FSP-56-10

L eaving-V elocity a n d E x h a u s t Loss in

S team T u rb in es
B y E R N E S T L . R O B IN S O N , 1 S C H E N E C T A D Y , N . Y .

T h is p a p e r g iv es a n e x p o s itio n o f t h e v a r io u s i t e m s w h ic h
go t o m a k e u p t h e le a v in g v e lo c ity a n d e x h a u s t lo s s o f a
s te a m tu r b in e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s lo s s a n d t h e r a ­
p id ity w i t h w h ic h i t in c r e a s e s a t h i g h lo a d s c a u s e i t t o b e a
d e te r m i n i n g i n f lu e n c e i n fix in g t h e e c o n o m ic r a t i n g o f a
m a c h i n e . T h e se v e ra l e le m e n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r a n a n a l y s i s
a r e e a c h e v a lu a te d i n a f a ir l y d i r e c t , a l t h o u g h s o m e ti m e s
a p p r o x im a te , m a n n e r . M o re d e ta i le d a n d p r e c is e e s t i ­
m a te s m ig h t b e m a d e b u t a re b e y o n d th e i n t e n t o f th is
p a p er.
T h e lo ss i n q u e s t i o n o c c u r s i n t h e e x h a u s t h o o d b e tw e e n
t h e l a s t w h e e l e x it a n d t h e e x h a u s t fla n g e t o t h e c o n d e n s e r .
I t is m a d e u p b o t h o f k i n e t i c e n e r g y lo s s a n d o f p r e s s u r e
lo ss t h r o u g h t h e h o o d a n d e a c h e ffe c t v a rie s w i t h l o a d a n d
w ith l o c a t io n a r o u n d t h e w h e e l a n n u l u s . M o i s t u r e is
a llo w e d f o r ; s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n n e g le c te d .
T h e t o t a l lo ss m a y b e e x p re s s e d i n B t u p e r p o u n d flow
to c o n d e n s e r o r a s a p e r c e n t o f a d ia b a tic h e a t d ro p o r
p r e f e r a b ly a s a p e r c e n t o f t o t a l e n e r g y t h e o r e t i c a l l y a v a i l ­
a b le f o r c o n v e r s io n t o s w it c h b o a r d p o w e r.
W it h a p a r t i c u l a r e x h a u s t o p e r a t i n g a t fixed s t e a m c o n ­
d i t i o n s , t h e le a v in g v e lo c ity a n d e x h a u s t lo s s in c r e a s e s
r o u g h l y a s t h e s q u a r e o f t h e lo a d ( p a ra b o lic r u l e ) .
W ith a p a r t i c u l a r e x h a u s t p a s s i n g a fixed flow , i n c r e a s in g
t h e t o t a l a v a ila b le e n e r g y i n t h e h i g h e r s t a g e s o f t h e t u r ­
b in e b y im p ro v e d s te a m c o n d itio n s c o rre s p o n d in g ly r e ­
d u c e s t h e p e r c e n ta g e lo s s i n t h e e x h a u s t ( h y p e rb o lic r u l e ) .
W it h a fix ed p e r c e n ta g e lo s s i n a p a r t i c u l a r e x h a u s t t h e
p o w e r m a y b e i n c r e a s e d b y i m p r o v e d s t e a m c o n d it i o n s a s
t h e !/i-power o f t h e t o t a l a v a ila b le e n e r g y b y i n c r e a s in g t h e
flow t o t h e c o n d e n s e r .
B a s e - lo a d o p e r a t i o n j u s t if i e s m o r e l i b e r a l e x h a u s t a r e a s
t h a n p e a k - l o a d s e rv ic e b u t i n t h e u l t i m a t e t h e h e a t - r a t e -
lo a d c u r v e is t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w h ic h is o f m o s t i m p o r ­
ta n c e to th e o p e r a to r a n d se c o n d o n ly to th e re lia b ility o f
p e rfo rm a n c e .

HE most important single loss in a condensing steam

T turbine is the “leaving loss,” “exhaust loss,” or

“leaving-velocity loss” as it is variously called. There
is a very general understanding of the magnitude and im­
portance of this loss. But there is no set standard as
to the items properly included under the heading nor as
to the manner in which the loss is to be evaluated for
comparative purposes.
The importance of this loss and the rapidity with
which it increases at high loads cause it to be a determin­
ing influence in fixing the economic rating of a machine (see
Fig. 1).
H y d r a u l ic A na lo gy

The leaving velocity and exhaust loss from a steam

turbine may be likened to the tailrace loss of a water wheel.
If the tailrace runs downhill, there is a corresponding
loss of head—the wheel setting should have been lower.
F i g . 1 R a n g e s o f E c o n o m ic R a t in g
If the tailrace runs level there is the loss of velocity head
(S tr u c tu r a l c o n s id e ra tio n s lim it th e m a x im u m a n n u lu s a r e a a t a n y s p e e d to s lig h tly
only, which may be small if the cross-sectional area is gen­ less th a n in in v e rs e p r o p o r tio n to th e s q u a r e of th e s p e e d . T h u s a s in g le e x h a u s t
erous. If the tailrace runs smoothly uphill into quiet of lim itin g size aats 3m6u0c0h rcpamp a cmitya yasbae s einxgplee cetexdh a tuos t ha at n1800
d le n o t q u it e o n e - q u a r te r
rp m .)
water, the leaving velocity is recovered because the wheel
operates under a gross static head greater than its net head by In the water wheel one deals with low velocities but a heavy
the velocity head converted in its tailrace. fluid. With steam one deals with an exceedingly rarefied fluid
1 T urbine Engineering D epartm ent, General Electric Co. Mem.
but with velocities which are correspondingly high and with a
A.S.M.E. Mr. Robinson was graduated from the St. Lawrence kinetic energy content which varies with the square of the
U niversity in 1911 and from the H arvard G raduate School of Applied velocity.
Science in 1914 (M .C.E.). For three years he was engaged in con­
struction work and the design of steel and reinforced-concrete struc­ M a n u f a c t u r e r ’s V ie w p o in t
tures in New York and in w ater-power engineering in New England.
During the war he served in the Oise-Aisne offensive as first L ieuten­ It is the intention of this article to discuss the more important
a n t w ith the 302nd Engineers, U. S. A., and later as C aptain and items contributing to the leaving-velocity and exhaust loss of the
A djutant of the 2nd Engineer Training Regim ent. For the past
fifteen years he has been employed by the General Electric Com­
steam turbine from the manufacturer’s point of view. Typical
pany in its T urbine Engineering D epartm ent. curves will be given for a 35,000-kw turbine by way of illustration,
C ontributed by the Power Division and presented a t the Annual ■but there is no intention of going into the finesse of design or of
Meeting, New York, N. Y., Decem ber 4 to 8 , 1 9 3 3 , of T h e A m e r i c a n giving detailed formulas or test data. For reasons which will
S o c ie ty o f M e c h a n ic a l E n g in e e r s .
N o t e : S tatem ents and opinions advanced in papers are to be
appear, it does not seem desirable to standardize any calculations
understood as individual expressions of their authors, and n o t those of or to recommend any set expressions or formulas. This does not
the Society. mean that suitable comparisons among designs should not be
515
516 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

made. The idea is that each comparison should be made on its
own merits.
R feu M ^ o f Item s
The several items of the leaving velocity and exhaust loss may
be listed as follows; this list being intended to cover all losses
In evaluating these items it is necessary to consider the follow­
ing:
(5) Moisture content of the steam
(6) Possibility of supersaturated expansion.
We shall rule out from this discussion:
(7) Consideration of radial velocity in an axial-flow annulus
(8) Eddy loss associated with edge thickness of buckets.
This last is properly chargeable to the nozzle and bucket
efficiency and the stream is supposed to have healed into a cylin­
drical jet on emerging from the wheel annulus. This latter
ruling is, of course, arbitrary. The N.E.L.A. Prime Movers
Committee Report on Turbines, No. 234, July, 1932, recommended
correcting for bucket-edge thickness, thus in effect charging the
bucket-edge loss to the exhaust loss rather than to the bucket.
Suffice it to say that in any case it should not be charged twice
and the manner used should be clear in any particular case.
T y p ic a l C urves

Fig. 2 is the load-flow curve for a 35,000-kw turbine operating

W E IG H T F L O W T O C O fiP E /iS E F ' LB./SEC.
at 250 lb per sq in. gage pressure, 700 F temperature, and 1 in.
F ig . 2 C o n d e n se r F low Hg abs back pressure with two stages of extraction for feedwater
(3 5 ,0 0 0 -k w ex fcra ctio n -feed -h ea tin g tu r b i n e o p e r a tin g a t 250 lb p e r sq in .
gag e , 700 F , a n d 1 in . H g .) heating.

