cultural forms 1 fst and rete positions uf power then that was no bad thing, The ‘oluntary society andthe publ esting were hus toes andobieces woof stay ip thir own ight They were sso diagnos fora wide vate of other structure and reltionshins, “Theconcemsol these meetings and societies at fst seemed scattered snd incoherent ~ overseas sons, savings banks, musi, East India ‘thomopoy, plantar reform ~ ye he same names the sae OURS) ‘tacsiiss peared agen and agi. ebecase cleat uty was based | fot ou the mate of the aesvtes but on the concern to ase grou ‘entity and sthoety and to secure the sablity of that wlencty an tuthorty The sssertion teak place over a wide range of social action Teannot put middle-class Wentiey int that statement asin elie ‘version ofthis ry because one of de arguments aking place within These to soil forms was about the natare and reference ofthe socal ‘sop which ws clang sch cory Mil clas eaity was one ( {hvon,As these snp statements wore elaborated what emerged was ‘much more dan # middle-class wold pictute and much less then «| Sabereat account of «cass creating self and its model ofthe socal ‘wat, Curcsity now demanded mach move than literary cultures xposton ofa word picture «common sense or an eoloy. Amber of nfences developed dhe concepts involved. ‘There wasa befbrush with thepblosphicaltaiions f te 19505, swith A Ayer’ loleal postive war cleansing, invigorating and ‘imately stele experience. It lft» realization of the vluelonded future of mach Krowiedge Ie convinced that snuch that we cll [nosed snl ceesnty was based upon valuation a choice, by ours no individaals, and not pon te internal conssteney and complete rear of a mathematical ike loge. Second, chee was the experience of growing up im the 1960s. The privilege of growing up in that decade eas nib reoapet the hibera [Eaton of certain apes of personal behaviour which so atacted che Inedia, but the sense of lreedom which came from a resoucesich and ' ehoicerich environment. I was a decade of mild discontent fel by “xpanding resources snd opportunities which seem an even great ‘rlege inthe rey days ofthe L980, So great were the chee hat reste sword nor pst of peopl ning and debating bt of people sing ‘i noeding ferent languages, of poole seeing and inventing illeeat ‘work frthemesives Tad, there was Gramsci and the ely waiting of Mar, with the sense whic they pve of people making thelr welds oot of the saw {material of consciousness There was that optimistic lain from the ‘eptiot the Prison Notebooks that we canal be intellect’ engaging the ct claborson othe tlc activi tht exit everyone ‘orig ts the rl eons lo stn faa tian of ‘Stenra practise, wel, papel isoating te py and Seat we, bsenee he fwlatin oc ewsd negal conenpion |6 (tas, sect and party sd the warning thai wedo no take this opportnity then the intlles- {hal of "the dominant els wil be omy to pleated to exercise‘ ‘monopoly of cltua dcetion'*" The choice seemed ery sel ad eleat sib enc le wu peeled he xterm environment. by one ofthe many seal oupsis wah eryone ‘sural invite tm the moment of his ety ite the cme torr ot be other an ebenertorrketenotinladeniealy ‘em guide refsig to acep pastel sod ropinely om oe thy ‘moulding of one's person ‘he dle lasses of the 1890 an 18405 ha «mare than wal tule of all gosto which relat, They wanted co nose ea {ecreatertely, og gianna of al deans, IMikeseme ie tocreatesacu bats or aha monoply.Thestenton Puidtothe acl anton ie bythe Benoa Phlsopcl ‘Manca ath he alienation india oe the en a thet conomie scsi and the aenation of nda oes each ther Sallenged any seae of ccs alu the meaning of pecepons Seci-camomie ely” Despite this attention war te Geta taiogy ta gave be ost oberon taza he sie ole Sane tte nlc es of na Committ Leal As widhinat ef Mans wrtns twas the etn ‘giver and not the answer book, me = Men are prodews the once ands ~ rea, ave ria shy ‘seconded by db develonnt fei productive toes dot Intercourse camapondingto thre ann devopng ts teal pation ‘nde matt stereo, al, slong witht eal exten the ‘Sinking ne podctof eink Lfelsoot detail cocoa ‘seb onsiosocs by (Grams must sem the snide to tha formidable word termined! |ustas Marx and Enge's with cel inisten turn t "matt activity and ‘material lifeprocesses' cub the cempiaton to toaly relativistic {rst oconsousnes, cneptalizton andes Whe ie ‘Av ideology and related concepts ae used frequently inthis book, warning nesceryHeloy spiel words to eee appt 8a programme of exitcim and ambitions, programe fr change, “tology s more han this. Ie contains not jt statements of what ought ‘oe, but statements of what of whats mportant, wha deserves oat tention, and wut the eal links are between thowe objects of ca Sttention: Hence to eler back eo our searing pont, the ery ebaice of the ‘socal structures’ towards which to direct ovr attention fe an Disectons 7 ideological ation. The histo, the intellectual, the pbilosoper can ‘ever be natal or value ee bat ean only sit ordeny the choices and judgements made "The meetings and aacetes which provided so much of dhe saw material of thi study were volved in the making of ideology in both these senses They crated an agenda, universe, a6 much a6 they ropagendized some nrmtivepalieal popazame. These decades of {he 1820s, 1830s and 1840s were important because they established features British bourgeois Weolgy that were olasrght though ne tothe 19506, noeaby the moval ale of soll disiplie tbe moral value plea authority, anuseasiness over the stability ofthe own authority bh never ofits comrestners and. confident central place for zligion socal ie, “Te curiosities and insights which ive historian are always much ‘mote than the general sola and intellectual environment in which they ‘Hed themscves Somewhat toma sarprise this was demensteied tome avery eal sage. Alter some years ma staent at Oxford, visited Iny grandmother and was errs questioned on my progres in the word In thelist of sracone who wondered wat eshy lad was Song ‘without areal job explained that Twas writing about the history of ‘Savings bans, tempernoc societies, mechanis institute and things ike that in nineteeattreentury Leeds, What was asked do you want odo ator, your randatheroundeda mechanics insure. She meant my srt grandathr, butt 87 the niceties ols peeration here and there ‘were not werth worrying about. He bd inet founded a smal village Intestin Leicestershire im he 1660, What she had sensed wa hat some of my interest cami frm the experience of being pat offal ‘which had een in sebooteaching or thre enetation since leaving the Welsh border. ‘Growing up