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1 Overview ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
2.8 Mobility............................................................................................................................................. 8
3 LTE Architecture...................................................................................................................................... 11
5 Layer 2 .......................................................................................................................................................37
ii
6 RRC ........................................................................................................................................................... 45
6.3 NAS State and the Relationship With the RRC State ..................................................................... 47
iii
8.3.4 MU-MIMO ...........................................................................................................................71
iv
Figure of Content
v
Figure 5.1-2 Mapping between uplink logical channels and transport channels .....................................40
Figure 5.2-1 RLC PDU Structure ............................................................................................................42
Figure 5.3-1 PDCP PDU Structure ..........................................................................................................43
Figure 7.1-1 Orthogonal Subcarriers ........................................................................................................51
Figure 7.1-2 OFDM Modulator ................................................................................................................51
Figure 7.1-3 OFDM Subcarriers ..............................................................................................................52
Figure 7.1-4 basic principle of Modulation .............................................................................................52
Figure 7.1-5 basic principle of OFDM demodulation ..............................................................................53
Figure 7.1-6 FFT processing ....................................................................................................................54
Figure 7.1-7 inter-symbol interference .....................................................................................................55
Figure 7.1-8 cyclic- prefix ........................................................................................................................56
Figure 7.2-1 Basic Principles of DFTS-OFDM .......................................................................................58
Figure 7.2-2 mapping from the DFT output to IDFT input ......................................................................59
Figure 7.2-3 transmitted spectrum in localized and distributed DFTS-OFDM ......................................60
Figure 8.1-1 delay diversity......................................................................................................................62
Figure 8.1-2 cyclic shift ...........................................................................................................................63
Figure 8.1-2 Space-Time Coding (STC) ..................................................................................................63
Figure 8.1-4 SFBC and CDD ...................................................................................................................64
Figure 8.1-5 SFBC ...................................................................................................................................65
Figure 8.1-5 TSTD and FSTD .................................................................................................................65
Figure 8.1-5 FSTD ..................................................................................................................................66
Figure 8.2-1 classical beam-forming, .......................................................................................................67
Figure 8.2-2 pre-coding-based beam-forming ..........................................................................................67
Figure 8.3-1 Multi-Codeword Transmission ............................................................................................69
Figure 8.3-2 Pre-Coding ...........................................................................................................................69
Figure 8.3-3 CDD delay is small ..............................................................................................................70
Figure 8.3-4 CDD delay is large...............................................................................................................71
Figure 8.3-5 Spatial Diversity Multiple Access (SDMA) .......................................................................72
Figure 8.3-6 SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO................................................................................................72
Figure 8.4-1 Multi-Antenna Techniques for LTE ....................................................................................73
Figure 9.1-1 Power control......................................................................................................................75
vi
Figure 9.1-2 Rate control ........................................................................................................................ 76
Figure 10.1-1 channel selective ............................................................................................................... 78
Figure 10.1-2 Packet Scheduling ............................................................................................................. 79
Figure 10.1-3 channel variations ............................................................................................................. 80
Figure 10.3-1 signal receiving time and signal processing time .............................................................. 82
Figure 10.3-2 different subframes ........................................................................................................... 84
Figure 10.3-3 HARQ ............................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 10.4-1 Chase Combining (CC) ..................................................................................................... 87
Figure 10.4-2 Incremental Redundancy (IR) ........................................................................................... 88
Figure 11.1-1 IRC .................................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 11.1-2 IRC in downlink ................................................................................................................ 91
Figure 11.1-3 IRC in uplink ..................................................................................................................... 92
Figure 11.2-1 Inter-Cell Interference Coordination ................................................................................. 93
Figure 11.2-2 power resource coordination method ............................................................................... 93
Figure 11.3-1 Power Control ................................................................................................................... 94
Figure 11.4-1 Bit-Level Scrambling ........................................................................................................ 94
vii
1 Overview
1.1 Background
The development history from 2G and 3G to 3.9 G is the development history from
low-speed voice services to high-speed multimedia services of mobile communications.
Error! Reference source not found. shows the development and evolution of wireless
communication technologies.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
CDMA One is a collection of all IS-95-based CDMA products. More specifically, IS-
95 is used as a standard for key technologies of all CDMA One-based products.
When CDMA2000 1x employs 1.25 MHz bandwidth, the highest rate on a single-
carrier reaches 307.2 kbit/s, the peak rate of 1xEV-DO Rev.0 reaches 2.4 Mbit/s in the
downlink, and the peak rate of Rev.A reaches 3.1 Mbit/s in the downlink.
Downlink
100 Mbps
CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Rev. B
Eliminating
3 Mbps CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Rev. A Deploying
Developing
2 Mbps CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Rev. 0
1 Mbps
CDMA2000 1x
CDMA One
100 kbps 1 Mbps 10 Mbps 100 Mbps Uplink
The establishment of 3GPP standards can be divided into four stages: requirement
proposal, architecture establishment, detailed specifications, and testing and
verification.
3GPP works in workgroup mode and RAN1/2/3/4/5 workgroups are directly related to
LTE.
3
2 LTE Indexes and Requirements
2.1 Overview
LTE
features
Enhanced Lower
spectrum OPEX and
efficiency CAPEX
Different
bandwidth
supported
E-UTRA Uplink (UL) operating band BS receive Downlink (DL) operating band BS Duplex
Operating UE transmit transmit UE receive Mode
Band
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
FDL_high
The instantaneous uplink peak rate reaches 50 Mbit/s (2.5 bit/s/Hz) at 20 MHz uplink spectrum
band (one receive antenna on the UE side).
