18/10/2017

Contents
• Maps
• A general timeline with information about early Indonesia &
European colonization of Asia
Story of Indonesia • Dutch colonization of the East Indies
• Plantation Crops
• Nationalism
• WWII
• Independence
• Recent Indonesian history

MAPS

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A GENERAL TIMELINE ABOUT EARLY
INDONESIA & EUROPEAN COLONIZATION
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Summary of Kingdoms
• Srivijaya, 7-13th Century, Java, Sumatra & Malay Peninsula
• Sailendras, 8 – 9th Century, Central Java
• Mataram, 832 – 1042, Central Java
• Janggala, 1042 – 1222, Central Java
• Kediri, 1042 – 1222, Central Java
• Singhasari, 1222 – 1292, Java, Sumatra & Straits
• Majapahit, 1292 – 1402, The Whole Thing
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Timeline
• 1494: Treaty of Tordesillas divided the non-European world
between Spain & Portugal
• 1511: Portuguese conquer Melaka (formerly Malacca), the great
Malay trading port on the Straits of Melaka. Portuguese posts
also established in the Spice Islands of Eastern Indonesia
• 1520: Spain-under Ferdinand & Isabella, sponsored Magellan’s
voyage. He reached the Philippines & East Indonesia
Colonial Control Gradually Advances in Southeast
Asia
• The British consolidate their “sphere of influence” in the Malay
Peninsula (British Malaya) & Burma, & use migrant labour
(Chinese & Indians in Malaya, & Indians in Burma) to develop
the export economy
• The French establish control in Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos
(French Indochina)
• The Dutch extend their control over Indonesia (the Netherlands
East Indies);
• In 1898, the Americans “buy” the Philippines from Spain
following the Spanish-American War.
19th century (continued)
• 1857: Indian “Mutiny”: British government established direct
control in much of India
• 1858: Dutch began a “forward move” in Sumatra, the French also
moved into Vietnam
• 1859-61: French began attacks on Vietnam in response to
treatment of missionaries
• In fact the latter part of the 19th century consists of European
conquests of SE Asia (Indochina, Burma, Philippines, Indonesia,
Malaysia) & India.
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Timeline (continued)
• 1565: Spanish established settlement in the Philippines
• 1570: Spanish capture of Manila – they decided to stay in the
Philippines
• By 17th century: the State-supported Dutch East India Company
(VOC) became the dominant European power in Southeast Asia.
• 18th century: weakening of VOC power, & defeat by the English
in the Anglo Dutch War, 1781-4;
• English gained more territorial power in India, surpassed Dutch
in cartography & maritime technology, & in the profitable trade
between India and China.
19th century
• 1824: Anglo-Dutch treaty created Dutch & British “spheres of
influence” by a line drawn down the Melaka Straits
• 1825-30: Dutch victory in the “Java War”; beginning of forced
delivery of crops such as coffee, sugar, indigo etc
20th century
• Colonial introduction of Western education leads to the rise of a
small group of elites aware of democratic developments
overseas.
• They become leaders in new nationalist movements.
• The formation of the Communist Party in Russia and China has
marked effects in the archipelago.
• Strong communist movements develop in Vietnam, Indonesia,
among the Chinese in Malaya, & in the Philippines.
• All colonial powers are strongly opposed to left-wing
movements, & give little hope for independence
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WWII 1940-1945
• What happens in Europe has consequences in the colonies:
• Britain, France & the Netherlands vs Germany, Japan & Italy
• Vichy France Nazi occupation. French lost Indochina to Japan
• 1941, December 7: Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor &
• 1941, December 8: US declared war on Japan
• 1941, December 8: Japanese invasion of Southeast Asia
• 1942, March: S. E. Asia was under Japanese control (not French
Indochina & Thailand)
The Dutch in Indonesia
• Both the Dutch VOC (Vereenigde Oostandische Compagnie)
(1602) & English East India Company (1600) were interested in
S.E. Asian trade.
• Conflict led to the Ambon Massacre in 1623 & the withdrawal of
the East India Company from the archipelago.
• The Dutch gradually gained control of the entire archipelago:
Ambon – 1605, Malacca – 1641, Aceh – 1667, Macassar –1669,
Banten - 1682.
• The objective was trade: Indian cottons for spices.
Development of Trade, the Lifeblood of Southeast
Asia
• Initially, Southeast Asia formed a maritime east-west trade that
supplemented the silk road trade; Southeast Asia a transit point
• Increasingly, Southeast Asian products came to supplement and
later even became the primary products in international trade
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Economic Motives for Imperialism in Southeast Asia
• Positioned mid-way between major civilisations to the east and
west
• Straits of Melaka (Malacca) only major waterway through the
region until 16th century use of
• Straits of Sunda by Indian traders & in 17th century by the Dutch
(VOC)
• British in late 18th century used passage through eastern
Indonesia to China via Sulu archipelago
• Prior to steamships in late 19th century, sailing ships subject to
monsoon winds
Dutch East India Company Routes
in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Southeast Asian Products in Demand in International
Trade Prior to 15th Century
• Medicinal products: camphor, benzoin, cloves, rhinoceros horn
• Exotic products: aromatic woods (eaglewood), rattans,
kingfisher’s feathers, pearls, birds nests, tripang (sea
cucumbers; beche de mer)
• Other trade items: tin (used as foil in Indian temples)
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Early Modern Period (c. 1450-c. 1800)