F ig . 3 S p e c if ic V o l u m e o r S t e a m A p p r o a c h in g 1 In. Hg
A b s P r e s s u r e a n d 10 P e r C e n t M o is t u r e weight flow to con dense/? lb / sec.
(3 5 ,0 0 0 -k w tu rb in e .)
F ig . 5 R e l a t io n B e t w e e n A n n u l u s P r e s s u r e a n d W e ig h t
If1 F l o w t o r 1 I n . H g A b s P r e s s u r e a t t h e F l a n g e f o r a 3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w
Ss T u r b in e

8 (T he d o tte d lines A, B,_C, and D for c o n sta n t annulus volum e flows corre­
spond to th e velocity diagram s in Fig. 4 and show th e relation betw een an­
* nulus pressure and w eight flow for varying exhaust flange pressures.)

F ig . 4 V e lo c ity D ia g r a m s A , B , C , a n d D f o r S te a m E m e r g in g
F r o m L a s t B u c k e t o f a 3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w T u r b i n e
(Figures are velocities in f t p e r sec except for th e h e a t eq u iv alen ts in B tu
per lb of th e kinetic energy of ab so lu te ex h au st velocity. E a c h d iag ram re p ­
resents a p a rtic u la r an n u lu s volum e flow, as in d icated . T he volum e m ay be
m ade u p of a larger w eight of denser stea m or a sm aller w eight of m ore rarefied
steam . See Fig. 5.)

existing in the exhaust hood between the exit from the wheel
annulus and the exhaust flange: AnnuLus v o m r iE flo w , c u ft. p e r s e c .
F ig . 6 K i n e ti c - E n e r g y L o s s in T h a t F r a c t i o n o f t h e S te a m
(1) Normal velocity loss W h ic h C r o s s e s t h e A n n u l u s o f a 3 5 ,0 0 0 -K w T u r b i n e a t S p e e d
(2) Loss due to tangential component, or whirl loss (T he m oisture moves a t very low speed. F o r 1 in. H g abs pressure a t the
(3) Eddy losses, associated with non-uniformity of flow exh au st flange and the exhaust-hood drop show n in Fig. 5, the points A,
B, C, and D correspond to the a ctu al kinetic energy leaving loss and also
(4) Pressure drop through the hood itself. to th e several diagram s in Fig. 4.)
 FUELS AND STEAM POWER FSP-56-10 517

Fig. 3 gives the pressure-volume line for the exhaust of this

turbine for an average moisture content. The variation from
this line does not exceed approximately 1 per cent and is neg­
lected.
Fig. 4 is a series of velocity diagrams characteristic of the
last bucket exit in which we are interested only in the absolute
exit velocity through the wheel annulus.
By way of identifying the conditions of operation to which
these diagrams apply, it should be noted that each represents a
definite volume flow, and Fig. 5 gives the corresponding lines
for various weight flows and absolute pressures at the annulus.
The heavy line shows, for a pressure of 1 inch Hg abs at the ex­
haust flange, what the annulus pressure will be at the several
weight flows corresponding to the different loads of Fig. 2. F ig . 9 T o t a l I n t e g r a t e d K i n e t i c - E n e r g y L oss P e r Lb of
By associating each annulus pressure with a corresponding S t e a m a t S p e e d i n t h e A n n u l u s o f a 3 5 ,0 0 0 -K w T u rb in e
velocity diagram, it is possible to plot Fig. 6 showing the kinetic (This is the average for the entire annulus area and applies to the dry
energy of the exhaust steam in Btu per lb of steam at speed. portion of the steam only since the moisture moves at very low velocity.)
It is necessary to bear in mind that the annulus pressure is not
uniform and Fig. 7 shows how it varies around the circumference
for two flows approximating full load and half load, in each case
for a pressure at the exhaust flange of 1 inch Hg abs.
The kinetic-energy content in Btu per lb of steam at speed
around the annulus is shown by Fig. 8 for the same two flows as

A V A IL A B L E E H E / ? $ Y L O S S BTU /LB T O T A L F L O V J
TO COM D E H S E F ?

F i g . 10 A v a i l a b l e E n e rg y L oss D u e to P re ssu re D ro p
T h ro u g h t h e E x h a u s t H o o d F ro m t h e W h e e l A n n u lu s o f a
35,000-Kw T u r b i n e t o t h e E x h a u s t F l a n g e
(If the wheel annulus could exhaust directly at 1 in. Hg abs pressure,
the adiabatic energy available ahead of the last wheel exit would be increased
by the amount shown.)

F ig . 7 V a r i a t i o n o f A n n u l u s P r e s s u r e A r o u n d t h e P i t c h
C i r c l e o f t h e A n n u l u s o f a 35,000-Kw T u r b i n e f o r T w o
S p e c i a l W e i g h t F l o w s , 85 L b p e r S e c a n d 45 L b p e r S e c
(The irregularity is due to the quarter turn of the hood and its internal
bracing. Lack of symmetry is due to the tangential component in the ex-
h a u s t v e lo c ity .)

