Saturday

Jain Culture in Telugu Literature

Prof. G. V. Subrahmanyam

jainology.blogspot.com/2008/11jain-culture-in-telugu-literature.html

The first mention of Andhras is found in the Aitereya Brahmana. Clear

sources for Andhra history are traced from the Satavahana Period, Le.
2nd or 3rd Century B.C. From then on the identity of a composite Andhra
culture seems to have emerged under the influence of several streams of
tradition from time to time. Buddhism, Jainism, Veera Saivism,
Vaishnavism and Vedic culture contributed to this evolution in their own
way. Though the political, economic and cultural history of Andhra society
is traced from the beginnings of Christian era, the first Telugu inscription
dates back to 575 A.D. and the first available literary work in Telugu to
11th Century A.D.

Each cultural tradition leaves its impact on the lifestyle, world-view,

behavioural norms, arts and literature of a society. Aim of this paper is to
study the impact of Jainism on the culture and litrature of Andhras in
general.

There are a few important points to be kept in mind while studying the
influence of Jainism on Telugu (Andhra) society. The foremost of them is
that the total assimilation of a strong stream of Jainism into Telugu
culture, without leaving any traces of distinctness, got completed by the
end of 13th Century. Upto this point of time this Jain cultural stream had
a relatively more vibrant existence in the Telangana and Rayalaseema
regions of Andhra Pradesh in contrast to the coastal belt which was
relatively under a stronger impact of Buddhism and Vedic culture from
time to time. The third significant observation is that the impact of
Jainism on Telugu literature is not as directly traceable as in the case of
Telugu culture. While powerfully penetrating into the cultural fabric of
Andhras, Jainism seems to have been less aggressive in their region,
Through its soft penetration Jainism left several significant traces on the
history of the Telugu people. Even today the art and architecture of Jains
can be identified in the ancient temples and other structures in the
Andhra region as the reminders of the glorious past of Jain culture in this
part of the country. Even with regard to. the impact of Jainism on Telugu
literature a few interesting observations may be taken note of: (a) only a
few evidences of Jain literature in Telugu are available. There are a few
indications that the same poets who are known to have produced Jain
literature in Kannada made attempts to produce similar works even in
Telugu. (b) Jain literature in Kannada indirectly led to the evolution of
 certain significant genres of Telugu literature. I shall try to elaborate
these points further in this paper.

(1) The Jain Period of Andhra History:Going back to beginnings of Andhra

history of the patronage of Kharavela, the King of Kalinga to Jainism was
a mangnanimous beginning for the spread of Jainism in "the Andhra
region. Jainism during this period could successfully survive facing the
hostile Vedic and Buddhist traditions. In between 265 and 625 AD.
Jainism flourished in the Tatikonda of East Godavari and Hanumakonda of
Telangana regions. The Vemulavada Chalukyas were the next important
patrons of Jainism in the Andhra region. It is to be noted here that it is
these Telugu kings, especially the Arikesari I, who patronised the poets
Pampa and Ranna who composed the Jain literature of Kannada. Certain
historians believe that Pampa and Ranna rendered a few Jain works in
Telugu which are not available today, Among the eastern Chalukyas
Vishnuvardhana III made donations to the Nadumbi Jain Vasati at
Bejavada. The Jainacharyas of this Vasati belong to the Kavururi Gana.
Ammaraju II also made several donations to Jinalayas (Jaina temples).
The Valahari Gana, Kotimuduva Gana, Addakali gaccha, Nandigaccha
congregations of Jainism find their mention in the inscriptions installed by
this King. The dynasty of Pandaranga, the famous General of Gunaga
Vijayaditya, was a Jain dynasty. They were the hereditary rulers of
Katakam. Duggaraja, the great-grandson of Pandaranga constructed the
Katakaabharana Jinalaya. It is to this temple that Ammaraju donated the
Village Malayapudi. Duggaraja was the Rajavishayaadhyaksha (the
political head) of the Karma Raashtra.

The Kakatiya rulers before Betaraju II were all the followers of Jainism,
Betaraju II was the first Kakatiya king to get converted into Veerasaivism.
His successors followed his suit stopping the royal patronage to Jainism in
the Kakatiya empire. One of the most ancient Kakatiya constructions, the
Padmakshi temple, was a Jain temple to begin with. It was constructed
during the reign of Prolaraju II. Mailama, wife of the minister Betana
constructed the Kadalalaya Vasati on a hill at Hanumakonda. A
Digambara Jaina idol is carved in one of the stones on the hill itself. Even
inside the temple of Padmakshi we can see the idols of Jaina
Teerthankara and Yakshinis. But after Kakatiyas toqk to Veerashaivism
this temple got converted into a shakti temple.
After the loss of patronage from Kakatiya. kings, Jainism waged a vain
battle against the hostile traditions of Veerashaivism and Vedic culture
and gradually became extinct from the main stream of Telugu culture. But
this long existence of a soft but vibrant tradition lift its own indelible
marks on the Telugu culture.

(2) Traces of Jain Culture in Today's Telugu Life:There are certain

imprints of Jain culture without understanding which it is difficult to
explain several features of Telugu culture even today. Some of these are
very often mentioned by scholars, They are: the word 'bastl' for 'big town'
in coastal areas and for localities within a big township' in Telangana
areas, is derived from the Jain word 'basatl' (vasati). The sacred phrase
which is made to be written by a Telugu child while starting his script
learning or his studies in general is 'Om Namassivaya Siddham Namaha',
Some scholars opine that the second part of this sacred sentence, viz.,
'Siddham Namaha', is actually a reminiscence of Jain culture. This Telugu
word for multiplication tables is 'ekkaalu'. This is actually derived from the
first word of the first multiplication table in Praakrit starting as 'ekka sa
vaggo ekka', once brought in to vogue by Jain aacharyas in the Telugu
region. Astrologically, Telugu people prefer to treat 'varjya' as the'bad'
time of the day in contrast to the Raahu kaala followed by the other south
Indian people. Varjyam is a Jain convention.
Some other such interesting imprints are found in the caste names and
place names. One such interesting caste name is 'Komati' which is the
native Telugu word for the Vaishya or the merchant community (caste).
This word is derived from the word 'Gomathi' which means the followers
of Gomatheswar. This might indicate the widespread prevalence of
Jainism among the native Telugu merchants at a certain point of history.
'Muni' is a word which is found in several place names such as Munipalle,
Munikonda, etc. This word 'Muni' might refer to the Jain munis.
The most interesting reminiscence of Jain culture on the Telugu region is
the stone images called 'sanyasi devullu'. These images in Kayotsarga
posture are actually Jain images but today they are worshipped by
women desirous of progeny.

Some historians believe that the ritual vows of fasting, annadaanas (food
offerings) and gosaala maintenance were popularised by Jains in the
Telugu region.

There are many archaeological sites in the Andhra region where

reminiscences of alchemical experiments are preserved with mystic
sculptural and iconic codes. These alchemical practices were mostly in
vogue among the Jains.

(3) Jainism and Telugu Literature :Though Jainism continued its dynamic
existence in the Telugu region up to the middle of the 13th century A. D.,
i.e. for 300 years later to the beginning of independent literary works in
Telugu, it is stfimge to see that we cannot find any Jain literature as such
composed in Telugu. It is said that the same poets who composed Jain
literature in Kannada rendered a few Jain works in Telugu too. But
unfortunately none of these works is available today. When we say that
there is no Jain literature in Telugu, we only mean that there are no
Telugu works composed for the propagation of Jainism. In fact, there are
three important Telugu books of the ancient time which are associated
with Jainism. They are: (1) Pavuluri Mallana's Ganitam, (2) Malliya
Rechana's Kavijanasrayam (a book on Telugu prosody) and (3)
 Adharvanacharya's Adharvana Kaarikaavali which is a commentary on
Aandhrasabdachintamani, a Sanskrit book of verses on Telugu grammar.
'Ganitam' is the Telugu rendering of an original Jain Prakrit work on
Mathematics. But the author of the Telugu version, Pavuluri Mallana, is a
Veerashaivite. But still a few examples related with Jain culture may be
found in this book. , Kavijanasrayam' 's authorship is controversial. Some
of the verses are found addressed to one Malliya Recha. This Malliya
Recha is identified as the author of the book by some scholars and he is
identified as a Jain. But even this work is not directly related with Jainism
as such, though a few examples in this book refer to Jain culture.
Adharvanaacharya is known to be a Jain aacharya and is said to have
composed a few portions of the Mahabharata in Telugu after Tikkana had
done the same work from a Vedic point of view. Whether
Adharvanaacharya's rendering of the Mahabharata was done in Jainist
lines or not is not known because his composition on the Mahabharata is
not available.

Telugu people seem to have been acquainted with the Jain (and Buddhist)
versions of the Ramayana (may be even of the Mahabharata). Certain
proverbs which are in vogue even today among Telugus give this
indication. For example, there is a proverb which means "It seems
someone asked what is the relation of Sita to Rama after listening the
story of the Ramayana the whole night". This proverb might be referring
to the confusion about the relation between Rama and Sita the Jain
Ramayana creates in the minds of the people who already know the
Vaalmiki version of it. (There is a similar proverb which refers to the
Buddhist version of the Ramayana.) Telugu language seems to have
strangely preserved the people's memory of a literary works while the
work itself is actually lost in course of history.

The indirect impact of Jainism on Telugu literature through the interaction

of Telugu literature with Kannada literature seems to be very significant.
It is actually the inspiration from this Kannada Jain literature that led to
the origin of the first available independent Telugu literary work, viz.,
Nannaya's Mahabharata.

Some scholars go to the extent of saying that the structure of Telugu

Kavyas, their champu (verse and prose) form, the choice of metres (like
Utpalamala and champakamala), the metre called Kandam, the
Avataarika or the prefatory structure of Telugu kavyas, etc. are all Jain
contributions. But in fact, these purely literary aspects of T elugu kavyas,
though have their origin in Kannada literature, might have nothing to do
with Jainism as such. But direct conflict and competition between
Veerashaivism and Jainism had led to a strong impact of Kannada
literature on the Shaiva literature in Telugu. For example, the concept of
'Vastu Kavita' found in Nannechoda's Kumaarasambhavam and the
nativity consciousness expressed .through the notions of Desi and. Jaanu
Telugu in the Shaivite literature are all a few examples for the imitation of
the rival Jains by the shaivite poets.

One of the most striking consequences of this 'imitation of the rival' by

Shaivite poets is the emergence of a genre called 'Puranam' under the
infuence of Jaina Purana structure of the Kannada works composed by
poets like Pampa. 'Basavapuranam" is the most typical example for this
interesting impact of Jainism in the origin of a 'Desi' (native) genre in
Telugu literature. The next and last section of this paper is devoted to
elaborate this significant impact of Jain literature on Telugu.

(4) The Influence of Jaina Puranas on the Structure of 'Basava Purana' of

Palkuriki Somanatha:Basava Purana of Palkuriki Somanatha was the first
Desi Purana in Teluge literature. It was composed in Desi metre Dwipada
in the latter half of the 13th century. This work was acclaimed as the
landmark in the evolution to Desi tradition in Telugu literature.
Though Somnatha's work was called a Purana, it does not belong to the
Marga tradition of Purana literature. Many a critic in Telugu has tried to
interpret Basave Purana by applying the principles and characteristics of
the Maha Purana tradition of Sanskrit and has failed in his endeavour. On
the other hand, a few others tried to portray this work as a Kavya in the
garb of a Purana, but they were not successful either. No attempt has,
however, been made to study the Purana as a form in the Desi tradition
and the impact of the various trends and experiments, which were
popular in South Indian languages, on the structure of the Puranas.
The impact of Veerasaivism, the teachings of Basava and the literary
trends of Kannada literature of PalkUriki Somanatha are historical facts.
Actually, the Telugu poets of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries worked
under the powerful influence of Desiexperiments carried out in kannada
literature, though some of them had opted for the traditional forms of
Sanskrit literature. Palkuriki Somanatha was the first poet in Telugu who
took up the form of the Desi Purana as a challenge in the pursuit of
creating a classic within the Veerasaiva literature. Dasava Purana mainly
deals with the life of Basaveswara-- the incarnation of Basava, and his
Divine Miracles along with various stories of Saiva devotees. Basava
Purana is the first Purana of Veerasaivism in Telugu; it was and still is the
sacred book for the Saivites. Palkuriki Somanatha has collected the
source material for his theme from various Desi literary forms of oral
tradition in Kannada and Telugu. The main sources are the legendary
songs depicting the stories of ancient devotees of Siva and Basava
(Narayana Rao: 11). Hence, this Purana is not a translation of any work.
Palkuriki Somanatha has woven the plot of the Basava Purana from the
source fabrics of oral tradition with his own skill and imagination.

Basava Purana was writeen in seven chapters as follows: Nandikeswara's

incarnation as Basaveswara, rejecting the Upanayana in favour of
'Veeramaheswara Vrata'; Basava's marriage and his surrender to
 Sangameswara, are described in the first chapter. Basaveswara's
initiation as a minister in the court of Bijjala; Kalyanakataka and his
divine miracles are the main contents of the second chapter. The
narration of the stories of Mugdha Bhaktas by Basaveswara to Channa
Basava occupies a major portion of the third chapter. Stories like that of
Madivalu Machaiah and some stories about ancient Saiva devotees are the
main subject matter of the fourth chapter. Stories of the contemporary
devotees of Basaveswara form themselves into the fifth chapter. The sixth
chapter deals with the stories of Ekanatha Ramaiah and others. The
seventh chapter concludes the' narrative with the merger of Basaveswara
with Sangameswara, the assassination of Bijjala and the decline of
kalyanakataka.

If we observe the contents of the Basava Purana, we can easily come to

the conclusion that this work does not reflect any characteristics of the
Puranas of the Marga tradition.
The Basava Purana, in its structure, has the inherent characteristics of
Jaina Puranas of Kannada literature. Jaina Puranas mainly described the
life and divine powers of the Thirthankaras who attained salvation through
Jnana. The Jaina poets translated Sanskrit and Prakrit Puranas into
Kannada, between 940 and 1140 A.d., which is generally called 'the age
of Pampa' in the history of Kannada literature. These Puranas have
become very popular. Very eminent poets like 'Ratnatraya' have
contributed to this stream of literature. 'Aadikavi' Pampa (latter half of
the 10th century) had written Aadi Purana, the story of Purudeva, the first
Jaina Thirthankara, in Chempu style. It was a Kannada rendering of
Jenasena's Sanskrit work. 'Ubhayakavi Chakravarthi' Ponna had
composed the story of the 16th Jaina Thirthankara as Santhi Pur ana.
'Kavichakravarthi' Ranna had written the life story of the second. Jaina
Thirthankara as Ajitapurana. In addition to these works we find many
puranas in Kannada like Mallinatha Pur ana of Janna, which were popular
among Jains. In Tamil literature the Periya Purana of 'Shekkizhar'. which
contains the stories of Saiva devotees known as 'Aruvathumuru
Nayanars', has become very popular. All these experiments suggest that
the literary form of Pur ana in Jaina literature in Kannada and Saiva
literature in Tamil has the chief characteristic of depicting the life story of
a religious preacher (Mathacharya), this central narrative being supported
by various stories of a number of devotees. This popular feature of Purana
of 10th century A.D. is different from the Sanskrit Maha Purana tradition.
Basava Purana followed the Desi tradition instead of Maha Purana of
Marga tradition and became popular as the first Veerasaiva Purana in
Telugu.

Similarities(1) Against the five characteristics of Sanskrit Marga Purana

tradition, Jains have adopted the 'Utchavapanchaka' or 'Pancha Jina Maha
Kalyanas'. The poet Ranna has indicated the five characteristics of Jaina
Puranas as follows ( Gundappa: 56):
 Suralokavatarotsava or Garbhavatarana Kalyana;
Janmabhishekotsava or Janmabhisheka Kalyana;
Parinishkranthi Mahotsava or Paarinishkramana Kalyana;
Kaivalyabodhotsava or Kevaljnana Kalyana;
Parinirvanamahotsava or Parinirvana Kalyana.
These five utsavas or kalyanas are the five stages of elevation in the
divine life of a Jainathirthankara from his birth to his liberation. Jaina
Puranas have gained a sacred status in literature with these five qualities.

(2) Two more qualities are very familiar in Jaina Puranas. They are:
Bhavavali and the stories of Sixty-Three Salaka-mahapurushas
(Thrishashti Salaka Maha Purushas).
The description of the previous births of Thirthankaras in order is called
Bhavavali. In Jaina Philosophy it is believed that the Jeevatma, while
attaining Jnana, ascends from lower birth to higher birth and finally
attains Jnana-siddhi, which leads to the birth of a Thirthankara. Against
the characteristics of Sarga and Prathi Sarga, at the beginning of Maha
Puranas Bhavavali adorns the first part of Jaina Puranas. Hence.
Bhavavali is the prologue of the main story of a Thirthankara, the hero of
Jaina Purana.

According to Jaina tradition there were 63 Salaka Purushas who followed

Jaina Dharma and attained Salvation. They were called Thrishashti Salaka
Maha Purushas. They are different from the 24 Thirthankaras. Their
classification is as follows: 12 Chakravarthins, 24 Kamadevas, 9
Baladevas, 9 Vasudevas and 9 Prati Vasudevas. They are subjected to
Bhavabandhasnworldly attachments. The good among them are
Chakrvarthins. They are of Satwik nature. Thirthankaras are the best of
men, with none to match them. The critics claim that the description of
the stories of the 63 Maha Purushas is an intrinsic feature of the structure
of Jaina Purana.

(3) Orugallu ( Warangal), the living place of Palkuriki Somanatha, the

capital city of Kakatiyas, attained name.and fame as the centre of political
power and religious harmoney in the 13th century. The Kakatiyas were
Jains in the beginning of the 11th century and they followed Saivism from
Betaraju II, who came to power in the 4th quarter of the 11th century.
We find consequently a deep conflict between Jains and Saivaities for
their religious differences. Saivism was able to obtain Royal patronage
and, therefore, overpowered Jainism. That was the time when Palkuriki
Somanatha had taken up his pen for the propagation of Veerasaivism.
Being a poet gifted with wit and wisdom, Palkuriki Somanatha had taken
the reins of the times into his hands and dedicated himself to the cause of
propagating religion through literature by creating a modern, popular and
forceful literary form for the use of scholars and the general public as
well. This is how he came to choose a popular literary form, 'the Purana'.
(4) Jains are the immediate opponents of Veerasaivas. Hence, Somanatha
might have keenly observed the popular Jaina Purana styles and he might
have written Basava Purana with a competitive intention to surpass Jaina
Puranas in all respects. He made use, at any rate, of all the structural
qualities of Jaina Puranas, without mentioning them directly and produced
the first Purana of Veerasaivism to the best of his ability, without taking
anything away from his religious philosophy or poetic conviction.

(5) The influence of Jaina Puranas on the structure of Basava Purana may
be observed as follows:
Jaina Puranas
Basava Puranas
a. Bhavavali
Description at the beginning of Basava Purana of basaveswara's previous
birth' i.e. Asdi Vrishabha, Nandeswara and Basaveswara.
b. Garbhavathara Kalayana
Basaveswara's birth as the son of Madamba.
c. Janmabhisheka Kalyana
Sangameswara performing Abhisheka to child-Basava with Jangama pada
thirtha and Vibhuthi.
d. Parinishkramana Kalyana
Rejecting Upanayana and accepting Veeramaheswara Vratha.
e. Kevala Jnana Kalyana
Sangameswara's preachings to Basaveswara.
f. Parinirvana Kalyana
Basava's merger with Siva Linga.
g. The Stories of Trishashti Salaka Maha Purushas ( Selected stories )
The Stories of Aruvadimuru ( 63 ) Nayanars ( Selected stories )
Jaina Puranas have opposed the tradition of Maha Purana or Marga
Purana, and they have initiated their own type of Puranas with five
characteristics suitable for their new form and content. Some of them
were translated into Kannada from Sanskrit and Prakrit. They have
become popular.