• Southeast Asia now regarded as major source of goods in
international markets
• Return of Chinese traders in 1567, continuing Indian trade,
temporary influx of Japanese traders, and arrival of Europeans
(initially Portuguese and Spanish, then joined by Dutch & British
in the early 17th century)
• Period referred to as the “Age of Commerce”
DUTCH COLONIZATION OF THE EAST
INDIES

Colonization of Island Southeast Asia Colonization of Indonesia

• By early 20th century all of present-day Indonesia brought
under Dutch control; Aceh in north Sumatra fought & lost long
war (1873-1912), though the Dutch never re-entered the area
• Malay Peninsula came under British control after the Anglo-
Dutch Agreement of 1824- a line through the Straits of Melaka
creating division between present-day Malaysia & Indonesia
• The Dutch avoided direct administration until the mid 18th
century. Control was exercised through local rulers who were
also doubled as principal traders
• The system of leveringen began at end the 17th century: Fixed
amounts at fixed prices.
• Direct administration of areas growing coffee, sugar, indigo &
spices began in the 18th century.

Colonization of Indonesia (continued) Hermann Daendels

• The Dutch employed their navy to enforce a monopoly on trade
with Europe.
• There was no effort to introduce religion, culture or education.
• Dutch trade practices did have the unintentional consequence
of displacing the population
• One result was the rise of the Bugis pirates.
• Herman Daendels was appointed Gov-Gen of
Indonesia by Napoleon from 1808-11 to improve
defenses against the British and improve
administration
– Centralised administration
– Reduced graft and corruption
– Established adat courts
• Increased compulsory coffee production and
established a monopoly on rice to raise funds