F ig . 8 V a r i a t i o n o f K i n e t i c - E n e r g y L o s s p e r P o u n d o f
S te a m a t S p e e d A r o u n d t h e P i t c h C i r c l e o f t h e A n n u l u s
o f a 3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w T u r b i n e f o r t h e S p e c i a l W e i g h t F l o w s , 8 5 L b
p e r S ec a n d 45 L b p e r S ec
(The w e ig h t flow is p ra c tic a lly u n ifo rm a ro u n d the a n n u lu s . The v o lu m e
flow v a rie s in in v e rse re la tio n to th e p re s s u re a n d c o n s e q u e n tly th e v e lo c ity
a n d k in e tic e n e rg y V ary a s sh o w n .)
F i g . 11 V a r i a t i o n A r o u n d t h e A n n u l u s o f A v a i l a b l e E n e r g y
L oss D u e to P re s s u re D ro p T h ro u g h th e E x h a u s t H ood o f a
3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w T u r b i n e f o r T w o W e i g h t F l o w s , 8 5 L b p e r S e c a n d 4 5
Lb p e r Sec
(T his v a ria tio n is due to th e v a ria tio n of p ressure show n in Fig. 7.)
Fig. 7. We arrive finally at Fig. 9 which shows the kinetic-
energy loss plotted against the various loads in kw.
Returning to the r&um6 of items, the method of arriving at
Fig. 9 has taken care of (1) normal velocity, (2) tangential
component, and (3) non-uniformity of flow. It remains to
518 TRANSACTIONS OF TH E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
evaluate the loss of available energy due to pressure drop through
the exhaust hood itself.
Fig. 10 shows the relation to be nearly linear so that Fig. 11,
which illustrates the distribution around the annulus, is not
absolutely essential for a satisfactory preparation of Fig. 12
which shows the available energy loss plotted against the various
loads in kw.
A b s o l u t e V a l u e o f L o s s e s I n s id e E x h a u s t H ood
When it comes to expressing the total effect it is necessary to
take account of the quantities involved. The kinetic-energy loss,
Fig. 9, affects only the steam at speed, and since in this case 10
per cent of the condenser flow is in the form of moisture moving
at low velocity, this is to be applied to 90 per cent of the eon-
F ig. 12 T otal I ntegrated A v a il a b l e E nergy L oss D u e
to P r essu re D rop T h ro u g h th e E x h a u st H ood of a 3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w
T u r b in e
(T his is th e average for th e en tire an n u lu s an d applies to th e to ta l weigh
flow.)
F i g . 13 T o t a l L e a v in g V e lo c ity a n d E x h a u st L oss o f a
35,000-Kw T u r b i n e E x p r e s s e d a s a P e rc e n ta g e o f T o ta l T h e o ­
re tic a lly A v a i l a b l e E n e r g y in A l l S te a m , B o t h t o C o n d e n ­
s e r an d to E x tra c tio n H e a te rs
(T he low er full line curve shows th e subdivision b etw een tru e v elocity loss
and pressure loss as th e y a ctu ally occur. T he d o tte d line shows th e ap proxi­
m ate leaving v elocity an d ex h au st loss based on co m p u ted n o rm al annulus
velocity, assum ing ex h au st flange pressure a t th e a n n u lu s a n d expressed as a
per cen t of th e a d iab atic h e at d ro p in th e tu rb in e.)
denser flow. It should not be necessary to explain the difference
in velocity between the moisture and the steam, further than to
refer to the article “Supersaturation—The Flow of Wet Steam,”
by the late Prof. G. A. Goodenough,2describing steam-flow tests
conducted at the General Electric Works by Prof. J. H. Keenan.
The available-energy loss is expressed per pound total flow.
Bearing in mind these relations, reference to Figs. 2, 9, and 12
leads to Fig. 13, the total leaving velocity and exhaust-loss curve
for this turbine. For simplicity an average over-all “engine”
* Power, Sept. 27 and Oct. 4,1927.
efficiency of 75 per cent has been assumed, whereas more accurate
estimates use true efficiency curves, or true integrated available
energy.
The total loss might be divided up in another way by defining
the net exhaust-hood loss as the extra loss occasioned by having
the specified exhaust or condenser pressure occur at the hood
flange instead of at the wheel annulus. This viewpoint has a
certain merit in setting up a standard for comparison of no
pressure drop through the hood. The net hood loss viewed this
way is less than the actual loss due to the pressure because the
pressure drop reduces the kinetic-energy loss at the annulus.
In order to divide the total loss in this way it is necessary to
compute the leaving velocity loss at the annulus with the specified
exhaust pressure occurring at that location. The balance be­
tween this and the total may be thought of as the net amount due
to the presence of the exhaust hood. This is not the same as the
approximate computation suggested below, because true per­
formance (as nearly as can be estimated) under the supposed
conditions is computed. The result especially depends on both
the relation between the size of annulus and the hood and the
load, and the method of computation employed for estimating
what would happen under the assumed conditions. Thus a
heavily loaded annulus discharging into a liberal hood will suffer
very little additional loss because of pressure drop through the
hood as compared with free discharge without any hood. On
F i g . 14 T o t a l L e a v i n g - V e l o c i t y a n d E x h a u s t L oss o f a
3 5 ,0 0 0 - K w T u b b i n e , E x p r e s s e d a s a P e r c e n t a g e o f T o t a l T h e o ­
r e t i c a l l y A v a i l a b l e E n e r g y i n A l l S t e a m , D i v i d e d So a s t o
S how th e N e t L o ss C h a rg e a b le to th e P re ssu re D ro p
T hbough th e H ood
(In this case th e velocity loss is th a t which would occur w ith exhaust p res­
sure a t the wheel itself.)
the other hand, a liberal sized or lightly loaded annulus dis­
charging into a more restricted hood may easily have a net
loss chargeable to the presence of the hood equal to the velocity
loss with no hood present thus doubling the theoretical leaving
loss.
It can be seen by reference to Fig. 14 that the net loss charge­
able to the presence of the hood is really much less than would be
inferred by looking at Fig. 13. The example here given has a
rather high net hood loss.
A p p r o x im a t e E s t im a t e s
For comparative purposes the dotted line in Fig. 13 has been
prepared in a very simple manner by multiplying the weight flow
to the condenser by the specific volume at the exhaust flange and
dividing by the annulus area. This gives an average annulus
velocity which has been converted to a kinetic energy heat con­
tent in Btu per lb and divided by the adiabatic heat drop, without
regard to extraction. This curve may be compared with the
more accurate estimate which is given in full lines. The appar­
ent inconsistency of using exhaust flange volume as if present at
 FUELS AND STEAM POWER
the annulus goes part way to compensate for the neglect of
pressure drop through the hood with its corresponding loss of
available energy.
S u p e r s a t u r a t io n
In dealing with the results so far set down no account has been
taken of any effects which may be caused by supersaturated
expansion, that is, by expansion of the steam without condensa­
tion to a momentarily cooler, denser condition. In considering
Fig. 13 as representing absolute values, this reservation has to be
kept in mind in addition to the minor inaccuracies purposely
assumed for simplicity.
It has been noted in comparing Fig. 14 with Fig. 13 that the
true loss through the exhaust hood is accompanied by a reduc­
tion of velocity loss in the denser medium at the annulus. The
two effects are, to a certain extent, compensating.
Similarly supersaturation, if present, results both in a reduc­
tion of energy made available for conversion and in a reduction of
the leaving-velocity loss. With the amount of moisture present
there is not likely to be any high degree of supersaturation in
this particular case. However, in a different case with, say only
2 or 3 per cent of moisture theoretically present, supersaturated
expansion should be allowed for.
C o m p a r is o n o f T u r b in e s
While it is legitimate to express the leaving velocity and
exhaust loss in a variety of ways, it is always well to bear
in mind the significance of the type of expression used. For
instance, the difference between the approximate calculation
dotted in Fig. 13 and the more exact one in full lines may be
quite different for another design. There are a number of tur­
bines in sizes over 50,000 kw in which, under favorable load con­
ditions, the hoods are diffusing and produce a lower pressure at
the annulus than exists at the exhaust flange.
F ig . 15 P e r C e n t L e a v i n g - V e l o c i t y a n d E x h a u s t L o s s W i t h
V a r io u s S te a m C y c le s , i n E a c h C a s e W i th 3 0 - B tu L o s s p e r
L b T o t a l F lo w t o C o n d e n s e r
(If the sam e tu rb in e ex h au st is used for th e sam e kw c a p a c ity while sub­
s titu tin g m odern steam conditions for low er pressures an d older cycles,
the percentage leaving loss will be g reatly reduced an d th e ex haunt will
appear w astefully generous in size for th e b e tte r stea m conditions.)
Correct values of the loss may be expressed in terms of heat
equivalent in Btu per lb flow to the condenser, or as a per cent
of the adiabatic heat drop, or as a per cent of the total theoretical
energy available within the flowing steam between throttle inlet
and the several extraction and exhaust flanges, for conversion to
switchboard power.
FSP-56-10 519
Thus it is correct to speak of a loss of 30 Btu per lb flow to the
condenser. But such a statement is not very significant. If
the adiabatic heat drop is 500 Btu, the loss may be said to be 6
per cent of the adiabatic heat drop. But there is still an un­
certainty as to the effect on the power generated since the 6
per cent loss applies only to the steam going all the way through
the turbine. If 6/ 6 of the power generated comes from steam
which goes all the way through the turbine, then the true loss
F ig . 16 A p p r o x im a t e I n c r e a s e i n K w C a p a c it y M a d e A v a il ­
a ble by M o d e r n C y c l e s W it h S a m e T u r b in e E x h a u s t
is 5 per cent of the theoretically available power which, for the
reasons discussed, fails to appear on the switchboard.
E ffec t of M odern Steam C ycles
For instance, take the same loss of 30 Btu per pound flow to the
condenser (see Fig. 15). Such a loss amounts to 10 per cent
of the adiabatic heat drop of an ancient low pressure turbine
with 300 Btu available energy while it is only 5 per cent of the
adiabatic heat drop of a modern high pressure resuperheating
turbine with 600 Btu available. Similarly a full use of stage
extraction for feed heating so increases the power generated from
a particular exhaust that the importance of a fixed leaving-
velocity and exhaust loss may be decreased as much as 20 per
cent in this manner; an effect which is not shown at all by ex­
pressing the loss in terms of adiabatic heat drop, which does not
change with extraction.
The use of the mercury turbine in conjunction with the steam
turbine still further reduces the percentage importance of a fixed
size loss.
In other words, modern cycles warrant the use of much
higher absolute losses per pound of steam exhausted to conden­
ser, because much less steam is being exhausted per kw hour
generated.
I n c r e a s e d C a p a c it y
Fig. 16 is the counterpart of Fig. 15 showing how the capacity
obtainable from the steam entering a given exhaust may be
increased by the use of modern cycles. The relative capacities
for constant percentage loss are based on the approximate rela­
tion that, for a given cycle, the absolute value of the leaving-
velocity and exhaust loss increases as the square of the flow.
This leads directly to the conclusion that relative capacity for a
520 TRANSACTIONS OF TH E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