Palkuriki Somanatha, being well versed in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and

other South Indian languages and literatures, undertook the task of
producing and presenting the first Veerasaiva Purana. He observed the
intrinsic features of Jaina Puranas and incorporated them into his work.
Finally, Basava Purana became popular and in turn Veerasaivism also
become popular in Telugu.

Yet it does not mean that Palkuriki Somanatha has blindly followed the
Jaina Puranas. Indeed, he has carefully chosen only the suitable
techniques and adapted them for the creation of a competent literary
work, a 'Purana' still, but something different from jaina Purana.

The inference that may be drawn from the above discussion is that
 Jainism left very deep, widespread but unconspicuous and latent impact
on Telugu culture. Though there are a few non-creative technical works in
Telugu associated with Jainism, there is no religiously Jain literature in
Telugu available today. Telugu people of the past seem to have been
acquainted themselves with the Jain versions of sacred epics and certain
Jain literature. But the only significant impact of Jain literature on Telugu
lies in the indirect influence of Kannada Jain literature on Shaivaite
literature in Telugu.
Posted by Mahavir S. Chavan at 3:07 AM

Wednesday
Conservation of Jain Monuments

BY MR. SUBHASH JAIN

2009/01/conservation-of-jaina-monuments

The known history of India is a few thousand years old. During this long
time span several religions and their philosophical thoughts have
emerged. After having depth realisation of their irrespective philosophy,
the ace religious leaders, preachers and philosophers have Provo gated
among the masses the best of their principles for their spiritual and
general well being.

It is interesting that the main doctrines of all the religions are similar in
spirit but their followers have made their own interpretation according to
their convenience, which have created gulf in religious though and
thereby the aversion.

However, the great persons of all the religions have targeted upon
spiritual and moral uplift of man. The religions have become strong
medium of common harmony among the followers of the same faith,
whereas the different interpretations have carried the followers of one
faith distantly from the others.

Whatever may be religious differences in propagation of philosophical

thoughts, for transformation into action, the man's desire to create the
magnificent and memorable monuments has been alike. Such monuments
attract the people of all faiths and that is why, the places of touristic
importance having much attractive monuments invite the tourists from
world over.

Whereas the affluent nations have the resources to protect and maintain
their monuments on national level and increase their touristic importance
more and more by publicity, renovation and keep, the poor nations face
the misfortune of gradual deterioration of even the national importance
 monuments in the absence of adequate funds to maintain and protect
those.
Jain religion is an oldest living religion. Its antiquity is yet undecided. The
Jains believe their religion as eternal whereas the historians feel the
absence of the proof. However, the existence of many monuments of pre-
Christian era compels them to accept the comparative antiquity of Jain
religion.

The Jain monuments, small and large, old and new, have been built in
almost all parts of India. Though the Jains are decidedly a richer
community of the country, but their apathy towards maintenance of all
the monuments of antiquity is agonising.

All the 24 Jain Trithankaras, according to the Jains, were born in the
royal, Ksatriya families. Their influence on the common masses, both by
heredity and their great renunciation, was immense. Their followers, who
mostly belonged to the trading community, effected various types of
structures to keep the memory of their 'Istdev' everlasting. That is why
the Jain monuments, throughout the length and width of the country
abound in number.

All matter has certain life; decay is a natural phenomena. But it is the
man's effort which can put the decay to a later period, i.e. increase the
life of the monument.

It is pity that the apathy of the Jain community towards their old
monuments still exists, though lesser in degree. The last two decades
have seen a substantial urge in the Government and the elite people for
protecting their monuments within the limits of their resources.

The fact remains that most of the old monuments of the Jains in the
country, are still lacking funds through their managing committees,
philanthropists and governments. To over come the grim situation and to
advance further in the protection of the crumbling monuments

Sunday
Jain Art and Architecture

By Dr. N. L. Jain
2008/12/jaina-art-architecture

The Jainas could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest
times. It has a religious orientation in its art in varied forms. Being
predominatly idolators, they have good iconography and icon making art.
 They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood,
stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could
carve icons out of stones also. All icons have been made according to
dimensions with attractive meditating faces of victors expressing the idea
of successful withdrawl from worldly life. There are many idols of
international accreditation-one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in
Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh
state need special mention for their magnificience and heights. The icons
are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days
with high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the
last quarter of this century.

Jaina icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They
are most numerous. Seeing a number of different icons in any museum,
one can judge about the development of iconography with respect to
material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for
variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without
identification marks, but later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir),
hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva) etc. sometimes with
or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks.
The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art.
They included demigods and the likc. Footprints are also a speciality of
Jaina art to make one remember to follow the path led by the Victors..
Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification
later. This idol making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and
Rajasthan states of India.

The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one
can distinguish the regional temples by their architectural designs in west
and central part of the country. These temples are places of worship
where Jina idols alongwith demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or
marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine
decorative art of surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt.
Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes have a magnificient tope in
front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have free
standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the
Jains in religious field.

Cave temples-simple or rock cut are other variety found in Orissa, Bihar
and south extensively. Some cave temples contain polished stone beds
per chance representing the place for voluntary death. Temple arches are
also found in many places. Shrines are another forms for temple- like
places. The temple art has a Nagar or Dravidian style. The temples were
made at distinct places some of whi,Ch have developed as temple cities
now like palitana, Ahar, Kundalpur, Rajgir etc. The temple art is still
continuing gracefully.
 Tuesday
JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ANDHRA

Dr. I. K. Sharma

The Jainological studies in respect of Andhradesa have not been

comprehensive. Except casual references in P.B. Desai's work, Jainism in
South India, and some Jaina Epigraphs, (Sholapur, 1957) and stray
notices in A. Ghosh, (ED) Jaina Art and Architecture, Bharatiya Jnanapith
(New Delhi, 1975), Vols. I to III; practically no work has appeared on
Jaina art and architecture in so far Andhra is concerned. This being so
(Late) S. Gopala Krishna Murthy has brought out a work entitled Jaina
Vestiges in Andhra in the year 1963 published by Department of
Archaeology, Government of Andhra Pradesh. But this work does not
specifically deal with the development Of Jaina art and architecture, but
provides an interesting narrative on many sites with scattered sculptures
of this faith. However, mention should be made of on account of literary
sources compiled by (late) Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma entitled
"Jainamatamu" - Telugu Encyclopaedia, Vol. III, (1959), pp. 544-553.

The work of Appayarya, a poet in the Court of Prataparudradeva (1295-

1328 A. D.) of the Kakatiya dynasty goes by the name Jinendra
Kalyanabhyudayam.l Kalyana here means festivity of worship or jubilation
pertaining to Jaina cult. Another work is Padmakavi's Jainendrapuranam.

I. BACKGROUNDIt is held generally that Jaina migration took place from

North and Vardhamana Mahavira organised the first Jaina community, the
Mu/asangha, its eleven disciples who were named Ganadharas. Ganas are
groups of Jains who caused the expansion of Jaina philosopy. Out of
these, three were well known and regarded as Kevalis. They were
Gautama, Jambu Swami and Arya Sudharma. They in turn had disciples
who were known as Sruta Kevalis who were five - Vishnu, Nandimitra,
Aparajita, Govardhana, Sthulabhadra and Bhadrabahu. Bhadrabahu, the
last Sruta keuali was a contemporary of Chandra Gupta Maurya (315
B.C.) The traditional association of Bhadrabahu with Sravana (Mana)
Belgola, its hold as a centre of Digambara Jainism in Deccan has been
well known. Subsequently, the great Kundakundacharya, who was
regarded as the founder of this Mulasamgha, and his lineage Kundanvaya
appears to have made Sravanabelgola a sacred resort of Jains from all
over the country. His first name was Padmanandl and since he hailed
from the village Kundakunda, he got the name Kundakundacarya
subsequently. The various theories regarding the location of the village,
date of this acarya, his proper name and suffix have been re-examined
recently by A.V. Narasimha Murthy but still no sound explanation is
forthcoming. The mulasamgha branched off into four upa-samghas viz.,
Nandi, Sena, Deva and Simha and each subdivided into ganas and in turn
contained several gacchas. All these owed to the mulasamgha for the
religious guidance.
Inspite of the fairly reliable traditional accounts attesting an early spread
of Jains to Sravanabelgola,it is surprisisngthat .no vestiges are3 available
there or even in Deccan for that matter which could be pushed back to
Mauryan or post Mauryan times; while correspondingly on the sbuth-east
coastal strip, more surer evidencdes, like the early Brahmi records over
simple rock caverns and brds are available at such noteworthy sites as
Sittannavasal (Pudukkottai), Arittapatti and Tirupparankunram in district
Madurai (Tamilnadu). It is interesting to note that one of the early
settlements in the Sangam period, (3rd to 5th century A. D.),
Tiruppadirippuliyur was called 'Pataliputra' in the coastal part of South
Arcot between Cuddalore and Chidambaram. In the Kannada country till
date not a single rock-cut Jaina cavern attributable to a pre-Christian era
was reported nor any Jain vestiges have been known prior to 5th century
A. D. It appears Digambara Jainism did not reach Tamilnadu from'
Sravanabelgola centre but through Orissa-coastal Andhra route in early
centuries B. C.

We learn from Mulacara and Pravachanasara, which were composed

during the early centuries of the Christian era, that permanent habitation
for the Jaina ascetics at a place is forbidden. Mulacara ordains the monks
to stay in a deserted house, under a tree or burial ground or in natural
caves. So the varshavasa of the Jains were mostly natual rock shelters or
the way-side hills and forest areas. Therefore, not many vestiges could be
assigned to this faith in specific terms.

II. JAINA TENETS:Digambara Jainism has kept up strict ascetic codes and
the ritual observances continued unaltered inspite of the tremendous
growth in the activities of Jaina Sangha in South India. Ascetic life lends
purity, uniqueness and unsullied fame to Jainism among Indian religions.
Jaina scriptures lay three modes of Sallekhana, that is voluntary
starvation, standing motionless till death. Vardhamana, known as
Nathaputra, (son of Natha clan of Kshatriyas) added to the Jaina
Chaturyama, dharma, (Ahimsa, Brahmacharya, Truth and Nonstealing),
the fifth one Aparigriha (non-possession) thereby to complete victory over
desire. Thus a Jina or Kevali should practice and attain three basic means
of liberation Samyakdarsana, Samyakjnana, and Samyakcharita.

III. SOME TRACES OF EARLY JAINISM IN ANDHRAThere are no authentic

evidences of premedieval Jaina remains in Andhra. According to Jaina
traditional accounts, Mahavira is reported to have visited Kalinga country.
Hathigumpha Prasasti refers to the episode of kind Nadaraja of Magadha
who took away the figure (Agajinam) to his capital. King Kharavela (2nd
cent B. C) restored it back to the basadi at Kumaragiri near
Bhuvaneshavare in Orissa and caused in his 13th regnal year caves and
 resorts at (Udayagiri / Khandagiri ) for Sramanas. Maharaja Kharavele
appears to have made a dent into coastal Andhara too during his 11th
regnal year and captured the coastal market town of Pithunda, which was
an ancient metropolis designated by Ptolemy as the capital of Maisoloi5
(Machilipatnam). Seafaring merchants are stated to be travelling by boat
from Champa (Kampuchea) to Pihumda even in the days of Mahavira..
King Kharavela also speaks of a Confedaracy of Tamil countries with
whom he fought and defeated. So early Jaina impact could have been the
result of Kharavela's expeditions along the South East Coast.

When exactly Jainism spread to coastal Andhra? How it reached? are the
questions that defy a clear answer. We have made a reference to a major
centre of Jainism in Karnataka. Its influence over the entire south India is
well documented. The acharyas belonging to the mulasangha reached far
and wide. This could be through Cuddapah (Gangaperuru,
Danavulapadu)6 Badvel route to Nellore in the coatstal strip. Queen
Ayyana . Mahadevi, wife of Kubja Vishnuvardhana Maharaja (A. D. 624-
41), the eastern Chalukyan monarch, gifted the village named
Musinikonda to Nidumba basadi at Bezawada. In coastal Andhra, this is
the first Jaina establishment, perhaps a cave or an open rock shelter
caused originally by Ayyana Mahaddevi probably located in the
Mallikarjuna hill, which has been subjected to total modernisation and
almost all historical monuments have been destroyed in recent years.
Later on Vishnuvardhana-III (A. D.718-755), had restored the gifts given
to this very Jaina temple for the regular worship of Arahats. The Eastern
Chalukyan rulers Gunaga Vijayaditya (849-893 A. D.) and later on Amma-
II (945-970 A. D.) have patronised Jainism on a large scale. The Bezwada
basadi had monks from far off Surashtra and it appears the early
Chalukyan rulers of Andhra had exchanges with the Jaina centres of North
- Mathura and Western India as well, besides the major Sravanabelgola
the Jain Principle centre of Karnataka.

IV. VADDAMANU, DISTRICT GUNTURVaddamanu is a small village in

district Guntur 34 Km. from Guntur on Amaravati road and 10 Km south
east of Amaravati, the famous Buddhist site of world renown. The highest
hill called Peddakonda has yielded several remains and relics associated
with stupas and monasteries as a result of extensive excavations during
the years 1981-85. The view that these structures datable to early
centuries B.C. are of Jaina affiliation sprang up mainly from the place
named Vaddamanu taken to be Vardhamana by the excavators of the
site. In fact the name is also held as Vadlamanu due to its rich paddy
(Vadlu) fields on the banks of Krishna. There is no doubt that bouldered
Stupa at the summit of the hill, and rock caverns, are of the early date
associated with N.B.P. and Punch-marked silver coins revealing the
Magadhan influence. But to align these structures of early centuries B.C.
to Jaina faith is not borne by any evidence except some short label
inscriptions noticed (13-on stone and 214 on pottery) on the sculptured-
 architectural members, pots, bowls used by the inmates of the monastic
units located here. It may, at the outset, be- noted that in ancient India,
monasteries were resorts of-moving monks, be they Jain, (Nirgranthas),
Buddhist or of Brahmanical faith.
Having taken for granted that Vaddamanu is Vardhamana, and hence a
Jain Kshetra scholars attempted to dovetail the literary references from
Brihat Kalpa Sutra which refers to king Samprati, a patroniser of Jainism,
who made his influence felth in Andhra and is as old as Mahavira. T.V.G.
Sastry8 and Mrs. Kasturi Bai9 who have published several inscriptions
from this place have repeatedly connected some of these short label
records to Jaina acharyas, ganas and sanghas of early centuries B. C. and
A. D.

I would like to state that these shorter inscriptions, and a few somewhat
longer are merely the names of the monks like Ara - taken for Aranathaj
asari (da) am: arhata, (VDM, 620), Uttarudhal0 Gadodasa, and Utaradas,
etc. Sanghasll like Ukkasa, Nagara, Gavanti Sangha of Gayanasakha;
Kulas like Nandige, Pratiga; names like Vadhama (564/1), Maha (564/2),
Veera (617/2), Vadhamana Pavate (567/6), Risabo (567/6), Nemi
(573/14) have all been taken to be the names of Jaina Tirthan-karas and
places. Somewhat lengthy record on a harmika slab which is incomplete
reads, "Vadhamana nivasikasa Dhanumitisa Samatukasa Pithuka sa
Bhatukasa Chu/a Dhanutikasa ku (mar and Sastry links up this
Dhanumita, resident of Vadhamanu to a Dhamati of an inscription from
Mathura who is cited as an inhabitant of Punyavardhanal2. This is
apparently a very imaginative linkage without basis. Punyavardhana is a
place closer to Mathura and several such pious places exist in Ganga-
Yamuna doab. It is again interesting for us to note that some references
like Jinanevihara, Parivara Sameta (569/4); Samprati Vihare Vadhamanu
Pavatake{567/8); {Bhikshukasa}, Pithuda pura nivasikasa;
Bhokavadhana pava (te); antevasa (566/9) Varanasa pati (618/4),
Nepano Gamanidana (574/8); merely refer to frequent visit of monks
from various places to this hill monastery and not that the monastery is
aligned to exclusively Jains. Terms like Jina, arhata apply both for the
followers of Buddhism as well as Jainism. There is no question of building
of Stupas and monasteries in early Jainism and the Stupa of Kankalitila,
Mathura, came to existence only during the Kushan period. The monastic
life of Jainas has never been in permanent structures, they have dwelt
merely in open resorts, way ward Rock shelters for the rainy season
(Varshavasa). The monasteries, both Rock cut-in caves, halls, as well as
structural viharas were not necessarily for a particular sectarian but
meant for nanadesis belonging to various faiths. In the light of what has
been stated above, we are of the view that Vaddamanu has no exclusive
Jaina art and architectural relics. On the other hand from recently edited
copper plate grants issued by Prithivi Mula Raja discovered from
Kondavidu Fort (Guntur dt.), the existence of an Aryabhikshu Sangha at
Vardhamani-mahavihara established by the Maha Meghavahana confirms
 that Vaddamanu was a flourishing Buddhist centre with several bhikshu
Sanghas right upto 5th century A. D. enjoying royal patronage. In fact
Digambara Jainism in early centuries B. C. or A. D. (before the advent of
Mulasangha of Sravanabelgola), has no base in Andhra. Dynasties like
Pallava, Chalukya, Nolamba, Rashtrakuta, Chola and Kakatiya, no doubt
patronised Jainism in Andhra after this Sravanabelgola impact, wave after
wave. The rock caverns reported in the Coastal Tamilnadu were only
transient shelters and early Jaina monachism did not permit permanent
residences to its ascetics and this holds good in respect of Andhra too.

IV. LATER HISTORICAL SITES:The Kalyani Chalukya, Kakatiya and the

Velanati Chola rule witnessed asfairly large concentration of Jaina
architectural establishments. The square Sikhara over a plain stepped
pyramidal tower, and Trikutas involving Triple shrines on plan with a front
pillared mandapa are frequently seen as Vardhamana pura, Pragatur
while single towered temples are at Kambaduru. Peddatumbalam, etc. But
there has not been many rock cut ventures and hardly we get any pillarad
caves as in the Brahmanical and Buddhist estasblishments. The extact
examples known to us from Ramatirtham (Dt. Vigaz) Siddulayyakonda
(Dt.Nellore), Hanumankonda (Dt. Warangal) and Chippagiri are merely
shelters under the cover of huge granite boulders and the ledges. These
rock caverns are of the times of the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas to begin
with and continued by their successors like the later Chalukya and
Kakatiya dynasties. Carved middle size or miniature temple models of
various types found in Vemulavada, Padmakshi, and Vijayawada give us
an idea of the Jaina temple styles. These models closely recall the early
Chalukyan monolithic temples found at Mahanandi, Satyavolu, Kadamara
Kaluva, Alampur, etc. These are usually Chaumukhas or Chauvisis
intended for four or twenty four Tirthankaras.

Bhima Saiki younger brother of Chalukya, Vijayaditya-II of Vengi (806-

846 A.D.) was given protection by the Rashtrakuta Gonvinda-III, who
placed him near Hanumakonda in early 9th century A. D. Saiki favoured
Jainas who first established a colony in the Fort, a Durga Tank and rock
shelters in the bouldered hills.

During the Kakatiya times Jainism has come to the fore as the early
members of the dynasty adopted Jasinism.