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Thomas Stamford Raffles
• Gov-Gen Minto (India) led an invasion of Java in
1811 and left Stamford Raffles in charge
– Permitted land ownership with tax rate based on
fertility.
– Peasants could cultivate and sell crops of their choice,
except coffee.
– Created an elaborate court system with jury trials.
• Dutch returned in 1816
First Transformation of Southeast
Asian Landscape
• European attempt to monopolise trade in cloves, nutmeg, and
cloves (“trinity of spices”) bring change in collection and
production
• Under Portuguese (16th century), spices no longer just picked
branch and all, but picked, dried, & bagged
• Under Dutch (mid 17th and 18th centuries), forests of clove and
nutmeg trees “extirpated”, allowing trees only in designated
islands: Ambon for cloves & Banda Islands for nutmeg
• Clearing of forests by both local rulers and Europeans for new
plantation crops
Java War (1825-1830)
• Also called the Dipo Negoro Revolt
• Led to the death of 200,000; 8,000 were Dutch
• Dipo Negoro was a prince, but as the son of a lesser wife not
eligible to inherit the Sultanate of Yogyakarta. Rejected by
Raffles as his father’s successor, he became an Islamic mystic.
When tombs were disturbed by road construction, he led a
revolt as a messianic “ratu adil”
• Controlled middle Java and Yogyakarta until defeated in 1825.
Then led a guerrilla war until 1827. Captured in 1830. The war
cost the Dutch 30 million guilders
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Role of the Regent
• The Regent was the native VOC agent contracted to deliver export
crops. He was subordinated to a governor-general, regional governor
& resident/comptroller. In turn, he appointed and supervised village
chiefs who he was responsible to pay from the taxes he collected
• His role grew to include governmental & religious aspects, usurping
the role of local princes. Eventually, the position was considered
hereditary
• Daendels & Raffles sought to reduce his powers to protect the
natives. Raffles land rent system virtually eliminated him
• The Java War demonstrated the need for his support
Banda Islands
The Culture System
• The system was implemented from 1830 to 1877 to raise funds to
cover the cost of the Java War, Napoleonic Wars & the Belgium
Civil war
• It was the brain child of Baron Johannes Van Den Bosch, Gov-
Gen of Java
• Required villages to grow export crops to raise sufficient funds
to cover their land taxes
• These would be sold to the government at a fixed price for
transportation to Amsterdam. The system provided 19-32% of
the state’s revenue
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Max Havelaar
• Max Havelaar or The Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading
Company written by Eduard Douwes Dekker & published in
1860.
• Portrayed the Culture System as organised forced labor.
Increased prices led to increased taxes & taxes were collected
on commission.
• By 1840, rice shortages, famines , epidemics and dislocation all
began to appear. Saijah & Adinda.
• Reforms led to the system being dismantled government
monopolies abolished starting in 1860. Coffee remained a
monopoly until 1917.
The Ethical Policy 1901
• A policy of “ethical obligation and moral responsibility to the
people of the East Indies.”
– “education, irrigation and emigration.”
– Included Western education for elites, agricultural extension to open
new areas and improve crops, resettlement from Java to Sumatra,
improved infrastructure, encouragement of economic development and
Christian missionaries.
PLANTATION CROPS
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Other Reforms
• Baron Van Hoevell, a former preacher in Java, led a reform
movement in the Dutch States General:
– 1848 – The legislature would have a say in colonial government.
– 1854 – Passed a “colonial constitution” for abolition of culture system.
– 1870 - Passed the Agrarian Act allowing the leasing of land and
development of free trade.
Plantation Crops in Early Modern Period
• Clearing of forests by both local rulers & Europeans to plant
pepper to meet demand, especially from India and China
• Black pepper (piper nigrum) introduced to Southeast Asia from
southern India about beginning of Common Era & grown
alongside Sumatran varieties; high maintenance crop
• Other crops introduced by Dutch in Java were: sugar, coffee,
indigo, tobacco for international trade
Clove Tree
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Nut & Mace of Nutmeg Sugar Cane Field

Indigo Plant Tobacco

Black Pepper Coffee

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Second Transformation of the Southeast Asian
Landscape
• Major swaths of forested lands & even wet-rice lands
transformed to make way for expansion of area under
plantation crops in all colonial areas of Netherlands East Indies
(Indonesia), British Malaya, Spanish Philippines, British Burma,
French Indo-China
• Brazilian rubber tree successfully introduced to Indonesia
making rubber a major revenue earner in early 20th century
because of the automobile (later the airplane) industry
• Forests also felled for timber trade
Rubber Tree
Copra
• Inter-island copra trade since 17th century, but large-scale not
until early 20th century with increase in world demand for fats
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Plantation Crops Prior to WW II
• Coffee begun in 17th century in Java, but variety changed from
Arabica up to 1880s, to Liberica and Robusta from Africa today
• Sugar cane also developed new varieties in 19th century
• Other 19th century crops were tea, originally from China quinine
from the bark of cinchona tree (originally from Andes)
developed in Java in early 20th century
• Mainland Southeast Asia’s main export was rice
• Copra and palm oil for vegetable oils, for flux
Daily System
• Communications system: telegraph, roads, bridges, railways, ports,
warehouses; roads from mines and plantations to rivers to ports,
later railways to port
• Legal and Administrative system: new land tenure alienating land for
mines or plantations
• Scientific and technical research institutes
• Financial system: currency linked to currency of the metropolis for
stability; banking and insurance to aid capital flow
• Organization of man-power
• Stable government
• Invested in extraction of raw materials and cultivation of tropical
export crops in great demand in temperate areas
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Responses to Colonial Regimes