constant percentage loss increases as the 3/ V p o w e r 0f the total ever, this method is somewhat difficult to apply and if a simpler
energy theoretically available. method could be devised for comparing turbines it would be
helpful in evaluation procedure. It would be interesting if the
C o n d it io n s o f O p e r a t io n
author could indicate the probable error which might be intro­
The type of service and conditions of operation also are very duced in comparing the exhaust end of a variety of turbines
important in evaluating the amount of leaving velocity and ex­ on the basis referred to in the N.E.L.A. Prime Movers Committee
haust loss that is acceptable. This is because of the rapid change Report No. 234 on Turbines.
at high loads. Thus a base load machine which is to run most The author speaks of load curves and conditions for which a
of the time at its maximum rated capacity requires a more turbine is chosen but these conditions are so subject to change
that it is difficult to predict conditions far in advance.
In case of doubt as to the future it may be wise to lean
in the direction of capital savings at the expense of
economy. Until quite recently growth of load through­
out the country was rapid and new units were in­
stalled at fairly frequent intervals. Each succeeding
installation carried design improvements rendered pos­
sible by the advance in the art. With new units of
superior economy added to the system, the capacity fac­
tor of the earlier machines dropped and they are op­
erated only at peak loads. For example, on one system
new machines purchased some years ago were operated
at 58 per cent capacity factor for about 6 years and
after this period the use of these machines diminished
F i g . 17 T y p i c a l A n n u a l - L o a d C u b v e s
almost annually until it finally reached a capacity
(Since th e leaving-velocity a n d ex h au st loss increases roughly in a parabolic m anner
w ith th e load, a base load sta tio n such as B will experience a g reater in te g ra te d loss factor in the neighborhood of 5 per cent in about 20
th a n a sta tio n like A which shares light loads. T u rbines for base load service w a rra n t years. Experiences of this kind cannot be safely taken
m ore liberal ex h au st areas.)
as a basis for purchase of new machines since it
liberal exhaust with smaller absolute loss than a machine de­ presupposes a continuation of load growth such as we have had in
signed for a broad range of service and the expectation of running the past.
at maximum capacity only a short part of the year. In the absence of continued load growth, the capacity factor
Roughly speaking, the higher the annual capacity factor the and use factor of the more recent machines will increase materially
lower should be the fixed loss in the exhaust but this is just an­ above that which might be anticipated from earlier experience.
other way of saying the more you run a machine the more ef­ Under such conditions machines evaluated for a relatively low
ficient it should be. For careful comparison actual load re­ capacity and use factor may ultimately become base-load units of
quirements should be analyzed. For instance, Fig. 17 illustrates the system. This is a situation which cannot always be foreseen
two types of service, the total energy generated being the same and should not be lost sight of in the purchase of new units, es­
in each case, but Station A is taking the swings and does the bulk pecially as it influences exhaust areas.
of its operation at half and three-quarters load while Station B is Another important consideration in the choice of exhaust areas
on base-load service and operates mostly around three-quarters in the turbine is the cost of steam-generating capacity to meet
to full load. If these two stations were each equipped with a full-load requirements. With a lower exit loss less steam-generat­
single turbine of the type represented by Fig. 13, the integrated ing capacity is required and this should be carefully considered
loss due to hood effects in Station B would be 50 per cent more in evaluating turbine performance. Whether the value of the
than in Station A, the difference amounting to approximately additional boiler-plant capacity required by a less efficient turbine
1 per cent of fuel requirements. From this it may be inferred is taken on a pro-rata base or increment cost base is largely a
that with medium coal prices a purchaser could afford to pay matter of judgment, but it is an important consideration if the
some 10 per cent more in the case of Station B for a turbine with highest economy in the use of capital is to be achieved.
more liberal exhaust and a different load curve from that which Summarizing, the influences to be considered in the design of
would be suitable for Station A. the turbine-exhaust end are the capacity factor, cost of boiler and
This brings attention directly to the load curve as being con­ condenser capacity, cost of steam, and quality, quantity and
sidered a most important feature by operators in the selection temperature-duration curves of circulating water available.
of a turbine. It is second only to reliability of operation and The design is influenced also by the relation of the system de­
with turbines as dependable as they have been of late years, mand period to the circulating water temperature, and if the
attention (perhaps too often) is likely to be concentrated en­ period of maximum demand of the system coincides with the
tirely on the load curve. Together with throttle loss at light period of minimum circulating water temperatures, the condi­
loads, which dwindles out at full load, the leaving-velocity and tions are favorable for a design with relatively low exit loss.
exhaust loss, which increases from very little at light loads, is The paper clearly brings out the influence of higher initial
one of the most effective tools the turbine designer has at his steam conditions and other improvements in reducing the per­
disposal in producing the type of machine suited to the operating centage exit loss, nevertheless there is often potential capacity
conditions. available which might have been purchased at an attractive
price. In latitudes favored with an abundance of cold condens­
Discussion ing water during the period of maximum demand, it is probable
that there are cases where available capacity might have been
W. E. C a l d w e l l .* The paper presents a comprehensive purchased in the last wheel and condenser well below the unit
method of calculating the exit loss in a condensing turbine. How- cost of the plant.
• Efficiency Engineer, The New York Edison Co., New York, As the art advances progress in improving efficiencies will
N. Y. Mem. A.S.M.E. diminish as the more attractive possibilities have been exhausted
 FUELS AND STEAM POWER
and we may find it profitable in the future to resort to more
liberally designed exhaust areas in steam turbines, as well as
more liberal condensers and auxiliaries. With each successive
installation closer cooperation is developed between the engineers
of the manufacturers and those of the power producers and it is
through the mutual understanding of the common problems in­
volved that the greatest progress may be made in achieving a
well-balanced design in the ultimate plant.
A. G. C h r i s t i e .4 As the author states in his opening para­
graph, the combined leaving-velocity and exhaust loss constitute
the most important single loss in condensing steam turbines.
These losses have attracted the serious attention of the plant-
designing and operating engineers only in the last few years.
Leaving losses were considered a few years ago by the Prime
Movers Committee of N.E.L.A. Data on various turbines were
collected and referred to the writer for analysis. In many cases
arbitrary assumptions had to be made regarding the amount of
steam to exhaust and other items. Certain of these such as the
allowance for blade-outlet thickness on the last set of blades are,
as pointed out by Mr. Robinson, open to question. Manu­
facturers at that time were somewhat reluctant to discuss leaving
losses. There appeared to be no standard or other method of
expressing leaving losses. The writer therefore proposed as a
tentative measure the expression of leaving loss as the equivalent
of the absolute velocity from the last row of blades assuming
axial flow and found by assuming the exhaust pressure and
volume at the blade annulus instead of at the exhaust nozzle.
In other words the losses in the exhaust hood were not con­
sidered. The Prime Movers Committee then considered the
question of a standard method of expressing leaving loss. How­
ever, differences of opinion developed and a suggestion was made
that a leading authority on turbine design be asked to discuss
this whole subject in a paper before A.S.M.E. Mr. Robinson’s
concise and enlightening paper is the result of this suggestion. A
careful analysis of its contents will aid plant designers and op­
erators to give intelligent consideration of these losses and to
their influence on plant economy.
Mr. Robinson shows very clearly that the leaving-velocity loss
and the pressure loss in the hood are interdependent and both
should be considered. The method of indicating leaving loss
used in the N.E.L.A. report does not give all the facts.
In Fig. 13 Mr. Robinson shows that the total leaving-velocity
and exhaust-hood loss at 28,000 kw, the most efficient load on the
35,000-kw turbine under consideration, exceeds the loss cal­
culated by the N.E.L.A. method by 0.6 per cent but he also
points out that this may not be true for turbines with diffuser
exhausts. Few of the turbines in the N.E.L.A. report have
diffuser exhaust hoods so that the computed losses are probably
not as large as the sum of the true leaving loss and hood loss.
However, it is apparent that the computed figures published
by the writer in the N.E.L.A. report can only be used with reser­
vations.
Leaving loss depends upon the length of the last row of tur­
bine blades and the quantity of steam flowing to the condenser.
Hence the amount of this loss when the maximum length of
blades is used, depends upon the output rating of a given casing
as fully discussed in the writer’s paper before the World Power
Conference a few years ago.
Losses through the hood will also be dependent upon the out­
put of a given casing but as Mr. Robinson states these will also
depend upon exhaust outlet design. Certain exhaust hoods
exert a diffuser effect so that the leaving velocity of the steam is
partly converted into pressure head to overcome hood losses.
4 Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 5 Engineer, Engrg. D iv., Detroit Edison Co., Detroit, Mioh.
Baltimore, Md. Mem. A.S.M.E. Mem. A.S.M.E.
FSP-56-10 521
The question arises as to whether it would be desirable and
economic to incorporate diffuser designs in the exhaust hoods of
all turbines. Some savings would result from such an ideal
design.
Regarding supersaturation, Mr. Robinson indicates that this
only needs consideration when moisture contents of 2 to 3 per cent
occur at exhaust. Generally the moisture content ranges from 8
to 11 per cent. Can any supersaturation exist at the last row of
blades under these conditions? The late Professor Callendar and
H. M. Martin, both of England, have advanced the opinion
that supersaturation will persist even to exhaust. R. Colburn
and the writer concluded two years ago that supersaturation
might exist at high moisture contents for there appear to be
indications that this was a contributing factor in blade erosion
from moisture. But the question is by no means settled.
One of the Power Test Code Committees should consider a
standard definition for the combined leaving and hood loss. Mr.
Robinson indicates the different ways in which the loss can be
expressed but has not given any method preference over the
others. It is highly desirable that the expression of this loss be
standardized so that all engineers can refer to it in the same
terms.
A further comment may be made. These losses are fixed by
the original design of the turbine and are inherent in its con­
struction. They cannot be increased or decreased for given
operating conditions by any efforts of the station operators.
It is therefore incumbent upon the plant designer to give the
fullest consideration to the economics of these losses in the
initial selection of the turbine equipment. Mr. Robinson points
out certain factors such as the character of load, etc., which
influence the economic effect of leaving losses.
There are differences of opinion in regard to the allowance for
leaving losses in determining the true end-point of the condition
curve. In some cases, the whole of the leaving loss has been
deducted from the total heat to exhaust to find the end-point of
the condition curve. Others estimate the probable stage ef­
ficiency of the last stage and only deduct from the heat to exhaust,
the product of this stage efficiency and the leaving losses. Ob­
viously the latter method gives the higher end-point. Can Mr.
Robinson indicate which method more nearly approaches the
true end-point?
This paper will prove valuable to designing and operating engi­
neers as it discusses a hitherto little understood subject in a clear
and comprehensive manner.
S a b i n C r o c k e r .6 Mr. Robinson’s paper presents valuable
information on turbine-exhaust loss as seen by a turbine designer.
As such, the presentation of these data is an excellent and timely
work. The writer would like to present the turbine user’s
view of these data as they may be applied to turbines in power
plants.
As power-plant heat rates have been improved through the
development of more efficient equipment and the adoption of
more favorable heat-utilization cycles, it has become necessary
for engineers charged with the design and operation of power
plants to go progressively to greater refinements in order to
continue an improvement of thermal efficiency within the eco­
nomic limitations of the case. Consequently in order to obtain
further improvements at the present time it is necessary to con­
sider comparatively small differences and quantities, such, for
instance, as are involved in the return of low-grade heat through
the turbine feedheating circuit, in changes in condensing equip­
ment to obtain better vacuum, or other changes which may affect
the exhaust loss in different ways.
522 TRANSACTIONS OF TH E AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

