A Study of Obsidian Exchange Networks in Calabria Albert J. Ammerman World Archaeology, Vol. 11, No. 1, Early Chemical 95-110. ‘echnology. (Jun., 1979), pp. Stable URL: http://links,jstor.org/siei?sici=0043-8243% 28 197906%29 1 1%3A 1%3C95%3A.ASOOEN%3E2.0,CO%3B2-W World Archaeology is currently published by Taylor & Francis, Ltd ‘Your use of the ISTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use, available at hhup:/www.jstororg/about/terms.huml. JSTOR’s Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at hup:/www jstor.org/journals/taylorfrancishiml, Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the sereen or printed page of such transmission, JSTOR is an independent not-for-profit organization dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of scholarly journals. For more information regarding JSTOR, please contact support @jstor.org. hupulwww jstor.org/ Tue Mar 7 04:13:58 2006A study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria Albert J. Ammerman In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the role that trade and exchange systems play in cultural developments in prehistory. Particular attention has been paid to obsidian, which, as a durable commodity that can be obtained ftom only a limited number of volcanic sources, offers distinct advantages for study. In the western ‘Mediterranean, the main focus of research interest has been on the characterization by ‘means such as neutron activation analysis and optical emission spectroscopy of obsidian samples from Neolithic sites located in different parts of Italy and southern France (Hallam et al. 1976). Models have also been put forward as a means of describing how exchange systems are thought to operate along general lines. ‘These include Renfrew’s down-the-line model and the so-called law of monotonic decrement (Renfrew 1977) and the gravity model for competing obsidian sources (Hallam et al. 1976). However, in the absence of a well developed data base or comprehensive information on lithic assemblages from sites located at different distances from a source of obsidian, it has not been previously possible to attempt an evaluation of these models in the western Mediterranean. ‘The aim of this article is to present some preliminary results of work on obsidian exchange networks carried out in the region of Calabria in southern Italy over the last four years. This work has revealed the extensive use of obsidian at Neolithic sites in the region and also the importance of Calabria for obsidian exchange systems operating between the island of Lipari and peninsular Italy. ‘The picture of exchange networks that is beginning to emerge in Calabria also raises some basic questions about the adequacy of the models that have so far been advanced. A need for developing more complex models is suggested, for example, by the finding, discussed below, that not all of the sites in a given area appear to participate to the same degree in exchange networks and that sca travel, counter to assumptions made in previous models, may have been easier in some cases than land travel. Emphasis in this article is placed not ‘on formulating new general models of exchange systems but rather on putting the evaluation of existing models on a more empirical footing. Prehistory of Calabria In contrast with Sicily and Puglia, Cala ‘was until recently one of the least explored World Archaeology Volume xx No. x Early chemical technology ®RKP. 1979 0043-8243/1101-0095 $1.50/t96 Albert J. Ammerman regions of southern Italy in terms of its prehistory. As late as 1970, only six sites with Neolithic material were reported for the region and most of these were cave sites such as the Grotta di Sant’ Angelo (Tine 1962) and the Grotta della Madonna (Cardini 1970), which are located in the rugged northern part of Calabria. The only open-air sit to have een excavated was the settlement of Favella (Tine 1964) near the Greek colony of Sybaris. ‘The Calabria Survey which was begun in 1974 has led to the location of well over 300 prehistoric sites and has substantially changed our knowledge of the prehistory of the region. OF particular terest has been the identification of reasonably dense patterns of impressed ware Neolithic settlement in coastal areas near each of the four Calabrian towns indicated in fig. r. The Neolithic in southern Italy starts at about 5000 Corsica * Saroinia o sy ADRIATIC SEA make =e 3 istalos* Ns < TYRRHENIAN SEA Sf CaLaaria auanrea Jonorowe + agouay.” ‘scan 9 PANTELLERIA matra Figure 1 Map of southern Italy. ‘The island of Lipari, one of the main sources of obsidian in the western Mediterranean, is located in the centre of the Aeolian Islands (conventional C* years) and extends to about 2500 8.