ina schooltsaching family nthe 1950s and 19s wasn. coal Zinapo pet fon wc ove Bae dat peadros Seractre and its pecuartes The schoolteacher isocated bythe naar ‘ofthe ob tthe very stelace ofthe els structure. Inthe classroam| {there senoameus power and authority, and yet outside te elas {here lack of power inthe face ofthe employer weaker than acme served craftsmen, The 190s have demosstestl thisall oo barsly by ‘earing away the at veils of professional status reveal the nakedness of bourgeois wage abou. Schooltuches at het best not only trained the prvlegod inthe sls of privilege and wage Iaour inthe ways of Inbour, bt gaveselected acess to bourgeois clr, sls an plvileges|Na Pn nn OnEennSnSNSeNT SOPCQE ssn psSSSSSnSSSSSSSS 5 Class, sot and porty to selected groups of lower socal elses. None dd this better than the Selective sate schools a the 19503. The sls and confidence of the ‘atocacy wereafesy access tome, but det aquisition was allowed ‘by the shock of ealising the afer and subadinatio ofthe providers of chose sills andthe paral nature of those skills in the wider word ‘fhe quadrangles of Oxford an the street of Landon. That nae othe ‘fort and unreal unity of dente over thet vat status range hich 'S he Besh middleclass, andthe quit clas contempt which the schoolteacher had o strug to overcome and o bridge was part ofthe altura bageage which Trough to Lees in the 1830s eis asonabe to ster that himerians ave nefected the dle clases. There are ood reasons why each generation most ediscover the ‘nll clas and bourgeoisie ol the ainetenth century. The amblguty ‘ot coupling those two concepts is delteate and spar af the sary. The ‘ean forthe casi and nsubetantial natre of midle-clat history ‘se worth rehearsing for understanding ther wll help derstand that istry. sin dhe nate ofthe mide classes to deny their own existence. ‘Tey sepesent themselves as the Bish people’ ora inthis stay ‘the opulent ant influential inbabtans of Lots orcometimesjust the inhabitant of Leeds and dist The mide class nstncrively deny sbdrehne to extrine the nature clave trcite for todos isto peoke ‘hoaature of ther own pivilge ad inacousty. ein te natural the side cass hats cls, asa group they ae incre poweifl. This Say isin part an examination of sme of the rratares by ich that power wasand is secured. But, s individual, members ofthat ls fel {nd olten ave weak apd vlneable. Come bia, mal pans, the fear dnd reality of bankruptcy, worl and anxetea Over the ponsssion of ‘hat hpdreheaded chimera “respectability all highlight this.© The mil clases arly advertise themselves aa clans. The same spies, {o their inellectule Hence historians gratefaly lat onto te ew Individuals lke Cobien who own up." They are always being quoted hd we pet exayperated when their epresntaivencs is quetioned Historians ofthe middle clas lack che gudance and sseurance which the labours raditon has supplied to histoans of te working clas: po trades ions, no theorists of emneracy at socials forthe Labour Pry, ered anks of wage labour in cntrontation wi esptal. Maybe di aca guidance ir no bad thing. The new wave of peoples history scaly discovering chat ce sje of working-class people never oined tades union, wok av useven pat inthe experience {of wage labour confonting capital and excep under very pacalat Conditions found ic hard to et together amsjrty fr the Labou Party. “The mide class has been described variously a5 class of movements Direction ° ‘ora tone and temper’ ia soley. Its historians have neither the exit tient, gldance or distortions of any sense of historical mission. "There is snot less worthy reason fr the neglect of explicit writing tpout the middle clases Tels less exiting. There else moral sale {action to be gained. The moral meaning of writing about the middle claves is otleareut. Thee can be no rescuing ofstockingesin these [store els posfble to stand outside the middle clases and condemn them, ‘the scbemingelate’,ortochckleas they swt and turnin the ‘moral dilemmas which respectability, status and insecurity provided for them. tis posible to etlebrate the middle classes o to examine ina ‘hulled clea way, but thlsuings litle understanding, ~ none af hei triumph, achievements, courage, cunning oppressions al knowlege ‘fe weld around ter, teir ears anxieties and contempt. fn terms ‘fmorlshetorle the historian ofthe mide laste ace assy tsk TToouggest tha the storia ofthe mide classes begs witha tot Iackof gutance noe quite tebe. Thor are afew who have gasped che nettle andrea to autline dat history. Those wh have ied to ace the ‘idle cas over the log em el scuiouslyenastet ale In the ty {yeas oro leading upto 185, the middleclass were «source of change od tension, of inaoraton in indsery, extension in commerce snd ‘hallenge to the aitocracy, "bata some poin ater mid cantar Uaey “st thelr nr’ end fsled to complete thet revolution ”Receatly this has been foeefally related to Brian's entiprencal file a te Sluts aloes of the early nineteenth century were replace by the {culation of gentlemanly and professional value amongse clas which Bent ts soos toe public schools dominated by ansrlstocatic etl. In silts versions ate tlle’ was imple orexplily eomtested with ‘neater pei of mile-elas entepreneerial assertion, ceaiy std Confidence. Tht sli was related to changes in values toadecreace for astociticaatority, to che dabling gut induced by Matthew ‘ral, Booth, Rowntee tthe rest and orang for seblity which ‘Tepacedpotiscking drive an ik ang inthe eter period * This ‘socount hasbeen extended bythe suggestion that te extlyalneteent Century sa the growth of "sepatate eles, ane based upon the com metal wealth af London andthe other up the manufacturing wealth ‘lib provinces, mainly inthe indstral orth, This hase deotomy”| it was suggested manifested elt not only in terms of sures of income bai alan in term atte ad behavioue' Ie was «division which ‘weseruial in any account ofthe allure’ and ial Gyoamic among The British idle clasen "This aceount of divided eapialist lite as {tour of economic and socal weakness as re-emerged tne felt {ona bat witha eater caphasis on the division between commercial fn instil capital rather thon upon the aps division whichwo (Cas, sect and party ‘contained that distinction in Rubinsen’s work." Despite consistency which spread throng che argument rm ts new ets ory versions, it thrived on lack of detailed knowledge ofthe nate of the middle lasses in ether prod “provincia. - “Accounis which concentsstel on the medium term of developments ‘etween 1760 and 1870 aida very deren story. The wommaor surveys both