• Collaboration/cooperation
– Westernised elite group, obtained European education, occupied lower
administrative positions in colonial bureaucracy formed Reformist
groups, work with Europeans
– Aim: Gain autonomy within a larger union under colonial power
• Anti-Western/non-cooperation and resistance
– Westernised elite group, obtained European education but refused to
work with colonials
NATIONALISM – Indigenous “millennarian” movements
– Early 20th century, rise of communism
– Aim: Overthrow of colonial regime

Reformism Rise of Nationalism

• Those with education tended to be in the middle & upper • Colonial education:
income classes, hence the desire to be treated as equals of the – Learning history
colonials; met “glass ceilings” – Treatment by European children in schools
• In reformism, the elite classes see selves in the same light as – Meeting of local students from other ethnic groups
the colonials & feel little need to consider those below them; • Discrimination in employment
class structure still in place • Lack of political representation
• Only with failure to gain access to positions believed to be • Victory of Japan over Russia (1905) made Japan hero & magnet
rightfully theirs through their education & class, do the elites for Southeast Asian nationalist leaders
then turn to seeking alliance with those under them

Rise of Nationalism (2) From Reformism to Independence Movements

• Communism
– Rise of communist movement
– Lenin’s Theses on the Nationalist and Colonial questions in 1920 calling
for cooperation of bourgeois nationalists & communists
• Religion and Identity
– Theravada Buddhist monkhood (sangha) in Burma, Cambodia, and Laos
created sites of resistance to colonials
– Islam & religious teachers (ulama) in Indonesia & Malaysia, helped
galvanize support against the Christian colonial powers
• Elite emphasis on “our” nation, hence creating the “imagined
community”& subordinating all ethnic & class divisions under
banner of nationalism
• National revolution succeeded, & old elite retained power &
benefited in move from reformism to nationalism at expense of
social revolution

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“Pesantren” Reform and Political Movements

• Usually founded by a kiai
• Kiai is the teacher and spiritual guide
• Studies include Qur’an, Hadith, Fiqh
• Deepen knowledge of Islam, learn Arabic, traditions of exegesis
(analysis of texts- interpretations of relig. texts), sayings of the
Prophet, law & logic
• Core values emphasised: sincerity, individual autonomy,
solidarity, & self-discipline
• Spiritual and moral training; nowadays government school
curriculum is also included
• Budi Utomo: 1908, secular, Javanese
• Muhammadiya: 1912, Santri, modernist, educational, dakwa
• Sarekat Islam: 1912, Santri, modernist, nationalist, socialist
orientation, political
• Indonesian Communist Party (PKI): 1920, secular
• Persatuan Islam (Persis): 1923, Islamist, educational, dakwa,
political in 1940s-50s
• Nahdlatul Ulama (NU): 1926, Santri, pesantren based, political
1941-84
• Indonesian National Party (PNI): 1927, secular, led by Sukarno

Nationalist Movements
• Many consider the Java War (1825-1830) as a first expression of
nationalism.
• Education of the priyayi (Javanese nobility) and santri under the
Ethical Policy produced a new elite and a sense of national
identity.
• Organisations which promoted nationalism:
– 1902 - Kartini Schools - 1908 - Boedi Utomo
– 1912 –Sareket Islam - 1920 – PKI (Communist Party)
WORLD WAR II
– 1927 – PNI (Ind. National Party)

Major Reason for Japan’s Invasion
• Most of Southeast Asian resources sold to US or to metropolitan
powers: Malaya was known as “the [British] Empire’s dollar
arsenal”, while Indonesia came to be known as “the cork by
which Holland floated” and “the tail which wagged the Dutch
dog”.
• Oil in Indonesia was particularly valuable; in 1938 Indonesia
produced 7,398,000 metric tons of oil & exported 5,999,000
metric tons of petroleum products (petroleum, aviation spirits,
kerosene, diesel & lubricating oils, paraffin, asphalt)
Major Reason for Japan’s Invasion (2)
• With such a high percentage of vital resources available in
Southeast Asia & most going to the West, Japan’s primary aim in
invading Southeast Asia may have been primarily to deny these
resources to the West, while using them for its imperial
expansion

