Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pollution
Introduction
Fossil Fuels: Oil & Gas
Fossil Fuels: Coal
Nuclear Energy
Alternative Energy Resources
Air Pollution
Summary
Energy use within the U.S. varies with population size and
character of energy demand (Fig. 2). States with large
populations, large land area (greater distances to travel), and
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energy-intensive industries (e.g., oil refining, chemicals),
typically use the most energy. Large sparsely populated states
such as Wyoming and Alaska rate highly in energy use per
person because transportation consumes large volumes of fuel.
Figure 2. Distribution
of U.S. energy use.
Energy use at home
and industry is
typically in the form of
electricity generated
by burning coal.
Transportation is
almost exclusively Coal represents an alternative fossil fuel with a potentially
fueled by forms of longer life span than either oil or gas but it has the unfortunate
gasoline refined from distinction of generating more pollution than the other fossil
petroleum. fuels. Furthermore, coal produces more carbon dioxide during
combustion than either oil or gas, but all three have been
fingered as the primary sources of the greenhouse gas that is
the culprit for global warming.
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during power generation. Rarely has a technology shown such
early promise only to fall so rapidly from grace.
Think about it . . .
1. Predict which of the following states consumes the
most energy.
a) California b) Illinois c) New York d) Texas
2. Examine the partially completed graph found at the
end of the chapter that plots gross domestic product
(GDP) per capita vs. energy consumption per capita.
Label the points that represent where you think the
eight named nations would plot on the graph.
3. Draw a time line for energy use before you read any
further in this chapter. Label the time line to indicate
how energy consumption has changed/will change
from 1850 to 2050. Differentiate between domestic
and industrial energy sources and transportation
energy sources.
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Fossil Fuels: Oil & Gas
• Time and a specific temperature range are necessary for the
generation of oil and gas.
• As hydrocarbons become mature they progress from heavy
oils to light oils to natural gas.
• Hydrocarbons become concentrated in sedimentary rocks.
• The volume of the world’s oil reserves is approximately
1,070 billion barrels.
• The U.S. uses 25% of the world’s oil.
• Two-thirds of the world’s oil reserves are located in the
Middle East.
Fossil fuels form from decayed organic material. Oil, coal, and
natural gas are the most common products of this process. Oil
and gas form from organic material in microscopic marine
organisms, whereas coal forms from the decayed remains of
land plants. Tar (oil) sands and oil shale are less common
forms of fossil fuels and are less widely used because
extraction of oil from these deposits is more expensive than
producing other forms of fossil fuels.
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non-renewable resources because they are consumed much
faster than they can be replaced.
Oil and gas migrate upward through fractures and pore spaces
in permeable rocks and/or sediments. Some hydrocarbons
escape at Earth’s surface through features such as oil seeps.
Others collect below the surface in sedimentary rocks when
their path is blocked by low-permeability rocks (Fig. 4). Rock
structures such as faults and folds may serve to juxtapose
permeable and impermeable units. Oil and gas are trapped in
the permeable rocks and will migrate upward to lie at the
highest elevation in the rock unit.
Oil Reserves
Oil and gas are not distributed uniformly within Earth's crust
(Fig. 5). Hydrocarbons are initially formed as organic-rich
sediments and the oil and gas subsequently migrate upward,
into younger rocks that are also of sedimentary origin.
Consequently, oil and gas reserves are generally absent in areas
underlain by igneous or metamorphic rocks such as volcanic
island chains like Japan or Hawaii. Even in areas where
sedimentary rocks are present, they must fall within a specific
age range to ensure that the rocks are mature enough to contain
hydrocarbons but not so old that oil and gas would have long
ago escaped.
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Figure 5. Locations of
at around a billion barrels over the last decade. Oil reserves
principal North
American oil fields
remained stable despite the fact that global population has
(left) and other doubled in the last thirty years. Reserves haven't declined
hydrocarbon because of:
resources (right). • Exploration of geologic formations in increasingly remote
Most oil shales and areas of the world, including the seafloor, using an array of
oil sands are not
new methods that utilize satellites and geophysical
economically viable
now but may play a instruments to unravel the geology in regions where few
more significant role rocks are visible.
in energy production • Improved technology used by oil companies to extract
as supplies decrease. greater volumes of oil through enhanced recovery
techniques.