presented spite of midlcaes drive to domination through political and ideological succes based upon thee growing economic power andthe cashes this roaght with the wistoracy. These surveys Fave ven criticized and supplemented sn deta btm attempt overall, replacement fas yet been ade. Both saw a move om a hierarchical Society of anksanderder,cominstthy enopen statocracy and bovad {gether by deference on open class society dominated by coatits “surrounding the can af poaeton and te distton of he peda ‘rigs, as was tobe expected in the 1950s emphasiaed political ston, ‘Themmidile class wasa'class of movements which achieved power tnd Sdentity through series of campaigns against the measures of an stocratic government, the roteats against the Income taxi the 180, {punst the American warol 181, the Queen Cataine flair oft ealy ‘eds the form ill campago, 1830-2 al he Anes Cor Law Lege, 183971346." Pekin sw the middle-clase aumph as an ideologies tetuph 8 he result of strug of ideals ™ in which contrary to ‘Weiner he saw an entrepreneurial dealin team especially over Important areas of state policy. The middle elses clebated their ‘riumph with splendid here: Here ard Bene oni #1840, ‘kes athe «poi pees fre Key section of the mide emtiionnaheal aammany vio gn Sateen nn eros ‘t place of public warship ed — ‘eel inkpeen conn, Se there cas vena we look at these quotations the emphasis was on moral eather thm polceal and economic authority, Waralngs abou sa he htratre fenthe limits of middleclass sump ‘Commons was sil dominated by the lzndowning families end their Iasyeralles* The tmp ofthe Anti Corn Law League was ollowed by the politcal defeat of Coden ad Bright f the 1467 election when they died co challenge Palmerston’s leadership and conduct of the Directions 4 CCulmcan War In the Lancsshize towns the industrialists might dominate local eat but as ope local leader complained in 1654 ‘peonle who think tht they ate very important in Bolton found ‘hersalves very itl boys when in Landaa” ‘Some of the diiuly of hs tratre es inte confusion ofa sees ty concepts. That the confusion, lislon al oveap af these concepts “as partof store reality only atthe need foraclearer definition ‘of some ofthe ideas used to try and onder our understanding of social teslity. The nature of group formation by and within che middle class ‘ring che period necded clearer definition both stan empirical and a ‘heretical evel The major soil theorists donot encourage any unitary lrsurightforward use of the concept of mide class, Marx rely used {thoterm, except polemical sides, buteidendeta bourgeois, tbe ‘wero te means of social production ad employer ol wage abou", and a peut bourgeoisie of tradespeople, shopkeepers, eratsmen at peasants These concepts deny the distinction between the elite of| ‘rchsnts, manufacturers snd professional men on the one hd sad ‘jr landowners or aistocacy on the othe, which was ade dally ia the politcal and social fe ofthe ninetsenth century.” Tey cat {rough te teaditona mile clas of professional men, manoaetres, Shopkecper snd small masters This division may Be one way of Fecnisag the vast uage status ae power which was and found ‘ridin that soil group commonly vefened to ab ‘mide clas. The Bourgeoisie pecte bourgeoisie vision makes sens of several features ‘ofsocialneraction during the period The elitea se mle class were sbleapd willing to lnermatry withthe aatocracy apd eo-perate with the whigtory plital swuctare which the artocioy dominated ‘Armidle clin radical formation existed in vsios forms thoughout the ‘perl The two groups were vided yogeaphcaly toca evel into Te eatiage oad th rest who ha ive within walking stance ot places of work and business. The two groups were divide in sheirmanaer ‘of accumalatng property and making wills This sty shows that ‘hey were divides ther nanner and property to pvtlgatetn public Mia “The questions raised by Weber's analysis of social structure and inveraton at of major ssstance in any study ofthe mide classes Bor ‘Weber cats ideatiry drivel fom market position. Chistes of such smatkot positions mals up social lasses by virtue of common ie chances {snd «common ban for socal interaction. Sats groups depended a thee secopaiion by the reat of society: ‘the social estimation of honour They were degoted by specif life styles and restrictions on ‘oil intaetion with ones soups, The analy tension betwen clas ‘Ha tata histr ata base for undezstanding the cones eisng fom2 (Class, sect and party te use ofthe concepts of aristocracy /bourgcolse/ mld class. Weber Slowed fr rete complexity oscil analysis. Although bebas much Tess overt description of ninetenth-cotary society than Mare, Weber Aatingushed a wide variety of roups amongst the conventions middle ‘less rom ‘those evlleged by wealth and education to lebour fous ‘with exceptional hil ‘The definition of socal woup formation wa ssite by the nine teenth entry language ofcies Middle cnscs pra wasby ft the ‘moat common usge denoting te snity othe cla an the age mer of divisions of statis and otter Kinds within it. The reports ol the Iectings showed other usages “Renpectabe’ was has fruiting mille class identity with hgherstats sections othe wage camer td Isdependencrttmen ® Respectble and opalent deliberately Limited the socal group denoted by that word respectable’ which ested the pproval af the dominsnt valu sytem tothe group concerned. Pheses like the leading inhabitants on petitions Mleauied ube male clases swith power within the eommanity snd apgvopiated the Went fee ‘own tots enidle clas, Thone who ee community ss an slernsive(0 lass forget tha community wan and isa way of negating clas conlict, ‘nd eension.”