Wideband, MIMOs, and advanced modulation technologies are the key technologies to increase
the peak data rate. With 2*2 MIMO,20MHz bandwith, FDD-LTE peak data rate can reach to
6
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75Mbps(Uplink)/150Mp(Downlink).
Additionally, if the control plane operates at 5 MHz spectrum band, each cell is
expected to support 200 activated users. In the case of higher spectrum bands, each cell
is expected to support 400 activated users.
In the case of "zero loads" (a single user and a single data flow) and "small IP packets"
(only one IP header and no effective load), the user-plane delay is expected to be no
longer than 5 ms.
1. The user throughput per MHz at the Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) of
5% must reach two to three times the throughput of R6 HSDPA.
2. The average user throughput per MHz must reach three to four times the
throughput of R6 HSDPA.
R6 HSDPA uses one transmitter and one receiver (1T1R) while LTE uses two
transmitters and two receivers (2T2R).
Uplink:
1. The user throughput per MHz at the CDF of 5% must reach two to three times
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
2. The user throughput per MHz must reach two to three times the throughput of
R6 HSUPA.
R6 HSUPA uses 1T2R, and so does LTE.
Uplink: On a network with effective load, the target LTE spectrum efficiency
(measured by the bit quantity per site, per Hz, and per second) is two to three times
more efficient than R6 HSUPA. R6 HSUPA uses 1T2R, and so does LTE.
2.8 Mobility
E-UTRAN can provide optimum network performance for mobile users at the speed of
0–15 km/h, high performance services at the speed of 15–120 km/h, and cell network
services at the speed of 120–350 km/h (the speed even reaches 500 km/h at specified
bands).
Voice services and other real-time services provided in the R6 CS domain are
supported by PS domain on the E-UTRAN and all these services can reach or exceed
the quality of UTRAN services. The interruption time caused by handovers within the
E-UTRA system must be shorter than or equal to the handover time of the GERAN CS
domain.
In a special case where the moving speed exceeds 250 km/h (in a high-speed train), the
physical layer parameters of E-UTRAN must be set to be capable of protecting the
connections between users and networks at the highest speed of 350 km/h (the speed
even reaches 500 km/h at specified bands).
2.9 Coverage
The E-UTRA system must flexibly support all coverage scenarios on the basis of
reusing the current UTRAN sites and frequencies to meet the preceding performance
indexes such as the user throughput, spectrum efficiency, and mobility.
8
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The performance requirements of the E-UTRA system within different coverage scope
are listed as follows:
1. Coverage radius within 5 km: The preceding performance indexes such as the
user throughput, spectrum efficiency, and mobility must be fully satisfied.
2. Coverage radius within 30 km: The throughput and spectrum efficiency are
allowed to slightly drop but within an acceptable range, and the mobility index
must be fully satisfied.
On the other hand, the spectrum flexibility allows consolidation of spectrum bands.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
10
3 LTE Architecture
LTE adopts an OFDM-based air interface technology that is different from those of 2G
and 3G networks. LTE adopts flat network architecture within which E-UTRAN
contains only eNodeBs but not RNCs to optimize the traditional 3G network
architecture. LTE supports the functions of PDCP, RLC, MAC, and physical layer
protocols on the E-UTRA user plane and those of the RRC protocol on the control
plane. Error! Reference source not found. shows the E-UTRAN system architecture.
S1
S1
S1
S1
X2 E-UTRAN
eNB X2 eNB
X2
eNB
eNodeBs are connected over an x2 interface and every eNodeB is connected to the
Evolved Packet Core (EPC) network over an S1 interface. The user plane of S1
interfaces terminates on the Serving-Gateway (S-GW) and the control plane of S1
interfaces terminates on the Mobile Management Entity (MME). The other ends of the
control plane and user plane terminate on the eNodeB. Functions of all NEs in the
preceding figure are listed as follows:
eNodeB
Manages radio resources, for example, radio bearer control, radio access control,
connection mobility control, and dynamic resource assignment of uplink and
downlink (scheduling).
Chooses the UE-attached MME when the MME routing information cannot be
known from the information provided for the UE.
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Schedules and transmits the Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System (ETWS)
information initiated by the MME.
MME
As the control core of the SAE, an MME implements such functions as user
access control, service bearer control, paging, and handover control.
The function of the MME is separated from that of the gateway. The structure of
separated control plane and user plane facilitates network deployment, single
technology evolution, and flexible capacity expansion.
NAS signaling
AS security control
Roaming
Authentication
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
S-GW
As the anchor point at local eNodeB handover, the S-GW implements the
following functions: data transfer between the eNodeB and the public data
gateway, downlink packet buffer, and user-based billing.
Lawful interception
As the designated anchor point of the data bearer, the Public Data Network
Gateway (P-GW) has the following functions: packet forwarding, packet
resolving, lawful interception, service-based billing, QoS control, and
interconnection with non-3GPP networks.
Lawful interception
As shown in the preceding figure, the original Iu interface, Iub interface, and Iur
interface are replaced with the S1 interface and X2 interface in the new LTE
architecture.
Error! Reference source not found. shows the functional split between E-UTRAN
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and EPC. Yellow boxes depict the logical nodes, white boxes depict the functional
entities of the control plane, and blue boxes depict the radio protocol layers.