• Greater efficiency in energy use as a result of higher fuel
prices and stricter pollution standards that caused
manufacturers to build more energy-efficient appliances
and engines.
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rates. The U.S. Geological Survey recently issued a more
optimistic estimate that there actually may be double those
reserves left to be discovered with a potential life span until the
end of this century.
The U.S. uses 25% of the world's oil, much more than any
other nation, and imports over half of the oil it consumes.
Consequently we are vulnerable to disruptions in oil supplies.
Current fluctuations in gasoline prices that result from
relatively modest changes in supply and demand will become
much more exaggerated as the available reserves of oil decline.
The future success of the U.S. economy may rely on the state
of our political relationships with the relatively few nations that
have abundant oil reserves.
Figure 6. Distribution
of global oil and gas
reserves expressed
as a percentage of
global reserves. Two-
thirds of the world’s
oil and one-third of all
natural gas reserves
are located in the
Middle East. Russia
has 33% of the
world's natural gas
and Saudi Arabia has
25% of the world's oil.
Think about it . . .
1. Use the Venn diagram found at the end of the chapter
to compare and contrast the similarities and
differences between the characteristics of oil and coal
resources.
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2. Similar organic-rich source rocks are present in two
locations. Oil deposits formed in the overlying rocks at
the first location but did not form at the second
location. Which of the following is the best explanation
for this difference?
a) The first location was more deeply buried than the
second.
b) The first location was subjected to lower
temperatures than the second.
c) The first location contains younger rocks than the
second.
d) Rocks at the first location had lower permeability
than rocks at the second site.
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Peat is the least-mature form of coal, containing a large volume
of fibrous plant matter. With increasing compaction, water is
driven out and carbon becomes increasingly concentrated. Both
carbon content and the amount of heat released during
burning increase with maturity. The carbon content ranges
from around 30% in peat to 99% for anthracite. The higher the
carbon content, the more heat that is released when the coal is
burned. Small amounts of high-carbon coals produce the same
heat as large volumes of low-carbon coal. The volume of ash
that remains after burning decreases with increasing rank. The Figure 8. Coal-
bearing areas of the
ash must be disposed off in a landfill thus increasing expense.
U.S. Image courtesy of
Energy Information
Administration.
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There are three principal coal-producing regions in the U.S.
(Fig. 8). The first two, Appalachian basin states (Ohio,
eastern Kentucky, West Virginia, Pennsylvania) and interior
states (Illinois, Indiana, western Kentucky) produce high-rank
bituminous coals and anthracite. These coals are produced
from both surface and underground mines. Unfortunately,
some of the bituminous coals have a high sulfur content (Fig.
9) and therefore contribute to air pollution. Given the stringent
regulations on pollutants, some companies prefer to use lower-
grade sub-bituminous coals to avoid costs associated with
installing pollution control devices.
Figure 9. Comparison
of sulfur content and
heat content of coals
from principal U.S.
coal-producing
regions. Western
coals have less sulfur
and lower heat
content.
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point today where coal production is approximately equal east
and west of the Mississippi River (Fig. 11).
Coal Reserves
Over 80% of the world's recoverable coal is found in just seven
nations (Fig. 12). The U.S. has the greatest reserves,
accounting for 25% of the world's coal, enough to last for 270
years at current consumption rates. This suggests that we will
have a plentiful supply of electricity into the distant future but
it is of little help as a replacement fuel for refined oil products
(gasoline) unless we can assume that automobiles of the future
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Figure 12. The U.S.
has a quarter of the
world's available coal
reserves and 83% of
all reserves are
divided among just
seven nations.
Think about it . . .
1. Use the Venn diagram found at the close of the
chapter to compare and contrast the characteristics of
oil and coal resources.
2. Examine the map of U.S. coal resources found at the
end of the chapter and predict where the five
numbered points on the graph of sulfur content vs.
BTU might plot on the map.
Nuclear Energy
• Nuclear reactors generate 17% of the world’s electricity
and 5% of total energy.
• Nuclear power has fallen from favor because of accidents
like Three Mile Island (1979) and Chernobyl (1986).
