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THE MALAY SYARAH (COMMENTARY) OF AL-GHAZZALI’S WORKS (1700-1900)

Megawati Moris

Abstract

It is a well-known fact that al-Ghazzali’s influence in the Malay world or what is Southeast Asia
today is both pervasive and profound. The effect of his influence is evident in Malay-Muslim
religious thought and practice and it is felt until today. One of the evidences which can be used
to gauge this great thinker’s influence is by looking at the translations and commentaries
(syarah) of local scholars of his works into Malay. It has been proven that these Malay
commentaries began in the eighteenth century led by scholars such as ‘Abd al-Samad al-
Palimbani and Dawud al-Patani. There were various types of these translations and
commentaries which ranged from literal translations to commentaries and to what some scholars
considered to be original compositions themselves. These writings, either in manuscript or
printed, are found in local libraries including the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu, Perpustakaan
Negara Malaysia. In this paper I will list six important Malay syarahs and describe briefly on
their style and content with the aim of showing what the Malay scholars considered to be
important from al-Ghazzali’s teachings to be transmitted to the local Malay-Muslims who mostly
did not understand Arabic and hence, could not read the author’s original works. In this way, we
are able to see how the Malay scholars used these Malay syarahs to interpret and transmit the
teachings of Islam to the Muslim community in the Malay world.

Introduction

It is well known and widely accepted that Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali (d. 505/1111),
popularly known as Hujjat al-Islam (Proof of Islam), had a pervasive and profound influence on
the religious life and thought of Muslims in the Malay World 1. Studies have also shown that
environments in the Malay World were conducive to the reception, assimilation and
dissemination of the teachings of tasawwuf or Sufism generally, and of al-Ghazzali particularly. 2

1
In this article, the terms ‘Malay World’ and ‘Malay Archipelago’ are used interchangeably. Occasionally, the term
‘Southeast Asia’ is also used to signify the same meaning. By these three terms is meant the region which has been
the home of people of the Malay racial stock whose lingua franca, historically and presently, is Malay. This region
comprises present day Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, South Thailand and the Philippines.
2
For example, R. O. Winstedt, The Malays: A Cultural History, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1961);
Syed Naguib al-Attas, Some aspects of Sufism as Understood and Practiced among the Malays (Singapore:
Malaysian Sociological Research Institute Ltd., 1963); G. W. J. Drewes, Directions for Travellers on the Mystic
Path (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1977); Azyumardi Azra, Jaringan ulama: Timur Tengah dan Kepulauan
Nusantara abad xvii dan xviii (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, cetakan 5, 1420/1999, cetakan 1, 1994); Nurman Said,
“Al-Ghazzali’s works and their influence on Islam in Indonesia,” (M.A. thesis, Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill
University, Canada, 1996); Alwi Shihab, Islam Sufistik: ‚Islam Pertama‛ dan pengaruhnya hingga kini di Indonesia,
pengantar K. H. Abdurrahman Wahid (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 2001); Martin Van Bruinessen, Kitab kuning:
Pesantren dan tarekat, tradisi-tradisi Islam di Indonesia (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, cetakan 3, 1999, cetakan 1,
1995); Peter G. Riddell, Islam and the Malay-Indonesian World: Transmission and Responses (Singapore: Horizons
Books, 2001); http://venus.igalaksi.com/warisan/bughazali.htm> (accessed 31 July 2002). Article originally
published in Utusan Malaysia, 5 November, 2001 and; Megawati Moris, “The influence of al-Ghazzali on
eighteenth and nineteenth century Malay thinkers and their works, with an analysis of Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad al-

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His influence was indicated from the beginning of the Islamization of the Malay Archipelago in
the thirteenth century until the present time in various forms and with varying degrees of interest
and intensity. His writings, especially on tasawwuf had a great impact on scholars who
translated, summarized, commented and adapted them for Malay and other native languages such
as Javanese and wrote their own works in different areas of thought based on his views and
interpretations. Until today, his books such as Ihya’‘ulum al-din—acknowledged as the most
important and influential work on ethics in Arabic—are studied by not only students in the
Islamic education system but also the average Malay-Muslim since they consider this work to
provide true Islamic knowledge and guidance to right action.

One of the evidences which can be used to gauge this great thinker’s influence is by
looking at the translations and commentaries (syarah) of local scholars of his works into Jawi
which are Malay writings written in a Malay adaptation of the Arabic alphabet with certain
modifications influenced by the Persian. These Jawi translations and commentaries began in the
eighteenth century and in fact the period between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is
considered to be the time where al-Ghazzali’s influence is said to have reached its summit in
Malay-Islamic intellectual history as indicated by the number of such works. 3 They ranged from
literal translations to commentaries and to what some scholars considered to be original
compositions themselves. These writings, either in manuscript or printed, are found in local
libraries including the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu, Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia.

In this paper I have chosen six important and well-known works representing the
different types of Malay syarah in terms of style and presentation focusing on the period
between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries i.e., 1700-1900. I will describe briefly on their
style and content with the aim of showing what the Malay scholars considered to be important
from al-Ghazzali’s teachings to be transmitted to the local Malay-Muslims who mostly did not
understand Arabic and hence, could not read the author’s original works. In this way, we are able
to see how the Malay scholars used these Malay syarah to interpret and transmit the teachings of
Islam to the Muslim community in the Malay world.

These syarah comprise of al-Ghazzali’s basic works on Sufism namely, Bidayat al-
hidayah, Minhaj al-‘Abidin, Ayyuha al-walad and Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, written by four scholars
who were the main proponents and commentators of al-Ghazzali and normative Sufism. These
four scholars are ‘Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani (d. 1203/1789), Dawud ibn ‘Abd Allah al-Patani
(d. 1265/1847), Wan Hasan ibn Wan Ishaq al-Patani (Tuan Hasan Besut) (d. 1325/1908) and
‘Abd al-Samad ibn Muhammad Salih al-Jawi al-Kelantani (Tuan Tabal) (d. 1891). These writers,
especially Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad and Shaykh Dawud, were recognized as the forerunners who
used al-Ghazzali’s teachings as their main perspective and foundation of their works on
tasawwuf.

Palimbani’s Siyar al-salikin, a Malay rendition of the Mukhtasar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din” (Ph.d dissertation, ISTAC
International Islamic University Malaysia, 2007).
3
For a more elaborate account, see Megawati Moris, “The influence of al-Ghazzali.”

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Studies 4 have also shown that through their involvement as students and teachers in
scholarly networks centered in the Haramayn (Mecca and Medina), Malay scholars who resided
in the Middle East (ashab al-Jawiyyin) 5 during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were
spiritually and intellectually connected with representatives of sober (sahw) streams of Sufism;
especially that of al-Ghazzali’s. The chains of transmission--isnads and silsilahs—that were
formed from these networks are extremely significant in that literally centuries-of-teachings were
subsequently passed on to the local Malay-Muslim communities through the writings of Malay
scholars in the networks who inherited these treasures from their masters. The fruits of this
wisdom and knowledge are found in the translations and adaptations of these Malay scholars in
particular.