Similar to UMTS, the EPS supports a bearer concept (see Figure 3.1-3) for supporting
end-user data services. The EPS bearer (similar to a PDP context of previous 3GPP
releases) is defined between the User Equipment (UE) and the P-GW node in the EPC
(which provide the end users IP point of presence towards external networks). The EPS
bearer is further sub-divided into an E-UTRAN Radio Access Bearer (E-RAB), over
the radio interface and S1 interface between the UE and S-GW.
End-to-end services (for example, IP services) are multiplexed on different EPS bearers.
There is a many-to-one relation between end-to-end services and EPS bearers.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
An UL TFT (Traffic Flow Template) in the UE binds an SDF (Service Data Flow) to an
EPS bearer in the uplink direction.
Multiple SDFs can be multiplexed onto the same EPS bearer by including multiple
uplink packet filters in the UL TFT.
A DL TFT in the PDN GW binds an SDF to an EPS bearer in the downlink direction.
Multiple SDFs can be multiplexed onto the same EPS bearer by including multiple
downlink packet filters in the DL TFT.
An E-RAB transports the packets of an EPS bearer between the UE and the EPC.
When an E-RAB exists, there is a one-to-one mapping between this E-RAB and an
EPS bearer.
A data radio bearer transports the packets of an EPS bearer between a UE and an eNB.
When a data radio bearer exists, there is a one-to-one mapping between this data radio
bearer and the EPS bearer/E-RAB.
An S5/S8 bearer transports the packets of an EPS bearer between a Serving GW and a
PDN GW.
A UE stores a mapping between an uplink packet filter and a data radio bearer to create
the binding between an SDF and a data radio bearer in the uplink.
A PDN GW stores a mapping between a downlink packet filter and an S5/S8a bearer to
16
Chapter Error! Use the Home tab to apply 标题 1 to the text that you want to appear here. Error! Use the Home tab t
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create the binding between an SDF and an S5/S8a bearer in the downlink.
An eNB stores a one-to-one mapping between a data radio bearer and an S1 bearer to
create the binding between a data radio bearer and an S1 bearer in both the uplink and
downlink.
Error! Reference source not found. shows the control plane protocol architecture.
UE eNB MME
NAS NAS
RRC RRC
PDCP PDCP
RLC RLC
MAC MAC
PHY PHY
The RLC and MAC terminate at an eNodeB on the network side and implement the
same functions on the user plane and control plane.
The RRC terminates at an eNodeB and implements such functions as broadcast, paging,
RRC connection management, RB control, mobility, and UE measurement reporting
and control.
17
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
The NAS terminates at an MME and implements such functions as EPS bearer
management, authentication, idle-mode EPS Connection Management (ECM), idle-
mode ECM paging, and security control.
Error! Reference source not found. shows the user plane protocol architecture.
UE eNB
PDCP PDCP
RLC RLC
MAC MAC
PHY PHY
The user-plane PDCP, RLC, and MAC terminate at an eNodeB and implement such
functions as header compression, encryption, scheduling, ARQ, and HARQ.
3.3.1 S1 Interface
The S1 interface is defined as the interface between the E-UTRAN and EPC. The S1
interface contains two parts: the control-plane S1-MME interface and user-plane S1-U
interface. The S1-MME interface is defined as the interface between the eNodeB and
MME, and the S1-UE interface is defined as the interface between the eNodeB and S-
GW. Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found.
show the protocol stack architecture of the S1-MME interface and S1-U interface.
18
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S1-AP
SCTP
IP
Physical layer
GTP-U
UDP
IP
Physical layer
19
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
S1 paging
S1 interface management
Error indication
Reset
Network sharing
UE context modification
Location report
Overload
E-RAB establishment
E-RAB modification
Handover preparation
Resource assignment
Handover termination
Handover cancellation
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Paging
Reset
eNodeB-initiated reset
MME-initiated reset
UE context modification
S1 establishment
Location report
Location report
Overload startup
Overload stop
Error! Reference source not found. shows the S1 interface signaling procedure.
21
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
UE eNB MME
Paging
Paging
The similarities between S1 interface and X2 interface lie in the fact that S1-U and X2-
U adopt the same user-plane protocol to reduce protocol processing at eNodeB data
forward.
3.3.2 X2 Interface
22
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X2-AP
SCTP
IP
Physical layer
GTP-U
UDP
IP
Physical layer
User plane channel control between the source eNodeB and the target eNodeB
Handover cancellation
23
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Error indication
Handover preparation
Handover cancellation
UE context release
Error indication
Load management
Error! Reference source not found. shows that the LOAD INDICATOR message is
used for load state communication among eNodeBs.
eNB eNB
24
4 Physical Layer
Figure 4.1-1 shows the frame structure 1. Every 10 ms radio frame is divided into ten
sub-frames of fixed length. Each sub-frame contains two time slots each of which is
0.5 ms long.
#0 #1 #2 #18 #19
slot
Sub-frame
One radio frame = 10ms
For FDD, at every 10 ms, ten sub-frames can be used for downlink transmission and
another ten sub-frames can be used for uplink transmission. The uplink transmission
and downlink transmission are separated on the frequency domain.
At the time of data transmission, the LTE system consolidates uplink and downlink
time-frequency domain physical resources into Resource Blocks (RBs) for scheduling
and allocation.