Bodhan (Dr. Niamabad )Known anciently as Paudanyapura during the

Rashtrakuta rule. this place has become a Jaina centre. A place of
Gommata, it served as a capital of Rashtrakuta king Nityavarsha Indra
(915-927 A. D.) The Jaina image is known as Kukkutesvara. In Andhra,
the figure of Gommata is rarely seen. In Pithapuram, a Gommata is found
which is called Kukkutesvara - as Kukkuta sarpas surround him.15 The
Vaisyas in Andhra are called Komatis (a native Telugu word) being
followers of Gomatha. They are traders by profession and followers of
 Jainism.

Vemulavada: (Karimnagar district).Arikesari-II (930-955) ruled at

Vemulavada. The Kannada poet Pampa,16 the author of Adipurana,
originally from Vengimandala, joined the court of Arikesari being a Jaina.
A big Jaina temple named as Subhadhama Jinalaya was raised. Arikesari-
III donated a village (A.D. 966) to the Jaina pontif Somadeva Suri, who
belonged to the Gaula Sangha of North Indian origin. Interestingly this
gift was to cause maintenance like white washing. daily offerings, and
worship - "Khandasphutita nava Sudhakarma, Bali, naivedyartham". It is
therefore, clear that the Brahmanical ritual modes were adopted in toto,
though Tirthankaras in Jainism were certainly not Gods. Though the
temple got ruined we still see the Paravsnatha image of red sandstone
erected in the present Raja Rajesvaralaya. Several other Tirthankara
figures are found scattered in various temples here. (five Pasrsvanatha,
three Vardhamanas, Suparsvanatha, a Gommata, and four others).
Vemulavada was undoubtedly a big Jaina centre in Telangana.

The literary works like Yasastilaka by Somadeva and Adipurana by Pampa

speak of the pre-eminence of Jainism in Telangana. The Sanigram
inscription of Beta-I reveals the gift to Yuddhamatta Jinalaya. Beta-II also
patronised Jaina-basadis.

The Padmakshi temple inscription of the times of ProlaIII (1117 A. D.)

records the construction of Kadalalaya basadi. The Garuda banner of
Pratapa Rudra is regarded by some scholars as the lanchana of
Santinatha, the 16th Tirthankara. Ekasila was a Jaina resort. Several
Jaina images were found in the Fort area. The Vardhamana (P1.1),
Parsvanatha (P1.2), model shrine with Tirthankaras in niches (P1.3), all of
back basalt are typically Kakatiyan. Padmakshi temple on Hanumakonda
hill was continuously patronised. The steep narrow path is an arduous are
a but ascetic Jains chose such places only. The Jaina basdi here enjoyed
perpetual grants during the time of Pratapa Rudra17 who held all the
Samayas (faiths) in equal esteem.

The Kadalalaya basadi or Padmakshi temple is built on a large rocky out

crop. The rick built Sikhara and ardhamandapa, no doubt impressive
ones, are later constructions. The sanctum is formed by a natural cavern
and with a closed Cella all facing north. Seated Pasrsvanatha on lotus and
a royal lady holding up an umbrella and a chief ten by the side are often
taken as Mailama and her husband (P1.4). The standing Tirthankara in
Kayotsarga with a seated Yaksha - Yakshini were carvings in bold relief on
the left boulder closer to garbhagriha (P1.5). Significantly among the
several Jaina figure carvings, a bookrest (Vyasapitha) is shown.
Hanumakonda hill was a place of learning, like Sravanabelgola.

There are numerous rock carvings on the Hill at the northern boundary of
 the Fort and recall the rock shelters of Vallimalai and Siyamangalam in
Tamilnadu.

The row of Tirthankaras (P1.6) in niches on the north face afford a grand
look for their oval forms and superior workmanship on hard trap.
Parsvanatha, Yakshi Padmavati, a sitting Tirthanakara in neatly cut niches
are examples arising out of later Ganga-Rashtrakuta influence.18

Kollipaka: Jaina temple was built by Kumara Tailapa. The Purnaghata on

the door jambs of stone, mana stambhas, carvings of Adinatha,
Padmavati and the high stone torana are fine specimens.

The Raja Raja Jinalaya was built during the time of Anantavarman 1187
A.D. The metre high Parsvanatha is very impressive. The Jaina temple at
Chippagiri ( on the hill), comprises of a garbhagriha, ardhamandapa and
maha. mantapa, and a mukha mandapa. The Navranga has Kakshasana
all around interiorly as in the Kakatiya or later Chalukyan period.

Ramathirtham,(Vizag): There are two caves or open shelters under a huge live
rock. The way is rough. On the Gurubhakta hill at a distance of one Km. we find
a natural cave sheltering a Jain figure (PI.7). Vimaladitya's guru Trikalayogi
Siddhantadeva who belonged to desigana visited Durgamkonda. This Jaina monk
is shown in relief on the rock and three more figures Chandraprabha (PI. 7 A).
Parsvanatha, and Chandraprabha (PI. 7B, C) out of local khondolite resemble the
Rashtrakuta examples. Chandavolu, capital of Velanati Chola's(12-13th century
A.D.) has also several Jaina figures.

Kanchumurru, (West Godavari) was a rendezvous of Jains during the time of

Ammaraja-II. A lady named Chamekamba pupil of Acharya Arhanandi, raised a
temple called Sarvalokasraya Jinabhuvana.19

Penukonda in West Godavari has a Parsvanatha, which is a renowned place of

learning. Jina bhushana Bhattaraka one of the Chaturdasa Vidyasthanas of Jains
(PI.8). Aryavatam in East Godavari district, near Draksharama has a Jainapadu.
The Vardhamana image of grey granite from here is of an early period and has
the aureole and the Triple parasol. The chauri bearers and Lions back-to-back
make it Simhasana. The facial expression and serene pose in dhyana make this
figure pleasant looking. Tirthanakaras existed in the Kakinada town hall
compound also. Biccavolu has a fine example of Vardhamana (P1.9) now in
Madras Museum. This appears to be a Rashtrakuta - Vengi Chalukya make and
falls into the early class of figures, like the Aryavatam example. We are
reminded of the similar Jaina sculptures of Ellora.

JAINA TEMPLES IN NELLORE DISTRICT:Nellore is known as Vikrama Simhapuri.

According to Boswel.20 Vikrama Simhapura and Mulasthanesvara temples were
caused by one Mukkanti (Trinetra) a legendary Pallava king. Nellore and its
surroundings revealed several Jaina vestiges.21 which provide a fresh data on
the nature, early history and spread of this religion.
1. Parsvanatha Image in the Town Hal I (Pl.10)In the premises of Nellor
Progressive Union's (Town Hall) library a relief sculpture of a Jaina Tirthankara is
planted in position.
This stone slab measures 1.14 metres length and 63 cm. wide out of black
basalt rock. In the central part of the stone is a figure standing erect
(samapadas sthanaka), nude in Kayotsarga posture. A seven-hooded snake
protects the head of the image which has the Trichatravali, the symbol of
royality. Besides the Prabhavali, the tiruvasi torana raised over Kudya-
stambhikas was held by makaravyala mukha at the base. At the ends of these
pillars are the attendant gods of the Jaina pantheon. Samvara enraged at the
severe austerities of Parsvanatha Tirthankara attempts to disturb him from
penance. A heavy dowopour of rain and storm was caused resulting in total
deluge around the standing Parsvanatha. At this juncture Dharanendra, the
Naga king came up from the Patala along with his consort Padmavati to protect
the Jina. Dharanendra becomes a carytide yaksha and spreads out his hoods on
the head of Parsvanatha to ward off the rain, while Padmavati holds up the feet
by placing lotus flowers. Thus the Naga couple is depicted here standing either
sides with folded hands while the Sankha and Lotus (Padmadala) are up the
waters as if emerging to protect the central figure. In the central part are two
whisk bearers. The upper loop of the torana is held by a set of elephant riders.
Above the festoon is a Gandharva playing the drum.

The above sculpture was reported from the area closer to the Cathedral Church
where a stepped tank also existed. This lateritic tank is now taken over by the
Fisheries Department which is closer to the former bus stand. The sculpture was
however shifted to the premises of the Nellore Town Hall. The stepped tank has
still some ancient features preserved. The spot is called Enugulamitta, the tank
was the Sarovara for the Parsvanatha temple.

Not only the above find, but another figure of Parsvanatha was noticed in the
compound wall of the old bungalow of District Judge in Dargamitta area.22
Though defaced, the image has all the characteristics detailed above (no. 1) with
the exception that no elephant riders are shown among the Paribhramana
devatas.

Jina Vardhamana (P.11)This impressive image of Vardhamana is presently within

the Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari Street, Nellore. Some regard the figure
as Mahavishnu and worship it. The image is kept within an iron-bar door on the
left side room of the Gopuradvara. This rare specimen is made out of black
basalt and highly polished. Seated in Dhyana, the figure is 1.16 metre high with
well marked forehead, long nose, distended ears and full neck, throat marked by
tri-rekhas, and head with vamavrita curls imparted the look of a peal of custard
apple. The radiating face sumptuous and sturdy shoulders and in quite
meditative posture, the Vardhamana looks in every sense a Manmadtha Jina.
The vahana (mount) is Lion but since the base part is embedded in the earth,
this is not visible.
It is reported that originally the above image was within the premises of an old
tank (pushkarini) built of lateritic blocks. The large tank was also closed in 1900
when the District Collector's office was raised at the very same place. It appears
that during this work was going on, excavation around the sculpture revealed a
temple pian. In view of the fineness of the image, the locals who were much
impressed, shifted the same to the nearby Narasimhasvami temple in Danduvari
Street. Several carved pieces of the temple and also the laterite blocks were
used as building materials in the construction.

The above evidences when put together bring to light the existence of a Jaina
Temple with an image of Vardhamana and a tank (pushkarini) was in its front. It
is very important and also interesting to note that the image is called
'Konetiraya' by the elders of the town. Thus the consecreted Vardhamana was
regarded as the king (raya) and greatly revered.

It may be seen from the above facts that in Nellore proper there have been in
existence at least three Jaina temples and sarovaras. As prescribed in the Jaina-
agamas, for the ritual of Samavasarana, Sveta or Dhaval Saras (Lotus Tank)
was a must. Hence the temples of Jina at Nellore had invariably been associated
with stepped tanks whose remains were traceable. This ritual tradition was
streamlined and observed strictly by the Digambaras during 8th-9th centuries A.
D. The Mula Sangha of Sravanabelagola (Dist. Hassan, Karnataka State), was
the seat of several Digambara acharyas of renown and the Svetasarovara here
was the most sacred pushkarani for Jinas in the whole country.

Digambara Jainism spread from Karnataka to the region through Siddhout-

Cuddapah and Badvel perhaps at the behest of Acharya Simhanandi of
Sravanabelgola during 7th-8th century A. D.

4. SOME MORE JAINA SETTLEMENTS IN NELLORE DISTRICT:It is relevant to

mention here some more Jaina remains in Nellore District. Robert Sewell and
Goapala Krishna Murthy.23 mention as Jaina temple at Kanuparthi padu village
which is 20 Km east of Nellore. The Jaina temple here was built by Karikala
Chola of legolldary fame. But during the thirty seventh year of the Chola King
Raja Raja Deva his consort Pramiladevi caused steps to the Palmlichamda and
gifted lands for maintenance of the mopastery.24 The image of Parsvanatha Jina
in this village bears close resemblance to the figure from Nellore described
above.
Ruins of a Jaina temple along with the figure of Parsvanatha are traceable at
Krishnapatnam under the silt (P1.12). The image is enshrined as a mulabera and
the Sasanadeuatas, respectively Dharanendra yaksha and goodess Padmavati
are paying obeissance from' either sides. Although foundational inscriptions are
not traced. the Jaina vestiges in jhe Nellore region were of 9th century A. D. and
during the later Telugu Chola times these were renovated and expanded too.

The style of Jaina figures in Nellore district resemble those of the Chalukyas and
nearer Bapatla. Nellore also became famous during A. D. 849-893 A. D. during
the reign of Gunaga Vijayaditya, 25 the Eastern Chalukyan king His vassal
Panduranga enriched Kandukur to look like Bezwada in its grandeur and ruled
the Nellore region.26

It might be of topical interest to critically examine some of the local temples in

Nellore. More specifically the temple of goddess Irukala Paramesvari worshipped
under the name of Yerukalamma as a Sakti presiding the place. The temple is
located in Mulappet at the North east-wards of Svarnala Cheruvu, now popular
as Nellore tank. This temple is built with lateritie blocks. Kulottunga CholaIII
(1178-1226) offered worship to this deity and gave munificient gifts. Though
defaced, the goddess like Chamundi has owl as lanchchana. She is the
counterpart of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and prosperity.

From the Jaina inscriptions of South India the set of Sasanadevatas governing
the Jaina temples and settelements have come to stay. In some other parts of
south India we find similar practice in vogue. Two Jaina temples dedicated
respectively to Vrshabhanatha ( 748-749 A. D.) and Chandranatha (1190-91
A.D.) existed at Perumandur village27 in Dindivanam Taluk of South Arcot
district. The Jaina-Yakshas set up here were named as Irivikula Sundari
Perumbali and Manganayaki named after the donor of the temple of images. The
presiding deity of the Nellore temple was called like-wise Irukala-paramesvari or
Irukalamma could thus be regarded as a Jaina Sasanadevi and the
Svarnalacheruvu was the dhavalasaras for the Jaina ritual of Samavasarana.

It can also be reasonably held that "Lion" being the Vahana of Vardhamana Jina
the king or rayadu of the place, the toponym Simhapuri to Nellore came to
vogue. The Jaina acharya Simhanandi laid the seeds of Jainism, for the first time
at this place, and this event also might justify the name Simhapuri to Nellore. In
any case there is no doubt of the hold of Jainism in Nellore region.

Culturally the village names ending with Palli, Palai andPadu signifiedJaina
settlements. In thes records of Kulottunga Chola-III (1178 1226), Nellore is
called Pallinati or Palai Vikrama Simhapuri. It is quite reasonable to take the
Konetirayad!,1, the principal Jina at the Jaina temple datable to 9th century A.
D. as the owner of the older Jaina village. We may conclude that the name
Simhapuri to Nellore originated from its being an important place of Jainism
during the times of acharya Simhanandi.28
SlDDHULAYYAKONDA: (Village Saidapuram): (14° 12'N: 79° 44'E)This place is
located 50 Km. from Nellore South-West, 30 Km. East of South Rapur, A recent
discovery by G. R.Gehlot.29 Superintending Archaeologist, Hyderabad Circle of
the Archaeological Survey of India and his colleagues is of great importance, as
this is first and only rock-cut shelter (Pl.13) dedicated to Jaina faith in the area
after Vallimalai in the neighbouring North Arcot district of Tamilnadu.
The sturdy Jaina Tirthan kara figures with trichatravali customary three-tiered
umbrella, seated on a Simhasana in Sattva-paryanka are fixed inside Kudu like
aurole. There are two such Tirthankaras, the first one measures .60 cm x 40 x
10 cms (Pls.14 and 15) is Adinatha flanked by two standing male chouri-bearers,
while the other is Vardhamana, (56 x 38 x 10 cm) the Prabhavali, in tiers, with
the seated Matanga Yaksha on the right, and Siddhayika on the left: The
Vamavrita curls, trirekha of the neck and round bulged face and sturdy body
features clearly reflect the characteristics of Vallimalai Tirthankaras and also
Siyamangalam. Like in the rock caves, the cave of Siddulagavulu has an opening
of a long bouldered frontage with an entrance door-way, the dripledge cut on
the face of the rock above the top line meant to arrest the main water directly
falling into the cave (PI. 13). This Jaina cave appears to have been ocupied in
later periods by Alvars. The Jaina images too are regarded by the locals as
alvars or generally Siddhu/u i.e. hermits.

Danavalapadu (district Cuddapah)According to the inscription of Rashtrakuta

Nityavarsha Indra-III (915-927 A.D.) caused a Jaina basti at this place and
installed on a Pitha the image of Santinatha, 16th Tirthankara. Danavalpadu
presents an evolved state of ritual and iconography presents an evolved state of
ritual and iconography of Jains. Several white granite/sandstone sculptures have
been brought to Madras Govt. Museum. These include carved mandapa pillars,
and nishidika stones, and Chaumukhas. Within a circular ridged Pitha amidst the
temple ruins, (PLs. 16 & 17) clearly betray their original installation. The
divinities carved in relief on the side edge of the circular Pitha (PL 18) are unique
examples and chaumukhas were meant for the ablution of Santinatha. The
structural jaina temple is an extensive basadi on the banks of Pennar river (PL
19). A ghat with stepped descent was also provided for use of the Jains. The
introduction of abhisheka mar~s an advancement in the Jaina ritual and the
sculptured Pithas with water chuta is a speciality of Danavalapadu.

The Jaina temples, Chaumukhas, a pedestal for Tirthankaras, 3-metre high

figures of Parsvanatha (two in granite and Padmavati were unearthed (PL 20).
Except a few at site rest are in Madras Museum. The Sarvatobhadrika was a set
up in a square temple with openings at the four directions. A seated Jina, is seen
who attained Kaivalya. In this case the figures could be those of Mahavira,
Neminatha or Rishabhanatha.

Dharmayaram, in Ongole taluk of Prakasam district, is known as Dharmapuri for

its being a place of Jaina Dharma. Two long hill ranges provided shelter to Jains.
A Jinalaya was constructed at the east of the village proper by Duggaraja the
Commander-in-Chief of Gunaga Vijayaditya. This Jinalaya was named as
Katakabharana Jinalaya and several land grants were caused. Among the figures
found in the village, Parsvanatha, and a grey stone Tirthankara now in Sub
Collector's office are good examples. Munugodu in Sattenapalli Tq. was a Jaina
Kshetra. It has the name-Prithvi tilaka Jaina basadi of the Svetambara Jainas.
Kulotunga Choda-I, during his 37th regnal year gave land grants.

Anantapur Area:After Konakondla, important Jaina relics were noticed at Pedda

Tumbalam, Chinatumbalam Kambadur, Nayakahalli Adoni; Penukonda and more
prominently Hemavati. We shall consider a few examples among these sites in a
rapid way.

Hemavati, anciently known Henjeru, a capital of Nolambas who ruled between

8th-10th century A. D. and kept close contacts with Pallavas Gangas of
Karnataka.

A figure of Adinatha (PI. 21) seated on a raised Simhasana Trichattravali,

flanked by male chauries is an installed image and inscribed too in 9th-10th
century characters. Another Jaina Tirthankara, Vardhamana in dhyana reveals
the supple Nilamba features. Hemavati patronised Jains and a temple existed
here. At Kambadur, the Jaina temple facing north has a plain tiered tower
(pyramidal) over the garbhagriha, fronted by an ardhamandapa, a pillared hall
all within a stone prakara wall. The door frame of the Pratoli shows Purnaghatas
and a Jaina figures on the Lalata of the over door frame indicates its Jaina
affiliation. A Jaina temple named Brahma-Jinalaya housing Parsvanatha is seen
within Tailagiri Fort, in Amarapuram village of Anantapur district.

At Adoni hill, the rock-cut seated Jinas in a neat row (three nos) on the hill
remind us Hanumakonda. Parsuanatha in Kayotsarga, Padmavati-Dharanendra.
The huge are of Rashtrakuta vintage, boulders close the entrance.

Tadipatri on the banks of Pennar has two Jaina te!T1ples, one of Chandranatha,
the other for Parsvanatha. These perhaps had been founded in 1208 A. D. by
Chola Chieftan Vijayaditya by name.