| “The mille classes were not enly vided by status but by other mpecing forms of social identity. Political pares and religious sects, ‘denominations tracted ere loyalties which frequently duped ‘Hfetve classaction especially im edocatonal,eltual and chartble ‘entures © Boch Perkin and Briggs saw a prgresion fom cigions co lass divisions. One acted a the ‘midwile’to the other” The polities suis have shown the power eligion and pary loyalties ring the 18s and 1840.” John Foster hough het tere wa tile ater smazrage between che groups tdeny the importance of ch socal en. tikes as an alternative to clas formation. Hisstdy of Oldham llrved the primacy ofthe confit between bourgeoisie and roletarie bat drew tention to the importance of secondary groups, notably two petite Tourgeoie sab groups" Religioor and polite! divisions remained Limpetant in the nl owe of Lancabite onl ta 1490," “The caltural impact uf the middle classes bas always impeessed dnibtorags. | FC Hatrson saw them a recreating society in their oem mage’ Recent attention hasbeen given tothe se ofthe agencies of thetate through education snd the new police la genera hi fl fee hes been Scena repressive and dy sinister, This Inlaence fered upto change the design ofthe Vietorian country heats Ia pcice middleclass ieologyconeained « namber of competing ad fen contaditory stands, such a evangelicals, poitel economy ‘od uilltarianisn, Other sands were represented by Smile’ concern Dinections a ‘with bouseholi sutrage and sel fulitment, and by Attwood aertion| that iguity and maintaining honest economic actvty were more {mporant than monetary stablity" The use ofa vtiety of voluntary Socletles enabled the middle classes 1 eagage in public socal action ‘with having to resolve the contaditions of thei deoogy” Each Society could express a diferent seologcal sand. The setions and Teoords of theve societies alto enable the itorian to ently diferent ‘pects of midile clas ideology with specif socal setlons.” These ‘were the ways in which the ideas an wales ofthe middle classes ‘chleved such widespread social influence. “Wehave very parti but none theless acetal soco-ecaomnic history othe mile lasses. Most atention has ben given tothe emergence ‘ad growth ot cl of large ndustealist”* Pom the 1780s onwards they secemlatd espta through che plough back of the super arma ‘proits which were the result of innovation in product technologies, hae, the division of labour and speculative gains inthe value of ‘materials in production.” tn the proces they bul new relationships ‘with labour and created new management structores.” Their social Crigins were arateriaed by shore-dntance mobility within the idle ‘ltses" By 1830, accounts suggest that the manclacturers were challenging the soil power ofthe merchants Studies of individual fms show tht alter 1830 pois expeclllin textiles were mach harder ” Recent tistics of the probate an census have shown bow Liste was _te national impact sae by these manufacturers Between 1801 and 15 the proportion of national income manlacering warel ated “There was an ineteaein regional specialization around the cali “he roar shift in the sroetre of national income was decline of sricultare ard growth af services which were concentatedin London Sand the south of England ™ The probate stodis showed that most ‘Shstanal accumulations of nan fanded wealth were fom the cont ‘teal and profesional secors. These were heavy concentrated mong the ‘oben gentry of London, © Of the 123 estates valued for probate at Between £160,000 to £800,000 inthe yeas 1809 10 1829 as ‘any 2992 were rom London andthe surrounding ses. The provincial pitas tke Leeds and Glasgow ha fe fortes at this level. Most of these wete rom the ommeclal sector Now, pobate ean end of Ml tle measure and has many imitations. These may bunt che starkacss| ofthe figresbut allallowance for them isunlkely to alte the dection ‘or even rele ofthese findings. We need to stady the manafactaring ‘centres ofthe north in light ofthe sustained economic dominance of ‘onsen through is commereial and professional eases, Attention needs ‘abe pad to che relationships, especaly the Weologialreatlonship,“ Class, see and party Ietveen the diferent factions of bourgeoisie caitlin nineteenth entry Britain * These abservations warn of ouble forthe view tet the petiod before ebe 1850s and 180s wes ether one of «dominant ‘nttpreneuria manoactringethic which was subecgaenty lot or tht [twas pesiod whic sw an entepreneusal ethic oveteomearedandant snistocatic ane oo the way to timp ‘The task then iso examine the mile clases st pst of capitalist siciety, and as part of eamplex web of subordnations and power ‘lations, Location ‘The geographical framework ofthis seedy was the town and borough of| Leeds. The choice of soch an urban plac, legally and geographically defined fra stly of the mide class has mer of avatages ant Impliemions. The cowa as. geoss concentration and massing of scat stlon wat especially sulted tothe middle clases and ence tthe tay ‘of those clasts." The nature of ce clas, as we have sa, wat to Be powerfulasa group but weak a individual. nthe concentration a the ons, the group had potential for development whieh was widely ws lo thelist half te nineteenth century Inthe elghtcenth cet Adam Smith fad undestend this and laud out nest historiography of the entity ofthe male cars with the twas, ‘The aha nda ore sient blo per {Sel boat creep mal enc et ‘abou Th Lode Soper Toe wel ec ret fe povake tn nyu ndgsoe "Bp anne tes ‘agnor, he eel ag yew ota oe gover, Seat hein th trees ey dnp ‘The Bush towns ofthe nineteenth century were the locations and Sstuctures within which mide clas sought extended, expressed end ‘efened their power Four aspects ofthe towns were inpurtant. The ‘owas were physical structures of houses streets, publi blidings tad ‘workplaces. These physical strictures were an especial object ol me las contol ther through dzet owneship and eetion or tzoagh the ‘demand sie of dhe markee*" The town was the locaton of « concen tration of chose forma econonie power which were central to made lass contol, namely finance, markoung, distribution and heathy ‘ofthe egal profession. There were many lacterles inthe countryside but ‘country banks were always loeatedin the town, Towa were more tha this. They were aloo lege! and social structures. Braude's splendid commonsense, "town ia town wherever was not qite eng =| ‘Atowa was townbecnase hore who used its concetetio and variety ‘drew ine on map, established legal authoity, used the town name te label fora wide varlety of socal actions and found meaning and [fidence nso doing. Cental to thore meanings forthe mide classes teas de asteton of domination and power “The ors of domination ine merchant snd indstil metropolis ike Leedein the firs hallo theninetent contary were varied ana difse, themunispa corporation, the mapstany, the court, the poor aw snd the chute but also the dhe Philveophical sod Lierary Society, te General Infirmary, the Mechanics Istitte and the Benevolent or Stranger rien Society. These were par of uetwork of formal seca {nsttions, onl arly co-ordinated which werea means of organizing ‘entity and eubontinaton, Leeds scial wnt wat noe aninteenth ‘entry cesion The ying nt fhe butgage lot the manor Leeds Inthe thiteemh centay and the charter of the seventeenth century ech Iefea mak upon te inatieations of Leeds. In the 1820 the Lorde of the ‘Manor tl bed ther cour and empaneled x jsry to examine weights ‘measures, The