©. different pottery styles being used to describe a sequence of Neolithic cultures. ‘This sequence is usually thought to start with impressed ware pottery in the early Neolithic and to end with Diana pottery with its characteristic trumpet-shaped lugs in the late Neolithic. It is worth commenting that the stratigraphic sequence and series of radio~ carbon dates from the Grotta della Madonna in Calabria (Cardini 1970) are in basic agreement with the chronological schemes put forward for other parts ofA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 97 southern Italy. Some caution is, however, required with regard to the C™ date (R-285) from spits 4o and 4x in the lower part of level H at the Grotta della Madonna (Cardini 1970: 41), which is sometimes cited as being an early Neolithic date, since there would appear to be mixing with underlying Mesolithic levels and these two spits have at other times been attributed to the late Mesolithic (Cardini 1972: 229). Figure 2 Map of prehistoric sites with obsidian in Calabria, his distribution map gives the ‘number of sites located on each mapsheet in the Carta della Calabria map series, which provides 1 coverage of the region ata scale of 1:10,00098 Albert J. Ammerman {thas been a common practice in the literature on impressed ware pottery in southern Italy to distinguish between two main ceramic traditions: one for peninsular Italy and the other for Sicily and the Aeolian Islands where more elaborate impressed motifs, taking the name of Stentinello, are found. The site of Gerace in south-east Calabria (Costabile 1972) which produced impressed ware pottery with Stentinello affinities ‘vas initially thought to be somewhat anomalous when it was first discovered in the late 1960s. Recent work in Calabria has shown that the ceramic material most commonly found at impressed ware Neolithic sites on the west coast of Calabria is made in a Stentinello style (eg. Ammerman et al. 19782). What was previously considered a dichotomy in ceramic traditions between peninsular Italy and the islands can now be viewed as essentially artificial. In addition, there is evidence that patterns of variation in the spatial distribution of impressed ware motifs can be recognized within Calabria and that obsidian from Lipari was being actively exchanged between these areas with somewhat different local pottery traditions. During the survey work in Calabria, obsidian has been found at over two hundred sites which date for the most part to the Neolithic and Copper Age (see fig. 2). In the case of Neolithic sites on the west coast of Calabria, obsidian often constitutes more than 80 per cent ofthe lithic material recovered from sites. On the basis ofthe lithie material from the Mesolithic levels at the Grotta della Madonna and also what is known from the survey, there is no clear evidence at present that obsidian was exploited at sites with ‘Mesolithic occupation. ‘The situation in Calabria would seem to differ in this respect from that observed in Greece, where obsidian from an island source in the Aegean was being exploited in the later Mesolithic levels at the Franchthi Cave (Jacobsen 1973: 7). Evidence from prehistoric sites in the Aeolian Islands (Brea 1966: 99) suggests that the exploitation of obsidian on Lipari reached its peak in the late Neolithic, declined in importance in the Copper Age and more or less faded out by the Middle Bronze Age. "The rather modest amounts of obsidian recovered from sites with Copper Age and Bronze Age pottery in Calubria would seem to be in agreement with what is seen in the Aeolian Islands. The lithic technology at Neolithic and Copper Age sites is oriented mainly toward the production of blades and only a low percentage of the obsidian blades found at sites in Calabria shows signs of intentional retouch or secondary modification. With regard to the interpretation of fig. 2, it is important to note that those areas without sites correspond in most cases to areas where survey work has yet to be carried out. From our experience it is reasonable to expect that prehistoric sites with obsidian can be found in most parts of Calabria, except perhaps in mountainous interior areas. A sense of the scale of obsidian exchange networks is provided by the realization that this distribution map presents only a small fraction of the total number of prehistoric sites with obsidian in Calabria, Obsidian from Lipari Tt comes as no real surprise that Lipari, which is located in the Aeolian Islands off the ‘west coast of Calabria, is the primary source of the obsidian found at sites in Calabria, All of the samples (46) examined so far by means of neutron activation analysisA study of obsidian exchange netwoorks in Calabria 99 lanthanum and scandium, which provide a means of discriminating between obsidian from Lipari and that from the three other sources ~ on the islands of Pantellaria, Sardinia and Palmarola ~ in the western Mediterranean (Hallam et al. 1976). ‘There is no known source of workable obsidian in peninsular Italy, and Palmarola in the Pontine Islands, the closest alternative source to Lipari, is located some 300 km. north~ west of Calabria (see fig. 1). ‘The geological source of obsidian on Palmarola is restricted to the southern end of the island where the natural material itself takes the form of small, fist-sized nodules (Buchner 1949: 166). In his study of obsidian sources in Italy, Buchner (1949: 167) describes differences in the appearance of obsidian from. Palmarola and Lipari