Operating companies make many such studies in which the capacity including reheat, is 160 Btu/lb at 29 in. vacuum of
exhaust loss becomes an important item. Under present prac­ which 105 Btu/lb can be converted into useful work. Then
tise it is necessary to obtain specific data from the manufacturer by virtue of limited exhaust dimensions the pressure at the exit
for each case considered. This results in great expense to both of the last row of blades is reduced 0.5 in. vacuum to 28.5 in.
parties, loss of time in correspondence, and a restriction in the Then the reduction in available energy will be (from Fig. 10)
number of comparisons that can be made in a given study. 21.6 Btu/lb and the resulting Ai, will be 139.4 Btu/lb at 28.5-
In consequence, while the manufacturer usually shows a willing­ in. vacuum of which 100 Btu/lb can be converted into useful work.
ness to cooperate in such matters, the results are not always Consequently from this consideration the actual reduction in
satisfactory. heat to work will be 5.0 Btu/lb, not corrected for moisture losses
The present paper is a notable beginning toward clearing up which, for such small changes, could be neglected.
these difficulties in that it enumerates all the items involved in the Carrying this example to a conclusion by adding the effect
exhaust loss of a steam turbine. A detailed statement of the of moisture, we see on the i-s diagram that the average moisture
turbine-user’s need for data of this type should likewise help the for the expansion to 29-in. vacuum is 9.25 per cent while the
situation. Briefly, he should be able to determine the exhaust average moisture for the expansion to 28.5-in. vacuum is 9.0 per
loss on his turbines for any possible operating condition. In this cent. Assuming no moisture removal and applying a correction
regard Figs. 4 and 7 from which can be determined the magnitude
of the loss for a given turbine are of particular interest. It would
seem that such information should be made available to a turbine
owner in either of two different ways: (a) on request furnish
him curves similar to Figs. 4 and 7 applying to his particular tur­
bine and (b) make available to him the methods for computing
such curves from the basic data for his type and size of turbine.
Such material is indispensible to the turbine operator for an in­
telligent solution to his problems in power-plant design. Ap­
parently Fig. 4 can readily be used for any desired operating
condition but it appears that Fig. 7 would have to be given for a
series of different condenser pressures and exhaust flows before it
would be of much use to a plant designer. This would entail a
large amount of detailed work on the part of the manufacturer,
which it would seem he could eliminate by making more general­
ized computation methods available to the turbine user.
The writer is quite aware that many variables are involved in
computing exhaust losses, and that turbine manufacturers and
their designers prefer to pass out information piecemeal rather
than to give an operating company’s engineers sufficient informa­
tion about a given turbine for them to compute the necessary
correction factors for that turbine themselves. Nevertheless,
it would seem that the author could well afford to give the user’s
requirements further consideration in closing an otherwise com­
mendable paper.

