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SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY
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Ar.SELVENDIRAN
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Introduction to A/C conditions, basic of refrigeration systems, components of refrigeration system, compressor,
condenser, control devices, evaporator, filters cooling tower. Vapour compression cycle. Concepts of cooling load, calculation of cooling load –
conductivity, transmission heat load, internal heat gain, concepts of zoning, room air distribution – types of outlets.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is that branch of science dealing with the mechanical action of heat. There are certain fundamental principles of
nature, often called laws of thermodynamics, which govern our existence here on Earth, several of which are basic, in the study of
refrigeration.
The first and most important of these laws is the fact energy can neither be created or destroyed, but can be converted
from one type to another.
HEAT
Heat is a form of energy, primarily created by the transformation of other types of energy into heat energy. For examples,
mechanical energy turning a wheel causes friction which creates heat.
TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the scale used to measure the intensity of heat, the indicator that determines which way the heat energy will move.
In the United states, temperature is normally measured in degrees Fahrenheit, but the Centigrade scale (sometimes termed Celsius) is widely
used in other parts of the world. Both scales use two points as reference, the freezing point of water and the boiling point of water at sea
level. Water freezes at 32°F or 0°C., and water boils at sea level at 212°F. or 100°C.
On the Fahrenheit scale, the temperature difference between these two points is divided into 180 equal increments or degrees F., while on
the Centigrade scale the temperature difference is divided into 100 equal increments or degrees C. The relation between Fahrenheit and
Centigrade scales can always be established by the following formulas:
Fahrenheit – 9/5 (Centigrade plus 32°)
Fahrenheit – 5/9 (Fahrenheit plus 32°)
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION:
A change of substance from a solid to a liquid or from a liquid to a solid involves the latent heat of fusion. It might also be termed
the latent heat of melting, or the latent heat of freezing.
LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION:
A change of a substance from a liquid to a vapour, or from a vapour back to a liquid involves the latent heat of evaporation.
When one pound of water boils or evaporates, it absorbs 970 Btu’s at a constant temperature of 212°F and to condense one pound
of steam to water 970 Btu’s must be extracted from it.
The absorption of heat by changing a liquid to vapour, and the discharge of that heat by condensing the vapour is the keystone to
the whole mechanical refrigeration process, and the movement of the latent heat involved is the basic means of refrigeration.
SATURATION TEMPERATURE :
Saturated temperature: Temperature of a liquid, vapor, or a solid, where if any heat is added or removed, a
change of state takes place.
PRESSURE TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP FOR LIQUID REFRIGERANTS :
For any given pressure, refrigerants have a saturation temperature. If the pressure is low, the saturation temperature is low. If pressure is
high, saturation temperature is high.
The temperature at which liquid refrigerant boils is dependent on the pressure exerted on it. The vapour pressure of the liquid, which is the
pressure being exerted by the tiny molecules seeking to escape the liquid and become vapour, increase with an increase in temperature until
at the point where the vapour pressure equals the external pressure, boiling occurs.
REFRIGERANTION CYCLE COMPONENTS : VAPOUR COMPRESSION CYCLE :
The main components of a vapour compression type refrigeration cycle are:
a. COMPRESSOR
b. CONDENSER
c. EXPANSION VALVE
d. EVAPORATOR
COMPRESSOR:
A compressor is used to maintain the flow of the refrigerant and to raise the pressure of the refrigerant so that it can be condensed suitably
and reused many times.
The compressor is the heart of the system. The compressor does just what it’s name is. It compresses the low pressure refrigerant vapor from
the evaporator and compresses it into a high pressure vapor.
Reciprocating compressor has one or more piston and cylinder combinations. In this type of compressor, the pistons are designed in similar
fashion to those used in a car engine: they slide inside a cylinder, drawing in and compressing the gas refrigerant. Each cylinder features a
EVAPORATOR:
Evaporator is a heat exchanger and transfers the heat from the substance to be cooled to the liquid refrigerant and converts it to vapour.
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• Group E: In or near ceiling, vertical discharge
Types of air-conditioning
The indoor cabinet unit comprises of Compressor, Evaporator, expansion valve and relatively a powerful blower. The outdoor unit
comprises of air cooled condenser which rejects the heat. Both the units are connected by copper pipes to facilitate refrigerant flow.
Water cooled option is also available. The water cooled condenser is located in the indoor unit. The heat is rejected to water and
thro pumps the water goes to the cooling tower, rejects heat and goes back to the condenser for picking up more heat.
Packaged units are mainly used for offices and show rooms. Advantages are these units are rugged, multiple units can be used for
large areas, easy and fast installation, can handle long duct runs and higher air quantity requirements, the services are restricted to the unit
room.