Several REs constitute an RB. There are 12 consecutive sub-carriers on the frequency
domain and seven consecutive OFDM symbols (six symbols for Extended CP). That is,
the frequency domain width is 180 kHz and the time length is 0.5 ms.
25
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found. show
the physical resource structure of downlink and uplink slots.
DL
N symb OFDM symbols
k N RB N sc 1
DL RB
Resource
block resource
DL
N symb N scRB
elements
subcarrier
subcarrier
Resource
s
(k , l )
element
N scRB
s
N scRB
DL
N RB
k 0
l0 l N symb
DL
1
26
Chapter Error! Use the Home tab to apply 标题 1 to the text that you want to appear here. Error! Use the Home tab t
o apply 标题 1 to the text that you want to appear here.
UL
N symb SC-FDMA symbols
k N RB N sc 1
UL RB
Resource
block resource
UL
N symb N scRB
elements
subcarrier
subcarrier
Resource
s
(k , l )
element
N scRB
s
N scRB
UL
N RB
k 0
l0 l UL
N symb 1
27
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
With excellent-enough channels, every sub-frame that the PBCH is located can
separately decode signals.
Notifies the resource assignment information of the PCH, DL-SCH, and DL-
SCH-related HARQ information to the UE.
28
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Supports HARQ.
Supports beamforming.
Supports the UE DRX to save power. (The network notifies the DRX period to
the UE.)
Map to physical resources that can be used dynamically also for traffic or other
control channels.
Supports beamforming.
29
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Supports HARQ.
Collision risks.
Figure 4.5-1 Mapping Between Downlink Transport Channels and Downlink Physical
Channels
Downlink
Physical channels
PBCH PMCH PDSCH PDCCH
Figure 4.5-2 Mapping Between Uplink Transport Channels and Uplink Physical
Channels
30
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UL-SCH RACH
Uplink
Transport channels
Uplink
Physical channels
PUSCH PRACH PUCCH
The downlink physical signals include the reference signal and the synchronization
signal.
Reference signal
The downlink reference signals include the following three types of reference
signals:
Synchronization signals
For FDD, the primary synchronization signal maps to the last OFDM symbol of
time slot 0 and time slot 10. The secondary synchronization signal maps to the
second last OFDM symbol of time slot 0 and time slot 10.
Reference signals
31
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
The uplink reference signals include the following two types of signals:
The demodulation reference signals and the sounding reference signals use the
same base sequence set.
Node B UE
Error
Channel-state N Transport blocks indications
information, etc. (dynamic size S1..., SN)
ACK/NACK ACK/NACK
HARQ HARQ info HARQ info HARQ
CRC
CRC
Redundancy for
CRC
error detection CRC
Interl.
Interleaving Interl.
Deinterleaving
Modulation
scheme QPSK, 16QAM,
Data modulation Data modulation
Data modulation 64QAM Data demodulation
Resource/power
assignment RB mapping
Resource mapping RB mapping
Resource demapping
Antenna
mapping Multi-antenna
Antenna mapping processing Antenna demapping
32
Chapter Error! Use the Home tab to apply 标题 1 to the text that you want to appear here. Error! Use the Home tab t
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Node B UE
Error
Single Transport blocks indication
(fixed size S)
CRC CRC
Coding + RM Decoding + RM
Interleaving Deinterleaving
Node B UE
Error
Single Transport blocks indication
(dynamic size S)
CRC CRC
Coding + RM
MAC scheduler
Decoding + RM
Interleaving Deinterleaving
Modulation
scheme
Data modulation Data demodulation
Resource/power
assignment
Resource mapping Resource demapping
Antenna
mapping
Antenna mapping Antenna demapping
33
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Node B UE
Error
N Transport blocks indications
(dynamic size S1..., SN)
CRC
CRC CRC
CRC
Coding + RM Coding + RM
Coding + RM
MAC scheduler
Decoding + RM
Interl.
Interleaving Interl.
Deinterleaving
Modulation
scheme Data modulation
Data modulation Data modulation
Data demodulation
Resource/power
assignment RB mapping
Resource mapping RB mapping
Resource demapping
Antenna
mapping
Antenna mapping Antenna demapping
Semi-static
configuration
Node BError UE
indications
Channel -state
information, etc.
ACK/NACK
HARQ HARQ info HARQ
ACK/NACK
CRC
CRC CRC Uplink transmission control
CRC
Interl.
Deinterleaving Interl.
Interleaving
Modulation Modulation
scheme Data modulation scheme
Data demodulation Data
Datamodulation
modulation
Resource Resource/power
assignment RB mapping assignment
Resource demapping RB mapping
Resource mapping
Antenna
mapping
Antenna demapping
34
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Cell search
Timing synchronization
Power control determines the Energy Per Resource Element (EPRE). EPRE denotes the
energy prior to CP insertion. EPRE also denotes the average energy taken over all
constellation points for the applied modulation scheme. Uplink power control
determines the average power of one DFT-SOFDM symbol on a physical channel.
The uplink power control procedure controls the transmit power of different
uplink physical channels.
The eNodeB determines the downlink transmit energy per resource element.
2. Parameters for determining the root sequences and their cyclic shifts in the
preamble sequence set for the cell (index to root sequence table, cyclic shift
35
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
From the physical layer perspective, the physical random access procedure
encompasses the transmission of random access preamble and random access response.
The remaining messages are scheduled for transmission by the higher layer on the
shared data channel and are not considered as a part of the L1 random access procedure.