C. C. F r a n c k . 6 In discussing the actual loss due to the pres­

sure drop through the exhaust load, the author places consider­ of 1 per cent loss in efficiency for 1 per cent average moisture
able stress on the size of the cylinder-exhaust area, without a content to the heat converted into work for the two expansions,
great deal of concern for the flow area of the last row of blades. we see that the heat converted to work for the 29-in. expansion is
For a turbine of equal exhaust dimensions to that presented 95.3 Btu/lb and 90.5 for the 28.5-in. expansion. Hence the
by the author, the loss resulting directly from the increase in reduction in heat to work is 4.8 Btu/lb resulting from a reduction
exhaust pressure caused by crowding the exhaust hood, consti­ in available energy of 21.6 Btu/lb.
tutes only a small part of the actual loss in heat converted into This points out that even with great care exercised in the
work. design of the low-pressure exhaust load, a restricted last-row blade
Zu2 annulus may tend greatly to reduce the expected gain.
By virtue of the consideration o f ----for not only the last row,
Au Another point of importance to be considered at this time
but for the last three stages, which are affected by the change in is the possibility of correlating the design of the turbine and
vacuum, it may be pointed out that the reduction in adiabatic condenser in order to produce an approximately constant volu­
heat available, Au, results in an increase in the operating ef­ metric flow through the exhaust end for the normal range of
ficiency of the group and partially offsets the reduction in avail­ operating loads. This could be obtained by controlling the
able heat. Another important point to be considered is the so- condenser circulating water to produce the desired vacuum with
called “explosion loss” or loss occurring when the volumetric changes in steam flow. In this manner the design consideration
flow through the last row of blading is of such magnitude that a of the turbine with regards to exhaust dimensions could be
portion of the expansion actually occurs outside of the last-row- simplified.
blade passage. This results in an uncontrolled expansion which With such a system of variable vacuum the discussion on re­
destroys a greater part of the energy liberated. duction in available work would have to be continued with
For example, assume that Au for the last three stages at full lower flows. With such conditions of reduced volumetric flow,
6 T urbine A pparatus D iv., Engrg. D ept., W estinghouse Elec.
i.e., half load flow at 29 in. vacuum, the effect of explosion is en­
and Mfg. Co., South Philadelphia W orks, Philadelphia, Pa. Jun. tirely eliminated and the actual operating vacuum could be
A .S.M .E. increased to 29.25 or 29.5 in. and at the same time the extra
 FUELS AND STEAM POWER
available energy converted into work at approximately the same
efficiency as in the case of the 29-in. expansion.
In regard to the question of designating leaving losses it
appears that the most rational method of evaluating them
would be to consider the loss in kw. By the use of kw an ab­
solute loss is immediately determined and its magnitude is left
without question.
Another point which should be considered is the method of
carrying peak loads. Some installations carry peak loads with
the bleeder heaters cut out of service and this condition lends
itself to separate consideration by virtue of the added flow passed
through an already crowded exhaust.
Fig. 18 shows a typical “leaving-loss” curve for a reaction ma­
chine of 35,000 kw.
H. G. H iebelek.7 We are pleased to see such a thorough
definition and explanation of a subject which has caused much
comment by power engineers within the past few years.
We feel that it is a function of the turbine designers to define
what should be understood by such losses and to show their rela­
tive magnitude.
From a strictly operating viewpoint, once the selection of a
machine has been made, these losses are beyond control except to
a limited degree by the plant men. In southern stations, such
as thq Deepwater (Houston) plant, the high circulating-water
temperatures which prevail throughout most of the year limit
the vacuum obtainable. In the north, however, with colder
water conditions, particularly in the winter time, absolute pres­
sures between 0.50 to 0.75 in. Hg abs may prevail for several
weeks in extreme cases. In some instances, due to the pressure
from operating departments together with the natural conser­
vatism of designers, condensers are purchased for summer condi­
tions. With such installations undoubtedly the magnitude of
these leaving velocities and exhaust losses is very great. From
the operating viewpoint, attention should be called therefore to
the fact that many units are unable to use such high vacua effec­
tively or that there is a limit beyond which it is not economical to
go. This would suggest reduced speeds of the circulating pumps,
resulting in a saving in auxiliary power. Further, on some types
of condensers, refrigeration losses of the condensate are increased
under high vacuum conditions.
The author’s paper considers the performance of the unit as­
suming a constant back pressure of 1 in. Hg abs at the flange.
We believe it would be of interest to call attention to the variation
in the performance of modern condensers with variations in load
and with variations in circulating-water temperatures, such as
occur from season to season. The following will illustrate the
typical performance of a condensing unit for a 35,000-kw machine
under the conditions prevailing at Houston:
•----- Steam condensed, lb p e r b r-------
T e m p e ra tu re of 360,000 315,000 235,00 170,000
in let circ. w ater /------B ack pressure, in. H g abs----- -
50 deg F 0 .8 6 0 .7 8 0 .6 4 0 .5 9
65 deg F 1 .3 0 1 .2 0 1 .0 2 0 .9 4
80 deg F 2 .0 0 1 .8 5 1 .6 0 1 .4 4
95 deg F 3 .0 4 2 .8 2 2 .4 8 2 .2 1
In the tabulation above, the flows which correspond to maxi­
mum load (40,000 kw), full load (35,000 kw), three-fourths and
half load happen to correspond very closely to the flows assumed
by the author. This tabulation will show a variation of approxi­
mately 25 per cent in the specific volume of the steam to the
condenser between half load and maximum load for the same
water conditions and a change of approximately 300 per cent
for the same load between summer and winter conditions. This of
course neglects the consideration of moisture.
’ Assistant Superintendent of Power, Houston Lighting and Power
Co., Houston, Tex. Mein. A.S.M.E.
FSP-56-10 523
The use of these factors would considerably alter the author’s
Fig. 13 and also call attention to the necessity of using weighted
averages over the entire year in connection with the author’s
Fig. 17, showing typical annual load curves, in order to compute
the total annual losses from this source.
P. H. K nowlton.8 This paper is an excellent presentation of
the calculation of the total exhaust loss from a turbine. It
appears worth while to supplement this work by a statement as to
the background of the method and the reasons for believing that
such calculations are adequate.
In the first place, for any particular turbine the characteristics
of the last stage wheel and buckets are, of course, known to the
designer. The calculations necessary for Fig. 4 are fairly simple,
involving the aforesaid characteristics together with the laws of
flow for wet steam as they are understood.
Fig. 7, however, requires something more than well-known
rules. The flow of steam through the ordinary downward
exhaust type of hood is rather complicated and resource must be
had to tests to determine the characteristics of various types.
Two ways of testing are open, namely, by means of models or by
testing hoods on actual turbines in operation. In either case,
the test consists of measurements of the annulus static pressure
together with the steam flow through the last stage wheel.
Of the two means, the model tests are easier and more in­
structive. We are able to make models from Ve to V 12 size or
smaller, depending upon the size of the actual hood in question.
We test these models using air as the flowing fluid, and are able
to observe very closely the flow characteristics. This can, of
course, be done in advance of the construction of the full-sized hood
in the factory.
Any model tests should be checked if possible on the actual
full-sized apparatus and we have been able to check in this case
by making annulus pressure measurements in actual turbines
operating in some of the power stations in the country. The
agreement between model and full-sized hood is very good and
justifies the model tests.
The curve marked “total loss” in Figs. 13 and 14 can be checked
as to shape by still another means which is open to us. A tur­
bine can be operated under test conditions so that the weight