• There are over 100 operating nuclear reactors in the U.S.,
approximately a quarter of all nuclear power plants
worldwide.
• The benefits of nuclear energy are: no air pollution, no
greenhouse effect, and a reduction in dependence on
foreign oil.
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• The potential problems are: U.S. reactors are getting old
and there is no currently available site for permanent
nuclear waste disposal.
• A potential storage site for nuclear waste is being
investigated at Yucca Mountain, Nevada.
• The Yucca Mountain site is isolated, has a dry climate, in
rocks with low porosity and permeability, and is located far
above the groundwater table. However, the area around
Yucca Mountain has experienced earthquakes and
volcanism.
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ended amidst with construction costs and a widely reported
accident at the Three Mile Island Unit 2 reactor (1979), near
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (Fig. 13). Furthermore, the demand
for energy decreased as energy conservation and efficiency
gained popularity.
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Figure 14. U.S.
Natural uranium consists of two isotopes of uranium. The bulk uranium mining and
of natural uranium is U238. Only 0.7% of natural uranium is the production plants.
isotope U235 that is capable of undergoing fission, the process Image courtesy of
by which energy is produced in a nuclear reactor. Enrichment Energy Information
Administration.
increases the concentration of U235 to approximately 4% of
the uranium mixture by removing much of the U238 isotope.
The uranium is formed into pellets that are placed in metal
tubes to form the fuel rods in a reactor fuel assembly.
16
Figure 15. Map of the
distribution of U.S.
nuclear reactors.
Image courtesy of the
Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC).
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proportion (19%) of national electricity production than several
other nations. Europe is home to more nuclear reactors than
any other continent (173), and Africa and South America have
only 5 between them.
Nuclear Waste
Nuclear waste comes in a variety of forms, each with different
storage requirements but it is the disposal of high-level nuclear
waste that presents the greatest challenge for the future.
Although high-level radioactive waste (e.g. used fuel rods)
composes a relatively small volume of all nuclear waste it
represents nearly all (95%) of the radioactivity nuclear wastes
and may remain dangerous for over 10,000 years. Like several
other nations that rely on nuclear energy, the U.S. is attempting
to find a suitable site where it can store nuclear waste safely for
thousands of years. The potential site is located below Yucca
Mountain, Nevada (Fig. 17), about a one hour drive north of
Las Vegas.
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The Department of Energy (DOE) initially identified nine
potential nuclear dump sites but later shortened the list to three
(Fig. 17; Hanford, Washington; Deaf Smith County, Texas;
Yucca Mountain, Nevada). The DOE hoped to investigate the
geology of each site thoroughly to determine which would be
the safest repository for the dangerous waste. However, in
December 1987, Congress saw a chance to save some money
and directed DOE to study just the Yucca Mountain site.
Nevada, which has no nuclear power plants, has fought vainly
against hosting the site.
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• The vault would be hollowed out of a layer of volcanic tuff,
a resistant igneous rock with very low porosity (spaces
within the rock that may contain water) and low
permeability (the ability of water to flow through the
rock).
• In addition, the site gets ~15 cm (6 inches) of precipitation
a year, most of which evaporates in the desert heat. Project
scientists believe that it is unlikely that water could
inundate the disposal facility and transport radioactive
materials into the surrounding environment.
• Furthermore, the local groundwater source is 240 meters
(~750 feet) below the site, making it difficult for any leaks
to pass quickly (before detection) to the groundwater
supply.
Figure 18.
Approximate position
of the nuclear waste
repository in
impermeable volcanic
tuff rocks below
Yucca Mountain,
Nevada.
20
The original opening date for the high-level nuclear waste
repository was 1998 but was subsequently changed to 2003 and
then to 2010, reflecting the controversy the site has generated
in Nevada and nationwide. The development of such a site is
essential for the permanent disposal of the nuclear waste that
has already been generated by nuclear power plants. Without a
working disposal facility, the long-term viability of nuclear
power in the U.S. is in jeopardy.
Think about it . . .
Create a concept map that illustrates the issues
surrounding the use of nuclear energy.
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unlikely to undergo a resurgence any time soon in the face of
public skepticism over the possibility of a nuclear future.