The following steps are required for the physical random access procedure:
4. A preamble sequence is then selected from the preamble sequence set through
the preamble index.
36
5 Layer 2
Layer 2 consists of three sub-layers: PDCP, RLC, and MAC. Figure Error!
Reference source not found. and Figure Error! Reference source not found.Error!
Reference source not found. show Layer 2 downlink and uplink structures.
Radio Bearers
Logical Channels
HARQ HARQ
Transport Channels
37
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Radio Bearers
ROHC ROHC
PDCP
Security Security
Segm. Segm.
RLC ...
ARQ etc ARQ etc
CCCH
Logical Channels
MAC Multiplexing
HARQ
Transport Channels
The connection points among sub-layers are known as the Service Access Points (SAP).
The service provided by PDCP is referred to as the radio bearer. The PDCP provides
the Robust Header Compression (ROHC) and security protection. The SAP between
the physical layer and MAC layer provides transport channels and that between the
MAC layer and RLC layer provides logical channels.
The MAC layer provides multiplexing and mapping of logical channels (radio bearer)
to transport channels (transport block).
Only one transport block is generated at each TTI (1 ms) in the uplink or downlink in
the case of non-MIMO.
38
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Padding
The MAC layer provides different types of data transmission services. The type of each
logical channel is defined based on the type of transmitted data.
The PCCH is a downlink channel used to transfer paging messages and system
information change notifications. The PCCH is used to page a UE when the UE
cell location is unknown to the network.
This channel is used to deliver control information in both uplink and downlink
directions when there is no confirmed association between a UE and the eNodeB
– i.e. during connection establishment. In the RLC layer, it is associated with a
TM RLC entity.
39
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
information from the network to the UE for one or several MTCHs. This
channel is only used for UEs that receive MBMS.
This channel is used to transmit dedicated user data in both uplink and downlink
directions. In the RLC layer, it can be associated with either a UM RLC entity or
an AM RLC entity
Error! Reference source not found. and Error! Reference source not found. show
the mapping between downlink and uplink logical channels and transport channels.
Figure 5.1-1 Mapping Between Downlink Logical Channels and Transport Channels
Downlink
Transport channels
PCH BCH DL-SCH MCH
Figure 5.1-2 Mapping between uplink logical channels and transport channels
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Uplink
Transport channels
RACH UL-SCH
In-sequence delivery of upper layer PDUs (only for UM and AM data transfer)
RLC re-establishment
Error! Reference source not found. shows the RLC PDU structure.
The PDU sequence number carried by the RLC header is independent of the
SDU sequence number (that is, the PDCP sequence number).
The red dotted lines in Error! Reference source not found. indicate
41
LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
segmentation positions.
... ...
RLC PDU
The main services and functions of the PDCP sub-layer for the user plane include:
The main services and functions of the PDCP sublayer for the control plane
include:
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Error! Reference source not found. shows the PDCP PDU structure.
PDCP PDU
43
6 RRC
Paging
- Handover
MBMS notification
QoS management
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
PLMN selection
Paging
The network can transmit and receive data to/from the UEs.
The UE also reports channel quality information and feeds back information to
eNodeB.
The DRX cycle can be conformed according to the UE mobility level to save
UE power and enhance resource efficiency. This function is controlled by
eNodeB.
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6.3 NAS State and the Relationship With the RRC State
The NAS state model can be described by the two-dimensional state model of the EPS
Mobility Management state (EMM) and the EPS Connection Management state.
EMM state:
EMM-DEREGISTERED state
EMM-REGISTERED state
ECM state:
ECM-IDLE state
ECM-CONNECTED state
Note: The EMM state and the ECM state are mutually independent.
The relationship between the NAS state and the RRC state is as follows:
System information includes the Master Information Block (MIB) and a series of
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
The MIB maps to the BCCH and BCH. The SI maps to the BCCH and DL-
SCH, and is identifies through the System Information RNTI (SI-RNTI). The
MIB uses a fixed dispatch cycle of 40 ms. The System Information Block Type
1 uses a fixed dispatch cycle of 80 ms. The other SI dispatch cycle is not fixed
and indicated by the System Information Block Type 1.
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Paging
Counter check
DRB release
49
7 Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
In the LTE system, the CP OFDM technology is used in the downlink direction while
the CP SC-FDMA technology is used in the uplink direction.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
In complex baseband notation, a basic OFDM signal x(t) during the time interval mTu
≤ t < (m+1) Tu can thus be expressed as
Nc 1 Nc 1
xt xk t a m
k e j 2kft
k 0 k 0
where xk(t) is the kth modulated subcarrier with frequency fk = k · Δf and ak(m) is the, in
general complex, modulation symbol applied to the k th subcarrier during the m th
OFDM symbol interval, i.e. during the time interval mT u ≤ t < (m+1)Tu. OFDM
transmission is thus block based, implying that, during each OFDM symbol interval, Nc
modulation symbols are transmitted in parallel. The modulation symbols can be from
any modulation alphabet, such as QPSK, 16QAM, or 64QAM.
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The term Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex is due to the fact that two
modulated OFDM subcarriers xk1 and xk2 are mutually orthogonal over the time
interval mTu ≤ t < (m+1)Tu, i.e.
m1Tu m1Tu
The following figure illustrates the basic principle of OFDM demodulation consisting
of a bank of correlators, one for each subcarrier.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Where
a 0 k Nc
a 'k k
0 Nc k N
The index m on the modulation symbols, indicating the OFDM-symbol number, will be
ignored unless especially needed.
