Roman Empire

Michael Sperry

Period 7

12-10-12
 Introduction

When I first learned of the paper I was required to write I immediately wanted to do it on the
Roman Empire. I decided to do the Romans because they, in my opinion, are the most influential
and well known empire in history. There have been many movies, video games, and even TV
shows made that feature the Roman Empire.

I also believe that if I learn more about the Romans then I may be able to gain more insight into
the history of the world. This is because certain products like cultural values and military tactics
of the Romans continue to influence us today. If I can find more specific examples of those
products then I can understand how and why they influence us.
 Timeline

31 B.C Octavius defeats Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium ending the civil wars.

27 B.C Octavius names himself Augustus and becomes the first Roman emperor. The Roman
Empire is born and the Pax Romana begins.

161 A.D Marcus Aurelius, the last of the Five Good Emperors, becomes emperor.

180 A.D Marcus Aurelius dies and is succeeded by his son, Commodus.

182 A.D Commodus establishes Reign of Terror.

192 A.D Praetorian Guard assassinates Commodus.

193 A.D Septimus Severus becomes emperor and turns Rome into a military dictatorship.

211 A.D Septimus dies; he is the last emperor to die of natural causes until 284. All of the
emperors before that year were murdered by the Praetorian Guard and ruled an average of three
years due to the 50 year long civil war that occurs.

284 A.D Diocletian becomes emperor and rules from Nicomedia in the East, he ends the wars.

286 A.D Diocletian names Maximian to rule in the west, this divides the empire.

359 A.D Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman Empire after it is reunited by
Constantine.

395 A.D Theodosius divides the Empire between east and west again with the capitals at Milano
and Constantinople.

476 A.D After years of assault from barbarians, the western empire falls to Odoacer.

1453 A.D Constantinople is captured by the Ottomans, ending the eastern empire.

History

The Roman Empire was formed after the Roman Republic disintegrated into civil war. The
Roman general Octavian took control of Rome after defeating his rival Mark Antony during the
battle of Actium. He then proceeded to instigate numerous reforms that greatly changed the
structure of Roman government. It turned Rome into an empire which Octavian took control of
as the first emperor of the Roman Empire. It was also during this time, when the senate gave him
the title, Augustus.

The period that came after Augustus turned Rome into an empire is known as the Pax Romana,
which lasted for 207 years. It was during this period that the empire experienced a time of
relative peace and prosperity, aside from the reign of a couple of murderous emperors, like Nero
and Caligula. It was also during this time that Roman territory expanded greatly. Places like
Egypt and parts of Germania fell to the Romans.

The most prosperous time period of the Pax Romana was the time of The Five Good Emperors.
During the reign of the emperors Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius the
empire was at its greatest. The method of how a new emperor is chosen was at most peaceful, as
the current emperor was required to name a successor during his lifetime. Also, the position of
emperor was not hereditary, so the successors were from a different family. It was also during
this time that Roman territory was at its greatest extent. The lands of Dacia and Armenia fell to
Rome during this time.

Eventually the Pax Roman came to an end with the reign of Commodus. Commodus was known
to be a cruel, paranoid ruler and a megalomaniac. Under Commodus, many prominent Roman
citizens were murdered because of his paranoia. He also performed in the Colosseum as a
gladiator, where he not only fought people but also animals. These characteristics horrified the
Roman people and strained the economy, since Commodus charged one million sesterces for
each time he made an appearance in the Colosseum. Eventually, after years of bad rule,
Commodus was murdered by his own bodyguard. This event is believed by some historians to be
the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire.

After Commodus died civil war broke out in Rome. The emperor who took control was known
as Septimus Severus. Septimus ruled Rome as a military dictator that murdered 29 senators.
Septimus later died in 211, he was the last emperor to die of natural causes for 73 years. The next
5 emperors that came after had relatively short reigns and they all ended with an assassination.
This period was later followed by the Crisis of the Third Century.

The Crisis of the Third Century was a 50 year period where barbarian invasions, severe inflation,
and civil war occurred. Armies were battling over who had the position of emperors. The
emperors themselves were constantly being assassinated after only a few years of rule. Barbaric
tribes took advantage of this calamity. They would launch invasions of the empire and assault
trade routes. This hindered trade throughout the massive empire and hurt the economy greatly.
Eventually, order was restored by the emperor known as Diocletian. Diocletian restored order by
dividing the empire in half. He ruled in the east, while a second co- emperor Maximian, ruled in
the west. Later, Diocletian added two junior emperors to the arrangement. Constantius operated
in the west and Galerius ruled in the East. This system was known as the Tetrarchy, which
means “leadership of four people” in Greek.