open common of Woodhouse Moor was sul chit {esponbiity. The ist half of he nineteenth ceaty sa te creation fn recteation of Leads by the refaeming of old instiestions and the ‘evelopment of ew Through yslatve and social ation, institutions like dhe Corporation, the vszy the election of MPs opalisment, the ‘MechaniesInstiiton, the Zangical snd Botanical Gardens sad dhe Temperance Society became identiied with « stclly defied seopraphical are whick was Leds, and bende by asselation With the ‘lense of social action which took placein that areaand with those who Called themclves ‘the Inbabitants of Leds ‘These were agcncies of subordination tented with the town, To become class instations was Uke potential but by no means the inevitable fate ol those nstictions, I wes likely thatthe mile cats ‘would be closely esociated with sich organizations By definition embers of tha clase were holders of some lor of legate socal power, and hence stand to gan from agencies of subordination. Class Formation was a possible but ot an inevitable esl ofthe interaction turban growth, socal ad environmental tension, the eeatiom ofthe town as series of teil sn lgal igstiutions of subordination and the fusctional invelvement of the muddle classes in that process. The gles o create and contol seh nstitions and structures were 33 ich struggles of the middle class to control it potential members tomsbordinat othe socal goaps, The craton and surge lor power ‘within these stsctuves was as much scraguleof socal groups within The mie slasses to sexk to contra the whole class and hinder Society asa whole, 6st was clas srogpe6 (Cass, sect and party 1 CH tee, Regonal Growth and Sita chang in Vitrin iti, ‘one lsary Rete, 3nd si, 3, 1H, pp 88-45 on Lange ss Moms Ala of nitrlsing Blin, 1780-191, Lenton 1986 "2 Reporte Plc Metin of th eee eprint hel the ‘Musi Hal, Today 2 fanaa 1436, Lees 1896 3 fob Richard Green, A Short Htoy ofthe Bala People, London 1874, revised eign 116 pp 8 nd B46 {eek avs (6A Mary of Modern Leds, Manchester 1980 5 Aes Brigg, Vtrin Cher, Landon 1969.56 5 ane Wott nd fbn Seal fl he Cll of Capt: at, omer and the nlnetecntveomuty mide elas, Maocbeser 198, Mt, Mie {las cults, 1700914 n Derek eae (ol), History of Meer Lode, 7 osm and Sei Eva Bans, unr om he Bae Tape, els Cy Asc 1 YezeaicaM4ELavl Sejamin Got of ry Hote Len, 1762-1880 ‘Pato ofthe As, Pablo ofthe Tey Sey 15 1984p. 177-23) 9A} Aer, The Pounditns of Empire! Knowles, Lzadan 160 1 “Aotnis Gr, Selestns fon Prion Nora, te od esate bo Quinton Hour and Goliey Nowell Say eon 1973, 3 ati pr 12 pp 33-204 13 Karis, Bay Wags, noductio by Lio Calle, London 1975, pps, 5-430 "id Kar Marsa eich Eel, The Cum Meloy paren ited wih on itaaceton by Rare, New York 10, pp. 1-8 1S Asher Top, The Scooter the gto th ching poesia Jn Engl and Wale om 8000 the pres y, Lona 1987 16" Stanley Coben, Falk Dev and Mo Pans, Ledon 1973 1 Coben Bight and tetas play omit putin Bris, The ‘Age of improvement, aaa 1959 18” Koy Lewis and Angus Mts, The Eg Middle Class, London 1969 Parichat, The Dsln ad le th le lca on 1 Gang eck, London 1676 30" Pry Avon, Ogu th Prenat Cini in Aeron te, Tomads Sect, Landon 1968 2I Marin Wee, Bglh Cult the Decne f he nde Spe. 1830-100, Canege 22 Wabi, Health, lesan the Clas Sette of Mera etn, Patan Preset, 76, Ast 1977 9.99128 123" Gealey inghem,Capiai ie tet nd ity i ish cil deelpen anon 1984 Colo Leys, The ovation al i Copal, ‘Now Lf aver ic, November Deceit 1986 20 Re gg The Ag a lnpovements 178-1867, ono 1989 Directions ” 25 Haold Pekin, The Oxia of Meer agli Society, 1780-1850, aos 196, p238 Ye baw Rane jie, HosebldSuffge nd Boal Blectoa isis Teuerto Hama Stans fn, ec 184, em the eer dates December "2 §PWosey, The Feeonelo the Palanent ol 1833, Bah Mier 48 Noeoan McCord, Coen alight in Polis, 1846-1857, Robson, Mee end tition a Vitra Bt, Landon 196, 87-118 29 John Carre, Lsdersip and Power fn Viton dort! Towns 50 Antony Gide, Catala nd Modem Sal Then an anc of the wring of Mare, Duke and ax Weber, Cambie 197, pp 36-40, ‘Athony Cider, Ph Cla Scarf the Advanced Sree toa 197, ‘LAau vgs, The Lange Clea Mieco Centr Bags, In Ags do Seve), Esa a Labour Ht, Loon 90, mo.ts-13 "aS Nel, Clnsand deolgy athe Nintenth Centar, London 1972, pei? "a Leonor Danio nd Caterina, anil rune: mead women ofthe Elsie els, 17801880, Leadon 1987, 5.28 [34a ber, Scanomy and Set, eed by Center Roh and Clas With, Uaiverty of Caloris Pes 196, 6952 36 Geoley Hest, Mid Veteran tin, 1851~75 Lacon 971, 256-268, WIL Ru, The Age of Egupos, Londo 1964, 253-267 37" Cag Calhoun, The Question of Cat Stat stl foundations of epee darn the nett Revelation, One 196 Han Pet, “The dsl Subs of enn he Ninetets Centry community com ‘loaner among the sca cles Lenls PHD 1986 ‘3 Gecge Kaen Clark, The Making of Veto gland, Londo 198, "9 Harold Pekin, The Onn of Modern Engl Sock. 1780-1880, enon 8 pp 6-28 Sn, The ae of gman. 178, “Der bnr han Pals in Victorian gland the str of lee saat Late 19704 nce, el rf Pao ed "jot eter Can Sg th dad veto oly dtl cept a ie Bagi tn, London 197 9-79-199 {2 Pack oye, Work Sect a Pluto teat in er Witovan sagan, Briton 1980, p19 aol st=-26t ‘3 JPCHarso, Leumingand Living 190-198, London 196, 38-56 44 ‘chard Johnson, Heston Poley and cal Cano i Victarian ‘nghnd Pot and Present, 49,1970, pp. 96-19, RD Sir The Palas6 (Cla, sect and party Domestic Mines: ran dcpine am yopalarclte, 1859-1080, owns! of Seca tary, 9, 1976 "48 Mask Ghar Lien tbe Engh Country Haas, Yale nd ess, 189, 1-19 "RI Moss, Voluntary Scietie and Beh Wan Hie, 1780-1650, tonal ural, 25,1985 pp. 95-118 49 raps Count, Capital Perma in the lndsalRvaiton, Leda 1972p. 1h-221, W C Rimmer, Mashed lene, 1788-1080, Cambege 1960, 50 Sidncy Pollard, The Genel of Modi Magen: a stay ofthe ‘sal retlation a Great Beat, Landon 1968, ‘3 Crotat The Fit Indus, 85-182, Aathony Howe, The Coe tan Masts, 150-18, Or 985, po.) -20 0 Ratan one, Origins of Bape Dusiaer Leap inthe Tt Revlon, Manchester 1982 {52 RG Wilson, Gentlemen Merchant the mec comma of Leeds, 1700-1850, Manebaster 197% 53_Rinsoer, Muzha of ed, p. 509, 319-32, Royse, The Ashworth ‘Coton ater, Oxo 1970) 8s, Fe Cray Dyan, Cor 157 St “CHL The Aish eonamy sine 1700 amaersanem peste, (Cembeige 1985, p.28-1€) Pen tnd WAC Bots eonere Crow, 16-1985, Cambria 1967 55. WDfubinsteln, The Vitra Malle Clase: wel orcpatio ant geoph, Econ Mistery Review, 3, 1977, yp. 3, Care Sedan [toes Outcast Landon: ony othe aon between cna Vico setty, Oxf 197, pp. 24-30 md 41-261 ‘tober! Gey, otros Hegemon in Victorian Be, af Blomfield (68, Css, Hegtony and Paty, London 197, 9. 