The sequence xn , i.e. the sampled OFDM signal, is the size- N Inverse Discrete Fourier
Transform (IDFT) of the block of modulation symbols a0 , a1 , … , aNc-1 extended with
zeros to length N. OFDM modulation can thus be implemented by means of IDFT
processing followed by digital-to-analog conversion, as illustrated in the following
figure. Especially, by selecting the IDFT size N equal to 2m for some integer m , the
OFDM modulation can be implemented by means of implementation-efficient radix-2
Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) processing.
Similar to OFDM modulation, efficient FFT processing can be used for OFDM
demodulation, replacing the bank of Nc parallel demodulators of the above figure with
sampling with some sampling rate fs = 1/Ts, followed by a size-N DFT/FFT, as
illustrated in the following figure.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
To deal with this problem and to make an OFDM signal truly insensitive to time
dispersion on the radio channel, so-called cyclic-prefix insertion is typically used in
case of OFDM transmission. As illustrated in the following figure, cyclic-prefix
insertion implies that the last part of the OFDM symbol is copied and inserted at the
beginning of the OFDM symbol. Cyclic-prefix insertion thus increases the length of the
OFDM symbol from Tu to Tu + TCP , where TCP is the length of the cyclic prefix, with a
corresponding reduction in the OFDM symbol rate as a consequence.
As illustrated in the lower part of the following figure, if the correlation at the receiver
side is still only carried out over a time interval Tu = 1/Δf, subcarrier orthogonality will
then be preserved also in case of a time-dispersive channel, as long as the span of the
time dispersion is shorter than the cyclic- prefix length.
DFT/FFT processing.
For OFDM transmission, the basic OFDM parameters are listed as follows:
Subcarrier spacing
f .
Number of subcarriers
N c . It works with f to determine the transmission
bandwidth of OFDM signals.
TCP . It works with the subcarrier spacing f 1 / Tu to determine
Cyclic prefix length
theOFDM symbol time length
T TCP Tu .
For LTE downlink transmission, the basic OFDM parameters are listed as follows:
Subcarrier spacing: The following two types of subcarrier spacing are supported
f 15kHz , used for unicast and muticast transmissions.
Number of subcarriers
N c . Different system bandwidths have different number of
subcarriers. The following table lists the number of subcarriers specified for LTE.
Channel
bandwidth 1.4 3 5 10 15 20
(MHz)
Number of
subcarriers 72 180 300 600 900 1200
( Nc )
For
f 7.5kHz , only the extended CP is supported. Meanwhile, to ensure that the
timeslot length is 0.5 ms, different OFDM symbols have different cyclic prefix lengths,
refer to the following table.
N CP ,l
Where represents the sample value contained in the cyclic prefix corresponding
to the Lth OFDM symbol in a timeslot.
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If the DFT size M would equal the IDFT size N , the cascaded DFT/IDFT processing
would obviously completely cancel out each other. However, if M is smaller than N
and the remaining inputs to the IDFT are set to zero, the output of the IDFT will be a
signal with single-carrier properties, namely, a signal with low power variations, and
with a bandwidth that depends on M. More specifically, assuming a sampling rate fs at
the output of the IDFT, the nominal bandwidth of the transmitted signal will be
BW M / N f s . Thus, by varying the block size M, the instantaneous bandwidth of
the transmitted signal can be varied, allowing for flexible-bandwidth assignment.
To have a high degree of flexibility in the instantaneous bandwidth, given by the DFT
size M , it is typically not possible to ensure that M can be expressed as 2m for some
integer m. However, as long as M can be expressed as a product of relatively small
prime numbers, the DFT can still be implemented as relatively lowcomplexity non-
radix-2 FFT processing. As an example, a DFT size M = 144 can be implemented by
means of a combination of radix-2 and radix-3 FFT processing (144 = 32 · 24 ).
The following two methods can be used for mapping from the DFT output to IDFT
input:
Localized DFTS-OFDM
Distributed DFTS-OFDM
What has been illustrated in the following figure represents the two methods. Localized
DFTS-OFDM refers to the fact that the output of the DFT is mapped to consecutive
inputs of the OFDM modulator. Distributed DFTS-OFDM refers to the fact that the
output of the DFT is mapped to equidistant inputs of the OFDM modulator with zeros
inserted in between.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
The following figure illustrates the basic structure of the transmitted spectrum in the
case of localized and distributed DFTS-OFDM, respectively. Although the spectrum of
the localized DFTS-OFDM signal clearly indicates a single-carrier transmission, this is
not as clearly seen from the spectrum of the distributed DFTS-OFDM signal. However,
it can be shown that a distributed DFTS-OFDM signal has similar power variations as
localized DFTS-OFDM. Actually, it can be shown that a distributed DFTS-OFDM
signal is equivalent to so-called Interleaved FDMA (IFDMA). The benefit of
distributed DFTS-OFDM, compared to localized DFTS-OFDM, is the possibility for
additional frequency diversity as even a low-rate distributed DFTS-OFDM signal
(small DFT size M can be spread over a potentially very large overall transmission
bandwidth.
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Subcarrier spacing
f .
Number of subcarriers
N c . It works with f to determine the transmission
bandwidth of DFTS-OFDM signals.
TCP . It works with the subcarrier spacing f 1 / Tu to determine
Cyclic prefix length
the DFTS-OFDM symbol time length
T TCP Tu .