and implies that material from the two sources can be distinguished on this basis. Characteristics that he lists as distinguishing material from the two sources include: (a) the obsidian from Lipari usually contains many more spherulites, small concentrically arranged aggregations of minerals that form around gas inclusions; and (b) the obsidian from Palmarola has a more patinated and less translucent appearance than that from Lipari. As a means of checking on Buchner’s suggestion, an ‘experiment’ involving the attribution of pieces of obsidian was conducted. Five obsidian artefacts derived from Lipari and five from Palmarola were used in the experiment and attributions were made with reference to two groups of obsidian pieces indicated as coming respectively from Lipari and Palmarola.t Archacology students were asked in a blind test to attribute each of the ten artefacts to one of the two sources. A score of eight or more correct attributions (out of a total possible score of ten) was made by 18 of the 22 students who took part in the experiment. ‘These results, which run counter to the conventional wisdom of characterization studies, indicate a level of success that is significantly better in statistical terms than one would expect on the basis of chance alone in attribution. ‘The implication here is that visual evidence provides, at least for these two sources, a guide for making a preliminary discrimination between different sources. ‘This finding is of practical importance when it comes to the examination of large sets of lithic material, since it means that pieces occurring in small numbers from a secondary source have a reasonable chance of being detected. In Calabria, for example, initial screening makes, it possible to identify pieces that may come from Palmarola, More refined techniques such as neutron activation analysis can subsequently be applied to picces identified in this way. During the examination of obsidian from sites in Calabria, few pieces have, in fact, been encountered where such an initial atribution to Palmarola can be made. ‘The results of both the neutron activation analysis of samples and the visual screening of large sets of lithic material indicate that the obsidian found in Calabria comes pre- dominantly from Lipari, 1 "The five pieces from Lipari were selected on the basis of random sampling from a collection, of several hundred pieces of obsidian, while the Pontine specimens were chosen on a judgment ‘basis (a8 representative of obsidian from Palmarola) from a smaller collection of material. The ‘order in which the ten pieces appeared in the test was established by means of drawing random hhumbers, ‘The students taking part in the test were not given prior instruetion on how to discriminate between obsidian from the two sources,100 Albert J. Ammerman "There are four known sources of workable obsidian ~ Rocche Rosse, Forgia Vecchia, Gabellotto and Acquacalda ~ on the island of Lipari (Dixon 1976: 293; Hallam et al 1976: 94). Relatively little variation in the content of trace elements is observed in the analysis of geological samples from these different flows. ‘The first two flows were actually formed in historical times and only the last two sources would have been available for exploitation in the Neolithie (Bigyzzi and Bonadonna 1973). It has been shown on the basis of fission track dates that all of the obsidian artefacts from Neolithic sites along, the Adriatic coast of peninsular Italy that were analysed by Bigazzi and Bonadonna (1973) come from the Gabellotto flow. he obsidian available from this flow appears to be both of good quality and quantity. Lipari, in terms of its prehistory, is one of the better known islands in the western Mediterranean and obsidian cores and blades are found in abundance at Neolithic sites. Impressed ware potteryin the Stentinello tradition is found at the site of Castellaro Vecchio on the north-west side of the island, while the later part of the Neolithic is well documented on the east side of the island by the stratigraphic sequence on the Lipari acropolis and by the site of Diana (Brea and Cavalier 1960). ‘The percentage of obsidian at sites ‘One approach to studying exchange systems has been in terms of the relative abundance or percentage of obsidian in the set of lithic material recovered from Neolithic sites (eg. Renfrew et al. 1968: 327). While this provides some insight into the relative importance of obsidian at sites and the patterns of movement of obsidian away from a source, it also contains certain drawbacks (see the discussion below) and complementary lines of investigation are called for if the behaviour of exchange systems is to be under- stood in any detail. In fig. 3, a map showing the percentage of obsidian at selected wees SA TYRRHENIAN SEA Figure 3 The percentage of obsidian in the lithic assemblage at selected neolithi sites in the ‘central part of Calabria. Most of the sites on the west coast actually have over go per eent of obsidianA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 10x neolithic sites in the central part of Calabria is presented. Systematic