2006-01-2753
Method to evaluate takeoff distance
for nose-gear light aircrafts
Center for Aeronautic Studies of the Federal University of Minas Gerais – CEA/UFMG
Copyright © 2006 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc
ABSTRACT
The process of takeoff distance estimation for nose-
gear light aircrafts involves several parameters such as
aircraft total weight, runway type, engine power, aircraft
geometry, aircraft aerodynamic characteristics, among
others. This work demonstrates a method to evaluate the
takeoff distance through monitoring the force system acting
on the aircraft during the takeoff run. The numerical
approach considers discrete time steps. Details of the
implementation and limitations of the method are presented.
Through this procedure it is possible to easily vary the basic
aircraft configuration, allowing fast analysis of many
different configurations to select the best for a particular
performance.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important characteristic of aircraft
performance is the takeoff run, which has always been
object of intense study. The prediction of the takeoff
distance is fundamental to flight safety and quality, and has
influence on the determination of other performance
parameters. During years, studies have concentrated on the
determination of the takeoff parameters using statistical
methods allied to experimental analysis. The increase on the
use of computers allowed the evaluation of this
phenomenon individually for each aircraft, by means of
numerical methods.
The objective of this work is to present a method to
evaluate the takeoff distance for light nose-gear aircraft,
analyzing the forces acting on the system at discrete time
steps. This method has been successfully used in the light
aircraft designed and manufactured at the Center for
Aeronautic Studies (CEA) and at SAE Aero Design Team
1
Thiago Campos Gondim Martins Coelho
André Carvalho Cateb
Bernardo Augusto de Oliveira Vieira
Ricardo Soares Minette
Rodrigo Sorbilli Cardoso de Sousa
Carlos Alberto Cimini Junior
of the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG). The
implemented equations for the numerical simulation of the
takeoff are presented as well as the simplifications assumed
in the analysis. A practical example of a specific aircraft is
included, demonstrating the method flexibility.
INPUT DATA
In order to calculate the takeoff characteristics of an
aircraft using the proposed approach, some simplifications
are adopted:
• Lateral gusts and longitudinal winds are not
considered during the takeoff run. This
simplification allows a bi-dimensional analysis of
the problem, thus neglecting the contribution of the
vertical stabilizer. The method also considers the
load on the main landing gear as a single value.
• Linear acceleration is considered constant between
the time intervals.
The input data consist into the force application
geometric key-points and the respective forces and moments
applied to these key-points.
FORCE APPLICATION KEY-POINTS
In order to analyze the force system acting on the
aircraft during the takeoff, the points where the forces are
applied must be known. Figure 1 depicts the position of
each force application key-point, for a nose-gear aircraft,
using the nose as datum.
 Figure 1 – Force application key-point
In Figure 1, the distances presented are:
YCAT – vertical distance from the aerodynamic center of the
horizontal stabilizer with respect to the ground;
YCAW – vertical distance from the aerodynamic center of the
wing with respect to the ground;
YT – vertical distance from the engine-propeller system
traction line with respect to the ground;
YCG – vertical distance from the estimated gravity center
position with respect to the ground;
YR – vertical distance from the landing gear center position
with respect to the ground;
Xn – horizontal distance from the nose landing gear center
position with respect to the datum;
XCG - horizontal distance from the estimated gravity center
position with respect to the datum;
XCAW - horizontal distance from the aerodynamic center of
the wing with respect to the datum;
Xm – horizontal distance from the main landing gear center
position with respect to the datum;
XCAT – horizontal distance from the aerodynamic center of
the horizontal stabilizer with respect to the datum.
FORCES AND MOMENTS
The forces and moments applied on the geometric key-
points must be also defined. Figure 2 shows the forces and
moments that need to be considered on the takeoff analysis.
2
Figure 2 – Force system acting during the takeoff run
In Figure 2, the forces depicted are:
L – wing-fuselage lift;
D – aircraft total drag;
LT – horizontal stabilizer lift;
T – engine-propeller system traction;
W – aircraft total weight on the gravity center;
An – friction force on the nose landing gear;
Am – friction force on the main landing gear;
Fn – normal force on the nose landing gear;
Fm – normal force on the main landing gear;
Ma – aerodynamic moment of the wing-fuselage system.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND LIMITATIONS
The method allows input of other parameters that will
influence the takeoff distance. The procedure is linked to
the boundary conditions applied, such as the elevator
deflection or the engine power variation, which can be
determined by the user at any time step.
The method also can not evaluate if stall occurs during
the takeoff run. This situation must be checked after the
simulation is performed.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE CALCULATION
The process of the takeoff run is divided into discrete
time steps in order to evaluate the takeoff distance. The
acting force system must be evaluated at each time step. [− T .(YT − YR ) + Ma − L( Xm − X CAW ) + D(YCAW − YR ) + LT ( X CAT − Xn) + W .( X CG − Xn)] (4)
Nm =
The takeoff instant is defined when both normal forces on ( Xm − Xn)
the nose and main landing gears are equal to zero.
The vertical force equilibrium leads to Equation 5.
The simulation is divided into two phases. In the first
phase, the aircraft is running with both nose and main Nn = W − L + LT − Nm (5)
landing gears in contact with the runway. In the second
phase, the aircraft is considered to be rotating to takeoff, •
still running only with the main landing gear in contact with It is then possible to calculate the aircraft speed x
the runway. The takeoff distance calculation scheme is after a period ∆t of time using the forces evaluated. The
presented in Figure 3. linear speed after each time step i is evaluated using
Equation 6.