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Situation Prior to Japanese Invasion in December
1941
• In 1930s nationalist movements largely suppressed by colonial
regimes for fear of communist or fascist influences; secret police
active in suppression
• Even reformists lost hope since no concessions being given because
of looming war threat in Europe and Asia
• Nationalist leaders were either incarcerated or in exile, with little
progress toward nationalist demands for independence or even
reforms
• When Japan invaded and portrayed itself as “liberator” of Southeast
Asians against colonial regimes, this was widely hailed in the region
INDEPENDENCE
Struggle for Independence
• The Netherlands asked Britain to reoccupy Indonesia on its
behalf
• The initial British force attempted to occupy Surabaya on
November 10, 1945. The result was a bloody one-month long
battle
• Negotiations with Dutch led to Linggadjati Agreement in 1947
creating the United States of Indonesia under Dutch
sovereignty. The USI was to be part of a larger Netherlands-
Indonesian-Surinam-Curacao Union
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World War II
• The Dutch promise a conference on self-government before they
leave in 1941
• Sukarno, Mohammed Hatta & Sutan Sjahrir released from jail by
the Japanese when they occupied Indonesia in 1942
• Sukarno, Hatta & others formed Putera as a double edge puppet
government
Indonesian Revolution
• Sukarno announced the Five Postulates & declared
independence in 1945
• The Dutch had not yet returned
– Nationalism (National unity)
– Internationalism (One sovereign nation among equals)
– Representative Democracy (All significant groups
represented)
– Social Justice ( A Marxist view)
– Belief in God (A secular state, not Islamic)
Sovereignty At Last
• The Indonesians were not satisfied with the lack of sovereignty.
A guerrilla war ensued during which 6,000 Dutch & 150,000
Indonesians were killed during 1947-49
– A cease fire was imposed by the U.N. in 1947
– An Asian Conference hosted by India imposed sanctions against the
Dutch in 1949
– Sovereignty was finally transferred by the Dutch in December, 1949
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Coping with Independence Guided Democracy

• Indonesia found it extremely difficult to create and operate a
viable government
– Elections only yielded pluralities & weak, short-lived coalition
governments
– The economy was in decline and inflation rampant. The country was
bankrupt
– Fear of nationalization of assets prevented significant foreign
investment
• In 1957, Sukarno established guided democracy to “save” the
country
– A national advisory council was established composed of representative
groups, e.g., peasants, workers, the military
– A “cooperating parliament” was established in place of the elected
parliament. Opinion could be expressed but votes were not taken. The
goal was to govern by deliberation and consensus

Foreign Policy Foreign Policy (2)

• Sukarno sought a leading role for Indonesia as a non-aligned – 1963 - 65 - Crush Malaysia Campaign launched by Sukarno over the
nation formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Felt that the linking of Sarawak,
Brunei and Sabah to Malaya would threaten Kalimantan
– 1954 – Meeting of the Colombo Powers at Bogor. Obtained support for
claims to West Irian – The Crush Malaysia Campaign was part of Konfrontasia, the confronting
of the remnants of colonialism. It involved NEFOS vs. the OLDEFOS
– 1954 – Hosted the 29 nation Asian-African conference at Bandung of
newly freed peoples – Received $ 2 Billion in aid from the USSR in 1965. Nevertheless, Sukarno
was drawn thru the influence of PKI to align with China
– 1962 – Indonesia sought to invade West Irian (Dutch New Guinea) after
negotiating with the Dutch since 1949. West Irian was transferred to
Indonesia in 1963 with help of the U.N. and U.S. diplomat Ellsworth
Bunker

The Gestapu Affair

• On the night of September 30, 1965, six leading generals and one
lieutenant were assassinated in an attempted coup
– General Nasution escaped the assassination and Major General Suharto
was not targeted
– The reaction was a massacre of a half million Communist and Chinese, a
combination pogrom and Jihad
– Sukarno had no advance knowledge of the coup but his powers were
curbed. He was removed as president in 1967 and died in 1970 RECENT INDONESIAN HISTORY