collection was ‘made of all lithic material observed on the surface of sites examined during the Calabria Survey. Fieldwork was conducted only during the spring and autumn or seasons of the year when rains occur regularly in Calabria and conditions are good for seeing lithic material on the surface of sites. With regard to sample size, the material recovered from each site consists of at least one hundred pieces, and in most cases several hundred pieces were collected. In addition, the replicated collection of sites, which involves a site being revisited after a period of time and a second systematic collection made using the same set of grid squares at the site (Ammerman and Feldman 1978), was carried out at two-thirds of the sites shown in fig. 3. At all of the sites where this technique was employed, consistent estimates of the percentage of obsidian were observed between the separate collections. ‘This consistency lends confidence to the basic pattern of values seen in fig. 3. Perhaps the single most striking feature here is the uniformly high percentage of obsidian encountered at sites on the west coast of Calabria, A value of go per cent or more is, in fact, observed at the majority of these sites, In contrast, the values for sites located on the east coast near the town of Crotone all fall below 40 per cent, The decline in the percentage of obsidian with distance from the source is much greater here than in the previously published case for the Near East (Renfrew et al. 1968: 328). The values on the east coast fall off to less than half Of those seen at west coast sites over a distance of less than 100 km. It is worth noting that the Catanzaro ‘Trough, which runs across the width of Calabria at its narrowest point, provides a relatively easy line of communication between the west coast and areas such as the one near Crotone on the east coast of Calabria. "The variation in the percentages of obsidian observed among the sites in the Crotone area would seem to be problematic as far as certain models of exchange systems ate concerned. Some of the sites near Crotone have less than 10 per cent obsidian, while others at more or less the same distance ftom Lipari have more than 3o per cent. This pattern of values is not what one would expect according to down-the-line models of exchange systems (Renfrew 1977), where the relative proportion of obsidian at sites is seen as decreasing monotonically or progressively as one moves away from a source through an exchange network and where sites at basically the same distance from a source should exhibit comparable values. Without going into an extended discussion, there are several possible explanations that can be offered for this pattern. One of these would be that the sites date to different times in the Neolithic period: sites with early ‘occupation might have low values and those with later occupation higher values, since down-the-line models can be expected to exhibit dynamic time behaviour (Ammerman et al. 1978b). A second possibility is that the pattern of variation may stem from local differences in the availability of chert. Lower percentage values for obsidian might be expected to occur at those sites where chert, as an alternative raw material for making stone tools, is immediately available and is actively being worked. Still another possible explanation would be that certain sites are located along the main lines of movement of obsidian and have more access to the material, while other sites are situated off the ‘main lines of long distance exchange and have lower percentages of obsidian. Sufficient ‘evidence is not available at present in the Crotone area to permit a full evaluation of this set of alternatives. The main point to be made here is that the values for sites near102, Albert J. Ammerman Crotone do not conform to a simple downcthe-line pattern and that a wide range of factors is probably involved in determining the percentage of obsidian observed at a given site. It is also worth commenting on the recently proposed route for the movement of obsidian from Lipari to peninsular Italy (Hallam et al, 1976: 100) in the light of what is seen in fig. 3. This route is based on the questionable assumption that land travel is, ‘easier than sea travel and involves obsidian moving from Lipari to the north coast of Sicily, then following a land route to Messina, erossing the Straits and again following, a land route up the coasts of Calabria. If this route were correct, one would expect to see a progressive decline in the percentage of obsidian at sites as one moves up the ‘west coast and more or less comparable values at sites on the west and east coasts of Calabria located at roughly the same distance from Reggio Calabria (e.g. sites near Amantea on the west coast and sites near Crotone on the east coast; sce fig. 1). Neither of these patterns is observed: sites near Nicotera and Amantea on the west coast have essentially the same values (some sites near Amantea or those furthest to the north on fig. 3 have values of over 95 per cent), while sites on the east coast have less than half