flow through the last stage buckets is at a constant rate. Then
the turbine condenser pressure can be varied by bleeding air to
the condenser, or by other means, and the variation of turbine
output can be measured. This variation of output is really a
difference between the change in available energy due to the
change in exhaust pressure and the change in exhaust loss oc­
casioned by the change in exhaust volume flow. The change in
available energy is readily calculated from the steam chart,
leaving a change in exhaust loss determined. Whenever pos­
sible, therefore, we obtain these variable vacuum curves at
constant flow, as valuable aids and checks on our calculation
methods. It is not always possible, since turbines of moderate and
large capacities must be tested, if tested at all, in the operator’s
power station and operating conditions or other factors may
make extended tests impracticable.
It is evident from the foregoing that means of testing have been
developed and are used for checking and substantiating the
methods of exhaust loss calculation as presented by Mr. Robin-
H. V. R asmussen.9 The author has written a very interesting
paper which is of vital interest to the turbine designer, as the
8 Turbine Engineering Department, General Electric Co., Schenec­
tady, N. Y. Jun. A.S.M.E.
• Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co., South Phila­
delphia Works, Philadelphia, Pa. Mem. A.S.M.E.
524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
dimensioning of the last spindle row and the turbine-exhaust
casing has a deciding influence on both the turbine performance
and the manufacturing cost.
If a turbine element in the high-pressure end of a turbine is not
very efficient, up to one-half the losses may be recovered in the
rest of the turbine due to reduced moisture and increased heat
drop, but losses in the exhaust end of a turbine are irretrievably
lost to useful work. Any improvement obtainable in the ex­
haust end will have a direct bearing on the over-all performance of
the turbine.
While the performance of a turbine is improved by a large
last-row annulus with a correspondingly low kinetic leaving loss,
the manufacturing cost of a turbine goes up rapidly with the
increase of the dimensions of the last row. Also, blade and
spindle stresses place a definite limitation on the physical dimen­
sions involved. A proper compromise between these various
factors must, therefore, be established in practical turbine design.
The present tendency toward large single-cylinder turbines
makes it necessary to employ high peripheral blade speed in the
last row, with a resulting high steam speed and a large kinetic
leaving loss. The place for improvement, consequently, is in the
exhaust casing which should be designed to offer the smallest
possible resistance to flow from the last-row annulus to the exhaust
opening.
It would be interesting to know how the author arrived at the
annulus pressure drop shown on Figs. 5 and 7, and also how it was
established that some exhaust casings are actually diffusing.
Measurements on actual turbines are very difficult to obtain as
they involve measurements of static pressure in the high velocity
jet. Some attempts were made to measure the pressure drop
in an exhaust casing of a large Westinghouse turbine by tapping
the cylinder casing at various points in the cover and base.
No conclusive results were obtained from this investigation as it
was obvious that a velocity head created by the steam impinging
against the measuring hole obscured the results and, at the very
best, these measurements would only record the pressure exist­
ing at the periphery of the casing. They could not disclose the
pressure distribution in the middle of the casing. Measurements
with pressure-measuring tubes, such as the Fechheimer tube, were
given up as impracticable, as the moisture in the steam would
partly fill the passages and cause incorrect readings.
Another approach to this problem is to conduct tests with
small-scale models. A number of exhaust model experiments for
various exhaust-cylinder designs were run by the Westinghouse
Company. Wooden models of the exhaust casing were made to
Vs of full size and air was blown through the models. A rotating
blade row, mounted on a disk and driven by a motor, represented
the last spindle row. Pressure measurements were taken with a
Fechheimer tube at a number of points around the blade annulus
and the velocity distribution over the exhaust opening was
recorded with a Prandtl impact tube.
These experiments disclosed a number of interesting facts.
First of all, it was found that steam is distributed most unevenly
throughout the casing and the exhaust opening. The steam
clings to the generator side of the exhaust casing and also crowds
this side of the exhaust opening, while the part of the exhaust
opening that is nearest to the turbine is hardly filled. If a part
of the exhaust opening is located under the bladed part of the
cylinder, the pressure drop through the casing will increase con­
siderably.
The tests also showed that ribs and steam deflectors in an
exhaust cylinder might improve the distribution of the steam over
the exhaust end, but generally accomplishes this at a cost of an
increased pressure drop from the last row to the exhaust opening.
The older exhaust-cylinder design with a number of separate
passages from the last row to the exhaust opening had thus a
considerably larger pressure drop through the casing than the
bare exhaust cylinder. However it was found possible to design
a deflector that was shaped as part of a rotative body and
that reduced the pressure drop as it diminished the concentra­
tion of flow at the condenser side of the exhaust opening.
The pressure measurements around the periphery showed a
somewhat similar distribution to that shown on Fig. 7 of the
author’s paper.
R o n a l d B. S m i t h . 10 Low-pressure end losses consist of fric­
tion due to wall resistance and curvature losses in the exhaust
hood, and eddy friction resulting from the attempt to convert
kinetic energy at the blade annulus to potential energy at the
condenser flange. Physically these losses are an evaluation of the
well-known relation
in which R is the total low-pressure end loss, i the enthalpy of
the steam, A the Joule conversion factor, with the subscripts
1 and 2 referring to conditions at the exhaust annulus and the
exhaust flange, respectively. In the design of the exhaust we
are faced with four characteristic solutions of the relation ex­
pressed by Equation [1], First, there may be complete recon­
version of the kinetic energy at the exhaust annulus into poten­
tial energy. In this case we have an isentropic change in which
and the low-pressure end losses AR become zero. This inter­
change of energy is contrived through a completely reversible
process and while it represents the ideal in achievement it is,
in the light of our present knowledge of the physical laws, quite
beyond the realm of possibility.
The next possible solution to Equation [1] lies in the recon­
version of a portion of the kinetic energy of discharge by a diffusor-
shaped exhaust chamber. It is represented physically by the
boundary condition > pi and by (i2 — ii) > A f vdp. Prac­
tically, this solution is the aim of all good designs since the total
low-pressure end losses become less than the leaving-velocity
loss at the blade annulus. Unfortunately, mechanical restric­
tions, imposed largely by the purchaser, have prevented many
exhaust-end designs of this type in the United States, although in
Europe the practise is used frequently to advantage.
A solution almost akin to the one just described lies in a partial
reconversion into pressure which is subsequently lost through wall
friction in the exhaust chamber. In this case pi = p2, and the
low-pressure end loss is equal to the kinetic energy of the fluid
from the last-blade annulus. This assumption was widely used
in turbine design up to the past few years but increasing demands
for economy have necessitated a solution more in keeping with
the actual condition. This solution usually consists not only in a
complete loss of the kinetic energy of discharge but in an addi­
tional pressure drop as well (p2 < pi). In this case the a J^2 vdp
is negative. This is the condition to which the author devotes
himself, and while far from the ideal it is at present the most
common. The real problem in this design lies in the determina­
tion of the pressure drop. Since measurements on actual ma­
chines are practically impossible, models are usually prepared.
However, the requirements of similarity are not wholly satisfied
in the model due to the extreme velocity and pressure conditions
that exist in the usual exhaust end.
10 Experim ental Engrg. D ept., W estinghouae Elec. and Mfg. Co.,
South Philadelphia W orks, Philadelphia, Pa. Jun. A.S.M .E.
 FUELS AND STEAM POWER FSP-56-10 525