78-98 537 Martin] Weie, Engi altreand he Decline the nda Spe, 1850-1980, Can 198, Pekin, The Orie, 9p 408154 '58, Poli Alzas, Towne and Eaooomie Crow sone thre and probe esol Abas dE A Wiley, Towns in cea ces income ‘ito and Boral seco, Case 187, 9-34 ‘9 haa Sith Wealth of Nations, ook chepe 178 (© yon, The Mile Clana at Town and Ciesol head eval, 1780-167) ck Fra uty Sule, The Pat of Urn istry, Lonan 183 p 286-308 “61 J Mow The vas an Pare a ein he bing sear of ‘Onond 101~ 6, Ozonia, 961971, p72" 9H San Elta Dard MeCione, Usb Development natura sonuiaton co the Plea ¥ Direction 9 eumcny of Plce, Sor Juma of Sail 4 1980, p16 Dad (Cena, Lod en Landlord he story ad the tows, 1776-196, ‘ester 1980, pp 61-174 (Geman Snel, Cpiasmand Marl ie, 1600-180, London 1967, peataciat "6 Mice Hees, New Towns ofthe Md Age: tw plantation Sn nolan, Wales and Gascony, Landon 1967, p53, bead Das, sy, ‘Dictory and Caetet of the County of York, Lees 183, v1.15 (60 Moss rncr and Sle2 Economic structure, status and space ‘When Charles Fowler engraved his map of Leeds for Bancs's itectory| in 1a, the vignette which he choefor the empty corner was the new built Pilosophical Hal, home ofthe Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society Te same empase ppeared inthe Stange's Guides of 1608 and 80, nee insoductons tothe directories, inemunty histories ike ‘Allen's History ofthe County of York and in later maps. Fowlers 1831 ‘map fetared the Cour Hoe, the Commercial Buildings, the mixed ‘lth hall and the General Infirmary. In 1834 there were engravings of ‘he new Lsols General Cemetery andthe rains of Kikstall Abbey. enth-centory ewds had presented ell ata place of spectacular ‘vate wealth In Cousins New and Best Planofthe Town of Leeds, the {margin ed been filed withthe fine houses ofthe leading merch Inkirkgate, Brggate snd Meadow Lane. Very diferent was the Leeds of ‘ty smoky manulactries, perceived by visitors inthe 18208 and 1840s, The topographial eres who came fo Leeds were able toe ess selective thn the vignette engraver a hey took thee avourte stance fm the rising ground tothe south west of the boraugh. In Turner’ Tiehograp of 1823, Leads was hidden in svoke and hace! Heory Bar’ view of 1846 was dominated by tal, ack smoke ping chimneys ad themasted bulkol factories along the Wellington Road snd sa Holbeck ‘These dwarfed the towers ofthe Pariah Chaeh, St joba’s sad Teaity Church. The busy, noisy grubby world of production was held at a istance in these tan Panoramas. ‘The work of private wealth aod Tendership was not so openly advertised esi had been the eighteenth entry, Te lite and mide classes of Leeds presented themselves 0 the word though tel pblicbildings and thecollectivecomsnerela, falar and philanthropic nstitations. Tae Pallosopical Hall andthe {General Inimary ere the images ofthe town presente othe pu Shivers of maps, diertries and histories. The great monuments of nasil apt couldbe negated inal his with ere tn Water Lane ‘there was an Bgyptan Temple which contained the massive fx spinning EE eee of Yoshi, ol Lees, 1822 (ass, sect and prey sail bil, Derween 1838 and 1840, by John Marshall junior? The Feasons for thiscareul exeation of apictreof Leds which dieanced but id nocdeny manafsetaring peducton, were related closely tothe nature ‘ltheeconomie strutarea the mid cases an tothe tik which the cultural, pilanchopic end poitial leaders of Lets set themseves, ‘The middle clases of the great industal town of te nor were ‘firmly identified with manufactring production by contemporary ed bby many historians» This kendey concealed che viet of economic positions and relationships which made up the complex intemal Economie suucturttaose idle class. The meosres of mile class ‘Mmtute obtained for Leds nee 1830eshow that only nist, albet 1 substantial minority weeeengeged in manulactsingprodution ant that ofthis groupa mock smaller percentage employed lage numbers of wage labours. Thereltionshipe ola end eaptl were mediated ‘Iyough a complex vat af economic positions ‘The General and Commercial Directory ofthe Borough of Leeds published by Baines and Newsome in 1834 provided a snapshot ofthe Leeds economy. Iwas also thebusisfor avery boa sed operational ‘efnition ofthe middle clases. The ducetry was not afl listing a population noreven of heads of hossshold bat by 1834 teontined 209 of adule male and 3% ofthe adult female population ofthe borough * Two rite influenced selection status and inependen often ene ‘rencusal pateipation is the econemy.° This getarout definition of ‘mide cst, included te balla the high-status elite anda vat ange of peonle engaged in rae, commerce vetaling, op well as many who felledon renter incomes, Thee were reales, alesmen,eatemen, ozensof beer house kepersand even afew obbng aboutes, The lis strayed well over any boundary which theory or peitice might devise forthe middleclass tole many ofthat vt army of erban peasant ‘who mixed cheirown expita often raised an eet, with ther owe aad family Iaour Inthe nieteeah centr own thee vara geat nono’ land beeween the firmly ented middle and working canes” “The cctupational es ofthe decry geve a est deal iforation shout the telatlonship between indiideals eid the organization of Production. "The eategoces which emerged wete atch moe than hose ‘f apital nd labour. The occupational tiles indicated several different ‘oems of autharity overland, captl an labou, "These ites indicted variety ofifferen resources brought tothe market interme capital ‘nd shill, Indirectly these eateries had Important status iy Cations.” Six groups were of major importance. The manulactures Included all whose oceapaional ite implied substatial smn of {xed and circulating capital and the employment of wag abou the ‘production of goods of all ads, “Cal itles implied small uts of eonomi strcture, socal satus and space cavial. Often an invita involved is own Isbour in production tometer With « small umber of wage taker. "Maker "wright ad ih were keywords ahiseston nose les as mscine maker ‘ocamlth’ and wheelie’, Together thee two sections made ‘p43 ofthe midle cls a dlined by the dinetony. Rete ‘bution were terol importer. They we dngubed Sythe eden "ale in any tikes, Ineper, butchery grocers Sh jus plan “sbophcper wet he most common ties. The ety Tineteentscenary town was place with an imperfect division of Inbor, so that "stibation and procesing’ would be a beter Ce {er this category? Many butchers bakers sls, coniectones the ret fook per inthe ial proccasing of the product which they {ele Thee ral rons plays jr pa inde fmation ‘Tae commercial str lnolved