the percentage of obsidian in comparison with those on the west coast. Furthermore, the observation can be macle that the rugged relief along the stretch of the west coast from Reggio Calabria to Palmi as well as that of Aspromonte in the interior would present a real challenge to land travel in this part of Calabria. In contrast, movement is in general much easier along the cast coast of Calabria. Radial movement via boat from Lipari to various points along the west coast of Calabria and the north coast of Sicily would seem to be a more plausible line of interpretation. ‘There is a good possibility that sea travel was in this case actually easier than land travel. Using the islands of Panarea and Stromboli, the trip between and the west coast of Calabria, which involves a distance of about 80 km., can be made without losing sight of land. Patterns of lithic reduction at sites A more refined way of looking at lithic assemblages than the percentage of obsidian is required, if progress is to be made in the study of exchange systems. ‘The production of stone tools involves what is sometimes called a reduction technology (Sheets 1975): following the preparation of a core, blades and flakes as well as debitage are successively removed from the core until it is exhausted. Information on reduction practices is provided by the comparative study of the size classes of lithic material observed at sites. Where exchange systems are concerned, it is important to know the form ~ either cores or prepared blanks ~ in which obsidian is moving through an exchange network. In our case, cores would appear to be the main form as far as long distance exchange is concerned, since they are found regularly at sites in diferent areas of Calabria along with evidence for the local production of blades and flakes which is seen both in terms of core rejuvenation flakes and debitage. It is of interest to consider how cores are being ‘partitioned’ or reduced in areas at different distances from the source of obsidian on Lipari. There are various ways of measuring the size of obsidian pieces but perhaps the best overall measure is provided by weight, which can be related directly to the weightA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 103 of cores themselves. While some previous use has been made of the weight of obsidian pieces, this has usually involved « comparison of the mean weight of pieces at sites, In many cases, the mean does not offer a good summary description of the size classes represented at a site. A description in terms of the frequency distribution of pieces belonging to different size classes is more revealing in this respect. To give an intuitive sense of what is meant by partitioning in lithic reduction, fig. 4 Hoes 08 yg og ao ad 2800 am Figure 4 ‘The relative proportions by count (top) and weight (bottom) of obsidian and chert belonging to different size classes. The weight of a piece is used here as a measure of its size. “The pie diagrams are based on the lithic material from 30 prehistoric Neolithic and Copper Age) sites in the Acconia area, which is located near the town of Nicastro in Calabria shows the relative proportions by count and weight of material belonging to different size classes for a group of thirty prehistoric sites in the Acconia area of Calabria. The smallest size class represents mostly small waste flakes and chips, while the two larger classes contain mainly cores. Blades and flakes suitable for use in activities fall mostly in the middle size classes. Almost half of the obsidian pieces by count belong to the smallest size class, yet this material represents only a small fraction of the total weight of obsidian recovered from this group of sitcs. In contrast, cores and large waste flakes have low counts and yet comprise over two-thirds of the total weight of obsidian.104 Albert J. Ammerman If a comparison is made between the diagrams for obsidian and those for chert, which ‘occurs in much smaller quantities at the sites, it ean be seen that the relative proportion, (by count) of small pieces is much lower for chest and the same applies for the relative proportion (by weight) of cores and large pieces. ‘These patterns indicate comparatively less in the way of reduetion activity for chert which does not occur locally in the Accor area. The high proportion both of blades and retouched pieces among the chert pieces, recovered from sites may even imply that some of the chert blades are reaching the area in prepared form through exchange networks. If this interpretation is correct, what is being observed in the Acconia area would be the operation of two complementary lithic systems for obsidian and chert. ‘A more convenient way of presenting size class data is in terms of cumulative frequency distributions, as shown in fig. 5. Cores have been removed from the data sets here so that £ & Figure 5, Cumulative frequency distributions based on eount (upper pair of curves) and weight (ower pair of curves) of obsidian pieces belonging to different size classes for the group of Stentinello sites located respectively in the Acconia and