BRONZES FROM BAPATLA AREA:Several bronzes of Jaina faith were found near
Bapatla. Of these two are bells, eleven Tirthankaras and attendent Yaksha-
Yakshini figures. These are now preserved in State Museum, Hyderabad. They
are datable to 11th-12th century A.D.
Vardhamana seated in dhyana is flanked by Yaksha-Yakshini (P1.22) with
chauris carved above. He has a Prabha surmounted by a Chatrauali, Parsvanatha
is seated on an elaborate Simhasana with a prabha behind his head (P1.25).
Yakshi Ambika with the child is shown below holding the branch of mango-tree
(P1.26). Others include Parsvanatha, Neminatha, Padmaprabha, a Vidyadevi,
etc. (P1.23, 24).

OTHER JAINA IMAGES IN THE STAGE MUSEUM, HYDERABADa. Patancheruuu :

Hyderabad area is stated to have several Jaina basad is. Standing Bahubali in
Kayotsarga with creepers entwining his legs is a powerful representation. The
image is of 12th century A. D. Mahavira with 23-Tirthankaras carved around is
impressive. The Jaina Sarasuati is an example of a robust female in supple form,
with several ornaments on the body. A Chaumukha with Sikharais interesting.

An important centre of Jainism is Nizamabad. The Parsvanatha image with all

the Maha Purusha lanchanas is interesting.

b. Kurikyal, Karimnagar district: An image of Yakshi chakresvari, attendent of

Adinatha is a dated example with an inscription of the donor king Jinavallabha,
brother of Pampa, the great Kannada poet (950 A.D.).

c. Chilukuru: A very robust figure of Parsvanatha is sandstone measuring 3.25

em. height standing in Kayotsarga was found at Chilukuru, just 20 Km. from
Hyderabad. Another Mahavira seated in Padmasana in dhyanamudra, was of
black basalt and one metre high. Two chauri bearers were also found.

Sunday
The Worship Of Images In Jainism

Priyatosh Banerjee
2008/05/worship-of-images-in-jainism

It is difficult to say when first the Jainas took to the practice of

worshipping images. Stevenson states that an image of Mahavira was
installed in Upakeshapattana during the leadership of the Jaina leader
Prabhava (4th century B.C.). That image-worship was in prevalence
among the Jainas about the same time is supported by archaeological
evidence. The Hathigumpha inscription of Jaina king Kharavela records
that he took back from Patliputra the Jina idol which was carried off by
one of the Nandarajas from Kalinga. This shows that the Nandas who
ruled in 4th century BC. were followers of Jainaism, Kalinga was an
ancient center of Jaina faith, and Tirthankara images were made for
worship as early as the days of the Nandas.

It may be noted here that among the Patna Museum exhibits there are
two nude mutilated statues found in Lohanipur, Patna Town. One of them
possesses polish characteristic of Maurya age and can be attributed to 3rd
century BC. and the other can be attributed on stylistic grounds to 2nd
century BC. It is quite possible that they represent Tirthankara images of
3rd century BC. and 2nd century B.C. respectively. The author of
Arthashastra seems to refer to the Jaina gods in Jayanta, Vaijayanta and
Sarvarthasiddhi: Most of the important caves, viz. Ananta, Rana and
Ganesha Gumphas in Orissa were excavated in 2nd century BC. The
Ananta Gumpha contains symbols like Trishula and Svastika on its back
wall. Moreover, the courtyard of the cave possesses images of many Jaina
deities and saints. The Ranigumpha is elaborately decorated with scenes
of human activities some of which may represent Jaina religious festivals.
These facts would show that image worship was popular among the
Jainas several centuries earlier than Christen era.

Mathura was a very important seat of the Jainas during the period under
review. The archaeological excavations there have laid bare the remains
of a Jaina stupa, temples and sculptures ranging from 2nd century BC to
3rd century AD. mostly. The Mathura sculptures have placed at our
disposal immense and varied materials with regard to the study of jaina
deities. They represent most of the Tirthankaras including Rishabha, the
earliest one that shows that the belief of the Jainas in all the 24
Tirthankaras was an established fact during the period under review. The
Tirthankara images are purely Indian conceptions and do not betray any
foreign influence. One of the striking features of the Jaina figures is their
nudity, which distinguished them from Buddha and Buddhist images.
Nudity however is true only of the Digambara images, whereas the
shvetambaras clothe their figures. The Jinas bear symbols not only on the
palms and soles but also in the centre of their breasts. The hair is usually
arranged in short curls in the shape of spirals turned towards the right, as
is also the case with the most Buddha images. But in the earlier
specimens we find sometimes a different treatment. The hair assumes the
appearance of a per wig or it hangs down on the shoulders in strange
locks. In contradistinction with Buddha the earlier Tirthankars have
neither Ushnishes nor Urna but those of the latter part of the middle ages
have a distinct excrescence on the top of the head".
A very interesting type of the Tirtharikara images of our period in Mathura
is that of the Jina quadruple which is known in Jaina inscriptions and
literature as Sarvato-bhadrika pratima. 'They consist of a block square in
section' with a Tirthankara carved on each of the four faces. There is no
injunction however as to the particular Tirthankaras to be figured there,
but generally the most important ones are chosen. A quadruple image of
an 'unnamed Jina perfectly nude' is represented on an inscribed
sculptured panel found in Kankali mound in Mathura. The epigraph
records that it was the gift of Kumaramita, the first wife of shreshthin
called Veni. The gift was made at the request of the venerable Vasula, a
female pupil of venerable Sanghamika who is in turn a female pupil of
venerable monk Jayabhuti. The inscription has been assigned to the
Kushana Period on paleographical grounds. From the same site, that is
Kankali mound in Mathura, we have another very interesting
representation of an inscribed Sarvatobhadrika Pratima of our period. The
Jina shown there is parshvanatha with trace of his snake canopy. The
inscription states that this fourfold image was dedicated by one Sthira for
the welfare and the happiness of all creatures. This inscription also
belongs to the Kushana period.

We may refer now to a few early specimens of other types of sculptured

representation of Jaina Tirthankaras in Mathura. An elaborate sculpture
containing the figure of seated Jaina was found in Kankali mound in
February 1890. Unfortunately the head of the figure is missing. The Jina is
shown with numerous attendant deities. On the pedestal are two lions and
two bulls. From the presence of the bull it is evident that the Jina depicted
here is Adinatha or Rishabhadatta. The inscription (defaced) at the base
seems to be in early scripts. Another specimen of Adinatha figure
(belonging to Kushana period) is to be seen on the Mathura Museum
panel No. B4. The figure was set up in a Jaina monastery as the
inscription states by alady in the year 84 of the reign of Shahi Vasudeva,
the Kushana king. The relief in front of the pedestal contains a Dharma
Chakra on a Pillar being worshipped by human devotees including the
male and female as well. A mutilated figure of Aranatha is found
represented on a sculptured panel which was got in Kankali mound in the
year 1890-91. It belongs to the Kushana period. The Jina is shown
standing by the side of a wheel placed on Trishula with a piece of cloth in
his left hand. Naminatha and Neminatha, the 21st and 22nd Jaina
Tirthankaras seem to have been represented along with Parshvanatha
and Mahavira on a broken sculptured panel which might have formed part
of the decoration of a Torana Pillar of a Jaina monastery in Mathura
during our period.

There is a fine specimen of Neminatha figurer in Mathura Museum which

Vogel has described in his catalogue of the Mathura Museum antiquities.
Neminatha is seated 'cross-legged in the attitude of meditation' on the
throne. The throne rests on two pillars and a pair of lions. Behind the
pillars are two figures with hands joined in adoration. From the throne an
ornamental cloth hangs down between the two lions. Below it there seems
to be a wheel. There is conch-shell (symbol of Neminatha) on the plain
rim of the pedestal. The Jaina legends introduce very often the story of
Krishna Vasudeva and his family. In the Antaga·a Dasao we are told that
some members of Krishna's family joined the Jaina church at the instance
of Arishtanemi, and Krishna also, as the legend goes, was proclaimed by
him, that is Arishtanemi, to be the 12th among the Tirthankaras who
would arise in the Dushama Sushama age. There is a sculptured panel of
Mathura which represents an ascetic receiving homage from the female
devotees. The inscription records that the panel was a gift of the wife of a
person called Dhanahastin. It bears the year 95 of Kushana King
Vasudeva's reign probably. The word Kanha shramana occurs in bold
types between the head of the ascetic and that of the lady devotee to the
 proper right. This Kanha may be the Krishna Vasudeva of the Jaina
legend. Whether the Jaina viewpoint, regarding Krishna Vasudeva and his
family is accepted or not, this much is true that Jainism and Vaishnavism
came to a close contact with each other during the time of Arishtanemi
who was a cousin of Krishna and Baladeva. Because of the family
relationship between Arishtanemi and Krishna Vasudeva, Jainism was co-
existent with Vaishnavism since Arishtanemi's time in places like Dvaraka,
central India, and Yamuna valley, the sphere of Yadava influence.
Arishtanemi's emblem is a conch which may be reminiscent of his
relationship with the Vaishnavite family of Krishna and Balarama.
Parshvanatha occurs very frequently in Mathura art of our period. We
have already referred to his representation as sarvato-bhadrika Pratima.

We shall consider now one or two other specimens of his figure preserved
in the Mathura Museum. The mathura Mesuem panel B.70 represents a
stele (1' 101/2' in height) with nude Jina figures standing, one each on
the four sides. Three fourth figures have been provided with haloes, the
fourth one is represented with a sevenhead Naga hood. This fourth figure
represented with no doubt parshvanatha. The Mathura Museum panel B
71 also contains a representation of parsvanatha with similar Naga hood.
Both these figures belong perhaps to our period. Vardhamana Mahavira is
the most popular of all the Tirthankars. There are innumerable sculptured
representations of his figure in Mathurg and other centres of Jaina faith.
We shall, however, for our present purpose refer only to two Vardhamana
images found in kankali mound in Mathura which belongs perhaps to early
centuries of the Christion era. In one panel he is shown seated under his
sacred tree with several attendant figures, one of whom is a Naga with a
canopy of cobra hoods. There is a defaced inscription on the pedestals of
his image which begins with 'Namo' in early scripts. The other image in
question is seated under a small canopy with two attendants, one on
either side. Both the Vardhamana a figures are seated in dhyanasana
posture, and have, besides the attendants, two lions on the pedestal and
angels or Gandharvas, hovering in the air and offering garlands. The
Jainas were primarily founder worshippers, but their mythology includes
besides the 24 Tirthankaras a number of other deities.

One of the most important deities of this class is Naigamesha.

Naigamesha is represented on the obverse of a fragment of a Jaina
sculpture discovered at Mathura. The inscription incised on the panel is
written in scripts of the beginning of the Christian era. The deity
(Naigamesha) is a goat-headed one seated on a low seat in an easy
attitude. He is shown with his face turned to the proper right, as if
addressing to another personage, whose image has been lost. To his right
there are three female figures standing and an infant is shown close to
the knee. The deity is called in the inscription 'Bhagavat Nemeso.'
Nemeso of the present inscription is a variant of the name of the deity
Harinegamesi in the Kalpasutra, Naigameshin in the Neminatha Charita
 and Nejamesha or Naigameya in other works. In Jaina religious art he is
depicted as a figure either with the head of a ram or antelope or a goat.
In the Mathura sculpture which is the subject of discussion here he is
found bearing a goat's head. Cunningham discovered four mutilated
figures of Naigamesha which he failed to identify and described them
simply as deities with Ox's head. According to Buhler the sculpture
depicting Naigamesha with female figures and a small child refers most
probably to the legend which narrates the exchange of the embryo of
Devananda and Trishala. The legend in the Kalpasutra in short is this.
Mahavira took the form of an embryo in the Brahmani Devananda's body.
Thinking that an Arhat ought not to be born in a low Brahmanical family,
Indra 'directed Harine gameshi, the divine commander of infantry to
transfer Mahavira from the body of Devananda to Trishala, a lady of the
Juatri of Kshatriyas, who was also with a child. Harinegameshi carried out
successfully Indra's order. In Jaina mythology Naigameshin is regarded
also as a deity of procreation. The Antagana-Dasao refers to the story as
to how, lady Sulasa propitiated Naigameshin and had a conception
through his compassion. The ancient Jainas represented Naigameshin in
both male and female forms as presiding over child birth. The sculptures
of the Curzon Museum, Muttra, Nos. 2547 and E. I. represent the deity in
his male aspect, and sculpture No. I. E2. (of the same museum) in her
female aspect as the goat-headed mother goddess.

The Jaina pantheon includes the deities like Sarasvati and Ganesha etc.
which figure prominently in Hindu pantheon also. We have from the Jaina
mound of Kankali two headless female statues. One of them has not been
identified, the other is the figure of Sarasvati. The goddess is seated on a
rectangular pedestal 'with her knees up.' She has a manuscript in her left
hand and the right hand which was raised up is lost. There is a small
attendant on her either side. The inscription on the pedestal consists of
seven lines in Indoscythic scripts. Besides the figures of Tirthankaras and
other deities of the Jaina pantheon the Mathura sculptures of Kankali
mound bear isolated symbols and designs auspicious to the Jainas, such
as Svastika, Vajra, shell, bulls, elephants, goose and antelope, etc.
Svastika to the Jainas is the emblem of Suparsvana, the 7th Jina, and
Vajra is that of Dharmanatha, the 15th Jina, the shell is the cognizance of
Neminatha, the 22nd Jina, elephant of Ajitanatha, the 2nd Jina, goose of
Sumatinatha the 5th Jina, antelope of shantinatha, the 16th Jina and bull
of Rishabhanatha, the 1st Jina. All these would show that the art of
Kankali mound was thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Jainism

Monday
A Brief History of Jainism

2010/01/brief-history-of-jainism
Compiled and edited by Dr. Tansukh J. Salgia, founding member and past
President (1985-1989) of Federation of Jain Association in North America

Jainism is the religion professed by the Jains, so called because they

follow the path practiced and preached by the Jinas. The term is an
English rendering of the original Jaina-dharma or Jina -dharma. German
Jainologists, like, Leumann, Winternitz and Schubring, prefer the form
Jainsmus or Jinism, which they consider to be the etymologically correct
rendering. Both the forms are, however, correct, Jainism meaning the
religion of the Jains and Jinism that of the Jina, although the former is
more popular and in current use both in literature and common parlance.

Jainism is an important, fully developed and well-established religious and

cultural system, purely indigenous to India. It is the oldest living
representative of that ancient Sramana current of Indian culture, which
was, in its origin, non-vedic and probably non-Aryan and even pre-Aryan.

Dr. Hermann Jacobi, a German scholar of Eastern religions, and others

are also of the opinion that Jainism was related to the ancient philosophy
of India, because of certain of its metaphysical conceptions, animistic
belief, hero-worship in the form of worship as deities of perfected mortals,
and of its being a very simple faith, be it in worship, rituals or morals. It
has also been described as "a very original independent and systematic
doctrine," of which "the realistic and rationalistic tone does not fail to
attract notice of even a casual observer." Moreover, unlike many other
indigenous religious sects, Jainism has succeeded in preserving down to
the present time its integrity as a separate world religion in the midst of
preponderant Hinduism. Dr. Winternitz has very justly observed in his
History of Indian Literature, "The Jainas have extended their activities
beyond the sphere of their religious literature to a far greater extent than
the Buddhists have done, and they have memorable achievements in the
secular science to their credit, in philosophy, grammar, lexicography,
poetics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even in the science
of politics. In one way or other there is always some connection even of
these 'profane' works with religion. In Southern India, the Jainas have
also rendered services in developing the Dravidian languages, Tamil and
Telugu and especially the Kanarese literary language. They have, besides,
written considerable amount in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marwari. Thus we see
that they occupy no mean position in the history of Indian literature and
Indian thoughts." It is a complete system with all the necessary branches,
such as dogma or ontology, metaphysics, philosophy, epistemology,
mythology, ethics, ritual, and the rest, and is divided into several sects
and subsects indicative of a long process of development. It has its own
deities, gurus and scriptures its own temples, places of worship and
pilgrimage, and its own festivals and fairs. Besides devotees, it possesses
well-organized monastic orders, comprising both male and female
ascetics.
 The Jaina community, with its unique cultural heritage, has formed from
the days of yore an important section of the Indian people and has been
drawing adherents from almost all the various races, castes and classes
inhabiting the different parts of this ancient country. In theory, Jainism
admits of no caste distinctions, but owing to the growing influence of
orthodox Hinduism in medieval times, its caste system came to be more
or less adopted by the Jainas as well, though still not so rigidly. At
present, the bulk of the community is confined to more than two dozen
subdivisions of the Vaisya caste, though stray members of the Brahmana,
Ksatriya and Sudra castes and of several unidentified caste-groups are
also here and there seen professing Jainism. The Jainas have for long
abstained from active proselytization and there is no regular Jaina mission
working in this direction, yet several Hindus, Muslims and Christians are
known to have converted to Jainism in the past hundred years or so.

Since the days of Mahavira and the Buddha (6th century B.C) till the
advent of Islam in India (10th century AD), the creed of the Nirgranthas,
Jinas or Tirthankaras, that is Jainism, maintained its position as one of the
three major religion of the country, the other two being Brahmanism
(Hinduism) and Buddhism. Even during this period it lost members and
many a time royal patronage and popular support, due to the greater
proselytizing of the Buddhist and of the Saiva and Vaisnava sects of
Brahmanism, which sometimes look the form of violent religious
persecutions. Therefore, it went through a process of decline. A variety of
internal and external factors made the community suffer both in influence
and numbers, till at the present time it can count a bare eight to ten
million souls as its members.

No doubt, they form part of an elite and prosperous section of the Indian
middle classes, and are occupied in business, industry, banking, trade and
commerce, the different learned professions, services and politics, and
are scattered all over the World, residing particularly in all the big towns,
capital cities and trade centers.

The percentage of literacy and education is comparatively very high and

that of crime very low. They are well known for their philanthropy,
charitable institutions and works of public welfare. In the food habit, the
Jainas are prefect vegetarians, rather lacto-vegetarians, do not eat meat,
fish or egg, nor drink spirituous liquors.

Jains follow in general such trade and vocations as do not involve injury
to life, upholding the doctrine of ahimsa as best as they can, and avoid
hurting or killing any living being.

The members of the ascetic order, both male and female, are on the
whole, saintly, puritanical, selfless, possessionless, and austere in the
observance of their vows and the rules of their order. The routine for the
monk is very rigorous, and a speedier release is therefore possible.
During the rainy season he seeks shelter in a monastery of the order, for
then life is more abundant and movement pregnant with danger to it. For
the remaining eight months he takes the road and wanders barefoot and
bareheaded; he may not sleep in a bed nor take any conveyance, and
may have as his only possessions his cloth, bowl, broom, and sacred
books-indeed, these are not reckoned his own. He may not touch money;
he must drink no wine, light no fire, and take no bath except in pure
water. He may not disturb the insects or vermin that neither torment his
flesh, nor do anything that may harm even potential life. Thus, Jain
monks are expected to walk gently, so as not to crush the living atoms.