The Malay Syarah of Al-Ghazzali’s Works

In their original works, Malay scholars incorporated what al-Ghazzali considered the
obligatory (fard ‘ayn) in jurisprudence (fiqh), as well as the principles of religion (usul al-din)
and Sufism (tasawwuf). The Malay scholar’s approach to writing these books is to present the
three sciences, namely, usul al-din, fiqh, and tasawwuf. The first two are considered prerequisites
to the third and are hence, compulsory (fard ‘ayn) for adherents of the Islamic spiritual path
(tariqah). Hence, tasawwuf ranks higher and is nobler than fiqh and usul al-din or kalam. As a
consequence, books on tasawwuf should contain teachings from the other two sciences or
branches of knowledge. In the wake of al-Ghazzali, tasawwuf was considered beneficial
knowledge (‘ilm al-nafi’) since it provided the way to salvation of the human soul and the
attainment of direct knowledge of God (ma‘rifah). What follows below are titles and abbreviated
accounts of six selected translations and adaptations—the latter sometimes referred to as
translations-cum-commentaries of al-Ghazzali’s writings in Jawi by the four Malay scholars
cited previously:

Hidayat al-salikin

The full title of this text is Hidayat al-salikin fi suluk maslak al-muttaqin written by
Shaykh ‘Abd al-Samad. It is one of the most influential and widely taught Malay texts in the
traditional learning institutions for example, the mosques and pondoks 6 in Malaysia, Indonesia
and Singapore until today. This work was completed in Mecca in 1192/1778 and is principally a
translation from al-Ghazzali’s Bidayat al-hidayah 7 with additions from other sources for
example, other works by al-Ghazzali namely, Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, Minhaj al-‘abidin and Kitab al-

4
See for example, John O. Voll’s study, “Hadith scholars and tariqahs: An ulama group in the 18th century
Haramayn and their impact in the Islamic World,” Journal of Asian and African Studies, vol. xv, no. 3-4 (1980): pp.
263-73; Nehemia Levtzion and John O. Voll, “Introduction” in Eighteenth-century renewal and reform in Islam,
Nehemia Levtzion and John O. Voll (ed.), Syracuse University Press, 1987), pp. 3-20; and A. Azra’s Jaringan
ulama, pp. 15-21.
5
The Jawi community, particularly students, is known in the Arab world by this name that derives from the term
‘Jawi’ or ‘Jawah’, representing people from the Malay Archipelago in general. Refer to A. Azra, Jaringan ulama,
pp. 16-17.
6
‘Pondok’ literally means hut but it actually refers to a cluster of buildings used as a center of Islamic education. It
has similar characteristics to the ‘surau’ and ‘pesantren’.
7
The Arabic work, Bidayat al-hidayah fi al-adab wa al-akhlaq wa al-tasawwuf (Cairo: al-Maktabah al-Tijariyyah
al-Kubra, n.d.). For further details on this work see ‘Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Mu’allafat al-Ghazzali (Kuwait:
Wakalat al-Matbu‘at, 1977), pp. 138-40.

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arba‘in fi usul al-din; a work by ‘Abd al-Samad’s spiritual guide and teacher Shaykh
Muhammad bin ‘Abd al-Karim al-Sammani (d. 1189/1776) on the teachings and practices of the
Sammanyyah Order entitled al-Nafahat al-Ilahiyyah fi suluk al-tariqah al-Muhammadiyyah; and
works by scholars of Hadramawt origin such as, Sayyid ‘Abd Allah bin ‘Alawi al-Haddad (d.
1132/1720), and by Sayyid ‘Abd al-Qadir al-‘Aydarus (d. 1038/1628). The group of learned
Sayyids and Sufis from Hadramawt was included by ‘Abd al-Samad as verifiers of al-Ghazzali’s
works because of their chains of transmission (isnad) as authentic commentators of al-Ghazzali’s
works and their local popularity and recognition among the early figures who spread Sufism to
the Malay world. 8

This work—in manuscript and printed forms—carries two titles namely, Hidayat al-
salikin and Bidayat al-salikin; although the contents are the same and the latter title is less
commonly known. 9 In the Pusat Manuskrip Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia (PMM-
PNM) there are manuscript copies which are complete with the title Hidayat al-salikin for
example, MSS 225110, MSS 2467 11 and MS 2666.12 The work was first printed in Cairo, Egypt
(1288/1871) and was edited by the famous Malay editor and scholar Ahmad bin Muhammad
Zayn al-Fatani 13 with subsequent printings in Mecca and in the Malay world. With the maiden
edition and printing of the Hidayat al-salikin in Egypt through the pioneering efforts of Ahmad
al-Fatani, the Malay language was not only introduced into the Middle East but also paved the
way for the publication and printing of other Jawi works on a larger scale. 14

The Hidayat al-salikin is a book on tasawwuf for the elementary (mubtadi’) level. In his
introduction, ‘Abd al-Samad states that the book contains knowledge which brings reverential
fear of God (Arabic: taqwa; Malay: takut akan Allah Ta‘ala) 15 and which is beneficial for this
world and the hereafter that is necessary for every Muslim to acquire. He mentions that his work
is based on al-Ghazzali’s book entitled Bidayat al-hidayah discussing some of its topics in Malay
with additions of some other appropriate topics for the benefit of those who do not know

8
See Anne K. Bang, Sufis and scholars of the sea: Family networks in East Africa, 1860-1925 (London: Routledge
Curzon, 2003), p. 15 and Mostafa al-Badawi, Sufi sage of Arabia: Imam ‘Abdallah ibn ‘Alawi al-Haddad
(Louisville: Fons Vitae, 2005), p. 23.
9
Copies which bear the title Bidayat al-salikin include three manuscript copies kept in the Islamic Arts Museum
Malaysia (IAMM), Kuala Lumpur that were previously kept in the Muzium Islam Pusat Islam; a lithographed
edition in Singapore in 1873; and only one printed edition. However, more printed books use this title. See a
transliterated version of the work published in three volumes by Hj. Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, Hidayatus
salikin Syeikh Abdus Shamad al-Falimbani, (Kuala Lumpur: Khazanah Fathaniyah, third edition/reprint 2000), 1:1.
10
Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, (Kuala Lumpur: Perpustakaan Negara
Malaysia, 2000), p. 6.
11
Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Tambahan Pertama, (Kuala Lumpur:
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, 2001), p. 45.
12
Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Tambahan Kedua, (Kuala Lumpur:
Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia, 2002), p. 49.
13
On this Malay editor and scholar, who is the maternal grandfather of Hj. Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, and his
contributions, see W. M. S. Abdullah, Syeikh Ahmad al-Fathani: Pemikir agung Melayu dan Islam, 2 vols. (Kuala
Lumpur: Persatuan Pengkajian Khazanah Klasik Nusantara & Khazanah Fathaniyah, 1425/2005). See also, C.
Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka in the latter part of the 19th century, trans. J. H. Monahan (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1931), pp.
286-87.
14
W. M. S. Abdullah, Hidayatus salikin, 1:2, p. 6.
15
Referring to the Qur’an (Surat al-baqarah, 2: 197): “And take a provision (with you) for the journey, but the best
of provisions is reverential fear.” Hidayatus salikin, 1:9.