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Suharto’s New Order New Order Problems

• March 11, 1966 – Sukarno signed the Supersemar decree • Sekber Golkar (the government party) lost creditability in the
authorizing Suharto to take all measures necessary early ’70s
• This was the beginning of the New Order • Legitimized “Dual Function.”
– Revived the parliament of 1955 • Graft, cronyism and corruption were extremely wide spread.
– Adam Malik renegotiated debt of $1.7 million • Examples:
– Ended Confrontation Policy – Astra Toyota & Tommy
– Joined ASEAN – Pertamina lost $10.5 billion.
– Befriended the West & Japan
– Held national elections in 1971

The Downfall of Suharto B. J. Habbie

• The 1997-98 crises led to Indonesian currency losing 70% of its
value. The IMF bailout required strict austerity measures leading
to further economic hardship & inflation
• Suharto ran unopposed for president for the seventh time.
Sparked by the killing of six student demonstrators, Jakarta was
seized by demonstrations and riots
• The army took over Jakarta and Sukarno resigned after 32 years
as president and $15 billion in graft
• As V.P., Habbie assumed the presidency. Many
were highly skeptical
• Trained as an engineer in Germany. Founded an
aircraft company in Bandung. Championed
industrial vs. agricultural development
• Allowed East Timor referendum leading to that
country’s independence

Abdurrahman Wahid Separatist Movements

• Elected in 1999 • There have been three major separatist movements: Aceh, Iran
• Was a nearly blind Muslim cleric Jaya (West Papua) and East Timor
• Had suffered recurring strokes
• Proved to be indecisive & incapable of running
the country
• Did not effectively cope with the separatist
demands of Aceh & Irian Jaya
• Was impeached in 2001
Jose Ramos Horta,
Timor’s 1st PM.

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East Timor
• East Timor declared its independence in 1975 after a change in the
government of Portugal. Indonesia invaded four days later
• Timor had been a Portuguese colony since 1702, as such its
population is 90% Catholic. The Netherlands annexed West Timor in
1859. It is largely Islamic
• Indonesia invaded East Timor because it feared FRETILIN (the
independence party) was in league with China & would turn the
country Communist
• FRETILIN fought a successful guerrilla war from 1975 to 1999. Total
deaths from all causes around 200.000
• East Timor became fully independent in 2002
Western New Guinea
• The Dutch sought to retain in a commonwealth
• In 1961, Indonesia mounted an invasion after West Papua
declared independence
• In 1962, agreement was reached to transfer the territory to
Indonesia. An “Act of Free Choice” was required. The poll was
taken in 1969
• President Wahid granted special autonomy in 2000. In 2001, it
was split into two provinces. The freedom movement wanted a
share of the income from the rich gas, oil, copper & gold
resources
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
• Elected president in 2004 in Indonesia’s first direct presidential
election. Called “SBY.”
• Top graduate of Indonesian military academy, U.S. Infantry
Advanced Course and Command and the General Staff College
• Labeled “the thinking general.” Took leading role against
terrorism
• Re-elected in 2009 election
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Aceh
• Was independent prior to colonial rule, even controlling part of
the Malay Peninsula (Kedah)
• Indonesia granted Aceh special autonomy status in 1959. The
Aceh freedom movement began in 1976 led by GAM. Warfare led
to 5,000 deaths by 2000
• In 1999, President Wahid assured GAM that all of its demands
short of total independence would be met
• Granted 75% of all oil and gas revenue plus Sharia law and own
flag in 2001
• GAM continued to demand total independence until 2005 peace
Megawati Sukarnoputri
• Indonesia’s first woman president. Succeeded
Wahid in 2001 as his V.P.
• Formed her own political party to win election
when banned from the PDI. She formed PDI-P.
• Considered herself the “good Queen.” Was called
“Mother Mega.”
• Presided over a 3-year transition to civilian rule.
Joko Widodo
• The first Indonesian president without a high-
ranking political or military background
• Known for “mental revolution” in his presidential
campaign
• Also known for his “blusukan” habit (visiting the
locals across the country)
• Domestic policy has focused on infrastructure
development across the archipelago in accordance
to a "Global Maritime Axis" policy
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