The two principal sects are the Digambara (sky-clad) and the Svetambara
(white-clad), so-called because the male ascetics of the former in the
highest stage go about naked and those of the latter wear scanty, unsewn
white cloths. Each of the major sects is further divided into at least three
distinct subsects, the Digambara into Terahapantha of Suddhamnaya, the
Bisapantha, and the Taranapanth or Samaiya, and the Svetambara into
the Samvegi or temple-worshipper, the Sthanakavasi or Sadhumargi and
the Teranpanth. The Digambara Terahapantha is so-called because it
enjoins strict adherence to the thirteen (teraha) rules of ascetic conduct,
and is more puritanical and austere, even in the temple worship. The
Bisapantha, on the other hand, is much more elaborate and lax in worship
and not so strict even in ascetic discipline. The Samaiya or Taranapantha
is a medieval product, does not insist on temple or image worship, and
possesses practically no ascetic order. The Samvegis among the
Svetamberas are temple worshipers and constitute the majority. The
Sthanakavasis, who came into being about the same time as the
Digmbara Taranapanthis, in the 15th Century A.D., are like them opposed
to image and temple worship and instead emphasize the adoration of
ascetic gurus. Buildings reserved for the latter's exclusive stay are called
Sthanakas. A later derivation from the Sthanakvasi sect is the
Svethambara Terapantha, which differs from the parent creed only in
certain ascetic practices and usages. The organization of the order in this
subsect is more rigid and unitary, being subject to the dictates of only one
man, the Acarya or chief pontiff.

Certain misconceptions about the character, position, genesis, and history

of Jainism may be noticed prevailing among even some of those who are
supposed to be educated and well informed. Many a non-Jaina pundit,
Indian as well non-Indian, may be heard passing, cursorily, remarks like:
Jainism is an insignificant, little or an obscure minor sect of the Hindus, or
a dissenter from Hinduism, or that it is a derivation from Buddhism. There
are others who have failed to comprehend the Jaina philosophy of
Anekanta, its Syadvadic mode of predication, the Jaina metaphysics and
the theory of karma, or to appreciate the scope and significance of the
Jaina doctrine of ahimsa. The cultural contributions of Jainism have not
been duly evaluated, nor has the role of Jainism in the context of present
day world problems been properly assessed.

Certain seals as old as perhaps five to eight thousand years, belonging to

the pre-historic Indus valley civilization and bearing the figures of a nude
yogin in the characteristically Jaina kayotsarga posture (perfect bodily
abandonment ) along with the bull emblem, as also the nude male
harappan torso, seem to point to the prevalence of the worship of
Rasabha or Adinath (the First Lord) of Jaina tradition in that remote age.
The rise of Vedicism, when the early Vedic hymns collected in the Rgveda
were composed belongs to a later period. In a number of hymns of the
Rgveda, which is supposed to be the earliest known or available book in
the world's library, Rsabha is alluded to directly and indirectly, as is also
the case with the other vedas. Beside him, several other Tirthankaras,
who succeeded him, find mention in the Vedic literature, and the
Brahamanical Puranas have treated Rasabha as an early incarnation of
the god Visnu. In the philosophical literature of ancient India, Jainism
finds place as an important non-Brahmanical system. The Buddhist
literary tradition is no less explicit in indicating the prevalence of Jainism
in the time prior to the rise of Buddhism (6th century B.C.)-in fact, the
last Tirthankara, Mahavirs, was a senior contemporary of Buddha.
Numerous epigraphic records, literary reference monuments and
antiquities belonging to subsequent centuries speak eloquently of the
important and major role Jainism has played during the last two thousand
and five hundred years in the life and culture of the Indian subcontinent.

As regards foreigners, Pythagoras and the Stoic philosophers of ancient

Greece had certain beliefs and practices in common with the Jains.
Alexander the Great is himself said to have come in contact with certain
nude Jaina monks. Terms like "gymnosoph," "gymnetai" and "gennoi"
used by the Greek writers, beginning with Megasthenes (4th century B.C.)
to Hesychois (5th century A.D.), have generally been taken to have
referred to the naked Jaina saints of ancient India. The Chinese pilgrims
of the 4th to 7th centuries A.D. and the Arab merchants and traders of
the 7th to 14th centuries were well acquainted with the Jaina and
distinguished them from the followers of Brahmanism and even
Buddhism. The European adventurers and travelers of the 15th to 18th
centuries do not appear to have noticed the distinction between the two
communities, the Hindu and the Jaina, because, looking superficially with
the eyes of a stranger from far off countries, there was none. The Muslim
chroniclers of medieval times also generally suffer from the same lapse,
but not all of them. Abul Fazal Allami's account of Jainism is his Ain-I-
Akbari is tolerably full and elaborate for such a work.

Coming to comparatively modern times, Oriental or Indological studies by

Western scholars commenced about the beginning of the last quarter of
the 18th century. The credit goes to Sir William Jones, Judge of the
Supreme Court at Calcutta, who took the initiative, pioneered the studies
and founded the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784. The first regular
notice of the Jaina appears to be one published by Lieut. Wilfred in the
Asiatic Researches in 1799 and the contemporary existence of
monuments, literature and adherents of Jainism was first brought to light
by Col. Colin Mackenzie and Dr. F. Buchanan Hamilton in 1807, followed
by H.T. Colaebrooke's "Observation on the Jaina." This the most eminent
Sanskritist of his times, whose personal collections of Sanskrit
manuscripts included a fair number of Jaina texts, gave a more or less
accurate account of this religion together with a hint that it must be older
than Buddhism.

As time went, the Jaina system of religion and culture came to be studied
more and more intensively as well as extensively, and its literature, art
and architecture, archaeological remains, tenets, practices, history and
traditions became subjects of specialized studies. A host of savants
worked in the field, most notable among them being Albrecht Weber,
Leumann, Rice, Fleet, Guerinot, Wilson, Jacobi, Buhler, Hoernle, Hertel,
Burgess, Jarl Charpentier, Vincent Smith, F.W. Thomas, Schugring and
Zimmer. It is due to the sincere efforts put in by these orientalists and
many others who drew inspiration from them or followed in their
footsteps that now Jainology has come to be an important branch of
Indology and Oriental studies, and a bibliography on any branch of
Indology can hardly do without a reference to Jaina works on the subject,
and no account of important religions of the world, or a comparative
study of religions, is complete without Jainism included in it. Its
independent existence, greater antiquity in relation to not only Buddhism
but even Brahmanism, and the wholesome, abiding values inherent in its
philosophy, tenets and way of life, with a universal appeal and message
of peace and goodwill for all and every one, have become admitted facts

Thursday
Spread of Jainism in India and Abroad

By Mr. Helmuth Von Glasnapp

2009/10/spread-of-jainism-in-india-and-abroad
http://jainology.blogspot.com

As is well known and is accepted by all the historians, Jainism had already
been established as an important religion in various provinces of India
before Mahavira and the Buddha began their missionary activities. During
their period, Magadha, Kausala, Kapilvastu, Vaisali, Pava, Mithila,
Varanasi, Simhabhumi, Kausambi, Avanti etc. were prominent Jaina
centres. After Mahavira’s parinirwana, Jainism was patronized by the
Sisunagas, Nandas, Kharavela, Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Paramars,
Chandelas, Kalakuris, and others who provided all possible facilities to
 develop its literature and cultural activities. The southern part of India
was also a great centre of Jainism. Bhadrabahu and Visakhacharya with
their disciples migrated to the south and propagated Jainism there.
Andhra, Satvahanas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Cholas, Chalukyas, Rastrakutas,
Gangas, and others were main dynasties which rendered sufficient royal
patronage and benefits to Jainism and its followers through the spirit of
religious toleration which existed in this region. The Jainas were given
magnificent grants for their spiritual purpose. Numerous Jaina temples
and sculptures throughout the ages were erected by the kings of that
time and many facilities were provided for literary services throughout
India. As a result, the Jaina achrayas wrote their ample works in
Sansakrit, Prakrit, Aprabhramsa, Tamil, Kannada, Telagu, Marathi, and
later in Hindi, Gujarati and other modern indian languages.

Jainism crossed India from south India at about eighth century BC., if not
earlier, and became one of the most important religions of Ceylon, which
was known in those days by the name Lanka, Ratnadvipa or Simhala. The
Mahavamsa refers to the existence of Jainism in Ceylon even before the
arrival of Buddhism. According to it, Pandukabhaya built a house at
Anuradhapur for the Niganth Jotia and Giri and some Niganthas. Jaina
tradition takes the history of Jainism in Ceylon even prior to its
Aryanization, or the arrival of Aryas. Ravana, a king of Lanka long ago is
said to have erected a Jaina temple there at Trikutgiri. Another statue of
Parasvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankar found in the caves of Terapur is also
said to be from Lanka. Jainism was a living religion of Ceylon up to the
10th century AD.

Kalkacharya, another Jaina monk, is said to have visited Burma or

Svarnabhumi (Uttaradhyana Niryukti, 120). Rishabh deva is said to have
travelled to Bhali (Bactria), Greece, Svarnabhumi, Panhave (Iran) etc.
(Avasyaka Nir.336-37). Tirthankara Parasvanatha also went to Nepal. The
existence of Jainism can also be proved in Afghanistan. Tirthankara
images in the Karyotsarga pose or meditating pose have been found in
Vahakaraj Emir (Afghanistan). Digambara Jaina monks have been in Iran,
Siam and Philistia. Greek writers also mention their existence Egypt,
Abysiniya and Ethyopia. It had also propagated in Kambuj, Champa,
Bulgaria, and some other foreign countries.

Jaina art and architectureThe Jainas have been amongst the foremost in
contributing to the field of art and architecture since the early days. The
images of Tirthankara Rishabha deva and the figures of standing or
seated nude yogins found inscribed on some terracotta seats are ample
proof of the same. The relics of the prehistoric Indus valley civilisation,
discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue
are almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone
torso of a Jina image from Lohanipur (patna) which is ascribed to the
Mauryan times (4th B.C.). King Kharavela of Kalinga, as the Hathigumpa
inscriptions speak, reinstalled the Jaina image which had been taken away
by Nanda to Magadha in 4th Century B.C. During the Satvahana period
(60 B.C. to 225 A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centres of
Jainism. The earliest Mathura scriptures are represented by Kankalitila
where from Ayagapatta, Stupa, images and other Jaina cultural material
were recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period
(1st B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the
Ardhaphatika sect, Yapania sangha and Nagara art came into existence.

Gupta period (4th to 7th C A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient
indian culture. Harigupta, Siddhasana, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada,
Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other famous Jain acharyas existed in this
period and they actively helped in spreading the message of Mahavira all
over India and abroad. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra,
Avanti, Ahichhatra, Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa,
Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali, Patliputra, Rajagraha (now Rajgiri), Champa,
and others were the main centres of Jain art and architecture and these
places have been mentioned in Jaina literature at various places. After the
Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja and Mahendrapala were the Jaina kings
in the Pratihara dynasty. King Munja, Navasaahasanka and Bhoja were
ardent followers of Jainism. Dhanapala, Amitagati, Manikyanandi,
Prabhachandra, Asadhara, Dhanjaya etc. had contributed profusely to the
literary field during the same period. Chittore was the capital of
Paramaras, during the early period, where Kalakacharya and Haribhadra
devoted their entire

Andhrapradesha has been a stronghold centre of Jainism. Acharya Kundakunda

(1st C A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hailed from village Kondakunda,
situated on the border of Andhra Pradesh. King Vishnuvardhana of Chalukyas,
Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas, Bhima,Ganga
Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Chalukyas,
some kings of Velanatichoda period patronised Jainism by way of constructing
temples, Vasadis and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied
by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas, who have been great destroyers of Jaina
monuments and the community as well.

Their devotees committed heavy atrocities on Jaina society, temples, sculptures

and vasadis.The massacres went on and Jaina centres were converted into Saiva
or Vaisanava temples. Jaina images and stupas have been found from many
excavations in that region and these are preserved in museums at Lucknow and
Patna. The crystallised forms of iconography were transferred to rocks on hills
like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills and Kalagumalai. The Jaina iconography was
developed during the Gupta period in the 4th century A.D. Thus, it is abundantly
clear that Jainism, one of the most ancient, animistic and indigenous religions
has been constantly and unforgettably to the field of history and culture. Its
philosophy, ethics, dogmas, spiritual disciplines and practices are based on truth
and non-violence with the nature of humanistic approach, inter-religiousdialogue
and understanding which can be easily perceived through the extensive and
perennial literature

Friday
The Yapaniya Sect of Jainism

By Mr. A. K. Roy

2009/10/yepaniya-sect-of-jainism

Apart from the Digambaras and the Svetambaras there was, in the past, another
sect of the Jainas. This sect, know as the Yapaniyas existed in Karnataka at least
from the 5th to the 14th century. This we know from epigraphic evidence. The
first and the last inscription which mention them and which have been
discovered so far, belong to these centuries respectively and all the inscriptions
which mention them have been found in Karnataka only.

The first inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas is by Mrigesavarman (A.D.

475-490) a Kadamba king Palasika. The Kadambas themselves were
Brahamanas, but this King erected a Jaina temple in the city of Palasika, and
made a grant to the sects of Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas, and the Kurchakas. (The
Nirgranthas were, of course the Digambara, but who the Kurchakas were is not
clear).

The last inscription which mentions the Yapaniyas was found in the Tuluva
country - southwest Karnataka. It is dated Saka 1316 (A.D. 1394).

Thus we know that the sect existed for atleast a thousand years. We can also
make the guess that the sect was ultimately absorbed in the Digambara
community. The Yapaniyas worshipped nude images which still exist and the
people who worship in these temples now a days are Digambaras. The Yapaniya
monks themselves also used to remain nude. There was perhaps, therefore, not
much absorption, specially if the sect ultimately dwindled to small number.
Nothing authentic is known about how the Yapaniya sect originated. Devasena
records a tradition in his Darshanasara (mid 11th century that the yapaniya-
sangha was started by a Shvetambara monk in the year 205 after the death of
King Vikrama. Since however, the tradition is very late, not much reliance can be
placed on it. However one thing is clear. The Digambaras believed that the
original affiliation of the Yapaniyas was with the Shvetambaras and the
Digambara author Indranandi counted them as one of the five improper or false
sects of the Jainas. The five includes the Shvetambaras also.
 The Shvetambaras author Gunaratna on the other hand makes the definite
statement that the Digambaras were divided into four snaghas namely, Kastha,
Mula, Mathura, and Gopya or Yapaniya. These last i.e. the Gopya or the
Yapaniyas differ form the other three sects in three matters : they allowed
women to find salvation. The net result was that neither the Digambaras not the
Shvetambaras wanted to own the Yapaniyas . Indeed this is how Monier Williams
would derive the word "yapaniya" from the root ya meaning expelled : the
yapaniyas were perhaps those who wandered away after being expelled by both
the communities.

It is not clear whether the Yapaniyas had any separate sacred texts of their own.
There is some reference to Yapaniyatantra by the Dingambara author
Haribhadra. But no such tantra is found at present. Perhaps for religious
purposes the Yapaniyas used the Shvetambara sacred texts, for there is nothing
against their principal dogmas in these works.

The Yapaniyas are a matter of only historical curiosity now. Indeed, except for
their one great grammarian, Shakatayana, there is no reason to remember
them. That shakatayana who was a contemporary of the Rashtrakuta king
Amoghvarsa (c. 817-877), was a yapaniya we know from the note by Malayagiri
in his commentary on the Nandisutra.

All the available commentaries on the Shubdanushasana (grammar)

Shakatayana are by Digambara authors who appear to have taken this grammar
for their own. On the other hand two other works the Stri-mukti-prakarana and
the Kevali- bhukti prakarana which are also said to be by Shakatayana are found
only in the Shvetambara collections. Thus while one work of Shakatayana is
accepted by the Digambaras, his two other works are accepted by the
Shvetambaras only. It will be recalled that the position is some what similar in
the case of Umaswami or Umaswati also. While both the main sects of the Jainas
accept his great work the Tattvarthadhigama - sutra the author's own
commentary on this work is acceptable to the Shvetambaras only. It is on this
analogy that Nathrfuam Premi has conjectured that Umasvami was Yapaniya, for
there is nothing else to support Premi's conjecture.

Sunday
The Early Centuries of Jainism

By Mr. Paul Marett

2009/11/early-centuries-of-jainism

Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world, so old that we cannot with
certainty date its beginnings. Jain tradition tells that Mahavira twenty-forth and
 last of the Tirthankara or Prophets of the current cycle of the time. Some of the
stories about them are truly amazing and non? Jains are rarely convinced. They
are credited with enormously long spans of life and gigantic size and various
other miraculous attributes. Leaving aside the stories (which are valuable if
regarded as edifying stories), we have some historical details about some of
them. The first Tirthankara was Rsabha and there are some accounts in non-Jain
records which seem to fit in with the broad details of Jain tradition. He is
recorded as a king of some ability who gave up his throne to become a
wandering ascetic, going around naked (a symbol of total renunciation of worldly
possessions) and frequently scorned or attacked by the ignorant. After Rsabha,
Jain tradition gives us the names and some details if the next twenty
Tirthankara. They were all men except perhaps the nineteenth, Malli, who is said
to have been a woman (though this is not accepted by all Jains.) The twenty?
second, Neminatha or Aristanemi (both names are found) is said to have been a
relative and contemporary of the Hindu God hero Krishna.

With the twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, modern scholars fins themselves on

stronger ground. He is recorded as the son of the king of Varanasi (Benaras),
the greatest holy city in India. He renounced the worlds at the age of thirty and
after a fairly brief period of meditation and austerity he attained enlightenment.
Thereafter he preached his message and gathered followers around him. He
died, reputedly at the age of 100, passing to his final abode of bliss as a
liberated soul. This was about 250 years before the time of Mahavira: Mahavira's
parents were followers of the religion of Parsva. He taught four of the five great
moral precepts of Jainism, non-violence, truthfulness, non? stealing and non-
acquisitiveness, omitting, for reasons which have been disputed, the vow of
sexual restraint which was introduced or reintroduced by Mahavira. So with
Parsva the Jain religion emerges clearly into the light of history, through
darkness falls again in the period between the attainment of moksa or liberation
by Parsva in the Parasanatha Hills (in Bihar) around 780 B.C.

We have looked at Mahavira's life in the first chapter. A great many people were
impressed by Mahavira's personality and his teachings so that when his life on
earth ended he left behind a large number of people (reputed to be as many as
a third of a million) who were trying in various ways, in the vocation of Monk
(sadhu) or nun (sadhvi) or as lay men (shravaka) and women (shravika), to
follow the principles of Jainism. In his lifetime Mahavira appointed eleven leaders
(ganadhara)among his followers. Only two of them, Indrabhuti Gautama and
Sudharman. were alive at the time of Mahavira's moksa and it was to
Sudharman that the task fell of preserving and passing on the teachings of their
master, and leading the community, when Mahavira was no longer with them.
The order of nuns was headed by Chandana. She had been placed in this
position by Mahavira: nuns have always had a important place in Jainism and it
is said that the nuns under Chandana outnumbered the Jain monks of the time
by more than two to one.
 Mahavira and his early followers lived in north?eastern part of India, mainly in
ancient kingdom of Magadh (in modern Bihar). Jain missionaries visited Kashmir
and even Nepal but it was not until several centuries after Mahavira that Gujarat
and the western part of India became the major center of Jainism as it is today.
How ever Jainism spread southwards from Magadha into the kingdom of Kalinga
(in modern Orissa) whose ruler became a convert. This king, Kharavela, lived in
the second or third B.C. We learn from an inscription that he was a pious Jain
and provided for monks but he appears to not to have seen military expeditions
as incompatible with his religion. This area became an important center of
Jainism in the earlier centuries, though we must not forget that we are speaking
several hundred years after Mahavira. Much in Indian history of this period is not
yet completely clear to historians and the spread of Jainism has to be priced
together from scattered, and sometimes cryptic, references. However, for the
first centuries it is clear that the centers of this religion were in eastern India.
There seem to have been Jains in Bengal from very early times.