The tetrarchy worked well at first, but then it devolved into civil war after Diocletian and
Maximian retired. This left the two junior emperors to take over; this lead to civil war over who
the next junior emperors would be. Constantine, the son of Constantius won the civil war and
reunited the empire by taking over his rival’s land. Constantine ruled the reunited empire from
the city of Constantinople. It was during this time that the empire was temporarily stabilized and
it was the last time that it was reunited. When Constantine died the empire was once again
divided between east and west.

The Roman Empire became so divided over time that it later became two separate entities. They
both were fundamentally the same thing but they were independent of each other, they were
effectively two Roman Empires. The empire in the west was constantly being attacked by
barbaric tribes like the Huns, the Visigoths, and the Vandals. These tribes sacked cities all over
the empire, including Rome. One eyewitness to the devastation, St. Jerome, reflected,” Who
could believe that Rome, built upon the conquest of the whole world, would fall to the ground”?
Eventually, the final blow came when the last emperor of Rome, Romulus Augustulus, was
deposed by the German known as Odoacer.

While the empire in the west was destroyed by the barbarian tribes, the eastern empire prospered.
The Huns were very brutal in their attempts to take down the eastern empire. They ultimately
were stopped at Constantinople. The Huns could not breach the nearly impregnable walls of the
city. After the invasion was repelled, they eastern empire prospered. This empire lasted 1,000
years after the fall of the western empire; it was then taken over by the Ottoman Empire.

Government and Law

The government and law of the Roman Empire were once considered to be the most just in the
world. The government of the empire consisted of the emperor as the head of state, with the
senate serving under him. The basic concept of the senate is still used today by countries like the
United States. The most important laws of the empire were written on the 12 tables. Some of
those laws are still used today.
The government of the empire was in many ways like an absolute monarchy. The emperors had
complete dominance over the government. They reserved the right to declare war and pass new
laws. The emperors also were the central religious authority, called the Pontifex Maximus, which
means “greatest pontiff” in Latin

The emperor also had a body of advisors called the consilium. The consilium originally could
have included trusted slaves and freedmen, but this was changed after the rule of Nero. The
unofficial influence of the consilium became highly suspect as a result of Nero’s reign of terror.
So it was changed to where only senators and equestrians (lower ranking aristocrats) could be
part of the consilium. This helped make it more official and allowed for more transparency in the
consilium.

The senate of the Roman Empire was not as powerful as it was during the republic. While the
senate had more control in the time of the republic, this was changed after Rome became an
empire. The senate of the empire mostly served on a financial, administrative, and religious
basis. They also could grant special honors and excuse the emperor from legal liability.
However, the emperor always had the final say; he had full control over anything the senate did.
In all, the senate essentially acted as a vessel for decisions made by the emperor. They
themselves had a more negligible amount of power.

Roman law is based primarily off of the piece of legislation known as the 12 tables. The 12
tables were tablets that were made of ivory and put on display for the public to read. On these
tablets were all of the basic laws of Rome. They cover everything from trials, to property
ownership, to punishments for crimes committed. While these tables have long since been
succeeded by other legal documents, some of those laws have influenced laws for our own
constitution.
 Army

The Roman Empire had one of the most powerful armies in history. At the empire’s peak there
were an estimated number of 20 million soldiers. With an army as large and well trained as this
they were able to conquer much of the known world.

For most of its history only male citizens of the empire could join the army. In fact, for a time it
was required that all male citizens that were physically able were to join the army. This law was
later repealed because there weren’t enough resources to support an army of that size. However,
there has been archaeological evidence that suggests that some women also served in the army,
but they never served in core units.

Roman soldiers were typically paid for their service to Rome. The exact amount of money varied
depending on what type of unit they were a part of. For instance a basic legionary started at 225
denarii. However the pay for auxiliary troops was at 188 denarii. However the amount of money
for both units went up as the army got more funds later in the empire’s history.

The military of Rome had some of the most advanced weaponry of their time. They had different
weapons for different forms of combat. The javelin (Throwing spear) was a weapon that was
used to take enemies out from long range. The gladius was a short sword that was used by
infantry for close-quarter combat. They also had a dagger called a pugio, which was used as a
sidearm by soldiers. The cavalry had a long sword called a spatha; it was used to kill enemies
from a longer distance.