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Arabic. 16 The original work aims to treat the beginning of guidance, defined by al-Ghazzali as
outward piety which entails obeying God’s commands and prohibitions related to man’s outward
aspect or the body. 17 In line with the meaning of outward piety, the book comprises of three
parts: first, acts of devotion; second, the avoidance of sins and third; association with God and
human beings. Interestingly, it is a more basic book compared to the Hidayat al-salikin which
also deals with aspects of inward piety i.e., purification of the soul from vices or evil qualities
which, according to al-Ghazzali, forms the end of guidance.

In the Hidayat al-salikin, ‘Abd al-Samad added expositions on knowledge and the
invocation (dhikr). On the latter subject, he described the methods of the Sammaniyyah Sufi
order (tariqah). 18 He also discussed the ten vices together with the corresponding virtues which
were not included in the Bidayat al-hidayah but were all standard treatments in al-Ghazzali’s
Ihya’‘ulum al-din, Kitab al-arba‘in fi usul al-din and Minhaj al-‘abidin. Overall, the Hidayat al-
salikin is an introductory text that gives brief explanations rather than long elaborations, but as
the title indicates, it provides guidance for travelers i.e., those embarking on the spiritual path
and hence, it is more spiritually advanced and exclusive in terms of its guidance compared to the
original work. The Hidayat al-salikin’s main sources on tasawwuf are also found in ‘Abd al-
Samad’s more comprehensive work the Siyar al-salikin.

The Hidayat al-salikin is arranged into a prologue (muqaddimah), seven chapters

(abwab) and an epilogue (khatimah). The prologue contains two sections (fasl; plural: fusul). The
first, explains the advantages of beneficial knowledge (al-‘ilm al-nafi‘) and the second, gives the
benefits for those who acquire this knowledge. A brief description of the seven chapters is as
follows:

i. The First Chapter (Bab yang Pertama) introduces the foundations of the articles of
faith (‘aqidah; plural: ‘aqa’id) of the Ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah.
ii. The Second Chapter (Bab yang Kedua) gives an exposition on the external forms of
worship (‘ibadah yang zahir).
iii. The Third Chapter (Bab yang Ketiga) expounds on the avoidance of outward
disobedience or evil acts (ma‘siyah yang zahir).
iv. The Fourth Chapter (Bab yang Keempat) is on the avoidance of inward disobedience
or vice (ma‘siyah yang batin). He mentions ten vices which are stated in the Kitab al-
arba‘in. 19 They are: gluttony (Arabic: sharah al-ta‘am; Malay: sangat gemar pada
membanyakkan makan); excessive speech (Arabic: sharah al-kalam; Malay: sangat
gemar pada membanyakkan perkataan); anger (Arabic: al-ghadab; Malay: marah);
envy (Arabic: al-hasad; Malay: dengki); miserliness and love of money (Arabic: al-
bukhl wa hubb al-mal; Malay: kikir dan kasih kepada harta); love of glory (Arabic:
hubb al-jah; Malay: kasih akan kemegahan); love of the world (Arabic: hubb al-

16
Hidayatus salikin, 1:9-10.
17
Muhammad Abul Quasem, Al-Ghazali on Islamic guidance, (Bangi: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 1979), p.
11.
18
During his stay in Medina ‘Abd al-Samad was appointed khalifah by his spiritual guide and Shaykh of the
Sammaniyyah order, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Karim al-Sammani.
19
Abu Hamid al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arba‘in fi uull al-din, ed. ‘Abd Allah ‘Abd al-Hamid al-‘Urwani, (Damascus:
Dar al-Qalam, 1424/2003). On the vices, see the Third Part (al-qism al-thalith): The Purification of the Soul from
Blameworthy Character-traits (tazkiyat al-qalb ‘an al-akhlaq al-madhmumah).

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dunya; Malay: kasih akan dunya); pride (Arabic: al-kibr; Malay: membesarkan diri);
conceit (Arabic: al-‘ujb; Malay: hairan akan diri); and ostentation (Arabic: al-riya’;
Malay: menuntut martabat pada hati makhluq supaya boleh kemegahan padanya).
v. The Fifth Chapter (Bab yang Kelima) gives a treatment on the inward forms of
worship (‘ibadah yang di dalam hati) and explains the ten virtues in Kitab al-
arba‘in. 20 They are: repentance (Arabic: al-tawbah; Malay: tawbat); fear (Arabic: al-
khawf; Malay: takut daripada Allah); renunciation (Arabic: al-zuhd; Malay: benci
akan dunia); patience (Arabic: al-sabr; Malay: sabar); gratitude (Arabic: al-shukr;
Malay: syukur ); sincerity and truthfulness (Arabic: al-ikhlas wa al-sidq; ikhlas dan
benar); trust in God (Arabic: al-tawakkul; Malay: tawakal); love (Arabic: al-
maÍabbah; Malay: kasih akan Allah Ta‘ala); contentment with the Divine decree
(Arabic: al-rida bi al-qada’; Malay: rida dengan qada’ Allah Ta‘ala); and
remembrance of death (Arabic: dhikr al-mawt; Malay: ingat akan mati).
vi. The Sixth Chapter (Bab yang Keenam) gives an exposition on invocation (dhikr), its
merit (fadilah), spiritual etiquette (adab) and method (kayfiyyah).
vii. The Seventh Chapter (Bab yang Ketujuh) explains on the spiritual etiquette (adab) of
companionship (al-suhbah; bersahabat) and intimate association (al-mu‘asharah;
berkasih-kasihan) with the Creator (khaliq) and with creation (al-khalq) i.e.,
associations between God and humans and between human beings. For the latter, the
author initially discusses the spiritual etiquette of the learned followed by the spiritual
etiquette between student and teacher, then between child and parents and lastly,
between friends.
The Epilogue (Khatimah) deals with the etiquette of two groups of people: first, between
people who know each other, and second, between those who are unknown to each other among
the generality of Muslims.
Siyar al-salikin

The full title of this text is Siyar al-salikin ila ‘ibadat Rabb al-‘alamin although it is also
referred to as Sayr al-salikin ila ‘ibadat Rabb al-‘alamin. I have chosen to refer to the work by
its former title based on arguments given in support and because both the Jawi and Romanized
versions of this work are given this title. 21 The Siyar al-salikin is by right a partial translation of
an abridgement (mukhtasar) of al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din by ‘Abd al-Samad since he did
not translate the entire work. He wrote in the preface that he received inspiration from God
Almighty to translate the book of al-Ghazzali “…named Lubab ihya’ ‘ulum al-din that is, the
mukhtasar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din …” in the year 1193/1779. 22 According to ‘Abd al-Samad, the
original work combines the Shari‘ah and the tariqah, and its contents concern the sciences of the

20
See al-Ghazzali, Kitab al-arba‘in, Fourth Part (al-qism al-rabi‘) on The Praiseworthy Character-traits (al-akhlaq
al-mahmudah).
21
For a discussion on the variant reading of the title of the text refer to Megawati Moris, “The Influence of al-
Ghazzali,” pp. 114-120. In this article, I have made references to the following editions of the text: Jawi edition:
Siyar al-salikin ila ‘ibadat Rabb al-‘alamin, 4 juz’, (Bangkok: Maktabah wa Matba‘ah Muhammad al-Nahda wa
awladihi, n.d.). This edition is a reprint of the text published by ‘Isa al-Babi al-Halabi wa Sharikah, Cairo,
1372/1953. In the Eulogy of the book (Taqriz al-kitab) it is stated that the text is from the original manuscript of al-
Shaykh ‘Abd al-Qadir Fatani recorded while he was teaching it. Romanized edition: Siyarus salikin: Jalan para
salik untuk mengabdi diri kepada Tuhan Rabbul ‘alamin, 4 Juz, Perbaikan Bahasa. Muhammad Labib, Tahqiq &
Pembetulan. Syed Ahmad Semait, (Singapura: Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd, 2003).
22
Siyar (J), 1:3: Siyar (R), 1:1.