The teachings of Jainism made a considerable impact amongst all classes of

society. There is even a story that the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya,
around 300 B.C., became a Jain monk at the end of his life. Chandragupta's
grandson, Asoka, ruled over an empire which included all the sub-continent
except the extreme south. As his capital was in the region of Magadha he was
doubtless familiar with the Jains and they are mentioned in his records (though
Asoka himself was a Buddhist). However, one of Asoka's grandsons was certainly
a Jain and he did a lot to further the progress of his faith.

In a religion as ancient as Jainism it is natural that interesting controversies

about details of the faith emerge. Whilst Jains are united on the fundamental
questions, within that unity many different sects and schools of thought coexist
in a tolerant manner. These may be the followers of one revered teacher or a
group placing emphasis on certain particular teachings. The important division is
between the Svetambara and the Digambara sections. 'Svetambara' means
'dressed in white' and 'Digambara' means 'dressed in the sky', a reference to the
fact that Digambara monks renounce all worldly possessions, including clothes,
whilst the monks of the Svetambara section wear two pieces of white cloth. The
Svetambara (who form probably around two?thirds of all Jains, and the very
large majority of those in the United Kingdom) are found in particular in Gujarat
and the neighboring areas of western India. The Digambara are strongest in
south India. The origins of the split are not clear. One account says that,
probably some three hundred years B.C., there was a terrible famine in Bihar.
The crops failed, people were dying of starvation and this went on for twelve
years. Some of the Jain monks, led by Bhadrabahu, moved southwards away
from the famine area. It is said that the monks who left were more rigorous in
certain ways than those who stayed behind and when, after the famine was
over, they came back it was found that the two groups had drifted apart in some
 ways. In particular, according to this account, before this time all Jain monks
went naked but those who stayed in the north had now taken to wearing a single
piece of cloth to cover themselves. Other accounts place the division much later,
possibly as late as the second century A.D. Quite probably it was not a sudden
split but a slow process. At any rate, to this day the Svetambara and the
Digambara differ on certain minor matters, not only the clothing of monks but
also such questions as whether a woman can achieve moksa (the Digambara say
not until she is reborn as a man), whether Mahavira was married before he gave
up the world, and some other points.

In these early centuries, of course, reading and writing were not as common as
they are today, and religious teachings (and indeed all other literature, history,
stories and songs) were preserved in the memory of people. Mahavira's closest
followers must have committed to memory the things which he said in his
preachments and after he left them the responsibility of passing on the
teachings fell on the new leader of the community, Sudharman, whom we have
mentioned above. For nearly two centuries the collected teachings were handed
down by word of mouth. It seems wonderful to us today that a man could retain
in his memory the fourteen Purva texts, each of them quite a lengthy work,
which made up the basic part of the sacred literature of the Jains. But the Jain
monks of those early centuries lived a much simpler life than we do today,
without the distractions of our complicated modern civilization. Moreover they
doubtless did train their memories for the repetition of long texts. Even so it
appears that memories were not infallible and only ten of the fourteen Purva
texts were still known 200 years after Mahavira. They have now all been lost,
though much of their teaching (which was said to go back in part to the time of
Parsva) was preserved in other texts, like the twelve Anga texts, eleven of which
survive to this day.

The last man who knew all the scriptures by heart was Bhadrabahu and he died
170 years after Mahavira. About that time, around 360 B.C., the Jains were
concerned that the memory of the holy scriptures might get lost. It was a
difficult time in parts of India with a long famine and the death or dispersal of
many monks. Hence a great conference of monks was held at Pataliputra (now
called Patna, in Bihar) when the contents of the sacred texts (those which had
not been lost) were put in order. Not all Jains believe today that the original
scriptures have survived. The Digambara in general feel that the original texts
eventually disappeared from knowledge over a fairly long period of time. Some
modern scholars believe that some re?editing of the texts must have taken place
so that they are not exactly in the original form. Many centuries after the
conference at Pataliputra another conference was held at Valabhi, around 460
A.D. when all the sacred scriptures were finally written down, the twelve Anga
texts representing the oldest section, with a further thirty?four works which are
recognize as rather later in time. There is no doubt that, in spite of some
differences of opinion about it, the Jains still have today a collection of ancient
 religious literature which contains the noble teaching of Mahavira as it was
followed two thousand and more years ago. For a very long time these
scriptures were studied only by monks and learned men. The language in which
they were compiled, called Ardhamagadhi, was once the language of ordinary
people in Magadha so that the teachings of Mahavira (who preached in this
language) could be understood by them. But Ardhamagadhi died out as a spoken
language and only scholars could understood it (though most Jains today know
at least some of the ancient prayers in the beautiful and solemn ancient tongue).
In recent years, however, many of the Jain writings have been translated into
modern Indian languages, as well as into English and other European languages,
so that with little trouble we can obtain and read them today.

We have been talking about matters which cover many, many centuries of time.
Generation after generation passed, of people much like ourselves, even though
they lived two thousand and more years ago. They had the same hopes and
fears, the same joys and sorrows. And like Jains everywhere today they had the
teachings of Mahavira to guide and support them.

Friday
The Ajivika Sect of Ancient India

2009/08/ajivika-sect-of-ancient-india

The Ajivikas, 'Followers of the way of Life,' are an ascetic order that started at
the time of Buddha and Mahavira and lasted until the fourteenth century.

The exact nature of Ajivika doctrine is unclear because the sect's own texts have
not survived. It is believed the original Ajivika texts were written in an eastern
Prakrit, perhaps similar to the Jain Prakrit Ardhamagadhi. Quotations and
adaptations from these texts appear to have been inserted into Jain and
Buddhist accounts of the Ajivikas. Makkhali Gosala is regarded as the founder
leader of the Ajivikas and one source of his teachings is the Buddhist Digha
Nikaya. Three Tamil texts, the Manimakalai of the Buddhists, the Nilakesi of the
Jains, and the Sivajnanasiddhiyar of the Shaivites, all contain outlines of Ajivika
doctrine. The Nilakesi of the ninth century CE tells us most and is about a
heroine Nilakesi visiting teachers in search of the truth, including Buddha and
Puranan, leader of the Ajivikas, a dignified figure living in a flowery hermitage.

The basic principle of the doctrine according to Gosala was niyati, fate or
destiny. The Ajivikas were rigid fatalists and determinists, seeing niyati as the
sole determinant of every happening. No human effort could have any effect
against niyati and therefore karma is a fallacy. Nirvana was only reached after
 living through an immense number of lives, which proceeded automatically like
the unwinding of a ball of thread, the last life being as an Ajivika monk. After
twenty-four years of asceticism, Gosala enumerated the six inevitable factors of
life: gain and loss, joy and sorrow, and life and death, together with the two
'paths' of song and dance.

Ajivika cosmology was very complex with a vast universe passing through an
immense number of time cycles. Each jiva, soul, transmigrates through eighty-
four lakhs (1 lakh = 100,000) of cycles before release. The southern Ajivikas
saw only a few jivas remaining in nirvana while most jivas achieved only
mandala-moksa, cyclic release, having to return to the worldly cycles.

Purana Kassapa (the Puranan of the Nilakesi), perhaps an older contemporary of

Gosala, added the view that a murderer or robber commits no sin and likewise
there was no merit in becoming an ascetic, for with niyati there was only one
course left open to them. Pakudha Kaccayana, a contemporary of the Buddha,
held an atomic theory with seven substances, earth, water, fire, air, joy, sorrow,
and life, that are uncreated and unchanging. This was absorbed into the Ajivika
doctrine of the negation of free will and moral responsibility. It was argued that
since future events are already determined then in some way they already exist.
The Ajivika teacher Puranan in the Nilakesi says "Though we may speak of
moments, there is really no time at all." This was the theory of avicalita-
nityatvam, unmoving permanence. And to the Ajivikas the soul was also atomic
and could not be divided. In its natural state outside the body it is immense in
size, five hundred leagues (yogana) in extent.

There are close links with Jainism. Gosala claimed to be the twenty-fourth
tirthankara, and as a disciple of Mahavira for six years until a split, there are
doctrinal similarities between Ajivikism and Jainism. In fact, Gosala may have
influenced Mahavira over nudity and he rejected the alms-bowl, a view adopted
by the Digambara Jains. There are inconsistencies in Jain karma theory
inexplicable without referring to Ajivika doctrine. Mahavira disagreed with
Gosala's antinomian doctrine and way of life, and the Buddha strongly
condemned the Ajivika doctrine of niyati.It is very possible that the Jains and
Buddhists distorted Ajivika doctrine. Lucas thinks that "it seems doubtful
whether a doctrine which genuinely advocated the lack of efficacy of individual
effort could have formed the basis of a renunciatory path to spiritual liberation"
(Dundas 1992, 26).

History
In the sixth to fifth centuries BCE there were large numbers of wandering
ascetics, sometimes in groups, caused perhaps by the break up of the old tribal
way of life and the rise of great kingdoms in the Ganges basin. This was the time
of the emergence of Buddhism, Jainism, and the Ajivikas.
The name Ajivikas was given to the sect by their opponents. The word ajivika is
derived from ajiva, meaning one who observes the mode of living appropriate to
his class. Because Gosala held peculiar views as to the ajiva of a mendicant not
affected by karma, it is likely his sect was known as the Ajivikas, those who held
the peculiar doctrine of ajiva. The name was supposed to be opprobrious, since
Gosala was an ascetic not for reasons of salvation but as a livelihood (ajiva) and
so they were professionals.

There is a reasonably reliable account of the life of Gosala in the fifth anga of the
Jain canon. He was born in Magadha, son of a mankha, professional mendicant,
in a cowshed (gosala). He became a mankha and met with Mahavira, the great
Jain, and insisted on becoming a disciple. After six years he felt he was more
advanced than Mahavira, and started austerities which led to magical powers
and a challenge to Mahavira. Gosala then set up a rival sect, the Ajivikas, with
his headquarters in the house of a potter woman in the city of Savatthi. Sixteen
years later Mahavira visited Savatthi and condemned Gosala and his followers as
"the slaves of women." The two sects came to blows and two of Mahavira's
disciples were disabled, but Gosala was discomfited by Mahavira in a personal
encounter and disgraced. As a result his position in Savatthi was untenable and
he became unhinged, turning to drinking, singing, dancing, and the potter
woman. After six months of riotous living he was filled with remorse and before
he died he told his disciples that what Mahavira had said about him was true,
and that he should be buried with dishonour and public shame. The disciples did
not carry out their master's dying instructions. The Jain 'Exposition of
Explanations' says that Gosala was furious at Mahavira for not accepting his
status and attacked him with a blast of ascetic heat from his body. However, this
was bounced back from the adamantine body of Mahavira causing Gosala's
eventual death. Mahavira later said that Gosala would eventually attain
enlightenment. Gosala may have died a year or two before the death of the
Buddha, about 484 BCE.

Since the Jains and Buddhists saw the Ajivikas as their most dangerous rivals,
this shows how popular the sect was. This was especially so in the fifth and
fourth centuries BCE when the different sects were forming in India. They were
influential during the Mauryan empire, and the second emperor had an Ajika
fortune-teller at court. Asoka in his Seventh Pillar Edict ranks the Ajivikas third
in importance of the religious groups he patronised after the Buddhists and
Brahmans. They were therefore ahead of the Jains. Asoka also presented caves
to them as monasteries in the Barabar Hills and Nagarjuni Hill, fifteen miles
north of Gaya, near the place of the Buddha's enlightenment. These caves and
their inscriptions are probably the oldest excavated ascetic caves in India and
impressive evidence of the Ajivikas. The walls of the caves are brilliantly
polished. But these are the only significant surviving archaeological remains of
the Ajivikas.
After this period the Ajivikas declined and the main references to them come in
Tamil literature. There is evidence that they survived in South India until the
fourteenth century. It seems that at the end there were two schools of Ajivikas.
One was absorbed by the devotional Vaishnavas, the other was closer to
Gosala's original teachings and was absorbed by the Digambara Jains.

Gosala started his ascetic life as a mankha, an ancient class of mendicants,

whose symbol was the carrying of a bamboo staff. The practice of strict
nakedness that Gosala followed may have influenced Mahavira and the
Digambaras, in what was to become the major symbol of that branch of Jain
asceticism. Another influence of Gosala was to use the hands as a bowl and to
lick up food. Such ascetics were known as hatthapalekhana, hand-lickers.

The South Indian Ajivikas seem to have made Gosala a deity called Markali in
Tamil. The Nilakesi says he has become a tevan, god, who occasionally comes to
earth to inspire the faith of his devotees.

There were probably large numbers of ascetic groups into Mauryan times, then a
scattering of smaller numbers that extended to South India. Inscriptions of
village tax for temple upkeep mention Ajivikas, and from this evidence the main
concentration was in Karnataka, east and northeast of Bangalore, and in the
Kolar district of Tamil Nadu. Ajivikas, though, were found as far as Guntur
district, south of the Krishna River, and Kilur, inland from Pondicherry.

In the time of Gosala this was Savatthi (Sanskrit, Sravasti), then a city of
importance. Savatthi is near Ayodhya in central Uttar Pradesh. In later times the
Ajivikas centred on Karnataka and the Kolar district in Tamil Nadu, South India.

Sunday
Jainism in Andhra Pradesh

by G. V. Raju

2007/11/Jainism-in-andhra-pradesh

Dharmamrita, a classic of 12th century A. D., mentionsthat even during the

times of 12th TirthankaraVasupujya, Jainism was prevalent in the Andhra
country.Tradition also says an Anga king come with his threesons to Vengi who
later became Jainas and built a cityknown as Pratipalapura which is some where
near modernBhattiprolu.

The Jaina tradition also mentions that Asoka's grandsonSamprati became a Jaina
and spread the religion inKalinga. The Andhra and the Kalinga countries
mighthave been strongholds of non-vedic religions for long,for Bodhayana says
 that whoever goes to Kinga mustperform Prayschitta .

During the regime of Kharavela (2nd century B. C.),Jainism spread into many
regions of Northern Andhra andOrissa. The rock caves at Khandagiri and
Udayagiri beartestimony to the same6 . The Satavahana rulers of Pre-Christian
era who ruled a vast territory which nowcomprises of Andhra, Maharashtra and
Karnataka stateswere also influenced by Jainism. "Kalakasuri prabandha"writes
that one of the Satavahana rulers ofPratistanapura used to attend a Jaina
monk's discourse.

Even before the reign of Chalukya king Pulakesi the(17th Century A. D.) Jainism
was a dominant religionin the Karnataka. All the later kings like
Vinayaditya,Vijayaditya helped Jaina saints in spreading theirreligion. During
Vatapi Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas inwhose kingdoms much of Andhra (mainly
Rayalasemsa andTelangana regions) was a territory influenced byJainism as
these kings were great patrons of thisreligion.

During the Rashtrakuta king Nitya Varsha Indra Vallabha(915-927 A. D.) Bodhan
was his capital and even now itis considered by the jainas as one of their
AdimaThirthas. The famous Jaina Acharya Somadevasuri of thattime wrote many
books and spread the faith theTelangana region.

From 2nd century B. C. upto 800-900 A. D., there wereno inscriptions bearing
the dates of that period. Itmight be the period of Jaina decline in Kalinga and
itwas only during that period of Jaina decline inKalinga and it was only during
that period the Vedicand the Buddhistic religions began to flourish in Kalinga.

Tradition says that in a village known as Gangaperuluin Rayalasema, a Jaina

monk known as Simhanandi Acharyalived. The princes who fled from a town
known asVijayapura in northern India, sought his protection andlater founded
the famous Ganga dynasty with isblessings. Excavations conducted at
Danavulapadu inCuddapah district revealed the extent of spread ofJainism in
that area.

The founder of Eastern Chalukya dynastyKubjavishnuvardhana (624-641 A. D.)

was brother ofPulakesi II. During his period Vijayawada was a greatJaina centre.
His Danasasana (762 A. D.) indicates thathe was a great portion of Jaina
religion.

Ramatirtham in Visakhapatnam district was both aBuddhist and Jaina Kshetra

and now it is a famous HinduKshetra. Excavations at Penugonda in East
Godavaridistrict revealed that it was once a Jaina religiouscentre. At the time of
Kullotunga Chola son of RajaRajanarendra, Munugodu in Sattenapalli taluq was
aJaina kshetra. Another inscription of 1178 A.D.,reveals that Bhogapuram in
Visakhapatnam Dt. was havingJaina temples. In Nellore district upto 13th
 Centurythere were Jaina temples.

Spread of Saivism and Vaishnavism and decline ofJainism :

During the 12th and 13th centuries Saivism began tospread in Andhra and there
used to be religious debatesover these religious faiths. There were many
clashesbetween the followers of these faiths and of the JainaBastis (centres)
were destroyed by the Saivites.Panditaradhyacarita and Palkuriki Somanatha
andSivaratrimahatmya of Srinatha gives evidence to thisfact.

It is a wonder that though Jainism was prevalent formore than 1500 years in
Andhra only one book written aby a saint of this area is available now. It
isJinendra Kalyanabhyudaya by Appayacharya (1241 Sakaera).

While Saivism became popular during Kaltiya kings,Vaishnavism became popular

during Vijayanagara kings.Spread of these religions led to the decline of theJaina
faith. Bur Jainas have their piligrim even now.Kollipaka in Nalgonda district is
Jaina kshetra andPenugonda in Anantapur district is one of the JainaChaturdasa
Mahavidya Sthnams.

For an Archaeologist and epigraphist who wishes tostudy Jaina history Andhra
provides a rich source .

"Padu" were all Jaina villages. In many places inAndhra we find wells known as
Jainabavulu. They are ofa particular type of construction. They are covered
bylids so that animals in the streets may not fall in thenights. Similarly in many
villages we find idols calledas "Sanyasi Demullu". All such villages were once
Jainavillages. Many such villages are found in CoastalAndhra.

Saturday
jainism in south India history & its cruel conversion to
Hinduism

By Unknown

Jainism has always held a predominant position in Karnataka.The history of

South India is the history of Jains, Jainism and Jain dynasties. The Gangs,
Kalabhras, Chalukyas, Rashtrakuts, Kadambs, Kalchuries, Hoysalas, Shilahars,
all the great dynasties were followers and patrons of Jainism.

Kalabhras attacked and defeated Tamil Kings who were persecuting

JainsKumarpal king (solankhee ) ( from Chalukyas dynasty ),was disciple of Jain
Acharya Hemchandra. He became a king by defeating his enemies under
guidance of the Jain Acharya.
 Bijjal was a Jain king of Kalchuri clan in Northen Karnatak. Basaveshwar, his
Bramhin commander in chief killed Bijjal and tried to become a king. There was
civil war between Jains and Veershaivs. Jains caught Basaveshwar in a narrow
street, but he escaped and suicided by jumping in a well.

Asatkhan, Commander of Badshah of Bijapur had destroyed many Jain temples

and converted some to masjids in North Karnatak. As a result Asatkhan was
killed by a young Jain.
The Kerala jain Story: by Dr. Zacharias Thundy, Northern Michigan University
Prince Ilango Adigal, the author of Shilappadikaram, is a Jain. The Jains came to
Kerala with the rest of the Chera immigrants starting in the sixth century. The
only evidence of their presence in Kerala is the incontro-vertible fact that some
Hindu temples of today were originally Jain temples.