The Roman army was comprised of many different units. There were basic infantry like the
Hastati; they had swords, spears and shields. The velites served as skirmishers that were armed
with light javelins, they usually provided a diversion for the enemy. And then there were the
equites, they served as cavalry for the army. All of these units worked together to accomplish
their mission.

The command structure of the Roman army was designed to be perfectly clear. The smallest
groups of soldiers were called a conturbenium; these were made up of 8 men. Ten of these would
make a cohort; these were made of 80 men. Ten cohorts then would make a legion of 1,000 men.
 Religion and People of Rome

Roman culture and customs were very diverse because of all of the cultures they absorbed. They
had elements of culture from places like Greece and Egypt. These places helped to shape the
empire into a culturally diverse state that was very similar to America.

The religion of Rome was polytheistic for a long time, until Christianity became the primary
religion of Rome. The Romans worshiped many different gods and goddesses. For example,
Jupiter was their chief god, associated with the sky and thunder; he was influenced from the
Greek god Zeus. Minerva was their goddess of commerce, industry, and education, and was
identified with Athena from Greek mythology.

However, Rome did not tolerate every religion that existed in the empire. Christianity started
growing early in the empire’s history and as it grew it was viciously persecuted. Christians ware
nailed to crosses, burned at the stake, and even killed set on fire during the reign of Nero.
However, eventually the Christians were tolerated and, because of emperors like Constantine and
Theodosius, eventually became the primary religion of Rome.

Roman society was very patriarchal, as were many societies at that time, although some women
did still wield a great deal of political power. Men, however, did still act as the head of the
household, which was called a paterfamilias. When a man held the title of paterfamilias, he also
held paterpotestas. Paterpotestas was the man’s power of life or death over the other members of
the family.

Women in the Roman Empire had limited power, much like it was in other societies of the time.
They could not own property and typically could not serve in the military. In the household,
women usually remained under the control of the man. However, a woman could still take back
her wedding gifts if the marriage ended. Although women couldn’t hold the position of emperor
or become a senator, some women did still have a strong influence of Roman politics. A classic
example is when Agrippa had the emperor Claudius poisoned so her son, Nero, could become
emperor.

Children in Rome had childhoods that in certain ways are similar to the childhoods of children in
America. For instance, most children had access to some form of education. Education for young
children varied depending on wealth. Children from privileged families had primary education
on things like reading and writing at home from private teachers. Children from lower class
families attended public schools organized by a schoolmaster. Eventually, between the ages of
14-19 the child would come of age. At this point the child would be able to become a full citizen.
 Economy

The economy of the Roman Empire was a very complex system with many forms of currency. It
existed for a very long period of time and saw much change. There were points when the
economy was overflowing with wealth and points where it was stagnated and weak.

The currency of the empire was expressed in multiple types of coins which had different values.
For instance, the Sestertius was the currency most commonly used for expressing values of
items. The denarius, which was worth 4 sesterces, was also sometimes used for expressing
values. An as was also commonly used in the empire, they were worth one- fourth of a sestertius.

Banks were also present in the economy of the Roman Empire. They had some similarities to our
own banking system; they would give out loans and keep deposits just like they do today. The
senatorial elite were particularly invested in the bank. They would both borrow money and lend
money to others, much like today. However, today there are also more regulations on banks then
there were in the days of the empire.

Mining was also an important aspect of the Roman economy. It provided the empire with many
kinds of precious metals such as copper, lead, silver, and gold. However, reaching these precious
metals was very dangerous at the time. In order to reach the precious metals they would have to
use fire-setting in order to get the minerals out. This method was extremely hazardous without
proper ventilation. However the metals extracted, particularly lead, were essential for the
economy of Rome.

Trade was another vital element to Rome’s economy. Many goods would be brought in from
areas all over the world. Grain was one of the most important commodities to be traded. Wine,
olive oil, papyrus, and even silk from China were also traded. All of these goods traded helped to
maintain Rome’s massive empire.

Perhaps the most important element of the Roman economy was labor. It is believed that there
were 268 different occupations available in the city of Rome. Some of the most brutal of those
jobs were typically reserved for convicts of slaves. The biggest sources of employment were in
the clothing and textile industry. It was particularly prosperous in Egypt where people could run
their own clothing businesses, with their own apprentices, paid workers, and slaves.
 Art and Architecture

Art in the Roman Empire was very heavily influenced by the Greeks. When Greece was
conquered by the Romans many Hellenistic influences were incorporated. However, Roman art
did still have its own characteristics. Greek Art was more exaggerated while Roman art tended to
be more realistic.