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principles of religion, jurisprudence and Sufism; all of which benefit those who tread towards the
path of the next world or the hereafter. He said he translated the text to Jawi and made several
useful additions for the benefit of those who do not understand the Arabic language. 23

Generally speaking, he followed the framework of the original text. In terms of the
chapters, he maintained both the number (forty) and their headings. The contents of the
Mukhtasar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din are comprised primarily of verses from the Qur’an; Hadith of the
Holy Prophet (peace be upon him); sayings of the Companions, saints (awliya’), gnostics
(‘urafa’) and pious Muslims (salihin); and al-Ghazzali’s own commentaries extracted from the
Ihya’. ‘Abd al-Samad made many additions to the Mukhtasar ihya’ ‘ulum al-din in three
manners: first, he included sayings from other Sufis especially those who came after al-Ghazzali;
second, he summed up al-Ghazzali’s explanations with his own short commentaries; and third,
he added totally new sections (fusul) not found either in the Mukhtasar al-ihya’ or in the Ihya’.
Hence, although ‘Abd al-Samad considers the Siyar al-salikin as a translation of the Mukhtasar
al-ihya’, there is truth to the claim of Indonesian scholar M. Chatib Quzwain—who wrote a
comprehensive study on the Malay text—that it is not merely a translation, but more accurately,
a composition by ‘Abd al-Samad. 24

‘Abd al-Samad explicitly states his sources and cites them even if they are from al-
Ghazzali’s works, including the Ihya’ itself. ‘Abd al-Samad’s choice of sources shows a
combination of the works of scholars representing three streams of Sufi traditions namely,
Indian, Eastern (mashriqi) or Egyptian, and Western (maghribi). 25 They indicate works of
scholars who form part of the prevalent movement in the Middle East towards a rapprochement
of Shari‘ah and Sufism, and within this framework, the works of al-Ghazzali and his
commentators prove influential. ‘Abd al-Samad was part of this international scholarly
community or network and the authorities he chose for the Siyar al-salikin reflect the syntheses
of the various religious, intellectual and spiritual traditions he inherited and assimilated and of
which he was a product. The Siyar al-salikin is written in Malay and played a vital role in the
transmission process that brought the teachings, perspectives and tendencies as developed from
these networks at the center of the Islamic world to its peripheries; in this case, to the Malay
Archipelago. 26

The contents of this text are contained in four parts or volumes which the author
completed in ten years beginning from 1193/1779 until 1203/1789. 27 There are several copies of

23
Ibid.: Ibid., 2.
24
See M. Chatib Quzwain, Mengenal Allah: Suatu studi mengenai ajaran Tasawuf Syaikh ‘Abdus-Samad al-
Palimbani, (Jakarta: P.T. Bulan Bintang, 1985), p. 29.
25
For example from the Indian tradition the important treatise entitled al-Tuhfah al-mursalah ila al-nabi written by
Muhammad bin Fadl Allah al-Hindi al-Burhanpuri (d. 1029/1620); from the Egyptian stream, works by Zakariyya’
al-Ansari (d. 926 /1526) and ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani (d. 973/1565); and from the Maghrib or North Africa,
works connected to the Shadhiliyyah Sufi order such as, Kitab al-hikam by Ibn Ata’illah al-Iskandari (d. 709/1309).
For a list and analysis of the sources of the Siyar al-salikin, see Megawati Moris, “The Influence of al-Ghazzali,” pp.
121-132.
26
For a comprehensive study on these cosmopolitan networks of scholars centered in the Haramayn see A. Azra,
Jaringan ulama. The English version of this book is, The origins of Islamic reformism in Southeast Asia: Networks
of Malay-Indonesian and Middle Eastern ‘ulama’ in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, (NSW and Honolulu:
ASAA in association with Allen & Unwin and University of Hawai’i Press, 2004).
27
The dates of completion are mentioned by ‘Abd al-Samad himself at the end of each volume of the text.

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the manuscript with the title Sayr al-salikin—both complete and incomplete—in the Pusat
Manuskrip Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia. Three of the completed copies are: MSS 2473, MSS
2665, and MSS 3248. 28 This book continues to be printed and is readily available in book stores
selling religious books in Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia reflecting its continuous
importance and popularity among students as well as the general Malay-Muslim public. In recent
years, two new Romanized editions 29 of the Jawi work have been published with its language
modernized in an attempt to make reading and understanding it easier.

The Siyar al-salikin comprises of a prologue or an introduction, four parts and an

epilogue or a conclusion. The prologue explains on the superiority (fadl) of knowledge. The first
part contains the principles of religion (usul al-din) which includes the beliefs of the Ahl al-
sunnah wa al-jama‘ah (segala i‘tiqad ahli al-sunnah dan jama‘ah) and religious duties i.e., the
outward forms of worship (segala ta‘ah ya‘ni ibadat yang zahir). The second part explains on
the norms of daily life and rules of ethics governing them (‘adat ya‘ni hukum adab yang berlaku
pada ‘adah) for example, in the practices of eating and drinking, marriage, companionship etc.
The third part speaks on the vices or the ways which lead to perdition (muhlikat ya‘ni
membinasakan sekalian ‘amal) i.e., the outward and inward forms of disobedience (yaitu segala
ma‘siyah yang zahir dan ma‘siyah yang batin). The fourth and final part gives an explanation on
the virtues or the ways which lead to salvation (munjiyat ya‘ni melepaskan daripada yang
membinasakan sekalian ‘amal) i.e., the inward forms of worship (yaitu segala ‘ibadah batin).
The epilogue comprises two parts: first, is an explanation of the extent of God’s mercy for His
servants (luas rahmah Allah subhanahu wa Ta‘ala akan hambanya); the second is on the causes
that bring a good ending to death (segala sebab kebajikan kesudahan mati).
Minhaj al-‘abidin

This Jawi work bears the same title in Arabic as written by al-Ghazzali. 30 The full title of
this text is Minhaj al-‘abidin ila jannat Rabb al-‘alamin. It is a translation from the Arabic into
Malay by Dawud al-Patani without the many commentaries or expansions we found in ‘Abd al-
Samad’s Hidayat al-salikin and Siyar al-salikin. There is one copy of the manuscript in its
complete form in Pusat Manuskrip Melayu-Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia i.e., MSS 2310. 31 The work
was completed in Mecca in 1240/1825 and was printed for the first time in Istanbul in
1305/1887. 32 It was widely studied in the Malay world and presently, there are still some
teachers who teach the text in traditional Islamic educational institutions and mosques. 33