As the author has already pointed out an expression for the
low-pressure losses in per cent of the adiabatic enthalpy change
means little unless one is familiar with the type of cycle. A
term more closely representing the efficiency of the low-pressure
end design proper would be the ratio of the average kinetic
energy at the exhaust flange to the total frictional loss.
benefit of a generously dimensioned exhaust annulus may be lost
unless the hood is properly proportioned and dimensioned.
It would be of great interest to know by what means the pres­
sure distribution shown by Fig. 7 was obtained. We have made
attempts at similar measurements and have been forced to con­
clude that it is exceedingly difficult to get the pressure readings
inside the exhaust of an actual turbine. Fig. 7 indicates a de­
gree of precision which I know is very difficult to reach.
A t jt h o r ’ s C l o s u r e

In concluding this discussion, it seems necessary first to set

Equation [2] is a m*'.« ire of the designer’s skill, and for the down the distinction between the leaving-velocity and exhaust
perfect diffusor has ■ value of loss on the one hand and the vacuum corrections applicable to
TJexh = 100 per cent.
the turbine-performance curve on the other hand. This paper
has confined itself entirely to the former which is supposed to
In the 35,000-kw machine described by the author the net occur in the exhaust hood between annulus and exhaust flange.
annulus area appears to be 31 sq ft. Assuming that the exhaust- In preparing the vacuum corrections showing the variation of
flange area is about 31/0.4 = 78 sq ft, the average kinetic turbine performance with changing back pressure at the exhaust
energy at the. exhaust is 6.7 Btu at full load. Then the efficiency flange, it is necessary to take account of all other contributing
of the exhaust end proper is = 26.5 per cent. The corre­ or interrelated effects, whether or not they are parts of the loss
sponding loss based on the adiabatic enthalpy change is about in question. It is, of course, true that in many cases the vacuum
4.9 per cent. These two factors would appear to define fully the corrections consist almost entirely of leaving-velocity and ex­
conditions at the low-pressure end. The exhaust efficiency repre­ haust loss but the distinction is very real. Operators generally
sented by Equation [2] is a measure of the relative merit of the are interested in the vacuum correction. The leaving loss, as
exhaust hood, and to the designer it represents the internal ef­ such, has always seemed to us a matter of interest particularly
ficiency of the low-pressure end. The conventional leaving loss to the designer. It is one of the most important elements in­
on the other hand shown in Figs. 13 and 14, represents the low- fluencing turbine performance.
pressure frictional losses in respect to the total available energy; Mr. Caldwell is inclined to doubt the continuance of load
it determines whether efforts to improve the exhaust end ef­ growth. It is true that there has been a five-year cessation in
ficiency tjexh are justified from the standpoint of economy. this matter but it is also true that in many areas with favorable
rate structures the per capita consumption of electricity is several
C. R. S o d e r b e r g . 11 Turbine designers will welcome this times what it is in some of our largest metropolitan centers. In
paper on a subject which has always represented an important our opinion, any system that has the courage to look ahead 15
question in the art. Very little of the material as presented can or 20 years may expect a load growth to two or three times its
be regarded as controversial, and the writer will limit himself to a present size. While the annual percentage increments may fall
brief discussion of a few points. off, it is likely that the actual kw increments may increase. Cer­
The leaving loss is undoubtedly one of the most important tainly the use of electricity is going to increase whether the pres­
single items in condensing turbines, particularly because it can ent systems furnish the power or whether it is to be supplied in
be influenced to a considerable extent by modifications in design, some other manner.
specifically by the size of the exhaust annulus. A similar in­ Professor Christie raises the question as to the desirability of
vestigation was made sometime ago by Prof. A. G. Christie and incorporating diffuser exhaust hoods in all turbines and this mat­
presented at the 2nd World Power Conference in 1930.11 This in­ ter is also touched Upon by Mr. Smith. This question is largely
vestigation, as well as the one covered by the present paper, an economic one and it is not easy to answer it briefly. However,
neglects another loss item which is of the same significance and this much may be said: that such diffusing hoods as are now in
which must be considered in connection with the leaving loss. existence have that property as a by-product of other features of
This is the loss caused by the moisture in the low-pressure end of design and were not so made for that reason alone. The design is
condensing turbines. Very little reliable information exists as usually expensive and justified only under special conditions.
to the magnitude of the latter loss, but some of the results ob­ The author’s remarks on supersaturation were based on the
tained recently by the Westinghouse Company indicate that it is findings of the General Electric Company as set forth by Pro­
often greater than the leaving loss. In particular, it is in­ fessor Goodenough in his published report in 1927. It must be
creased rapidly with the peripheral speed. If the leaving loss is admitted that the true condition is still a matter of argument
reduced by an increase in blade annulus, this reduction is accom­ but undoubtedly more specific analyses will be available in the
panied by an increase of the moisture loss which may, in certain future. Probably we should not have said it could be “neg­
cases, more than offset the reduction of leaving loss. lected.” When a manufacturer bases his promises on well-es­
With this fact in mind, it is impossible to arrive at an economical tablished past performance, it is impossible for him to neglect
size of exhaust annulus without injecting the moisture loss. anything. But, on the other hand, the more specific his analy­
Supersaturation, on the other hand, can generally be disregarded, sis, the greater are his opportunities to improve design.
at least for the moisture contents now common in condensing Professor Christie also asks about the true end-point of the
turbines. condition curve. It seems to the author that that is given by
The author has properly emphasized the importance of in­ the exhaust heat and the exhaust pressure and that it is the only
cluding in the leaving loss the losses in the exhaust hood. The point definitely known except that fixed by the initial conditions.
11 Manager, Turbine Apparatus Division, Westinghouse Elec. Given the initial conditions, known performance gives the end
and Mfg. Co., South Philadelphia Works, Philadelphia, Pa. Mem. point. All intermediate points must be estimated by design
A.S.M.E. technique and the better they are filled in, the better may they
11 “Economic Considerations in the Application of M odem Steam
Turbines to Power Generators” by A. G. Christie. Second World be used for improving design. For instance, to get back to the
Power Conference, 1930. wheel exit, it is necessary to divide the exhaust heat between
526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
pressure-volume energy, temperature energy, velocity energy,
and if there is supersaturation, it may be necessary to include
surface-tension energy. As a short cut from the true end-point
to the wheel exit, one might draw a horizontal line to the left to
annulus pressure and thence down the pressure line so as to de­
duct the velocity energy fraction of the leaving loss. That
would locate what might be called the “chart condition” of the-
steam at the wheel exit, which would be useful to give the mois­
ture content. This is to be distinguished from what would be
the end-point of the machine if it had zero-leaving loss. The
important point in this matter is to base predictions upon exactly
the same conventions used in analyzing performance.
Mr. Crocker has pointed out how necessary it is for an operator
to have all the essential information about his machine. Cer­
tainly the manufacturer intends to furnish all such information
and if it has not been done in the past, that must have been due
to a misunderstanding of the needs in the particular case.
Mr. Franck has called particular attention to a number of
items and rightly expresses his concern about the flow area of
the last row of blades. That is usually the most important fea­
ture of all, and, if the author did not show proper concern about
it, that was because of its general recognition. Mr. Franck’s
remarks about the effects on the preceding stages help to bring
out the distinction which is necessary between the total net effect
on turbine performance of a change of vacuum, and the leaving-
velocity and exhaust loss by itself. Although the distinction
might be thought of as only a matter of definition, it is none the
less important.
Mr. Hiebeler points out the important effects of varying cool-
ing-water conditions on the vacuum and consequently on the
magnitude of the leaving losses. The diagrams in the paper have
been based on 1 in. Hg abs back pressure. There is a certain
back pressure below which better vacuum fails to yield any more
power. Refrigeration, in itself, is detrimental. In deciding
how much water to pump it is necessary for an operator to bal­
ance his pump requirements and refrigeration losses against the
additional power shown by his vacuum corrections.
Mr. Knowlton’s discussion anticipates the questions raised
by Messrs. Rasmussen and Soderberg about the pressure meaure-
ments in exhaust hoods as shown in Figs. 5 and 7 and it does not
seem necessary for the author to add anything further on that
subject.
Mr. Soderberg also mentions the importance of proper consider­
ation of moisture losses and here again it may help in clarifying
the situation to point out that moisture effects have been consid­
ered in the paper only in so far as they affect the leaving-velocity
and exhaust loss itself. Changing degrees of moisture in pre­
ceding stages affect the turbine performance and have to be con­
sidered in predicting vacuum corrections but such effects are
not a part of the leaving loss even though in part due to it.