• • ••
x i = x i −1 + x .∆t (6)

The takeoff distance at this time step can be calculated

using Equation 7.

• •
x− x 0
xi = ••
(7)
2. x

During this process, the normal forces acting on the

system should be monitored until the normal force on the
nose landing gear equals to zero, which defines the end of
Figure 3 – Takeoff distance calculation scheme the first phase and the beginning of the second phase.

PHASE 1 – AIRCRAFT IS RUNNING WITH BOTH PHASE 2 – AIRCRAFT IS RUNNING WITH ONLY THE
NOSE AND MAIN LANDING GEARS IN CONTACT MAIN LANDING GEAR IN CONTACT WITH THE
WITH THE RUNWAY RUNWAY AND ROTATING TO TAKEOFF

In this phase of the takeoff run, the aircraft is running
with both nose and main landing gears in contact with the
runway. Therefore, Equation 1 describes the horizontal
resultant force acting on the system, where m is the mass of
the aircraft and &
x&is the linear acceleration.
In this phase, the nose landing gear is assumed not to
be in contact with the runway, with the aircraft rotating to
takeoff. The force system in this case is shown on Figure 4.
.

∑ F = m.&
x& (1)

The linear acceleration can be thus evaluated using the

relation expressed on Equation 2.

− T + D + An + Am
&
x&= (2)
m Figure 4 – Force system acting during the takeoff rotation

Equation 3 shows the equilibrium of the in-plane The linear acceleration is now evaluated using the
••
moments, where IS is the aircraft in-plane inertia and θ is relation expressed on Equation 8, and the angular
the angular acceleration. The explicit form for the normal acceleration can be calculated using Equation 9.
force on the main landing gear is shown in Equation 4.
− T . cosθ + D + Am (8)
&
x&=
•• m
∑M S = I S .θ = 0 (3)

3
 ••
θ= ∑M S (9) Drag – The wing drag force can be divided into two
IS components [1], one related to the induced drag and other
related to the parasite drag. Equation 14 describes this
division, where CD0W is the parasite drag coefficient and
The normal force on the main landing gear is reduced CDIW is the induced drag coefficient.
to the expression presented on Equation 10
C DW = C D 0W + C DIW (14)
Nm = −T . sin θ + W − L + LT (10)

The total drag can be numerically evaluated using a a

The takeoff distance is determined in the same way as wing discretization as shown in Figure 5.
in the first phase. The normal force on the nose landing gear
should be monitored. The end of the takeoff run is defined
when this force equals to zero. The aircraft total takeoff
distance can be then expressed by Equation 11.

n
ST = ∑ xi (11)
i =1

EVALUATION OF THE FORCES

The acting forces at each time step can be evaluated
by different methods, mainly the aerodynamic forces. Here,
a couple of these methods are suggested.
Lift – The lift can be calculated through different lift
distribution methods along the wingspan. In the aircraft
designed at the Center for Aeronautic Studies (CEA) of the
Figure 5 – Example of wing discretization
In this case, the wing parasite drag coefficient (CD0W)
can be evaluated with Equation 15, where Si and CiD0
respectively are the area and the parasite drag coefficient
for the wing section i.
n

Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), the Multhopp ∑C i

D0 .S i
method [1] has been successfully used. In this method, the C D 0W = i =1
n
(15)
input data are:
∑ .S
i =1
i

wing planform;
The parasite drag coefficients are determined through

airfoil used; the values for the bi-dimensional wing airfoils, generally
found in the literature [2][3]. The evaluation of each CiD0

attack angle. should consider the Reynolds number variation with the
airspeed.
With these input data it is possible to evaluate the lift
coefficient (CL) distribution along the wingspan, divided The wing induced drag coefficient (CDiW) is given by
into n discrete sections. The global CL is calculated by the Equation 16, where A is the wing aspect ratio and δ is a
Equation 12, where CLiE is the CL of the i station, and Si correction factor depending on the three-dimensional wing
denotes the area of the station i. geometry [1][2].
n

∑ CL
2
i
.S i C
E
C DiW = LW .δ (16)
CL = i =1
n
(12) π .A
∑ .S
i =1
i
The contribution of the horizontal stabilizer to the drag
follows the same approach applied to the wing.
Equation 13 shows how the lift force (L) can be
calculated, where SW is the wing total area, ρ is the air The drag of the other components (fuselage, landing
density, and V is the airspeed. gear, propeller, etc.) can be determined using methods from
the literature [1][4][5].
1
L = .ρ .V 2 .S W .C L (13) Friction Forces – Friction forces acting on the wheels of the
2 nose and main landing gears can be calculated using