28
Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi, PNM Tambahan Pertama 2001, p. 51; Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi
PNM Tambahan Kedua 2002, p. 48; Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi, PNM Tambahan Keempat 2006, p. 118,
respectively.
29
They are: i) Siyarus salikin: Jalan para salik untuk mengabdi diri kepada Tuhan Rabbul ‘alamin, 4 Juz, Pustaka
Nasional Pte Ltd, Singapura, 2003; and ii) Sairus-salikin ila ‘ibadati Rabbil ‘alamin (Perjalanan orang yang salik
kepada Allah), 4 Juzuk, Diedit oleh Abu Ali al-Banjari an-Nadwi (Ahmad Fahmi bin Zamzam), (Pokok Sena:
Khazanah Banjariah, 2002-2003). There is an earlier Romanized edition by A. Muin Umar, (Banda Aceh: Musium
Negeri Aceh, 1985/1986). Unfortunately, this edition is not available to the writer. Refer to A. Azra, Jaringan
ulama, p. 246 note no. 12.
30
An edition of this text which can be downloaded from http://www.ghazali.org/ is Minhaj al-‘abidin ila jannat
Rabb al-‘alamin, ed. Mahmud Mustafa Halawi, (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-Risalah, 1989).
31
Katalog Manuskrip Melayu Koleksi PNM, 2000, p. 47.
32
Printed by al-Matba‘ah al-Haj Muhammad Afandi. The available present editions are printed by al-Ma‘arif Press
of Penang and Muhammad al-Nahdi of Bangkok based on the Egyptian edition published by Dar Ihya’ al-Kutub al-

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In the Minhaj, as its title indicates, the author sets out the path for those who desire the
goal of paradise through worshiping and serving God. In essence, worship is the means and end
for a life of success in this world and the next. According to al-Ghazzali, it is a very difficult path
with many steep inclines (‘aqabat) that are full of danger with obstacles and enemies and few
friends to help along the way. Hence, Dawud al-Patani, following al-Ghazzali, arranges the book
according to each incline comprising of seven ascents as follows:

i. Knowledge (al-‘ilm). Here he emphasizes the importance of knowledge since

without it the act of worship is meaningless. He also discusses on the hierarchy of the
sciences based on what constitutes the obligatory for the performance of the acts of
worship and the attainment of certain knowledge (‘ilm al-yaqin). 34
ii. Repentance (al-tawbah); in which he explains the need for the servant to repent for
his many sins, wrong-doings and vices and sets the necessary obligations and
conditions for it. 35
iii. Obstacles (al-‘awa’iq). In this section, Dawud al-Fatani explicates the four major
impediments of devoted worship and selfless service to God that consist of (a) the
world and what is inside it; (b) human beings; (c) the devil; and (d) the human soul.
He then provides methods on how to overcome each respective obstacle effectively.
The methods are: (1) detachment from the world; (2) isolation from people; (3)
fighting against the devil and defeating him; and (4) disciplining the soul and
suppressing the desires. 36
iv. Obstructions (al-‘awarid). In this section, he enumerates four types of obstruction
that distract the servant from performing and concentrating on his acts of worship
and furnishes the reader with ways to overcome them. First is the servant’s
preoccupation with his sustenance (al-rizq) which can be countered with trust in God
(tawakkul ‘ala Allah); second are thoughts of dangers (al-akhtar) and fears (al-
makhafat) can be overcome by entrusting (tafwid) all of his actions to God; third is
destiny (al-qada’) which should be faced with contentment (rida); and fourth,
adversities and misfortunes (al-shada’id wa al-masa’ib) which are to be endured by
the servant with patience (sabr). 37
v. Inducements (al-bawa‘ith), which comprise the fear (khawf) of God’s punishment,
and the hope (raja’) of reward from God. If these two feelings are under the servant’s
constant control then performing the acts of worship are made smooth and easy. 38
vi. Impairments (al-qawadih); which comprise two blameworthy qualities that can
destroy the servant’s acts of worship, namely, ostentation (riya’) and conceit (‘ujb).

‘Arabiyyah. In this article I refer to the edition printed in Penang by al-Ma‘arif Press, n.d., hereafter cited as Minhaj
(J).
33
In Bogor, Indonesia for example, the text was taught at the Majlis Ta‘lim al-Ihya’ as part of its religious lecture
(kuliah ugama) program for the Muslim community. A modern Indonesian translation and commentary has come
out from the lectures, which ran for several years, conducted by one of Indonesia’s great ‘ulama’ Haji Abdullah bin
Nuh entitled Terjemahan lengkap Kitab minhajul ‘abidin (Jalan bagi ahli ibadah) karangan: al-Imam al-Ghazaly,
(Bogor: Majlis Ta‘lim al-Ihya, 1979). In Malaysia, Hj. W. M. S. Abdullah taught this text traditionally to a group of
his students in Kuala Lumpur until he died in 2007.
34
Minhaj (J), pp. 10-16.
35
Ibid., pp. 16-22.
36
Ibid., pp. 22-72.
37
Ibid., pp. 72-97.
38
Ibid., pp. 97-111

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These two vices can be overcome by the two opposing qualities of sincerity (ikhlas)
and remembrance of God’s grace (dhikr al-minnah). Sincerity will cleanse the
servant’s acts of worship from any intention of ostentation or ‘showing off’ to others
while the constant remembrance of God’s grace and blessings will remove his
feelings of conceit and pride. 39
vii. Praise and gratitude (al-hamd wa al-shukr) for the manifold blessings which God
have bestowed on mankind.

According to al-Ghazzali and as described in the poetic language as translated by Shaykh

Dawud, after the servant has completed the last steep incline and afterwards descends to ‘flat
land’ (jatuhlah ia di dalam tempat turun), he will meet with his goal and desire and will arrive at
the station of blessing and field of longing (perhentian kurnia dan padang rindu) and the garden
of love (tanah lapang mahabbah). He will enjoy the benefits and remain in this state for the rest
of his life: though his body remains in this world his heart is already in the hereafter. When he is
finally called by the Lord of the Worlds, the angels will move him from his happy but transient
state to the eternal Divine Presence (hadrat al-Ilahiyyah) and garden of Paradise (kebun syurga).
There he will meet his Lord, Allah the Almighty, the Merciful, the Benificent and the Exalted
(Tuhan Penghulunya yang amat Kasih Sayang lagi yang mengurniakan dia lagi yang Mulia). 40
Ayyuha al-walad

This small treatise in Malay is a literal translation written by Wan Hasan ibn Wan Ishaq
al-Fatani or Tuan Hasan Besut in 1266/1850 from the Arabic work bearing the same title,
Ayyuha al-walad. It was first printed in Mecca by al-Matba‘ah al-Miriyyah al-Ka’innah in 1311
A.H. 41 The work was originally written by al-Ghazzali in Persian. 42 The original work, since it
was written near the end of his life, it is considered to have set down the Hujjat al-Islam’s
conclusions on tasawwuf or Sufism as the path to God based on his own experience traveling it
and practicing its requirements. 43 It was written in reply to a question from his student who was
himself a learned man and had spent many years studying all the branches of knowledge. The
question he posed was related to which knowledge would be beneficial to him in the afterlife and
which would not be useful so he might abandon the study of those that are not useful. The
student’s concern was based on the Prophet’s hadith: “O Allah, I seek refuge in Thee from
knowledge which does not benefit.” 44