Renewable energy (hydropower, wind, solar, biomass,
geothermal), therefore, remains the sole potential energy
source that will ensure minimal environmental harm and also
has the potential to free us from reliance on foreign suppliers.
Technological improvements and economies of scale may
reduce costs sufficiently to increase the proportion of U.S.
energy from renewable sources from its current level (Fig. 19;
less than 10%) to at least 30% of total energy use.
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(incoming solar radiation) and/or high consistent wind speeds.
Biomass (wood products) represents the only form of
renewable energy that can be readily transported in its primary
state. The burning of wood (biomass) and hydropower
represent the great majority of current renewable energy use in
the U.S. (Fig. 20).
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Hydropower production in the U.S. is a close second to the
world's leader (Canada). Energy is generated when water
dropping from higher to lower elevations is used to drive
turbines that rotate generators to produce electricity. Early
settlers used water wheels alongside rapidly flowing streams.
Today, power is generated by the 200-meter (660 foot) drop of
water within giant dams on western rivers such as the Colorado
(Fig. 23) and Columbia.
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Figure 24.
Geothermal energy
systems exploit
hydrothermal
resources. Heat is
extracted from hot
groundwater and the
cool wastewaters are
returned to the
hydrothermal system.
Solar Energy
Solar energy accounts for approximately 1% of all U.S. energy
use. Passive solar energy refers to using the heat from sunlight
to warm buildings (Fig. 25) and was first used in Greek homes
over 1,500 years ago. It is estimated that sunlight could be used
to supply up to 90% of home heat, depending upon location.
25
Passive solar energy has greater potential in the sunny desert
Southwest than the overcast Pacific Northwest. The use of
passive solar energy can be readily incorporated into the
construction of new homes that can be built with windows
facing south to receive maximum insolation. Unfortunately,
such techniques are less useful in older homes.
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to conduct electricity large distances to serve relatively small
populations (Fig. 27).
Wind Power
Wind power accounts for approximately 0.5% of U.S.
electricity (Fig. 28). Technological advances are making wind
power increasingly competitive with costs ranging from 1 to 10
times those of fossil fuels. Suitable wind velocities (over 20
km/hr) are consistently present over about 13% of the U.S. and
estimates suggest wind power could generate as much as 20%
of U.S. energy in the future.
Think about it . . .
1. Use the Venn diagram found at the end of the chapter
to compare and contrast the characteristics of nuclear
energy and renewable energy resources.
2. The graph located at chapter end compares projected
plots of the generation of wind energy vs. time (1985-
2025) with nuclear energy capacity vs. time (1960-
2000). Make some predictions on the future of wind
energy using the evolution of nuclear power as a
model.
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Air Pollution
• Toxic air pollution killed thousands in the relatively recent
past.
• Industrial emissions are recorded annually by the EPA's
Toxic Release Inventory.
• The concentrations and emissions of six criteria pollutants
are regularly measured against a set of national standards.
• National air quality is improving despite increases in
population, transportation, and economic growth.
• In addition to various health effects, air pollution also
causes acid rain and can reduce visibility.
28
Criteria Pollutants
National Ambient Air Quality Standards have been determined
for only seven pollutants; particulates, sulfur dioxide, carbon
monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, hydrocarbons, and
photochemical oxidants (ozone). The EPA recognizes six
common "criteria" pollutants:
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economic growth and increases in population and
transportation but some locations still are above NAAQS for
individual pollutants or groups of pollutants. The U.S. EPA
estimates that ~80 million people live in counties that exceed
one or more air quality standards.
30
Although some extreme air pollution events, like those in
London in 1952, can be directly linked to severe illness or
death, the health effects associated with less-profound pollution
events are more ambiguous. Health researchers point to a 56%
increase in asthma cases for U.S. residents aged under 18 from
1982 to 1991 and suggest there is a correlation between
pollution levels and illness and mortality rates.
Figure 32. Good (left) In addition to health effects, air pollution can also result in acid
and poor (right)
rain and decreased visibility. Acid rain is precipitated
visibility at the Grand
Canyon, Arizona, as
downwind from areas with sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
a result of air emissions. Acid rains leach nutrients from soils, damage
pollution. From an forests, and may cause the acidification of lakes. Recent data
original series of 15 have highlighted decreasing sulfate levels (less acid rain)
slides at the Grand because of decreasing emissions of contributing pollutants. Air
Canyon Visibility pollutants absorb and scatter light to create a haze that limits
Transport Commission. visibility (Fig. 32).