Sculptures were very prevalent throughout the empire. In fact, it was even exaggerated that in
Rome there were as many statues as there were people. Sculpting was typically done to depict
powerful people or deities. Sculptures were also made for the tombs of deceased leaders or
people that were very prominent. The sculptures were made out of things like terra cotta and
marble. They varied is style, some were very realistic and detailed and some exaggerated the
features of the subject. Many Roman sculptures still exist today.

Mosaics were also very common in the Roman Empire. The mosaics were created by taking
small pieces of multicolored stone or glass, called tesserae, and carefully assembling them so that
they formed a certain image. The images varied to depict things such as hunting, historical
figures, agriculture, and mythological scenes. Mosaics were crafted and placed in buildings like
churches and some houses. Like sculptures, they are one of the most enduring instances of
Roman Art.

Architecture in the Roman Empire was also influenced from Greek Architecture, along with
some influence from the Etruscans. Their architecture led to advances in religious buildings and
buildings of entertainment. A classic example of Roman Architecture is the Colosseum, a
massive amphitheater used for hosting gladiatorial games. The Colosseum in Rome was the
largest amphitheater in the empire, able to accommodate 50,000 spectators. The Colosseum was
made of concrete and stone and was situated on a flat area. It was elliptical in shape and had 3
stories. The seating was arranged so that the senators had the lowest level closest to the show and
the women and peasants had the highest. One thing about the Colosseum that some people may
not know is that it has an underground network of tunnels called the hypogeum. The hypogeum
was used as a holding area for the gladiators and animals before the show began.

Temples are another classic example of Roman Architecture; they were used primarily for
religious purposes. The fronts of the temples were heavily emphasized; they consisted of a
pronaos, a porch leading to the entrance that had columns. The inside of the temple, called a
cella, consisted of an altar for sacrificing animals and also may have contained a statue of a
deity. The designs of the temples were influenced by the Greeks and Etruscans.

Legacy

The Roman Empire was a very powerful empire that even today still has a prominent influence
on the world; thousands of years after it fell. Their government and law went on to influence the
government and law of the United States. Some of the technology that was invented by the
Romans, like cement, continues to be used today. The architecture of the Roman Empire also
continues to be used today. Some of the buildings in Washington D.C, like the Supreme Court
building, are based off of Roman designs.

Many aspects of the imperial government and laws have been incorporated into many
governments of today, including ours. The idea of the Roman Senate is used today, in congress,
by the United States and other countries. However, the senate that is used today has significantly
more power than the senate of the Roman Empire. Many modern legal systems are influenced by
the Roman legal system. For instance, in countries like the U.S, everyone is guaranteed a fair
trial; much like it was in the Empire. The way trials were conducted in Rome was very similar to
how they are conducted today. This is one reason why the Romans are still studied even
thousands of years later.

The Romans were a very advanced people for their time. Their technology and architecture are
still used today. Technology like cement and better road systems were invented by them. Even
today, some of the roads they built are still used throughout Europe. Cement is also still used
regularly all over the world for building houses and sidewalks. Modern architecture is influenced
greatly by the architecture of the Romans. The Colosseum in particular inspired a few modern
buildings, like the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum.

The fall of the Roman Empire has also influenced our culture. There are multiple books and
movies that concern the fall of Rome. But more importantly, the exact nature of how the empire
fell is still being studied and debated by historians today. Some historians cite economic reasons
for the fall of Rome, but others state that it was merely outside invasions.

In conclusion, the Roman Empire was an extremely powerful empire that spanned 3 different
continents. It was very advanced for its time and had a very vibrant history that is still scrutinized
by modern historians. Most importantly, the advances they made in law, government,
technology, and architecture have provided us with many conveniences that we use today.
 Sources

Scaruffi, P (1999). A timeline of the Roman Empire. Retrieved November 9, 2012, from
http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/Romans.html

Author Unknown (Date Unknown) The Laws of the Twelve Table. Retrieved November 12,
2012, from http://www.constitution.org/sps/sps01_1.htm

Author Unknown (2008, 05). The military of the Roman Empire. Retrieved November 14, 2012
from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Military-RomanEmpire-150341.html

Various Authors (2001). Roman Empire. Retrieved November 10, 2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire

Rodgers, N (2008) Roman Empire. Metro Brooks, New York