Channel
bandwidth 1.4 3 5 10 15 20
(MHz)
Number of
subcarriers 72 180 300 600 900 1200
( Nc )
For LTE uplink transmission, the basic DFTS-OFDM parameters are listed as follows:
Number of subcarriers
N c . Different system bandwidths have different number of
subcarriers. The following table lists the nubmer of subcarriers specified for LTE.
160 for l 0
Common CP
144 for l 1,2,...,6
Extended CP 512 for l 0,1,...,5
N CP ,l
Where represents the sample value contained in the cyclic prefix corresponding
to the Lth DFTS-OFDM symbol in a timeslot.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
8 Multi-Antenna Techniques
If the channel in itself is not time dispersive, the availability of multiple transmit
antennas can be used to create artificial time dispersion or, equivalently, artificial
frequency selectivity by transmitting identical signals with different relative delays
from the different antennas. In this way, the antenna diversity, i.e. the fact that the
fading experienced by the different antennas have low mutual correlation, can be
transformed into frequency diversity.
The following figure illustrates the delay diversity for the special case of two transmit
antennas.
Delay diversity is in essence invisible to the mobile terminal, which will simply see a
single radio-channel subject to additional time dispersion. Delay diversity can thus
straightforwardly be introduced in an existing mobile-communication system without
requiring any specific support in a corresponding radio-interface standard.
Cyclic-Delay Diversity (CDD) is similar to delay diversity with the main difference
that cyclic-delay diversity operates block-wise and applies cyclic shifts , rather than
linear delays, to the different antennas (see the following figure). Thus cyclic-delay
diversity is applicable to block-based transmission schemes such as OFDM and DFTS-
OFDM.
In the case of OFDM transmission, a cyclic shift of the time-domain signal corresponds
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The advantage of CDD over DD is that the delay can be set flexibly, but it requires that
different antennas transmit mutual-orthogonal reference signals.
The most famous Space-Time Coding (STC) for two antennas is Alamouti code. As
shown in the following figure, the modulation symbols are directly transmitted on the
first antenna. However, on the second antenna the order of the modulation symbols
within a pair is reversed. Furthermore, the modulation symbols are sign-reversed and
complexconjugated.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
STBC
Encoder
Space–frequency block coding (SFBC) is similar to space–time block coding, with the
difference that the encoding is carried out in the antenna/frequency domains rather than
in the antenna/time domains.
As shown in the following figure, it can be noted that the difference between SFBC and
two-antenna cyclic-delay diversity in essence lies in how the block of frequency-
domain modulation symbols are mapped to the second antenna. The benefits of SFBC
compared to CDD is that SFBC provides diversity on modulation-symbol level while
CDD, in case of OFDM, must rely on channel coding in combination with frequency-
domain interleaving to provide diversity.
In case of two antenna ports, LTE transmit diversity is based on Space Frequency
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Frequency
domain
f1 f2
TX1 S1 S2
TX2 S 2* S1*
The antenna switched diversity technique refers to that, when there are multiple
tranmitting antennas at the transmitter side, an antenna is selected for transmission
according to the time sequence or frequency sequence. If antennas are switched
according to time sequence, it is called Time Switched Transmit Diversity (TSTD). If
antennas are switched among subcarriers, it is called Frequency Switched Transmit
Diversity (FSTD). The following figure illustrates TSTD and FSTD.
Antenna1 Antenna2
Time
Frequency
(a) TSTD
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Antenna1 Antenna2
Time
Frequency
(b) FSTD
Frequency
f1 f2 f3 f4 domain
TX1 S1 S2 0 0
TX2 0 0 S3 S4
TX3 S 2* S1* 0 0
TX4 0 0 S 4* S3*
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difference. The overall transmission beam can then be steered in different directions by
applying different phase shifts to the signals to be transmitted on the different antennas,
as illustrated in (b) in the following figure.
To ensure the performance of traditional beam forming, a large number of antennas are
required. The overload of reference signals will be too large if orthogonal common
reference siganls are transmitted on each antenna. Therefore, traditional beam forming
is implemented through specific reference signals.
Low mutual antenna correlation typically implies either a sufficiently large antenna
distance, as illustrated in the following figure, or different antenna polarization
directions. However, in contrast to classical beam-forming, the antenna weights should
now take general complex values, i.e. both the phase and the amplitude of the signals
to be transmitted on the different antennas can be adjusted. This reflects the fact that,
due to the low mutual antenna correlation, both the phase and the instantaneous gain of
the channels of each antenna may differ.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
A key difference between classical beam-forming, which assumes high mutual antenna
correlation, and pre-coding-based beam-forming, which assumes low mutual antenna
correlation, is that, in the later case, there is a need for more detailed channel
knowledge, including estimates of the instantaneous channel fading. Updates to the
pre-coding vector are thus typically done on a relatively short time scale to capture the
fading variations. As the adjustment of the pre-coder weights takes into account also
the instantaneous fading, including the instantaneous channel gain, fast beam-forming
according to the following figure also provides diversity against radio-channel fading.
At present, specific reference symbols for an antenna interface are supported in the
LTE system to implement single-stream beam forming.
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Multi-codeword transmission
Pre-coding
MU-MIMO
8.3.2 Pre-Coding
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
The pre-coding-based spatial multiplexing can serve the following two purposes:
In the case when the number of signals to be spatially multiplexed equals the
number of transmit antennas (NL = NT), the pre-coding can be used to
orthogonalize the parallel transmissions, allowing for improved signal isolation at
the receiver side.