Summary
1. What is the source for the majority of energy used in the
U.S.?
Fossil fuels account for the bulk of U.S. energy use. Coal,
natural gas, and petroleum are burned to generate electricity
and refined petroleum products (e.g., gasoline) are used in
transportation. Nuclear energy and alternative (renewable)
energy sources (hydroelectric power, biomass) account for the
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remainder of electricity generation and approximately 10% of
all U.S. energy consumption.
32
Global oil reserves are made up of over 1,000 billion barrels of
oil, approximately two-thirds of which is present in countries
of the Middle East (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait).
Major gas deposits are found in the same nations as well as
Russia. Nations with the largest oil reserves typically use
relatively little oil; in contrast, countries that use a lot of oil
(e.g., U.S., Japan, Germany) may have relatively small oil
reserves.
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The world's coal resources are distributed more evenly than oil
and gas resources and favor some of the largest nations. The
U.S. and China contain approximately half of the world's coal.
Within the U.S., there are two regions that contain most of the
nation's coal. Appalachian basin states (e.g., Ohio, Kentucky,
Pennsylvania, West Virginia) produce high-rank bituminous
coals and anthracite. These coals are typically produced from
underground mines. Great Plains states (Montana, Wyoming,
North Dakota, South Dakota, Colorado) produce sub-
bituminous coals from relatively inexpensive surface mines.
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13. What are the advantages to using nuclear power to generate
electricity?
Nuclear advocates typically identify three principal benefits of
the use of nuclear energy: (1) a reduction in air pollution and
decrease in the potential for global warming associated with
fossil fuel use, (2) electricity from nuclear power would reduce
the nation's dependence on foreign oil, (3) new reactors have
safer standardized reactor designs that markedly reduce the
potential for an accident.
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Renewable energy comes in a variety of forms that remain
undiminished with use. It also has the potential to have less of
a negative impact on the environment than fossil fuels or
nuclear power. The principal types of renewable energy
include geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass, solar, and wind.
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burning coal. These activities are concentrated in urban areas
where millions of people live in close proximity and devour
prodigious amounts of energy.
37
Energy Consumption vs. GDP
GDP is a measure of the total production and consumption of
goods and services, think of it as the wealth of the nation.
Energy consumption is the amount of energy used for
transportation, industry, domestic use, commerce, etc. Note
that both measures used in this exercise are per capita (per
person).
China Indonesia
Japan Saudi Arabia
India Brazil
Australia Nigeria
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Venn Diagram: Oil vs. Coal Resources
Use the Venn diagram, below, to compare and contrast the
similarities and differences between the characteristics of oil
and coal resources. Print this page and write features unique to
either group in the larger areas of the left and right circles; note
features that they share in the overlap area in the center of the
image.
Oil Coal
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Sulfur Content vs. Heat Content of U.S. Coal
Examine the map of U.S. coal resources below and predict
where the five numbered points on the graph of sulfur content
vs. BTU might plot on the map.
40
Venn Diagram: Nuclear Energy vs. Renewable
Energy
Use the Venn diagram, below, to compare and contrast the
similarities and differences between the characteristics of
nuclear energy and renewable energy resources. Print this page
and write features unique to either group in the larger areas of
the left and right circles; note features that they share in the
overlap area in the center of the image.
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The Future of Wind Energy
Read the statements below and examine the graph before
answering the questions that follow.
Wind energy has grown more rapidly than any other energy
source in recent years. Approximately 9.6 gigawatts of energy
were generated by wind power in 1998, up from 1 gigawatt in
1985. From 1990 to1998, the global annual rate of growth for
the following energy sources was: wind power 22.2%, oil
1.8%, nuclear power 0.6%, coal 0.0%.
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1. If we assume a comparable growth rate, approximately how
long will we have to wait until wind energy can produce
the same amount of energy as is currently generated by
nuclear power?
a) 3-6 years c) 21-24 years
b) 10-12 years d) 35-40 years
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