Nicotera areas of Calabria, Cores are not included in the frequeney distributions here, Note that an ordinal scale is used in presenting the size classes along the horizontal axis the curves are based only on pieces derived from the working of cores and directly reflect the partitioning of cores. ‘The frequency distributions are based on the group of Stentinello sites occurring respectively in the Acconia and Nicotera areas on the west coast of Calabria. The sites are in both cases situated in dune areas whose soils offer ‘good conditions for the unmodified, post-depositional survival of lithic material. As can be seen in fig. 5, there is an overall similarity between the two pairs of curves implying ‘comparable reduction strategies for the group of sites in each area. In fig, 6, cumulative frequency distributions are presented for four of the Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. Here it is of interest to note the different patterns which can be observed between individual sites in the same area. Sites 67 and 68 both exhibit a higher relative proportiA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 105 eae aa ae as ao is ie mas aes TO Figure 6 Cumulative frequency distributions of obsidian pieces belonging to different size classes for four Stentinello sites in the Acconia area, ‘The frequency distributions for counts (through 3:0 gm.) are shown on the left and those for weight (starting with Go gm.) on the right. Cores are not included in the frequency distributions (by count) of small pieces or debitage and also have more of their total weight tied up in larger size pieces (many of them large waste flakes). "There is a greater emphasis on the reduction of obsidian at these two sites, where larger amounts of lithic material ‘were also recovered, than at the two other sites. At sites 25 and 63-64 the bulk of the Figure 7 Distribution map of Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. ‘The ‘Tyrrhenian coast is now about 1°5 km. west of site 6106 Albert J. Ammerman material both in terms of counts and of the relative proportion by weight falls in the middle size classes. The locations of these sites in the Acconia area, where a reasonably dense pattern of Stentinello settlement is observed, is shown in fig. 7. Its of considerable interest that the two sites (67 and 68) located closest to the coast are apparently the ones where the reduetion of obsidian is being more actively carried out. A graphic means of presenting the combined frequency distributions for counts and. ‘weights is provided by the use of concentration curves (Kendall and Stuart 1969: 48) as shown in fig. 8. Here the points on each curve represent the respective size classes, Figure 8 Concentration curves for four Stentinello sites in the Acconia area. This figure is based on the same data as used in fig. 6. See the text for an explanation of the horizontal and vertical axes of this graph are the same as those used! in fig. 5. The horizontal axis, F, gives the cumulative relative frequency based on counts, while the vertical axis shows the associated value of phi or the cumulative relative proportion of weight. ‘The area between a given curve and the diagonal line, where the values of F and phi are equal, is called the area of concentration and is equivalent to one half of the coefficient of concentration (Kendall and Stuart 1969: 49). Concentration curves provide a useful means for comparing patterns of variation between populations when there is a natural origin of measurement as is the case here, At sites where obsidian is being actively worked, the curves run ower in relation to the horizontal axis with a greater proportion of the weight being ‘concentrated’ in the larger size classes. Figure 8 indicates differences in the degree of participation in obsidian reduction among Stentinello sites in the Acconia arca. Such differences have implications for the rate of loss or deposition of material at sites, which, is usually assumed to be uniform among sites in the formulation of models of exchange systems (Ammerman ¢t al. 1978; Renfrew 1977: 72). At sites such as 67 and 68 where there is a greater emphasis on the reduction of obsidian, the rate of loss of piecesA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 107 will on average be higher than at the other two sites, since waste material, which is relatively more abundant at the first two sites, is effectively lost at the time of reduction. Account needs to be taken of heterogeneity in rates of loss in the development of more realistic models of exchange systems. One interpretation that can be made is that those sites (25 and 63-64) with less emphasis on obsidian reduction may have participated less actively in exchange networks as well and may even have received some of their blades and flakes in prepared form by means of exchange with neighbouring reduction sites. The location of the two reduction sites near the coast would seem to be in agreement with an interpretation that these sites probably had more involvement in long distance exchange networks. Discussion From characterization studies (Bigazzi and Bonadonna 1973; Hallam ef al. 1976), it is known that obsidian from Lipari is present at Neolithic sites in both the heel and central part of Italy. While actual counts of lithic material are seldom reported, obsidian is dleseribed as occurring only in small quantities at these sites (e.g. Manfredini 1968 In contrast, it can now be seen that obsidian was used extensively at Ne Calabria and that sites in the region played a major role in exchange systems operating between Lipari and other parts of peninsular Italy. ‘The consistently high percentages observed at sites on the west coast of Calabria make it likely that obsidian moved in a radial pattern by boat from Lipati to various points along the west coast rather than following a land oriented route tied to Sicily. Instead of land travel being easier than sea travel (Hallam et al. 1976: 100), the opposite would appear to be the case. A radial pattern of movement was incidentally observed by Harding (1967: 9) for the island of Siassi in his study of a trade system in New Guinea. The fact that sea travel was easier than land travel clearly introduces complications when it comes to the treatment of distance in attempts to use a gravity model for competing obsidian sources in central Italy. It also has wider implications for the interpretation of inter-regional contact in the ‘western Mediterranean in Neolithic and later times. At the same time, it is worth recalling that even as late as the age of Philip II, sea travel in the Mediterranean consisted mainly of what Braudel (1966: 104) has called ‘tramping’ or voyages with ships following the coast and only on exceptional occasion losing sight of land. ‘The picture of obsidian exchange networks that is beginning to emerge within Calabria does not conform to a simple down-the-line model. ‘There is wide variation in the percentages of obsidian observed at sites in the Crotone areaon the east coast of Calabria, which departs from the pattern of monotonic decrement expected under this class of model. ‘The analysis of lithic assemblages from the Acconia area in terms of frequeney distributions indicates that there are different patterns of obsidian reduction occurring at Stentinello sites. ‘The underlying assumption of down-the-line models ~ that of uniform loss or deposition of material among sites ~ does not seem to be a realistic one as far as Calabria is concerned. Moreover, it would appear that certain sites probably participated to a greater degree than others in long distance exchange networks. There ‘may already be elements of activity specialization and a settlement hierarchy at Stentinello108 Albert J. Ammerman sites in Calabria. One implication that follows from the discussion is that a reasonable Knowledge of settlement patterns in an area isa prerequisite for the study of exchange networks, A second is that exchange systems are probably much more complex than has often been thought, and there is a need to develop more adequate models. Some of the factors that deserve attention in developing such models would include: the dynamic time behaviour of exchange systems; heterogeneity of rates of loss of material among sites; the roles of items and commodities other than obsidian moving through the exchange system (Wright and Zeder 1977); and population growth and associated ‘changes in the structure of a network during the life of an exchange system (Ammerman et al. 1978b). It is also evident that detailed attention has to be paid to geography, especially in the case of a region with such varied relief as Calabria, in the study of exchange systems. Acknowledgements Support for the fieldwork was provided by grants from the National Science Foundation (BNS 76-15095) and the Institute for the Development of Scientific Research in Calabria, I would like to acknowledge my gratitude to Professor G. Foti and Dr P. Guzzo of the Soprintendenza Archeologica in Calabria; Professor CG. Ghiara, former Rector of the University of Calabria; Dr S. Warren of the Department of Physics, University of Bradford; Professor A. Moroni of the Institute of Ecology, University of Parma; and Professor L. Cavalli-Sforza of the Department of Geneties, Stanford University. Special thanks are extended to D. Aldridge and M. Carrara, for making available data collected respectively in the Crotone area and the Crati Valley during the Calabrian Survey. For their participation in the fieldwork and the analysis of material, I would also like to thank. G. Diamond, 8. Gaywood, M. Pitts and 8. Rosen. Department of Anthropology SWU.N.Y. Binghamton References Ammerman, A. J., Diamond, G. P. and Aldridge, D. 19784. Un insediamento neolitico presso ‘Curing (Catanzaro). Risa di Science Preistoriche. 34 Ammerman, A. J. and Feldman, M. W. 1978. Replicated collection of site surfaces, American Antiquity. 43273440 Amumerman, A, J, Mates, C, and Cavali-8 9786. Some new approaches to the seudy of obsidian trade in the Mediterranean and adjacent area. In The Spatial Organisation af Culture, ed. I, Hodder. 