STUDY OF SOLUTIONS Processes that are exothermic tend to proceed spontaneously.

Processes that are exothermic tend to proceed spontaneously. A solution will not form if ΔHsoln is too endothermic.
Solubility —is the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified The solute-solute interaction must be strong enough to make ΔH3 comparable in magnitude to ΔH1 + ΔH2. This
temperature explains why ionic solutes such as NaCl do not dissolve in nonpolar liquids such as gasoline.The nonpolar hydrocarbon
molecules of the gasoline would experience only weak attractive interactions with the ions, and these interactions would
A solution is formed when one substance disperses uniformly throughout another. not compensate for the energies required to separate the ions from one another.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY By similar reasoning, a polar liquid such as water does not form solutions with a nonpolar liquid such as octane
(C8H18). The water molecules experience strong hydrogen-bonding interactions with one another.
NATURE OF SOLUTE AND SOLVENT
The ability of substances to form solutions depends on two general factors: PRESSURE EFFECTS
1. The types of intermolecular attractions involved in the solution process -solubilities of solids and liquids are not appreciably affected by pressure,
2. The natural tendency of substances to spread into larger volumes when not restrained in some way whereas the solubility of a gas in any solvent is increased as the pressure over
the solvent increases.
The effect of Intermolecular Forces -When equilibrium is established, the rate at which gas molecules escape from the
solution enter the solution equals the rate at which the gas escape from the solution
Ex: Ion-dipole--- ionic to enter the gas phase. If PRESSURE is INCREASED, the rate at which gas
substances in water molecules strike the surface to enter the solution phase would therefore INCREASE.
C6H14 dissolves in another -the solubility of the gas increase in direct proportion to its partial pressure
nonpolar like CCl4 above the solution
The extent to which one
substance is able to dissolve TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
in another depends on the Solubility of gases in liquids
relative magnitudes of the The solubility of gases in water decreases with increasing temperature.
solute-solvent, solute-solute,
and solvent-solvent Ex: Decreased solubility of O2 in water as temperature increases is one of the
interactions involved in the effects of thermal pollution of lakes and streams. The effect is particularly serious
solution process. in deep lakes because warm water is less dense than cold water. It therefore tends
to remain on top of cold water, at the surface. This situation impedes the
Ex: NaCl dissolves readily in water because the attractive interactions between the ions and the polar H2O dissolving of oxygen into the deeper layers, thus stifling the respiration of all
molecules (solute-solvent interactions) overcome the attraction between the ions in the solid NaCl(solute-solute aquatic life needing oxygen. Fish may suffocate and die under these conditions.
interactions) and between H2O molecules in the solvent (solvent-solvent interactions)
Solubility of solids in liquids
Solvation — interactions between solute and solvent molecules The solubility of most solid solute in water increases as the temperature of the
*Hydration when the solvent is water solution increases.
Why doesn’t NaCl dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as hexane, C6H14? May either increase or decrease with the change in temperature depending on
Rule of thumb: “Like dissolves like” whether the solution process is endothermic or exothermic.
Endothermic--↑T, ↑solubility
Energy Changes and Solution Formation Exothermic--↑T, ↓solubility
↑T, entropy is increased; dissolution of solids in liquid is thus favoured because
the liquid sate is more disorderly than the solid state.
Formation of a homogenous solution has increased the degree of dispersal, or
randomness, because the molecules of each substance are now mixed and
distributed in a volume twice as large as that which they occupied individually
before mixing. The degree of randomness in the system, sometimes referred to
as disorder, is given by a thermodynamic quantity called entropy.
Processes occurring at a constant temperature in which the randomness or
dispersal in space (entropy) of the system increases tend to occur spontaneously.

SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

Types of solutions based on the relative amounts of dissolved and undissolved solutes

saturated— a solution which contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute necessary for the existence of
equilibrium between the dissolved and undissolved solute at a given temperature.
[solute]=solubility of solute
unsaturated—a solution which is less concentrated than a saturated solution
ΔH1>0 ≡separation of solute molecules—endothermic [solute]< solubility of the solute
ΔH2>0 ≡separation of solvent molecules—endothermic supersaturated— a solution which is more concentrated than a saturated solution
ΔH3<0 ≡formation of solute—solute interactions—exothermic —a solution which contains an amount of solute more than what it can accommodate at given temperature
Ex: Magnesium sulphate MgSO4added to water, the resultant solution gets quite warm ΔHsoln= -91.2 kJ/mol [solute]> solubility of solute