In Matilakam was a famous Jain temple which Hindus shunned as late as the
fourteenth century according to Kokasandesam, though at present it is a Hindu
temple. Today, the presiding deity of Kudalmanikkam Temple near Irinjalakuda
is Bharata, the brother of Rama; originally it was Bharateswara, the digambara
Jain saint. Kallil, near Perumbavur, has a rock-cut cave in which we can still see
the images of Parswantha, Mahavira, and Padmavati; the local Hindus worship
Bhagavati in this temple today. Several places in wynad have Jain temples -an
indication that North Malabar was once a flourishing center of Jainism.

Historians believe that the decline of Jainism started about the eighth century
during the Aryanization period of Kerala when Vaishnavism and Saivism were
active and aggressive. Jainism seems to have completely disappeared from
Kerala by the sixteenth century; the foreign visitors from Europe do not mention
the Jains at all. One lasting contribution of Jainism to Kerala, according to
wi'lliam Logan, is that the architecture of the Hindu temples and the Muslim
mosques of North Malabar was influenced by the architecture of the Jain
temples.

I may add here that there are some old Jain families in the Wynad-Kasargod
area even today. also check :
www.hindubooks.org/temples/kerala/Introduction/page4.htm

The Jain Legacy In KarnatakaJainism in Karnataka flourished under the Ganga,

the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Jainism prospered like never before
and what we see today is the exquisite creativity that flowered under these
dynasties.In the course of time other kings followed Jainism, notably those of
badami and Halebid. A time was there in written history that jainism was a
karanataka whole states religion.

The first Kannada poet, Pampa, was a Jain himself. Poets Ranna, Ponna, Janna
 and Lakshmeesha, who all enriched Kannada literaturee, were Jains.

The Jain legacy in Karnataka can be traced back to a great event that occurred
in 297 BC when Chadragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, abdicated his
throne and came to Sravanbelagola in Karnataka to become a Jain ascetic at the
instance of his mentor, Bhadrabahu. He breathed his last at this Jain centre and
the place where he is said to have sought recluse is appropriately name
Chandragiri. A basadi (Jain monastery or temple) at Sravanabelagola also carries
his name. In a number of later records he is referred to as Pradbha Chandra
Muni.
Soon thereafter the Jain church exhibited a steady growth and succeeded in
firmly establishing itself as a vital and powerful force due to its doctrines and
asceticism, morality and ahimsa (non-violence). With such lofty notions, Jainism
enjoyed the highest repute among the people particularly the ruling classes and
the mercantile community thus virtually becoming the state religion. Imbued
with an intense religious feeling, lavish patronage was extended towards the
building of basadis, temples and magnificent statues. An epoch of literary
activities also ensued.
The earliest dated structure is a basadi at Halasi built under the Kadamba
dynasty of Banavasi thus laying the foundation for Jain architecture in
Karnataka. Besides the Kadambas, dynasties such as the Gangas, the Chalukyas
and the Rashtrakutas made liberal endowments towards the propagation of art
and architecture to which the Jain contributions have been of classical
significance. The Chalukyas of Badami built cave temples at Badami and Aihole.
Puligere was a strong centre of religious activities of the Jain monks during this
era. Many Jain basadis erected by them are proof of their secular spirit in
encouraging this religion. However, it was the reign of the Gangas of Talkad and
the Rashtrakutas, that were very noteworthy in the annals of Jainism.
Jain architecture can be classified into two categories namely basadis and
bettas. Basadi is a Jain monastery or temple where an image of one of the
twenty-four tirthankaras (saints) is installed and worshipped and most of them
are located in Sravanbelagola. They were built in the Dravidian style and the
oldest basadi can be traced back to the 8th century AD. Betta is a hill with an
open courtyard containing the image of Gommata or Gommateswara. These hills
form a special feature of the native art and the most outstanding examples can
be found at Sravanbelagola, Karkala, Venur and Mudabidri in south Kanara
district. The image at Karkala is nearly 42 ft tall and was erected in 1432 AD, the
details of which are described in the work Karkalada Gommateswara Charite by
Chandrama. The statue at Venur was set up in 1609 AD and is 35 ft in height.
Mudabidri, which is hailed as the Kashi of the South has eighteen basadis, the
most important of them being the Tribhuvana Tilaka Choodamani Basadi.
Completed in circa 1430 AD after about 50 years of painstaking craftsmanship,
this basadi has one thousand exquisite carved pillars each embellished with
different designs and with no two pillars alike. The sanctum possesses an image
of Chandranatha which is more than seven feet in height and is made of five
 alloys. In addition, the temple has an invaluable collection of dazzling icons of
Jinamurthis made out of translucent marble, raw emeralds and other semi
precious stones which, when illuminated, create an ethereal effect. There is also
an attractive Manasthamba, the free standing pillar, and a bronze Sahasrakoota
Mantapa adorned with over 1000 images of Jinamurthis and 32 hanging lamps.
Apart from the above, Lakkundi and Humcha have, over the centuries, been
some of the important centres of Jains, in South India. Replicas of the statue of
Gommata can also be found at Gommatagijri near Mysore and at Basti, Hosakote
and Tipur near Mandya. Panchakuta Basadi in Nagamangala taluk of Mandya
district has a group of seven shrines that are considered the oldest Jains
monuments of the State.

However, the most magnificent among all Jaina works of art is the colossal rock
cut statue of their saint Gommata at Sravanbelagola. It was built in circa 982 AD
and is described as one of the mightiest achievements of ancient Karnataka in
the realm of sculptural art. Also referred to as Lord Bahubali, the image is nude
an stands upright in the posture of meditation known as kayotsarga, reaching a
height of nearly 57 ft atop the Vindyagiri of Doddabetta hills accessible through
a flight of 500 steps. The image of Gommata has curly hair in ringlets and long,
large ears. His eyes are open as if viewing the world with detachment. His facial
features are perfectly chiseled with a faint touch of a smile at the corner of his
lips and embody calm vitality. His shoulders are broad, his arms stretch straight
down and the figure has no support from the thigh upwards. There is an anthill
in the background which signifies his incessant penance. From this anthill
emerge a snake and a creeper which twine around both his legs and his arms
culminating as a cluster of flowers and berries at the upper portion of the arms.
The entire figure stands on an open lotus signifying the totality attained in
installing this unique statue. Amazingly, inspite of being constantly exposed to
weather elements, the image has remained as new as ever.
On either side of Gommata stand two tall and majestic chauri bearers in the
service of the Lord. One of them is a yakshi and the other one is a yakshi. These
richly ornamented and beautifully carved figures complement the main figure.
Carved on the rear side of the anthill is also a trough for collecting water and
other ritual ingredients used for the sacred bath of the image. Around the statue
is an enclosure of a pillared hall where one can find 43 images of tirthankaras in
different cloisters. There is also a figure of a woman called Gullikayajji sculpted
with a good built and wearing exquisite ornamentation, typical of the sculptures
of the Ganga period. The Akandabagilu or the massive door, carved out of a
single rock with an elaborately carved Gajalakshmi in her typical posture flanked
by two elephants, is another meritorious work of Jain craftsmanship. This also
said to have been under the guidance and inspiration of Chaundaraya, the
illustrious minister who served under the successive rulers of the Gangas namely
Marasimha II, Rachamalla IV and Rachamalla V.

One of the largest temples in the area is the Chaundarya Basadi dedicated to
 Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara depicted under a seven hooded canopy and
flanked by male chauri bearers. This temple is unique in its style. It belongs to
the era of the western Gangas and is evolved out of the Chalukyan styles at
Badami and Aihole. One the same hill can be seen the Chandraprabha Basadi
dedicated to the 8th tirthankara by the same name. It is one of the oldest
basadis on the hill and can be assigned to the early 9th century under the reign
of Sivamara, a Ganga king.
While at Sravanbelagola one can also gain insights into Jaina mythology through
some of the finest paintings depicted on the walls of the Sri Jains matha. Rich in
colours and harmonious in composition, these paintings of the 18th century
depict royal processions and festivities, monks, women in brightly coloured
sarees, forest scenes of wild animals and other topics that shed light on the
domestic, religious and social life of the people. Of particular significance is the
durbar (court) scene of Krishnaraja Wodeyar indicating the warm relations that
the Wodeyars of Mysore enjoyed with this holy pilgrimage.

Another concrete expression of the intensity of Jaina art is the sthambha, the
free standing pillar in front of every basadi. Elegantly carved out of granite,
these are classified as Brahmadeva Sthambha and Manasthambha. While the
former portrays the figures of Brahmanical gods, the latter is depictive of Jaina
faith. Manasthambha pillars can be found elsewhere in the country but the
Brahmadeva pillars are restricted to the South, a fine specimen of which can be
found in front of the gigantic statue of Gommata at Sravanbelagola. Extremely
attractive is the Manasthambha at Mudabidri with a small shrine at the apex
surrounded by four bells and topped with a gold finial. Such pillars at Karkala
and Humcha are equally eye-catching. All these pillars, irrespective of their
connotations, are exquisite pieces of art, elegance and decoration. Another pillar
of immense interest is the Tyagada Brahmadevara Kamba at Sravanbelagola
where Chaundaraya has inscribed his genealogy and his life time achievements.
Only segments of the inscription are readable.

The achievements of Chaundaraya are indeed stupendous. Filled with visions of

Jaina unity, he was instrumental in carving out the statue of Gommata, one of
the engineering marvels of the world at Sravanbelagola. A great scholar, he was
the author of Charitrasara in Sanskrit and Chaundaraya Purana or Trishahti
Lakshana Mahapurana in Kannada prose thus setting the trend for celebrated
works of literature by Jaina scholars. The period of the Gangas also witnessed
literary activity in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada. Notable among these are a
translation of Gunadhya’s Vaddakatha from Prakrit to Sanskrit as well as a
commentary on Kiratarjunaaya by Durvinitha, a learned Ganga king.

The literary zeal of the Jains continued well into the age of the Rashtrakutas,
covering not only religion but also embracing many secular branches of learning
including mathematics and astronomy. Giant literary figures like Pampa, Ponna
and Ranna, thrived under the enlightened rule of the kings of this dynasty.
 Pamapa’s works included Vikramarjuna Vijaya also known as Pampa Bharata,
giving a Jaina version of the Mahabharata Adipurana, narrating the story of
Rishabadeva, the first tirthankara. Another Jain, Ranna, was the author of
Sahasra-Bhima-Vijaya, describing the fight between Bhima and Duryodhana.
Neminatha Purana, a history of the 22nd tirthankara, interprets the story of
Krishna and the Pandavas the Jaina way. Ganithasarasangraha was a work on
mathematics by Mahaveera, under the patronage of Amoghavarsha I. These are
the names of but a few men of letters who adorned the court of the
Rashtrakutas.

The fact that Jainism exerted considerable influence over the cultural life of
Karnataka during the rule of the Rashtrakutas is borne by the fact that several
basadis were erected for the further propagation of the religion in the State.
Important among them is the Parsvanatha Basadi at Ron with its exquisitely
carved grills depicting gandharvas in scroll work.
The vast inheritance of early and medieval Jaina architecture has been
effectively carried into the modern world by Shri Veerendra Hegde by setting up
a statue of Gommata at Dharmasthala near Mangalore. This statue is nearly 40ft
high and has been carve by Ranjal Gopal Shenoy. To assert thee fact that
Karnataka has been and continues to be the adobe of Jaina art and architecture.

Karnataka, in fact, is a treasure house of Jain manuscripts on subjects ranging

from philosophy, grammer, vaastu, mathematics and religion. These
manuscripts are in the form of paper and palm leaves in several temples and
mutts in Bangalore. Some of them are in Halegannada (ancient Kannada) and
many in Sanskrit. A national level exercise for surveying and documenting the
manuscripts is already on.

Chandragupta, a Jain and founder of Mauryan Dynasty was the first emperor of
India. He brought almost all of the south Asia under his control. He defeated
many kings including .selucos Necoter, General of the great Alexander.
Chandragupta became a Jain monk and took sallekhana at Shravanbelgola in
Karnatak.

Ashok, the grandson of Chandragupt was also a Jain and the Emperor. He won
many kings. I a war with Kaling, there was unbelievable violence killing hundred
thousands of soldiers and people. It created a hate against war in the mind of
Ashok. So he renounced Jainism and embraced Buddhism. Kunal, the son of
Ashok and Samprati ( again he was a very big chakravarti than ashoka too), son
of Kunal also were emperors and Jains, and had involved in wars. Later
emperors of this dynasty embraced Buddhism. They were extremely non violent.
As a result, last emperor of this dynasty Brahdrat was killed by his bramhin
general Pushyamitra Shring. It was the end of Mourayans and rise of Shring
dynasty. Shring dynasty was totally against Jains and Buddhists. So both the
faith were declined in eastern India.
 Mahameghvahan Kharvel was a very brave Jain emperor who rised in 2nd
century B.C. in Kaling (Orissa). He was coroneted at the age of 24 and he
defeated Satvahan kings of western India when he (Kharvel) was just 26. After
two years, he attacked Ratthiks & Bhojaks of western India and defeated them.
After two years he attacked powerful Magadh and then North India and then
South India. Thus whole of India including present day Pakistan and Afghanistan
became under his control.

Adishankaracharya, who had vowed to finish Jains and Buddhists and converted
millions of Jains and Buddhists into Hinduism, converted many Jain temples all
over India into Hindu temples and put Jain religious literature on fire was killed
by two Jain monks, for helpless jain monks found that if they wont then surely
he will fully wipe out jainism.

Jainism as per kerala ( http://www.keralaeverything.com/rel.htm )Though there

is evidence of practice of Jainism in Kerala before the arrival of Aryans. History is
silent about it. The Famous Jainmedu temple in Palakkad is the manifestation of
Jainism in Kerala. Today few families of Jain community are found around
Palakkad in Kerala.

As per kerala tourism officials :Jainism was one of the first to be introduced in
Kerala. The Jains who settled in Kerala made little effort to convert the
Dravidians residing there. They came looking for a place where they could find
an atmosphere of peace and quiet so that they could indulge in their meditation.
During the 8th century A.D. Jainism in Kerala started its decline, and many of
the Jains were being converted into the Hindu religion.

Evidence of early Jainism

Influence(http://goacentral.com/Goamonuments/early_buddhist_and_jain_influe
nce_in_goa.htm)
Jainism is another ancient religion of India, similar to but older than Buddhism.
Founded and popularized by Shree Mahavir Jain. Unlike Buddhism which has
almost no followers in India today, Jainism has a very strong presence in India.
Many of its present day followers can be identified by their last name 'Jain".

There are ruins of three Jain temples belonging to Vijayanagar period. The first
Jain Basti of Neminath is from Bandivade of Ponda taluka. The other two Jain
temples are located in Cudnem and Jainkot area of Narve and both these
temples belong to the Vijayanagar period.

Ruins of the Neminath Jain Basti at BandivadeA stone inscription from Nagueshi
exhibited in the Museum of Archaeological Survey of India refers to the
reconstruction of this Jain Basti during Vijayanagar period in 14th century. The
Neminath Basti of Bandivade is square shaped and built of laterite blocks with
 grilled windows. An arch is provided at the entrance. It is possible that a dome
existed over the structure. Lime mortar has been found to have been used
extensively as the binding material.

Ruins of the Cudnem Jain TempleThe "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha

Mandapa" are constructed of laterite with Lime mortar being used as the the
binding material. The entrance of garbagriha has an arch. The laterite blocks
discovered in the excavation clearly indicate that there were arches in the
"Mukha Mandapa". These arches were embellished with a laterite floral pendant
at the center of the arch. One such floral pendant has been discovered in a
recently conducted excavation. The presence of these arches strongly suggest
that there was a overlying dome covering the temple. This "Mukha Mandapa" is
8 x 8.30 meters. There are four pillars in the center and four others on each side
wall. The "Garbagriha" as well as the "Mukha Mandapa" stand on a 2meter high
platform. The octagonal "Shikara" of the "Garbagriha" has five tiers. The lower
most is half spherical with a rectangular small entrance for the "Garbagriha".
This is the only medieval temple of Goa which has a "Nagara" (Indo-Aryan)
architectural features.
The high platform and the tall Shikara give a sense of soaring height to the
temple. The "Mukha Mandapa" has a gabled roof with tiles. A "Prakara" wall with
a base of pillars has also been unearthed. This Jain temple is similar to the
Saptakoteshwar temple of Narve and the Chandranath temple of Paroda. It is
possible that this temple was the forerunner of these architecturally similar
temples. The use of Lime mortar and the architectural features indicate that the
temple belonged to Vijayanagar period. A broken stone head of a
"Teerathankara" or a Jain saint, with beautifully sculpted curls was also found
near the "Garbagriha". A stone torso of another Jain "Teerathankara" with a
"Srivasta" symbol was also unearthed. Another find occurred while desilting a
nearby well in the vicinity of the temple. At a depth of 5 meters, the right leg of
a Statue was discovered. It appears that the broken head and the leg belonged
to the same image. This image of a "Teerathankara" belongs to the Kadamba
period. It however appears that Jains during the Kadamba period were not
prosperous to begin with but in the subsequent Vijayanagar Period, they might
have gained prosperity due to their active participation in mercantile activity.

Ruins of the Narve Jain TempleThe ruins today are called "Jainkot" and are
located in the Village of Narve in Bicholim taluka. They lie very near the present
temple of Saptakoteshwar . In front of the Saptakoteshwar temple, there is
ancient pathway constructed of locally available laterite slabs which lead to the
ruins of Jain temple. These consist of mainly door jams, ceiling canopy and
lintels chlorite schist. The Jain temple was built of laterite. Lime mortar has also
been noted to have been used extensively here also. In an inscription there is
only a mention of the name "Sparsvanath" and along with the name of the
month and day, corresponding to the English calendar date of March 13th, 1151
 AD. During this period the Kadambas were in power and its ruler at that time
was King Vijayaditya.

Sunday
Jainism In South India

By:G. V. Raju. M. A. (Hons)

2007/11/Jainism-in-south-india

Arts and Architecture :The Jaina have a due share in the development of Arts in
the country.In honor of their saints they erected Stupas as the Buddhists
withtheir accessories of stone railings, umbrellas, decorated gatewaysand pillars
and statues. The Gomateswara statue at Sravana Belagola(10th Century), the
collosal reliefs carved on the rock face nearGwalior (15th Century A. D.), the
Hathi Gumpha caves in Orissa, PavaPuri, Rajagiri in Bihar, Girinar and Palitana in
Kathiawar, possesstemples and architectural monuments of different ages. The
Jainamarble temples at Mount Abu in Rajasthan belonging to the
eleventhcentury and later. carry to its highest perfection the Indian geniusfor
the invention of graceful patterns and their application to thedecoration of
Masonry.

Andhra'sContribution to Jainism :For the spread of Jainism the south played a

vital role. We findevidence for it in Jaina literature. During the reign of
ChandraguptaMaurya (4th Century B. C.) Magadha was ravaged by a 12 year
longfamine. Some Jainas under the leadership of Bhadrabahu came to theSouth
and by that time Jainism was a flourishing religion in theSouth.

In "Hari Bhadriya Vritti" it is written that the King of Kalinga whoruled during the
time of Vardhamana Mahavira was a friend ofVardhamana's father and Mahavira
came to Kalinga and preached hisreligion.

Dharmamrita, a classic of 12th century A. D., mentions that evenduring the

times of 12th Thirthankara, Vasupujya Jainism wasprevalent in the Andhra
country. Tradition also says an Anga kingcome with his three sons to Vengi who
later became Jainas and built acity known as Pratipalapura which is some where
near modernBhattiprolu.

The Jaina tradition also mentions that Asoka's grandson Sampratibecame a

Svetambra Jaina and spread the religion in Kalinga. TheAndhra and the Kalinga
countries might have been strongholds of non-vedic religions for long, for
Bodhayana says that whoever goes toKinga must perform Prayschitta5 .