179-96. London, Bigazzi, G. and Bonadonna, F. 1973. Fission track dating of the obsidian of Lipari Island (aly), Nature, 242:322-3, Braudel, P1966. The Mediterranean World in the Age of Pili IL. Vol. 1, and ed. New York. Brea, L. B. 1966. Sicily. and ed. London.Plate 1 (a-d) Bronze vessels from Ban Don ‘Ta Phet, ThailandPlate 2 Interior of bronze bowl from Ban Don Ta Phet showing coaxial striations resulting from mechanical grinding process ;nze bowl, showing a lightly twinned a-phase lagnifiation x 200) Plate 3 Microstructure of rim sect superimposed on the acicular B-phasPlates 4 and 5 ‘Two Beaker ware crucible sherds, c. 1800 b.c. from the Central Enclosure at Son Matge, The white inclusions were caused by the decomposition of the limestone inclusions from heat over 700° C. ‘The inside of these sherds contained encrustations of ‘copper oxidesPlate 6 Beaker Bowl from the KE are 1870 b.e. 120 years (X-2682) 4 Enclosure at Matge. C+ dates of its level of origin Plate7 Central st bronze awl still in its sheath mould from the workshop area of the closure at Matge, part of the bronze awl hoard Plate 8 Incised Beaker comb from the central enclosure at MatgePlate 9 Haft Fish goblet. Kast Persia c. a.. 1200, Department of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum (Photo: A. Morris, British Museum Research Laboratory)Plate 11 View to south-west across excavations at Mumba shelter ‘deposit is behind the legs of the uppermost figurePlate 12 The north-east face of the original excavation at Mumba after forty years of exposure, ‘The figure is standing at the base of Ex I (2977)Plate 13 ‘The beach rubble line in the south-western face of the Mumba excavation Horizontal scale is in 10 em units Plate 14 Close-up of the beach deposit (IV): one whole Achatina shell is visible, and fragments may be seen throughout. Seale isin 10 em unitsA study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria 109 Brea, L. B. and Cavalier, M. 1960, Meligunis-Lipaira I. Palermo. Buchner, G. 1949. Ricerche sui giacimenti e sulle industrie di ossidiana in Italia, Rivista di ‘Scienze Prestoriche. 4:152-86. Cardini, L. 1970. Praia a Mare: relazione degli seavi 1957-1970. Bullettino di Paletnologia Italiana, 79:31-39. Cardini, L. 1972. Dipinti schematici antropomorfi della Grotta Romanelli, Atti della XIV. Riunione Scientifica. Florence, Costabile, F. 1972. La stazione neoltica di Prestarona in comune di Canolo, Klearchos. 14:5-27. Crummett, J. G. and Warren, 8, E. nd. Analysis of Calabrian obsidian. In Acconia Monograph: Neolithic Settlement and the Obsidian Trade, ed. A. J. Ammerman. London. Dixon, J. E. 1976. Obsidian characterization studies in the Mediterranean and Near East, In Advances in Obsidian Glass Studies, ed. R. E. Taylor, 288-332. Park Ridge, New Jersey. Hallam, B. R., Warren, 8. E. and Renfrew, C. 1976. Obsidian in the western Mediterranean: characterisation by neutron activation analysis and optical emission spectroscopy. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 42:85-110. Harding, T. G. 1967. Voyagers of the Vitias Strait. Seattle, Jacobsen, T.W. 1973. Excavations in the Franchthi Cave, 1969-1971, Part I. Hesperia 4245-88 Kendall, M. G. and Stuart, A. 1969. The Advanced Theory of Statistics. Vol. 1. Distribution ‘Theory. 3rd ed. London, Manfredini, A. 1968. Villaggio trincerato a Monte Aquilone. Origin. 2:65-101. Renfrew, C. 1977. Alternative models for exchange and spatial distribution. In Exchange ‘Systems in Prehistory, eds, T. K. Earle and J. E, Ericson. 71-90, New York. Renfrew, C., Dixon, J. E. and Cann, J. R. 1968, Further analysis of Near Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society. 34:319-31. Sheets, P. D. 1975. Behavioral analy Anthropology. 16:3:369-92. ‘Tine, S. 1962, Suecessione delle culture preistoriche in Calabria alla luce dei recentiseavi in provincia di Cosenza. Klearchos. 4:38-43- ‘Tine, 8. 1964. I neolitico in Calabria alla luce dei recenti scavi, Atti della VIITe IX Scientifca, Florence. seen obsidians. and the structure of a prehistoric industry. Current ‘Wright, H. and Zeder, M. 1977. ‘The simulation of a linear exchange system under equilibrium conditions. In Exchange Systems in Prehistory, eds ‘T. K. Farle and J. E. Ericson. 233-53. New York. Abstract Ammerman, A.J. A study of obsidian exchange networks in Calabria Recent survey work in Calabria which has revealed the extensive use of obsidian at Neolithie sites raises questions about models of exchange systems that have been previously advanced. Rather than being tied to a land-based route through northern Sicily, obsidian appears to110 Albert J. Ammerman have moved in a radial pattern by boat from the island of Lipari to various points along the \west coast of Calabria, The percentage of obsidian observed at a site does not follow a simple pattern of monotonic fall-off with the increasing distance of the site from Lipari. The analysis of lithic material from Neolithic sites in the Acconia area of Calabria indi played a more active role in obsidian reduction and probably also exchange networks than others. ‘These results imply a need for developing more adequate and complex models of, Neolithie exchange systems, es that certain sites