Disadvantages are multiple units for larger applications, floor space is required for locating the units.
A variation of the above is the Ductable split units are mainly used for offices and show rooms. In this version the indoor unit is ceiling
suspended and comprises the evaporator and expansion valve. The outdoor unit comprises of the compressor and air-cooled condenser.
Advantages are this unit does not occupy floor space and can handle different areas. Disadvantages are too many units are used for
large spaces, restriction on the length of refrigerant piping, too many outdoor units, limitations on static pressure available, limitations on the
air quantity available, difficulty in servicing/cleaning the coils, high noise level in the work areas.
CENTRAL AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM:
DX CENTRAL PLANT :
The system uses multiple scroll compressors and the capacity varies from 5 TR to 80 TR. In this system the refrigerant gas directly
cools the air hence DX ( Direct Expansion ). The AHU is customized hence it can be used for heavy duty and non-standard applications.
They use air-cooled or water cooled condensers. A DX plant is most efficient from the thermodynamic point of view since the heat transfer is
directly between the refrigerant and air.
CHILLER PLANT :
Whenever it is not possible to install a single DX plant, because of restriction on the length of the refrigerant piping, in such cases
chilled water system is used. Also when large number of smaller zones are required to be air-conditioned then the practical arrangement will
be a chiller system.
In a chilled water system the chiller plant chills water. Then the water is pumped to the cooling coil in the Air Handling Unit – AHU. The chilled
water then cools the air. This is an indirect system of cooling.
Water can be easily pumped for long distances without any loss. In case of multistoried buildings or multiple buildings a chilled water system
with a single air-conditioning plant, it is possible to air-condition
the entire building with multiple air handling units and fan coil units. This also gives flexibility of usage.
Capacities available are from 10 to 1500 TR in single machine, multiple units can be used for larger installations. And available in air cooled and
water cooled versions with Scroll, Screw and Centrifugal type Compressors.
Disadvantages are slightly longer lead times, extensive site work,costlier than DX systems, packaged / split units especially for small jobs. Also
needs trained manpower to operate.
Ductable Split Units :
PACKAGED AIRCONDITIONERS
DX CENTRAL PANT :
A variable-air-volume (VAV) air-conditioning system varies the volume of constant temperature air that is supplied to meet the
changing load conditions of the space.
The VAV system controls air from a single supply duct and varies the airflow to each zone or room based upon the temperature in the room. A
VAV system consists of four basic parts: a thermostat, a precision actuator controlled damper, an airflow sensor, and a controller. Whenever
the load comes down in a particular room the thermostat senses it and send signal to the controller and in turn the damper tends to close and
air supply is reduced. Due to the closure of the damper pressure builds up in the ducting system. A pressure sensor sends this signal to
Variable Frequency Drive ( VFD ) and in turn the VFD reduces the speed of the fan. For example by reducing 20 % of the speed we can expect
50 % reduction in the energy cost of the fan.
EQUIPMENT SPACING :
While planning for the space requirements of AC Equipment
quipment rooms the following guidelines may be used.
TYPE OF EQUIPMENT
EQUIPMEN SPACE REQUIREMENT
Packaged unit room 3m x 2m – Single unit
3m x 4 m – Two units
3 m x 5 m – Three units
AHU Rooms 4m x 3m – upto 30 TR
4m x 5 m – upto 60 TR
Water Cooled chiller plants 6m x 6m for each plant and pumps.
pumps. 3m x 3m open space for
cooling tower.
t
Air cooled chiller plants 10 m x 8 m open space for one plant and pumps.
CEILING SUSPENDED
COOLING TOWER
In a water cooled system the heat to be rejected is picked by water. Now to cool the water a cooling tower is used. A cooling tower is an
equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere.
Cooling towers are used to reject heat through the natural process of evaporation. Warm recirculating water is sent to the cooling
cooling tower
where it is sprayed
sprayed through nozzles into the air.
A portion of the water is evaporated into the air passing through the tower. As the water evaporates, the air absorbs heat, which
which lowers the
temperature of the remaining water.
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This process provides significant cooling to the remaining water stream that collects in the tower basin where it can be pumped back into the
system to extract more process or building heat, thereby allowing much of the water to be used repeatedly to meet the cooling demand.
The two types are :
Natural draft tower :
Natural
Natural draft towers are constructed of wooden louver held on wooden uprights. Nowadays plastic louvers are also available. The space
enclosed by the louvers has a water spray system on the top. Warm water from the condenser is sprayed by nozzles – This finely atomized
water flows by gravity into a small collecting basin.
Since its performance depends on existing air currents, ordinarily, a roof top is an excellent location. Louvers must be placed
placed on all sides of a
natural draft tower to reduce
reduce drift.