those who cond agents af Ctcslating or finance capital, bankers, wociapers an merchant ‘erebant* was the Keyword hee ath eae wes taken to et ‘the rag and Lone merchant, The slavish use of Keywords i ever wise. ‘Anumetcaly vil pou of high-status ten inched aay wh ‘Dok s leading rol cls ormacon: slr, surgeons” men of ‘gi, etcitests ad acountants,Scoolmasters wee pace nthe “cde oie on site gona To conde them ana rofeion bee 1850 world hove been snscroninsc A sigan par of the mile ‘list ha aos fon dependent oven nome, Het were ge ‘numbers ofthe few women wholad wn independent xonemic esto hip. Here was the hoge amy of widows au daughters ving on some form of tnt income or a icome om vesting tel own fron foverament stock, mortgages or rel propery. They wereanimportaat Sod mostiy silent presence amongst the ua mide classes" Of intepenent income sho were manymen who moved their cpital fom roll taking ito entor set at chey grew ode" They were wey ‘Srp inthe ae netlabel, Ohadeshee Sicthcother goupshad lie sgnicance, excep prhapsndentions Slt se ood inportane of atic whch ene Sl das experience diag be weet ccnary, chaste wa Collar and sate setor worker [So Fase 2.1 “Two eter sti suggest atti sis sctae for a boadly difined mde cass wat not unypeal a he growing bus regional odustl seotes‘This comparion is made onthe bai of thes Iaoretegres Ani shoo take avo senount the Boal orders limgritie reer tan the deel vations beau of minor sides the nt oh oso te ede ‘ceupationl eading The Glasgow aoare, «pom oficeSrctory ‘he methology ed wan very clove to thet o the Leds sty.sonnei osm pnt orn ‘ig 21 Ocapatina strate of Leds, 1894 esnomi strane, seal status ond space 2s “Merchants and professional men were more important dan they were fn Leeds, whilst the manufacturers were less 50, Some ofthis may have beem due to che greater willingness of Glngow entrants to sd Commercial occupation inthe directory, whilst move Leais people Claimed the le of 'genllema’ which pu them inthe independent {cone categry. Me Iiely this contrat repretented sel diference {Glangow had not ravelle a ferlong the road of wn industrliation ‘Leeds, The numeriel dominance ofshopkeepersand pty prodcucrs twas ler featoe ofthe ‘middle eases in Glasgow, Leeds and Mas chester (ee Figure 22). The Manchester figures were aot so dicey omparablein terms of source ~ ayol took was used ~ or in terms of Inetholology, at slight diferences in cceapationdl coding. were Involved." The rnults in terms ofa soug erder of magnitude were ‘lem Shopkeepets were nosy atin ofthe roup. The manfsctarers ‘were move important mbich fits the greater progress Manchester had Thade la terms of urban indvstralization, Asin Leeds, commercial a fessional men and those with inependent incomes were a mpoctant minority. There sno equivalent study ofthe smaller ndustial towns, [butte of Outham and of Salford, Rochdale and Bolton suggest hat {such towns, manfactorers were more important, aopkeepers ad ety producers were equally numerous and commercial nd profesional ‘ea len prominent Merthyr Ty in South Wales was dominated by 2 Small aumber of maj manufactures, but a imporeat bck of hopkesperstgethe with ema amber of profesional people provided the balk of the smal, local middlecass population" Such towns ‘woul! ad nay ofthe professional nd commercial sevice they nected inthe larger centres Tnmany ces the occupations ite from the Keats directory geve lea idieatins ofthe nature ofthe outpat with which most individuals ‘were involve" Teles were sll dominant a dey had een when Delo snd Celia Feines visited the town, although important linea {yarn and worsted all indies bad een add to the woollen. There war lle which did not depend directly or indzectly on ee roserty of textiles, Gls, postery an leather indies ad mparant| frteral markets. Some goods and above al services were povided fora subtantal eplonal mazket. ‘There was a lage intemal mark Food, clothing and construction comprised 346 of the entries. These ‘opened pen the prosperity ofthe external income-carning textile Inostres, eid sectors ike Chenin sod commerce which povided the services sad inputs for the external eurers. The metal induties ‘were besinaing to serve both iateral and extemal markets wht {he professions had long served the local and regional market, (Sce igure 2.[ig 25, Thendral rare of Lent, 1D ute: ier nd Newsome Dic, 188)8 Class, sect and party ‘These categories were a helpful way of deseibing the economic ‘experience and postions ofthe mid classes of Leedsas defined by the ast duectory. Theeategces were helpflindeteribing end explaining wide variety of pola, eultra and publi actions by members of these midilclasesAlnugh the experience interes, status and socal ‘ndeconomie relationships implied by each category ia exch of the wa ‘Tension of analyeis used here were tine, the member ofall the ‘eateries were band together bythe nature’ of the arban industrial ‘conomles which emerged towards the end ofthe eighteenth century in [rtaln, There economies were eharactsiaed by increased specialization within and between urban centes. There were dense networks of economic relationships, Visually the shopkceper, dhe bunker and the ‘professional man might view te tertile mills with tbe detache of ‘2 urhan prospec or panorama bt economical they knew thatthe le ‘lhe income derived fom the romper of hat accor ofthe scone whieh earned income by producing fr what Adam Smith had eae’ ‘Gisant market. They also knew that the manufacturing sector con sited th re tn ther tne see the sion ‘respects The density of urban relationships als ave scapeciy forte ‘tansfer of skills and technologies, for an overlap of Fane within {miles or even within the economic atvities of individual This ‘serie analsicf the structure othe middle cassia portant teonective co the simplistic eccosnts of the northern mide classes ‘manufacturers, bat this comection should not divert sttention ftom the central place which manufacturing had inthe development and coo ‘inued prwperity of tha interconnected and interdependent economy wich was eats Leeds hal grown in the eighteenth century as che merchantng and finishing centre ofthe white andcelouredcloth areas ofthe West Riding ‘wool etl industry. The impacto the relatively slow growth of Enis ‘woollens in the eightenth century had ben ile len Leds for the ‘Wiest Riding shere of British output had ise foc 30% in 1772 to 66 1900. Went Riding svcese was based upon tradonal dina in the cheap woollen cloth market pitied by the Kesey" nthe 1740s, some 8086 of the occupied population of Leas was iecly involved