Tuan Hasan, translating al-Ghazzali, began the treatise with the qualification that his
advice would merely be an extraction from the mine of teachings of the Prophet (pbuh) and if the
39
Ibid., pp. 111-128
40
Ibid., pp. 9-10.
41
Refer to Haji Wan Mohd. Shaghir Abdullah, “Tuan Guru Wan Hasan Besut Guru Keluarga Raja dan Masyarakat
Besut” in Ayyuha al-walad pada bicara wasiyat dan nasihat, trans. Tuan al-Shaykh Hasan bin Ishaq al-Fatani,
(Kuala Lumpur: Khazanah al-Fathaniyah, third reprint 1424/2003), pp. 7-11.
42
Al-Murtada al-Zabidi states that, “Ayyuha’l-walad was written in Persian, and certain of the learned men
translated it and called it by this famous name.” In al-Murtada al-Zabidi, Ithaf al-sadat al-muttaqin bi-sharh asrar
ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr, 1311/1893-94), 1:41, as cited by George Henry Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s
Ayyuha’l-walad,” Ph.D thesis, The University of Chicago, U.S.A., 1930, p. 27.
43
George Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad,” p. 15.
44
Hadith: Ibn Majah, Sunan al-Mustafa, Introduction, 23: 1 as cited in N. Faris, Book of knowledge, p. 3. Wan
Hasan Besut, Ayyuha al-walad, p. 4; Al-Ghazzali, Ayyuha al-walad, trans. George Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-
walad,” p. 1. The translation was downloaded from http://www.ghazali.org/works/oson.htm (accessed 3 May 2006).

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student already has knowledge of the Hadith then he has no need of further advice from him.
However, the problem as al-Ghazzali acknowledged, was the difficulty faced in accepting the
advice and working according to it. This applies especially to those who preoccupy themselves
in acquiring formal knowledge (‘ilmu yang resmi) since they believe that knowledge alone is a
means for their safety and salvation. According to al-Ghazzali, knowledge and action should
come together, both are required: “Knowledge is the tree and working is its fruit.” 45 Furthermore
there is accountability in the knowledge that one acquires. A person who acquires knowledge
(mehasilkan ‘ilmu) but does not act according to it (tiada ia ‘amal dengan dia) will be indicted
for it on the day of resurrection. 46

Keeping in mind his student’s question on what is beneficial knowledge, al-Ghazzali

clarifies and Tuan Hasan translates accordingly that the substance of knowledge is obedience and
worship and the meaning of these two essential elements is to adhere and conform to the law
(shara‘) in its commands (suruhan) and prohibitions (tegahan) in word (perkataan) and deed
(perbuatan). Concretely, it means to emulate the Prophet (pbuh) in his speech and action. Since
the Prophet’s example sets the way of the Sufis, al-Ghazzali reminds his student to be focused on
the real challenge of treading the path (berjalan bagi jalan ini), which entails a struggle
(mujahadah) to cut off the lusts of the soul (memputuskan hawa nafsunya) and kill its desires
with the ‘sword of discipline’ (pedang riyadah). Until and unless the veils of negligence (lalai)
and lusts (shahwat) are lifted from the heart, the light of knowledge (ma‘rifah) will not be cast
on it. 47

Al-Ghazzali mentioned that some of the questions asked by his student could not be
answered verbally since they can be known only through experience when the traveler on the
path of God attains the state of realization. However, for the portion that could be explained i.e.,
the conditions necessary for the travelers on the path, he enumerated them as follows: first is true
conviction (i‘tiqad yang sahih) that does not contain heresy (bid‘ah); second is sincere
repentance (tawbat yang nasuh) after which one does not return to sin; third is the satisfaction
(minta rida) of adversaries to the extent that no one has any claims left (tiada tinggal haq) on
him; fourth is the attainment of the knowledge of the laws (‘ilmu shari‘ah) sufficient to perform
God’s commands, and for the science of the hereafter (‘ilmu akhirah), i.e., what is essential for
salvation (kelepasan); 48 fifth that it is indispensable to have a shaykh as a guide (murshid) who
trains the traveler to expel from his soul the evil qualities and replace them with ones that are
noble; sixth is to guard against associations with evil people (orang yang jahat) so that he
curtails the influence of evil jinn and humans from his heart; and seventh is that in all states or
conditions (hal) to prefer poverty (faqr) more than wealth (ghina’). 49

Al-Ghazzali beseeched his student, “to work by what you know, there will be revealed to
you what you do not know.” 50 He reminded his student to be patient for this knowledge to come

45
Wan Hasan Besut, Ayyuha al-walad, p. 6; George Scherer, “Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha ’l-walad,” p. 2.
46
Ibid., pp. 4-6; Ibid., pp. 1-2.
47
Ibid., p. 11; Ibid., p. 5.
48
Ibid., pp. 11-14; Ibid., p. 6.
49
Ibid., pp. 14-15; Ibid., pp. 7-8.
50
Ibid., p. 16; Ibid., p. 9.

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to him because God will show him the signs (ayat) when he reaches the time. He ascertained that
this direct knowledge can only be attained by traveling the spiritual path. 51
Munabbih al-ghafilin

This is said to be ‘Abd al-Samad ibn Muhammad Salih al-Jawi al-Kelantani’s or Tuan
Tabal’s earliest work and he wrote it when he was a young man of twenty-eight. It is recorded as
a Jawi translation of extracts from al-Ghazzali’s Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din and Mishkat al-anwar. 52 This
information is partially correct since at the end of the treatise states that it is a translation of
extracts from the Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din and Mashariq al-anwar not Mishkat al-anwar. The
Mashariq al-anwar was written by ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani (d. 973/1565) and gives
instructions and explanations on the necessity of performing religious duties. 53 Tuan Tabal also
referred to this work in his book, Bab Harap as does ‘Abd al-Samad in his Siyar al-salikin and
additionally mentioned it as one of the important tasawwuf texts for beginners. The latest known
edition of the Munabbih al-ghafilin is the one published in 1955, a reprint of the 1285/1868
edition. A manuscript copy of this work printed by al-Matba‘ah al-Ahliyyah, Kota Bharu,
Kelantan which is now at the Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. 54

The Malay treatise is a short piece of work comprising of forty pages which gives an
exposition on the following topics: first is what is required before death and at the time close to
death (barang yang dituntut dahulu daripada mati dan tatkala hampir dengan mati); second is
an essay on the agonies on the advent of death (kesakitan sakrat al-mawt); and third is on the
states of the dead and those who love God (ahwal segala orang mati dan orang yang kasih
kepada Allah subhanahu wa ta‘ala). 55 Basically, it is a loose translation of excerpts of the first
three chapters of the first part of al-Ghazzali’s Kitab dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba‘dahu (Book of the
remembrance of death and the afterlife) 56 as well as other books in the Ihya’ such as Kitab al-
tawbah (Book on repentance), 57 Kitab al-khawf wa al-raja’ (Book of fear and hope), 58 and Kitab
al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-rida. 59

Tuan Tabal does not divide the text into distinct chapters and sections that comprise the
expositions as they appear in the Ihya’ but writes continuously and without paragraphs.