During the regime of Kharavela (2nd century B. C.), Jainism spreadinto many
 regions of Northern Andhra and Orissa. The rock caves atKhandagiri and
Udayagiri bear testimony to the same6 . The Satavahanarulers of Pre-Christian
era who ruled a vast territory which nowcomprises of Andhra, Maharashtra and
Karnataka states were alsoinfluenced by Jainism. `Kalakasuri prabandha' writes
that one of theSatavahana rulers of Pratistanapura used to attend a Jaina
monk'sdiscourse.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF JAINISM TO INDIAN CULTURE

jainworld.com/literature/jainhistory/chapters

A brief historical survey of Jainism attempted here gives an idea of the

gradual spread of Jainism in different parts of India. The period between
the ninth and the twelfth century A.D. is regarded as the golden period in
the history of Jainism because Jainism made the striking progress. At this
time, it enriched the Indian culture in many spheres. The life of the Jaina
monks with lofty ideals was inspiring, and the Jaina Srïvakas were highly
devoted to their religion. Jainism flourished along with other religions such
as Buddhism, Vaishanavism and Saivism. Jainism has certain
distinguishing features, and its distinct contributions to the Indian culture
are as follows

SPHERES OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE : Though most of the objects

of Jaina art and architecture have been destroyed by the levelling hand of
time and iconoclastic seal of the foreigners, those surviving ones give an
idea of contribution that Jainism made to Indian Culture, Jaina objects of
art and architecture of very early period have been found. Further,
significant Jaina art objects of different periods, and also of separate
regions of India are available. From this, it is evident that Jainism made
valuable contribution at every stage in the evolution and growth of Indian
culture in the sphere of art and architecture. The period between the ninth
and the twelfth century A.D. is considered to be the golden age in the
history of Jaina art and architecture because its contributions to Indian
culture during this period are remarkable.

The Jaina caves of the second century B.C. have been discovered at
Ghuntupalli in the East Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh

From Jaina traditions, the Mauryan ruler Samprati is known to have

constructed several Jaina temples and monasteries. 'Nigaïasa Vihïra Dïpe11
inscribed on one of the pot sherds at Kasrawad in Madhya Pradesh proves
the existence of Jaina monastery in the third century B.C. The
excavations12 conducted at a site called Vaddaamanu, named after
Vardhamana in the Krishna Valley, yielded the Jaina remains of the
Stupas, ellipsoidal structures and monasteries of the period between the
second century B.C. to the second century A.D. The names of Jinonavihara
and Samprativihara are found engraved on the pottery pieces. The name
Samprati-Vihara proves tha Samprati was a historical figure

iii) TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE : The remains of the foundation of the

oldest Jaina temple have been discovered at Lohanipura, near Patna. It
was a square temple (8' 10" C 8' 10") of the Mauryan period i.e. third
century B.C. The excavations at Kankali Tila Mathura disclosed remains of
two Jaina temples of the Kushaa period, i.e. the second century A.D.

From the sixth century A.D. onwards, three main styles of temples
known as the Nagara, the Dravida, and the Vasara are recognized. The
fundamental characteristics of Nagara style are cruciform plan and
curvilinear sikhara and it was prevalent in the region between the
Himalayas and the Vindhyas. The outstanding and common characteristic
of the temples of Dravida style is the pyramidal elevation of the tower,
and this tyle was confined to the part of the country lying between the
river Krishna and Kanyakumari. The Vesara style is the mixed one of the
above style, and it was found between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna.
The Jaina temples of the above the three styles are noticed

Jainism prospered greatly in medieval period under the patronage of

the ruling dynasties, Jaina temples were built during the reign of the
Gangas, the Chalukyas, the Rastrakutas, the Pallavas, the Cholas and the
(m)antaras in the South

(B) JAINA SCULPTURES

The earliest evidence for the worship of image is found among the
Jainas. The Hathigumpha inscription of the second or first century B.C.
mentions that king Kharavela brought back the image of Kalinga Jina
which was taken away by Nandaraja. This proves that Jaina image was
worshipped in the fourth century B.C. The earliest known Jaina image is
from the Jaina temple of Lohanipura, near Patna, from which two torsos of
Jina image were found. These belong to Mauryan period as they are of
highly polished stone. A very old bronze of Paravanatha standing in
Kayotsarga in Prince of Wale's Museum, Bombay, seems to be of the first
century B.C. However the spot of discovery is not known. A unique bronze
image of standing Parsvanatha in the Paddhottai Museum, Tamil Nadu,
appears to be of the first century A.D. and it was carried from the North to
the South.14 A bronze image of Adinatha and a few other Jaina bronze
images from Chausa, near Buxar now in Patna Museum, are ascribed to
the second or first century B.C.

large nmber of Jaina images of the Kushana period have been

discovered at Mathura. The images of the Jaina Tirthankaras are in
Kayotsarga (standing) and Padmasana (cross-legged) postures. They are
made without distinctive symbols except in case of Adinatha who has a
couple of loose locks falling on shoulder and Suparsvanatha marked by a
canopy of a serpent hoods. The Tïrthankara images are distinguished by
the srïvatsa symbol on the centre of the chest and haloes round their
head. There is an image of Mahavira seated in Padmasana, and one of
Sarvatobhadrika (four-fold images). The images of Sarasvatï is the
earliest. There was prevalent the worship of the auspicious symbols such
a Stupa dharmachakra, ratnatriya, Nandipada, Srivatsa, Kevalavrïksha,
Svastika and double fish as engraved on pillars, sachis (cross slabs),
Ushnias (coping slabs and the torana (Gate-way) as found in the
excavations conducted at Mathura and Vaddamanu. These auspicious
symbols are without any reference to the Tirthamkaras in the human
form.

Some Jaina images of the Gupta period are also known. There is a
seated figure of Neminatha of the reign of Candragupta II at Rajagriha.
This is the earliest specimen showing the introduction of recognizing
symbols of Tirthamkaras. Two images of Pushpadanta and one of
Candragupta found at Vidisha were installed by Maharajadhiraja
Ramagupta. A beautiful standing bronze figure of Rishabha of the Gupta
period, and the inscribed bronze image of Jïvantasvamï (550-600 A.D.)
were found at Akota. The Vasantagarh hoard contains two joint standing
bronze images of Jinas of the seventh century A.D.

11. JHQ, XXV, pp.1 ff.

12. Arhat Vaichana, Vol. 5, II, pp. 49-59.

14. SHAH, U.P. and DHAKY, M.A. ed. Aspects of Jaina Art and
Architecture, p. 274.

RELIGIOUS DIVISIONS

The Jaina religions like other religions of India has suffered from the
tendency of schisms and secessions. The different sects gradually sprang
from time to time on account of the different interpretations put on the
canonical texts. Besides, the circumstances of the particular time also
compelled them to give up old ideas and to adopt new ones. The
separation between the Digambaras and the Svetambaras took place in
79 or 82 A.D. A terrible famine occurred in Magadha in 293 B.C. and
14,000 monks under the leadership of Bhadrabahu with Candragupta
Maurya moved on to the South. Some monks under the leadership of
Sthulabhadra stayed no gaoha.

Both the traditions do not differ as regards the twelve-year famine that
took place in Magadha and as regards the consequent emigration of the
Jaina Samgha under his leadership. But while the Digambara tradition
states that the Samgha migrated to the South, Svetambara tradition says
that Bhadrabahu went to Nepal. The origin of the great schism, which
later on developed into Digambara and Svetambara sects, is ultimately
traced to this event.

After Bhadrabahu's departure Sthulabhadra assumed the leadership of

the Sangha in Magadha. He was a contemporary of Maurya Candragupta
and Bindusara. After the famine was over he convened a council at
Pataliputra, at which the remnant of the Sangha left behind in Magadha
tried to put in order the sacred lore that had fallen into a state of decay.
Sthulabhadra was succeeded by Arya Mahagiri and then came Suhastin
who was the religious preceptor of the Maurya king Samprati who is said
to have been a devout Jaina and to have done much for the glory of his
religion. After Suhastin came Susthita, Indradinna (Kalaka I), Priyagrantha
and Vaddhavada, one after the other. At this time lived Kalaka II of the
saka-Vikrama fame. Then followed Dinnasari, Sahagiri and Vairasvami.
The last of these was the last Dasaparva or keeper of a part of the original
canon. It was in his time in M.E. 609 (or A.D. 82) that the gradually
growing schism in the Jaina Sangha was finalised and the two sects,
Svetambara and Digambara, separated for good.

JACOBI observes that the division of the Jaina Sangha into Svetambara-
Digambara took place gradually, and that they became aware of their
mutual differences about the end of the first century A.D. It is necessary
to know what is the exact difference between these two sects, Literally,
Digambara mean, 'sky-clad' and Svetambara means 'white-robed' i.e. the
monks of the Digambaras are naked, while those of the Svetambaras wear
white clothes. In fact there is very little difference between the two
branches as regards the essentials of doctrine. The most authoritative
book, namely, Tattvartha Sutra by Umasvati or Umasvami has been
accepted by both the sects. However, there are some major as well as
minor points on which the two sections are opposed to each other. The
major points of difference between the Digambaras and Svetambaras are
as follows :

(i) While the Digambaras believe that a monk who wears

clothes, can not attain salvation; the Svetambaras assert that
the practice of complete nudity is not essential to attain
liberation.
(ii) The Digambaras hold the view that woman, is not
entitled to Moksha in this life. On the contrary, the Svetambaras
believe that women can attain Moksa in this life.
(iii) According to the Digambaras, once a saint has attained
Kevala Jnana (Omniscience) he needs no food, but can sustain
life without eating. The view is not acceptable to the
Svetambaras.
Leaving aside the trivial differences in rituals, customs and manners,
the following are some of the minor points on which the two sects do not
agree :

(i) The Digambaras maintain that the embryo of Mahavira,

the last Tïrthamkara, was not removed from the womb of Devï
Anada, a Brahmin lady, to that of Trisala or Priyadarshini, a
Kshatriya lady, as the Svetambaras contend.
(ii) The Digambaras believe in the complete disappearance
of the ancient sacred literature and as such they disown the
canonical books of the Svetambaras.
(iii) The Digambaras assert that Mahavïra never married but
according to the Svetambaras, Mahavira married Yasoda and
had a daughter by name Anojja or Priyadarsana.
(iv) The Svetambaras consider Mallinatha, the 19th
Tïrthamkara as a female but the Digambaras state that
Mallinatha was a male.
(v) According to Digambaras, the Tïrthamkaras must be
represented as nude and unadorned and with downcast eyes.
The need not be so according to Svetambars.6

1. Darsanasara, p.7.

2. Aramasa Bhagvan Mahavïra, IV, P. 269

3. Ibid, p. 272

4. EI, XXI, p. 85; IHQ, 1934, p. 57.

 5. JACOBI H : Encylopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, p.
473.

6. VILAS A. SANGAVE : Jaina community - A Social Survey,

pp. 50-51

HISTORICAL ROLE OF JAINISM

43. THE KAKATÏYAS OF WARANGAL

The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the Later Chalukyas, after whose decline, they
rose to power in Telingana and exercised authority there. The earlier seat of Kakatïya
government was Anmakoïa or Hanumankuad, but subsequently Warangal became the capital.
The first prince to bring the family into prominence was Prolaraja, one of whose records is
dated 1117-18 A.D. He distinguished himself in warfare against the Western Chalukyas and
ruled for a long time. After the reign of Rudra (C. 1160 A.D.) and his younger brother,
Mahadeva, the latter's son, Gajapati, ascended the Kakatiya throne in 1199 A.D. He was the
most powerful monarch, and he continued to rule for sixty-two years. He is represented to
have successfully measured swords with the kings of Chola, Kalinga, Seusa (i. e. Yadava
ruler) Karïa, Lïïa and Valanaduu. Gajapati was able to win these achievements owing
perhaps, to the weakness of the Chola sovereign and the confused political situation in the
Southern India in the second quarter of the 13th century. Being without an issue, Ganapati
was succeeded by his daughter Rudïaïbï in C. 1261 A.D. After a reign of nearly thirty years,
Rudramba, was followed by her grandson, Prataparudradeva. Prataparudradeva was the last
great king of the Kakatïya dynasty, and he had to submit to the yoke of the Moslems during
the Southern raid of Malik Kafur. Thenceforward, the Kakatïyas began to sink into
insignificance and eventually their kingdom passed into the hands of the Bahmani Sultans of
the Dekkan.

JAINISM

The Kakatïyas started their career in the Telugu country when Jainism enjoyed royal
patronaga under the Rastrakutas. In Telangana particularly, the Chlukyas of Memulavada
extended full patronage to that religion as evidenced by their monuments and literary works
like Yasasatilaka and sdipurïa which were written by their court poets Somadeva and Pampa.
The early Kakatïyas were not far removed from that period. Their association with the myth
of Madhava-varman stated in the Siddhesvara-Charitra indicates their affiliation to Jainism
in the early days. Beta I is stated in his Sanigram inscription to have made a gift to the
Yaddhamalla Jinalaya. The Banajipet inscription of Meïarasa I records a gift to a Jaina
basadi by Kakatiya Beta II. The Padmakshi temple inscription of Prola II dated A.D. 1117
records the construction of Kadalalaya basadi and endowments to the same by his minister's
wife Mailama and Medaraja II.
 The Garuda symbol, which adorned their banner till the time of Prataparudra, alluded to
in Prataparudraya of Vidyanatha does not indicate their strong attachment to Vaishavism, as
there is little evidence in that regard. It is quite possible that it may indicate some Jaina
symbol like the Garuda of Santinatha, the sixteenth Tirthankara.

It may not be out of place in this connection to co-relate two identical statements
occurring in the Govindapuram epigraph and the Telugu Chronical Siddheavara-Charita.
According to the former, certain Madhava-Chakravartin who is stated to be the founder of the
Polavasa family of chiefs, acquired his military strength consisting of eight thousand
elephants, ten crores of horses and innumerable soldiers by the grace of Yakshesvarï at the
command of Jina. The same in Siddhesvara-Charitra, is stated that Madhavavarman, the
founder of the Kakatïya family. acquired an army comprising thousands of elephants and
lakhs of horses and foot soldiers by the grace of the Goddess Padmakshï. The Daksharama
inscription of Durga, son of Prola II mentions Madhavavarman as the founder of the Kakatïya
family. The goddess Padmakshï on the hill near Anumakona is beyond all doubt a Jaina deity
although it is present worshipped as a saiva goddess. The image of this goddess situated
amidst the images of Jaina Tïrthamkaras can not be believed to be a Saiva goddess. The
original Jaina deity was gradually transformed into a saiva goddess to suit the saiva leanings
of the latter Kakatïyas. The said Jaina myth itself is recast into a saiva one. The goddess
might have been originally Padmavatï, the Yakshesvarï or sasanadevï of Parsvanatha, the
twenty-third Tïrthamkara. While editing the inscription of Prola II set up before this temple,
H. KRISHNA SASTRI expressed the view that the Kadalalaya basadi mentioned in it must
have been dedicated to Kadalalaya, the Kaïlasa name for the goddess Ambika or Padmavati.
All this leads us to the conclusion that the early members of the Kakatïyas were the followers
of Jainism. It is not unreasonable to believe that the Jaina goddess on the Anumakona hill
was set up by Garuda-Beta or Beta I and called it Kakatïya as stated in the Gudur-epigraph
that Kamavasïni by reinstating Garuda Beta established Kakati.

That Jainism was patronized even by the later Kakatïya members is evidenced by the
renovation work conducted by Rudra's minister Gangadhara to the Jaina Vasati on the
Padmakshï hill as stated in his epigraph at Hammakonda.

A Jaina poet named Appayarya states in his Jinendra-Kalya bhyudaya that he completed
his work during the reign of Kakatïya Kum�ra Rudradeva, that is Prataparudra. This is also
an indication that Jainism flourished in Andhra till the end of the Kakatïya period.

To illustrate the general tendency of the society towards Jainism during this period, we
have an inscription at Bekkallu, Jangaon taluk, datable to Rudra's reign. Certain Malliraya is
stated to have constructed twenty-one temples for Siva, although Jainism was his family
religion. It is interesting to note in the record a specific statement in Telugu prose as well as
verse that the four Samayas Saiva, Vaishnava, his own Jaina and Buddha were mere causes
for disbelief (Saïsaya-hetu), but the god in all faiths or Samayas was only one and that with
such strong belief he constructed all those temples for the god �iva.
 It is evident that the people at large in those days were following the four
religions without prejudice to each other.448

448) The Kakatiyas, pp. 272-274

ANCIENT JAIN TÏRTHAS AND HISTORICAL PLACES

The Tïrthas are connected with the incidents of the lives of the
Tïrthaõkaras and other great persons. The places, where the Tïrthaõkaras
were born, first renounced the Áaãsära and initiated into religious life,
practised austerities and achieved kavalajñäna (omniscience), are known
as Kalyäîaka Kshetras. The places where the Tïrthaõkaras realised
emancipation are called Nïrväîa Kshetras. Such places are Kailäáa,
Champä, Pävä, Urjayanta and Sammeda Áikhara. The places, where the
great ascetics lived and achieved liberation, are also known as the Tirthas.
Generally, such Tïrthas were established on the basis of imagination in
medieval times in order to increase their importance. At times, the idols in
certain places are believed to bestow great favours on their devotees.
Hence such places are also considered as Atiáayakshetras. Some sites are
important from the point of view of art and history.
The Präkôit Nirväîakänâa of Kundakunda1 and Sanskrit Nirväîa Bhakti of
Püjyapäda give information about the ancient Jaina Tïrthas. As Äáädhara
mentions these belong to earlier period than the 13th centry A.D. The
Sakalatïrtha Stavana by Siddharshi (of the 12th century A.D.) contains a
list of holy places. The Vividhatïrthakalpa of Jinaprabhasüri written in
about the 14th century A.D. gives a biref history of the holy places. The
number of Tïrthas increased in the medieval period. There are even
different traditions about the origin of some of these Tïrthas. In the
medieval Jaina literature, we come across many examples where rich
Jainas led a Saãgha or a large group of people to the places of pilgrimage.
Bhaiya Lal has written The Nirvankala. (Bhora) in V.S. 1741 in Hindi
language giving the list of holy places.1 In commemoration of this act,
they are given the honorific title of Saãghapati by the Jainas. It is felt that
they are helpful in creating self-enlightenment (Atmajägôiti) in the minds
of the people who visit them. When Jainism began to decline, some of the
Jaina Tïrthas have been forgotten, and were even occupied by other sects.
These ancient Jaina Tïrthas have been classified on regional basis.

ÄNDHRA PRADESH
BODHAN : Bodhan is situated in Nizamabad District. The original Jina
temple of this place was afterwards destroyed by the Muslims, and
converted into a mosque. A teacher called Munichandra Siddhäntadeva,
has been mentioned in a damaged Jaina epigraph of the time of the
Western Chälukya Emperor Vikramäditya VI. This epigraph also mentions
a Jina temple of this place. Its ancient name was Podanapura.4
GUÂIVÄÂÄ : Guâivädä is situated in Krishna District. It has a medieval
temple of Paarávanätha.1
HEMÄVATÏ : Hemävatï is situated in Anantapur District. It was once
the capital of the Nolamba pallavas and a damaged epigraph from this
place of the ninth century mentions a local Jaina temple. Its ancient name
was Henjeru.2
PENUGOÎÂA : Penugoîâa situated in Anantpur District, is known for its
Pärávanätha temple. It has yielded a few Jaina antiquities. In the sixteenth
century, it was considered an important Digambara Jaina centre.