ia woallens.” Te rest were patt of the internal ‘economy, poring ood shelter and clothing, proessional eves and {he prot ofthe laxry erat like the slversmiths end coachnakers ‘There was an apparent dcline in the dominance ofthe textesectr (Se Piguet “This rend was accounted fo by several factors, some rel and some reflecting the nature ofthe sowots, The non-apjentice aking oo ations, notably in tensprt and some poessons were shen om he ree epi, ‘Pa, 24 Tene maser ao percentage fall marin Lede 1728-18340 (Class, sect and party regs. The occupations of the internal economy were also more vibe ‘oleter sures, in altion, asthe economy developed thre wis both tester specialization and a diversification swsy fom woollens There ‘as dveafcationwichin the ete sector, vy fom woollen to ax spinning and worsted stuff manulacte, a well ae considerable change ‘within the woollen industry sel Between 1700 and 1830, the power ofthe merchants of Leeds frst Increased and then begun to wane. The ments purchased cot in bulk’, the unfinished sate, ms the clohiers, Far much ofthe ightcent cencary most lohies were indspendentnteprenewe wh sited thelrown and fry labour with capital unde ther own cnt. The clothier purchased wool from the woelstapler cari ot pepe. sidan, spinning and weavings a domestic workshop beote aloe the Robert Baker, who in 1842 was already working forthe goverament, lan beens sugcun in Leeds for over ten yeas, had worked for Hindes sand Detham, the suff manufacturers as scary surgeon and a well eonomic stroctare, social status and space 2” ‘versed in missmati medial thaoy and the recent sil ote satin ‘movement. This placed hm in powerful postion to observe he detail ‘laos geography in Leeds, bt withl the preconceptions of hit socal ‘lass ®When Walter Hook, the Puseyite via eame to Leeds in 1837 he ‘as immediately aware of rcent changes inthe soil geography of Lees ‘nbich hindered his ambitions o estore tc authority ofthe estalied ‘church over the whole population. The Parish Church, St Peter’ once ‘wellsituted or cbe merchant eo liven Kirkgate when the fit Leeds Alzectory o 1797 hod been ompiled, was now in the mist ofa district ‘hell inhabited by the poorest ofthe poo By the 183eadstneive socio geographical pattern wasemergingin ‘Leeds Bat it was moe comple than che "Two Nation model suggest by Baker and James Smith. To use the census information of 1831 te ‘old ward boundarie of Leeds must be accepted as unite of analyse although hey cael represented social units The indicators which ean ‘be prepared om the pte securn show very clay that important socal chaaeterisies were very unovenly dstelbuted dough the od ‘ward sce Table 2.2 and Figure 23). “Theol wand of Mil Fllstetching from Albin Suet to Patk Square snd ark Place was quitedintnctive.tscharacter was dominated by te houses on ce estate of dhe Wilson family which had been la out for bing, peincpally in the 178Ds a spacious and weeflled wet end for Leeds. In he 1790s most of the merchant elite lived inthe ates, bot shestcan ego wal nlf he Gat od he Give a te Aye houses of people ike te Nusseys spread west long the iver. ‘he squares ila with smo, ee unbuileland was occupied bythe ben ‘cottage of Cots worker, adhe who could, moved up the bly at ‘ofthe smoke to the slopes of Gest Woodous, aad eventually t tae Iealy lanes of Headingley. The Stzanger's Gude of 1806 was stil enthusiastic about Park Pee, ‘srw of handsome moder brick bat Jouss fronting the south and comonanding sin view o the iver and thei ba the ullding of sbtantil houses bad stopped.” Atnough ‘hse ofthe very highes social status in Lees had moe ou of Mi Fl anu the Park Esta i was, nthe TAR, sill the ward withthe greatest ‘concentration of middle- eo 7 4 others to 2 8 2 48 f Poo 6 4 a 48 Nolalomaciea Machinery manofactarer Comparison withthe dzetory entses showed an important pat of ‘the meaning ofthe occupation tile "merchant. Many othe owners ‘of manslactring establishments in woollen were entre sn the 143 ‘dco mnerehuns' This wat how they presented chemselver tthe ‘work Input his was claim tostatus in part was beease they sa themselves primarily ab fineeiers and tales ofthe industry, not ‘manages of the production proces. This was a natural result ofthe ‘rein’ Long standing movement into the finishing and dyeing end ‘at woollen production. A movement designed to ensure quality and onsateney. Merchant’ were involved aml ovate, manlaccver, ‘pers and clach denser in woollens, There were no wich people in lax ‘rin wore withthe exception of TW Stansfld wh bad 70 horse Power working his power oom weaving establishment at Busey mails. ‘The merchants” of Leeds like Pin Nevins with bis lage establishment A Lari, or Willm Andrews end Robert Dorrington with cloth ‘essing and manufacturing works, were more deeply involved in fixed {ndasteal capital than ther ocespational ive admiteed in 182, the Leeds Mercury made a short survey ofthe Leeds fx tndustey. Comparison of these results with those of 1834 showed thea (Clas, sect ond party geoeral stability ofthe larger manufaccwers: Meshal, Benyons, Titey| “Tatham and Walker, Moses Atkinion and Hives Atkiogon wee ia bots lists with asighely reduced ibour fore 1834. Four the lesen ‘mend dropped thee partners, whist the smallest establishment Sad caged hands, Mr Bowes being replaced by WB Holdsworth. The ‘courity ofthe large etalishmente andthe opportunity fe ew em {tants nd insecurity inthe smaller ones was ‘ypc of mos ada sectors." Both surveys neglected lesser eetallshnents which ony got, aplaceinthe directory. They worked by hand orbowrwed power and s0 {Ld oe wartant x place i eter reo. “The status apd econonne postin of entrepreneurs vated across the ‘ext industry. The lax spinners were cesrlysupeir tothe woollen ‘men who i general wee superior tothe worsted manufactory. The status ange ofthe woollen men was greater because of the existence of ‘any single process men and independent antisen-empoyers, Wiha ‘ach ctor there was igh stats group, both in ems eeromomle aa salsa and ser ranks of manulserrers ond indepen artisans ‘Tie latet ad brief opportalties to sccumlate capital asthe fortunes oftade and the favour of odes came tei way. The stucte was bound foxethe by a web of exe, moxnges and tae debts, by puting out sd bythe integration and subvisionofproceses. twas arturo great Inoglity, butane given an essential unity through the ownership of capital and need to discipline labour. Tai minute of opporuaty, insecurity, inequality and unity was crucial Yor the eceptasce ne ‘tual interpetation of the ddeologies which the mile clases