51
Ibid.; Ibid.
52
See the Australian National University (ANU) Library Catalogue on the Munabbih al-ghafilin available online at
<http://library.anu.edu.au/search/t?SEARCH=munabbih+al-ghafilin> (accessed 7 August, 2004). See also, Nurman
Said, “Al-Ghazzali’s works,” p. 61.
53
Its full title is Mashariq al-anwar al-qudsiyyah fi bayan al-‘uhud al-Muhammadiyyah. (Geschichte der
Arabischen Literatur (GAL) II, 337 no. 14). It is also referred to as al-‘Uhud al-Muhammadiyyah al-qudsiyyah.
54
In this article, we refer to this copy of the work.
55
Munabbih, p. 4.
56
The three chapters are: Chapter One: “On the merit which is in the remembrance of death, and an encouragement
to remember it;” Chapter Two: “On lengthy and brief hopes;” and Chapter Three: “On the agonies and violence of
death, and the states preferable upon its advent.” See, Kitab dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba‘dahu in Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-
mujallad al-rabi‘, 560-589 and al-Ghazali, The remembrance of death and the afterlife (Kitab dhikr al-mawt wa ma
ba‘dahu), Book XL of the Revival of the religious sciences (Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din), trans. T. J. Winter, with an Intro.
and Notes, (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1989), pp. 7-55.
57
Ibid., 9-11. On repentance see Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad al-rabi‘, Kitab al-tawbah, pp. 5-82.
58
Ibid., 32-36. Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad al-rabi‘, Kitab al-khawf wa al-raja’, 4:198-256. English translation
by William McKane, Al-Ghazali’s book of fear and hope, (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962). See especially pp. 64-80.
59
Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din, al-mujallad al-rabi‘, Kitab al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-rida, 4:375-414.

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Nonetheless, in terms of explaining of the subject matter, his writing maintains a continuous
flow, remains systematic and is simple to understand. Tuan Tabal quotes many hadiths cited by
al-Ghazzali in the Ihya’. In the body of the text, he does not mention his sources, which is a
contrast from the style of ‘Abd al-Samad who states explicitly his sources whenever he quotes
them. However, Tuan Tabal clearly has a profoundly sound grasp of the original master’s
teachings which he translated in elegant language and reproduced faithfully in a simple and
comprehensible style.

Minhat al-Qarib

The full title of this text is Minhat al-Qarib al-Mujib wa mugni al-Raghibin fi al-taqrib.60
As the author stated, the Minhat is a translation-cum-commentary written in Jawi of parts of al-
Ghazzali’s Bidayat al-hidayah, Minhaj al-‘abidin and the Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din as well as ‘Abd al-
Wahhab al-Sha‘rani’s al-Bahr al-mawrud fi al-mawathiq wa al-‘uhud and Sharh wasiah
Matbuliyyah. 61 This is Tuan Tabal’s largest and most comprehensive work and comprises three
hundred and twenty-seven pages. Its contents are divided into the three requisite sciences
namely, usul al-din, fiqh and tasawwuf following al-Ghazzali’s classification and division of
knowledge. Hence, the book is based on the framework of the Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din in terms of the
arrangement of subject matters discussed.

The work begins with an address (khutbah al-kitab) on the excellence of knowledge and
the learned based on several ahadith characteristic of al-Ghazzalian introductions, which
emphasizes the superiority of the science of tasawwuf. 62 The first section of the work is an
exposition on the creed (al-‘aqidah) of the Ahl al-sunnah wa al-jama‘ah which reproduces
important points from the Kitab qawa‘id al-‘aqa’id (Book of foundations of the articles of faith)
of the Ihya’. 63 The second section is on fiqh and comprises the bulk of the work which is divided
into sixteen books that are subdivided into chapters and sections. It begins with expositions on
the acts of worship as follows: first on purification (Arabic: al-taharah; Malay: bersuci); second
on ritual prayer (al-salah; sembahyang); third on almsgiving (al-zakah); fourth on fasting (al-
sawm; puasa); and fifth on the pilgrimage (al-hajj wa al-‘umrah). 64 Subsequently, it expounds
on matters that invalidate acts of worship and of some norms of daily life (‘adat) as developed in
the Ihya’ and several other items that are not. The order of these Books are as follows: sacrifice
(al-udhiyyah; korban); selling and others (al-bay‘ wa ghayrihi; berjual dan lainnya); distributive
shares in an estate (al-fara’id); marriage (al-nikah}); crime (al-jinayah), rebellion (al-bughah);
adultery (al-zina); holy war (al-jihad; berperang sabil); food (al-at‘amah; makanan); racing (of
horses and camels) (al-musabaqah; berlumba); judiciary (al-qada’); freeing of slaves (al-i‘taq;
memerdeheka i.e., memerdeka). 65 In the last section of the Minhat al-Qarib i.e., on tasawwuf, it
begins with a chapter on repentance followed by an exposition on the etiquette of companionship
and social intercourse (adab al-sahabah wa al-mu‘asharah; bersahabat dan sekedudukan).

60
Printed by al-Matba‘ah al-Kamaliyyah, Kota Baharu, 1354 A.H.
61
Named for Ibrahim al-Matbuli (d. ca. 877/1472), the spiritual leader of Sha‘rani’s Shaykh, ‘Ali al-Khawwas, and
a prominent Sufi Shaykh affiliated to the Ahmadiyyah tariqah who lived in Cairo in the ninth century/fifteenth
century. On al-Matbuli, see Michael Winter, ‘Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha‘rani, pp. 93-99.
62
Minhat al-Qarib, pp. 2-5.
63
Ibid., pp. 5-7.
64
Ibid., pp. 7-84.
65
Ibid., pp. 91-224.

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Subsequently, he deals with the all-important subject of avoiding vices or the evil qualities of the
soul (al-ma‘asi al-qalb; segala ma‘siyat hati) and its virtues or the good qualities of the soul (al-
ta‘ah al-batiniyyah; ta‘at yang dibangsakan kepada batin). The book ends with an epilogue
(khatimah) that provides an exposition on the love of God and its remembrance (mahabbah Allah
ta‘ala; kasihkan Allah ta‘ala) and the merits of the invocation (kelebihan berdhikir). 66

According to renowned Malay scholar El-Muhammady, who first introduced Tuan Tabal
and his works to wider Malay readership, this text presents the structure of the religious sciences
in Islam from the viewpoint of an ordinary member of Muslim society in its consideration of the
duties of human beings. Hence, this book is directed to each member of the Muslim society. 67
Interpreting and Transmitting al-Ghazzali’s Teachings

The Malay syarahs of al-Ghazzali’s works we have investigated were written in various
styles and forms that ranged from literal translations to summaries and commentaries to
adaptations which included other authors’ works besides those of al-Ghazzali’s. However, these
Jawi works remain faithful to the teachings of the original master and the additions from other
scholars mostly lend support to his basic teachings. The choice of later commentators the Malay
scholars refer to in their works all come from the same tradition of normative Sufism and these
commentators possess a deep understanding of al-Ghazzali’s teachings as well as are familiar
with his writings.