The drift loss ( loss of water due to wind movement ) and space requirements of a natural draft tower are much greater than for for other cooling
tower designs.
Mechanical draft tower :
These towers use a motor and fan to pull ( induced draft ) or push ( forced draft ) a constant volume of air through the tower. The water is
sprayed through nozzles into the draft thereby evaporating rapidly and cooling the rest of the water. The heat transfer area is enhanced due
to PVC fills. Water is collected at the base and again sent to the condenser for cooling.
Design Criteria for selecting the air conditioning system for large buildings :
DX CENTRAL PLANT :
When to use :
1. If requirement exceeds 400 sq.m.
2. For heavy duty offices, showrooms, industries etc.
3. Single zone areas.
When not to use :
1. Multizone areas.
2. When copper pipe length is more than 50 feet
CHILLER PLANT :
W
When to use :
1. If requirement does exceeds 2000 sq.m. sq.m.
2. If used for heavy duty commercial and industrial applications like IT Parks, Star Hotels, Hospitals, Major offices, Major showrooms,
showrooms,
Industries, non-standard
non standard application etc.
3. Multizone Zone areas.
4. If plantnt has to be located far way from usage
When not to use :
If requirement is highly variable and may go down to less than 40 %.
ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES :
1. Select proper system taking the usage into account.
2. Ensure design is based on low pressure drop in piping and ducting system.
3. Consider latest insulation materials like elastomeric in place of fiberglass / expanded polystyrene.
4. Go for variable frequency drives for all motors.
5. Go for pre-insulated
pre insulated pipes in place of site insulation.
6. Go for factory fabricated
fabricated ducts in place of site fabrication.
7. Go for double skin AHU in place of single skin AHU.
8. Go for direct drive plug fans in place of belt driven centrifugal fans.
9. Go for VAV – Variable Air Volume systems to control air in smaller rooms which are part of a bigger office.
10. Go for Energy Recovery Ventilator – ERV for maintaining IAQ as per standard and still recovering 70 % energy.
11. Go for building management systems – BMS.
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HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SERVICES FOR LARGE BUILDINGS
The horizontal distribution system for mechanical and electrical services in a large building should be planned simultaneously with
the structural frame and the interior finish systems, because the three are strongly interrelated. The floor–to-floor height of a building is
determined in part by the vertical dimension needed at each story for horizontal runs of ductwork and piping. The selection of finish ceiling,
partition, and floor systems is often based in part on their ability to contain the necessary electrical and mechanical services and to adjust to
future changes in these services. All these strategies involve close cooperation among the architect and the structural and mechanical
engineers.
CONNECTING HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION LINES
Horizontal mechanical and electrical lines must be fed by vertical lines through smooth, functional connections. Plumbing waste
lines, which must be slopped to drain by gravity, have top priority in the planning of horizontal service lines; if they are confined to vertical
plumbing walls, they will not interfere with other services. Sprinkler heads, which have the second highest priority in the layout of horizontal
services, are served from the fire standpipe by horizontal piping that seldom exceeds 4 in. (100mm) in outside diameter. The spacing of the
2
heads is coordinated with the placement of walls and partitions; the maximum coverage per head is about 200 sq.ft(18.6m ) in light-hazard
2
buildings. Coverage in industrial and storage buildings ranges from 130 to 90 sq.ft(12.1 to 8.4 m ) per head, depending on the substances
handled in the building;
Air conditioning ducts is the next priority. In the AHU room the return air will mix with outside fresh air and then will be taken inside
the AHU. The AHU will filter the air, cool and dehumidify it and then feed it to the ductwork for further distribution. The supply air ducts will
be taken above the false ceiling and fed to the area to be air-conditioned through grilles/diffuser. Return air is usually collected above the false
ceiling and the space available between the false ceiling and ceiling slab will act as return air path to the AHU room.
Diffusers are generally required at the rate of one for every 150 sq.ft.
GROUP HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION IN CENTRAL CORRIDORS
Sometimes the major runs of ductwork, piping and wiring can be grouped in the ceiling area above the central corridor of each floor
of a building, leaving the ceilings of the surrounding rooms essentially “clean”. This works especially well in hotels, dormitories, and apartment
buildings that rely on above ceiling all-water system. A low corridor ceiling is readily accepted in exchange for high, unobstructed space in the
occupied rooms, where the structure may be left exposed as the finish ceiling, saving cost and floor-to-floor height.
FLOORWISE HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION
In broad expanses of floor space, particularly where all electrical and communications services must be available at any point in the
area, an entire horizontal layer of space is reserved on each story for mechanical and electrical equipment.