4
Equations 17 and 18, respectively. In these equations µ is Table 1 – Specifications of the aircraft UFMG-Open
the dynamic friction coefficient, which can be either
Empty Weight 58.86 N (6 kgf)
experimentally evaluated or obtained from the literature [6].
Wing Aerodynamic Profile Eppler 423
Fn = µ .Nn (17) Horizontal Stabilizer Span 0.92 m
Horizontal Stabilizer Area 0.212 m²

Fm = µ .Nm (18) Horizontal Stabilizer Profile NACA 64A010

Seven different wing configurations were proposed to

Ground Effect – According to Hoerner [4] the ground effect the aircraft considered. Table 2 shows the basic dimensions
can be simulated as a reduction on wing induced drag. The for the studied wings. Note that the wing planform is
relation between the induced drag of an airplane in normal rectangular-trapezoidal with the point of transition from
flight (CDi(air)), and the induced drag of the same plane on a rectangular to trapezoidal defined as % of the halfspan.
flight close to the ground (CDi(ground)) is given by Equation
19, where h is the height of the wing with respect to the Table 2 – Specifications of the wing configurations studied
ground and b is the wing span.
Transition of
2 Wing Root Tip Chord wing planform
 16h  Span (m) Chord (m) (m) in % of
 
c Di ( ground ) (19)
= 
b  halfspan
c Di (air )   16h  2  1 4.61 0.57 0.34 50%
1 +    2 4.45 0.55 0.33 50%
  b   3 4.31 0.53 0.32 50%
4 4.18 0.52 0.31 50%
APLICATION IN A REAL CASE 5 4.06 0.50 0.30 50%
6 3.95 0.49 0.29 50%
In order to evaluate the flexibility of the method 7 3.85 0.48 0.29 50%
presented, the takeoff distance was evaluated for the radio-
controlled aircraft UFMG-Open, which will compete in the The linear acceleration of the aircraft for each wing
SAE Aero Design 2006 Brazilian Competition. The basic configuration was determined for time steps of 0.01 sec.
characteristics of the aircraft are presented on Figure 6 and Figure 7 shows the results of the takeoff linear acceleration
Table 1. variation with respect to the distance for the seven studied
wing configurations.

3
Aceleration [m/s²]

Wing 1
2 Wing 2
Wing 3
Wing 4

1 Wing 5
Wing 6
Wing 7

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance [m]

Figure 7 – Takeoff linear acceleration

Figure 8 shows the linear takeoff speed variation with

respect to the distance for the seven studied wing
Figure 6 – Three view drawing of the aircraft UFMG-Open configurations.

5
 16 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
14
Wing 1 The authors would like to thank the sponsor
12
Wing 2
Speed [m/s]

10 Wing 3 agencies CNPq, CAPES and FAPEMIG, as well as the

8 Wing 4 Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG) and the
Wing 5
6 correspondent foundations FUNDEP and FCO.
Wing 6
4
Wing 7
2 CONCLUSIONS
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A method to evaluate the takeoff distance through
Distance [m]
monitoring the force system acting on the aircraft during the
takeoff run was presented for nose-gear light aircrafts. The
Figure 8 – Takeoff speed method is based on a numerical approach suitable to
computer implementation. The take off run was divided into
It was possible to evaluate the maximum takeoff discrete time steps. Details of the method were given,
weight (MTOW) for each wing configuration, considering highlighting its qualities and limitations. An example of
that the takeoff distance was limited to 60 m (constraint simulation is presented, showing the method flexibility.
imposed by the SAE Aero Design Competition rules).
Figure 9 shows the maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) for REFERENCES
each studied wing configuration, with three different wing-
fuselage incidence angles (6º, 8º and 10º). [1] – Pullin, D; “Aerodinâmica e desempenho de Aviões”,
CEA-UFMG; Belo Horizonte; 1976.
32
31 [2] - Abbott, I.H; Doenhofff, A.E. von; “Theory of Wing
30
29 Sections”; Dover Publications Inc.; New York; 1959.
28
MTOW [kg]

27
26 [3] – Weise, A.; “Stuttgarter Profilkatalog I”; Institut fur
25 aerodynamic und gasdynamik der technischen hochschule
24
23 Stuttgart; Stuttgart; 1972.
22
21
20 [4] – Hoerner, S.F.; “Fluid-Dynamic Drag”; Published by
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the autor; Brick Town; 1965.
Wing Configuration

Wing Incidence - 6º Wing Incidence - 8º Wing Incidence - 10º [5] – Carmichael, B.H.; “Personal Aircraft Drag
Reduction”; Published by the autor; San Clemente; 2000.
Figure 9 – MTOW for the wing configurations studied
[6] – Pazmany, L.; “Landing Gears Design for Light
Aircraft”; Pazmany Aircraft Corporation; San Diego; 1986.
Through the procedure presented it was possible to
pick the best configuration among the seven studied for the
aircraft UFMG-Open, considering the MTOW and the
wing-fuselage incidence angles as optimization parameters.
This can be easily done with the computer code in which
the presented method was implemented. It is important to
point out the flexibility of the method concerning the
number of different takeoff parameters that can be
evaluated.