The authors of these Malay syarahs focussed on works which are classified as
introductory or for the beginners and they laid out the principles and their explications for the
readers in a language and vocabulary which are easily understood. They were aware of the needs
of the community to ground themselves in the Shari‘ah and restrict the subject matter to what are
considered fard ‘ayn in the three important sciences of usul al-din, fiqh and tasawwuf. Therefore,
although the study of tasawwuf is the final aim they believe, following al-Ghazzali, it must
always be understood in relation to the principles of faith and belief followed by the
requirements of the Divine Law before meaningful actions can be performed. Judging from the
syarahs, it is evident that these Malay scholars embody all three branches of knowledge. Since
the ultimate aim of tasawwuf is knowledge of God, the Malay scholars must necessarily include
metaphysics in these works to provide a complete framework of knowledge. They customarily
translate the Andalusian Sufi al-Shaykh al-Akbar, Ibn al-‘Arabi’s (d. 1165/1240) expositions on
this subject referring to their favorite commentators. In this way, although the metaphysical
explanation comes from Ibn al-‘Arabi but the whole perspective of ethics and spirituality is still
characteristically al-Ghazzali’s and the demands for orthodoxy remains intact.

Based on the examination of the Siyar al-salikin, a model of a translation-cum-

commentary which showed al-Ghazzali’s influence most clearly and fully in terms of his
teachings and invited the most creative response from its Malay commentator, it can be said that
the Malays were not merely passive translators but creative interpreters and transmitters of al-

66
Ibid., pp. 224-328.
67
Muhammad ‘Uthman el-Muhammady, “Perhubungan guru-murid dalam satu teks ajaran Islam dari Malaya abad
ke-xix,” in Peradaban dalam Islam, (Kota Bharu: Pustaka Aman Press Sdn. Bhd., 1982), p. 133.

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Ghazzali’s teachings. 68 ‘Abd al-Samad, representing the Malay translators and commentators,
selected relevant principles derived from the original text, interpreted and applied them to local
contexts and situations. For example, ‘Abd al-Samad attempted to solve the root problems of
knowledge and orthodoxy faced by the Malay-Muslim community of his time by applying the
principle of hierarchy contained in the Qur’an and Hadith taught by all Sufi gnostics (al-‘arifin)
through the ages. In this way, they made the received knowledge relevant and useful to the
Malay-Muslim community.

Conclusion

Al-Ghazzali’s presence continues to be felt in the life and thought of Muslim

communities in Southeast Asia with the perpetual instruction and study of his works in the
institutions of religious learning such as the pondok, madrasah and pesantren. In these places of
learning especially in the Indonesian pesantrens, his teachings on ethics and Sufism make up the
core contents of the instruction of the science of tasawwuf together with other works categorized
under the same orthodox school. Since his works are taught within the parameters of Shafi‘i fiqh
and Ash‘ari kalam, his influence will remain significant for Muslims in Southeast Asia who are
overwhelmingly Sunnis. In addition, their historical reverence for his spirituality and religiosity
and respect for his knowledge and scholarship will continue to make him a vital figure and his
teachings significant in the Islamic education system. 69

In recent times, there is a strong wave of translation activity of al-Ghazzali’s works into
modern Malay and especially, Indonesian language which began in the 1990’s. These
translations comprise of his works in various fields, not just in tasawwuf, as has been
traditionally the case. Many of these translations are directed towards a more general rather than
a specialized readership. 70 These translations are important channels for transmitting his
68
For a detailed examination and account of the Siyar al-salikin, see Megawati Moris, “The influence of al-
Ghazzali,” Chapter Four.
69
Based on Martin van Bruinessen’s study of texts (kitab kuning) used in Indonesian pesantren which he published
as part of his book cited earlier, Kitab Kuning. Here, we refer to his findings written in an English article, “Kitab
Kuning: Books in Arabic Script Used in the Pesantren Milieu,” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, vol.
146 (1990):27-28 via<http://www.let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/kitab_kuning.htm> and a
related article, “Pesantren and kitab kuning: maintenance and continuation of a tradition of religious learning” in
Texts from the islands. Oral and written traditions of Indonesia and the Malay world, ed. Wolfgang Marschall,
(Berne: University of Berne, 1994), via
<http://www.let.uu.nl/~martin.vanbruinessen/personal/publications/pesantren_and_kitab_kuning.htm>, p. 4.
70
See for example, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Ilmu Laduni, trans. from Arabic by Abdullah bin Mohammad
(NAKULA), (Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1993); al-Imam al-Ghazali, Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam
al-Ghazali, vol. 2-6, (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-‘ilmiyyah, 1994); Risalah-risalah al-Ghazali, trans. from Arabic by
Irwan Kurniawan, (Bandung: Pustaka Hidayah, 1997); Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, “al-Durr al-fakhirah,” “al-Ajwibah
al-Ghazaliyyah fi al-masa’il ukhrawiyyah” and “al-Madnun bihi ‘ala ghayr ahlihi” from Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam
al-Ghazali, (Beirut: DÉr al-fikr, 1996), Metafisika alam akhirat, trans. Wasmukan and Mohammad Luqman
Hakiem, (Surabaya: Risalah Gusti, 1997); Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, “Mi‘raj al-salikin” and “al-Qistas al-mustaqim”
in Majmu‘ah rasa’il al-Imam al-Ghazali, (Beirut: Dar al-fikr, 1996), Tangga ma‘rifatullah, trans. Wasmukan,
(Surabaya: Risalah Gusti, 2000); al-Imam al-Ghazali, Taubat dan Liku-Likunya, trans. and summary by Syed
Ahmad Semait, (Singapore: Pustaka Islamiyah Pte. Ltd. second edn. 2000); al-Ghazali, Mishkat al-anwar, (Beirut:
Dar al-Fikr, 1994), Tafsir ayat cahaya dan telaah kritis pakar, trans. Drs. Hasan Abrori MA. and Drs. Mashur
Abadi, (Surabaya: Pustaka Progressif, second edn. 2002); and a series of translations in Romanized modern
Indonesian of his works published by Penerbit Pustaka Sufi, Yogyakarta, 2003. These books are handy, pocket-sized

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teachings in non-traditional fields for example, philosophy, 71 which were previously not made
available to the Muslim communities in their native tongue. In addition, they will provide a
greater awareness and better appreciation of the versatility of his knowledge and contribution to
the different sciences and disciplines. Through these modern translations, his religious and
intellectual legacy will abide in the life and thought of Muslims in Southeast Asia.

with attractive covers and quality printing. The series also include translations of works on al-Ghazzali written in
English by Western scholars of Islam for example, Nicholas Heer, “Abu Hamid al-Ghazali’s esoteric exegesis of the
Koran,” and William Chittick “The myth of Adam’s fall in Ahmad Sam‘ani’s Rawh al-arwah” in The heritage of
Sufism: Classical Persian Sufism from its origin to Rumi (700-1300), One World Publications, 1999, Tafsir esoteris
Gazali dan Sam‘ani, trans. Ribut Wahyudi, (Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Sufi, 2003).
71
Al-Ghazali, Tahafut al-falasifah: Kekacauan para filsuf, trans. from the Indonesian by Kamariah Mohd. Ali,
(Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, first ed. 1989, 1993).

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