In the case when the number signals to be spatially multiplexed is less than the
number of transmit antennas (NL < NT), the pre-coding also provides the
mapping of the NL spatially multiplexed signals to the NT transmit antennas
including the combination of spatially multiplexing and beam-forming.
Spatial multiplexing and CDD can be combined by the following two methods:
If the CDD delay is small or is equal to 0, the transmitted signals are first pre-
coded, then CDD operations are performed on them, see the following figure
(signals transmitted through antenna 2 are used as an example):
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x DWa 1 0
D j 2 ki
0 e
Subcarrier number
Phase offset
corresponding to the symbol
corresponding to CDD
W D
a ( 2)
2 a ( 2)
1 b ( 2)
2 b ( 2)
1 b2( 2) e j 2 k2 b1( 2) e j 2 k1
Ant2
When the CDD delay is large, CDD operations are performed on the transmitted
signals first, then the signals are pre-coded, see the following figure (signals
transmitted through antenna 2 are used as an example):
1 1 1 0
x WDUa U D 0 e j 2 i / 2
1 1
Sequence corresponding
to the symbol
DU W
a ( 2)
2 a ( 2)
1 a (1)
2 a ( 2)
2 a ( 2)
1 a
(1)
1 x 2( 2 ) x1( 2 )
Ant2
8.3.4 MU-MIMO
The following figure illustrates downlink MU-MIMO. When a base station sends
multiple data streams occupying the same time-domain resource to the same user, it is
called Single-User MIMO (SU-MIMO) or spatial multiplexing (SDM). When a base
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
station sends multiple data streams occupying the same time-domain resource to
multiple users, it is called Multi-User MIMO (MU-MIMO) or Spatial Diversity
Multiple Access (SDMA).
MU-MIMO can be implemented through two methods, and the difference between the
two lies in how to split spatial data streams.
With one method, data streams are split at the receiver side, multiple antennas ate the
receiver side are used to perform canceling or nulling on the interfering data streams to
split the data streams.
With the other method, ZF beam forming is used at the transmitter side, and spatial
data streams are split at the base station, which performs beam forming for specified
users according to the reported channel status information. It generates no interference
or very small interference on other users. Theoretically in this case, a mobile terminal
can work with only a single antenna.
Different from downlink MIMO, uplink MIMO is a virtural MIMO system. In other
words, each terminal sends a data stream, but two or more data streams occupy the
same time-domain resource. Therefore, these data streams, which come from different
terminals, are considered as data streams coming from antennas of the same terminal,
see the following figure.
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Compared with SU-MIMO, MU-MIMO gets the multi-user diversity gain. For SU-
MIMO, all MIMO signals come from antennas of the same terminal. For MU-MIMO,
the signals come from different terminals. Therefore, MU-MIMO achieves inter-
channel independency more easily than SU-MIMO.
a b c d
Layer Mapper: This module maps codewords to layers. In the case of single-antenna
transmission, transmission diversity, and beam forming, the number of layers is equal
to the number of antenna interfaces. In the case of spatial multiplexing transmission,
the number of layers is equal to the number of Ranks of spatial channels, namely, the
number of transport streams.
Pre-coding: This module maps layers to antenna interfaces. It also implements pre-
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Antenna Port Mapper: This module maps antenna interfaces to physical antenna units.
The beam forming operations are implemented through this module.
In the uplink direction, only MU-MIMO is supported, in other words, the uplink
transmission on each terminal uses single-antenna transmission.
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9 Link Adaptation
Link adaptation involves power control and rate control. Link adaptation by means of
rate control is sometimes also referred to as Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC).
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
In situations with advantageous channel conditions, the data rate is increased and vice
versa.
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It can be shown that rate control is more efficient than power control. Rate control in
principle implies that the power amplifier is always transmitting at full power and
therefore efficiently utilized. Power control, on the other hand, results in the power
amplifier in most situations not being efficiently utilized as the transmission power is
less than its maximum.
However, it does not mean that power control is not useful. In non-orthogonal multi-
access modes (for example, CDMA), power control helps avoid interference among
users in a cell.
In the uplink direction, adaptive modulation and coding, power control, and
adaptive transmission bandwidth are supported, as described in Chapter 4.
In AMC, the resource block corresponding to a codeword of a user uses the same
modulation and coding method.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Scheduling controls the allocation of the shared resources among the users at each time
instant. The utilization of radio resources is maximized if, at each time instant, all
resources are assigned to the user with the best instantaneous channel condition.
Scheduling the user with the instantaneously best radio link conditions is often referred
to as max-C/I (or maximum rate) scheduling, see the following figure. Since the radio
conditions for the different radio links within a cell typically vary independently, at
each point in time there is almost always a radio link whose channel quality is near its
peak. Thus, the channel eventually used for transmission will typically have a high
quality and, with rate control, a correspondingly high data rate can be used. This
translates into a high system capacity. The gain obtained by transmitting to users with
favorable radio-link conditions is commonly known as multi-user diversity. The larger
the channel variations, the larger the number of users in a cell, and the larger the user
diversity is.
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k arg max Ri
i
A pure max-C/I-scheduling strategy may then, in essence, ‘starve’ the mobile terminals
with bad channel conditions, and the mobile terminals with bad channel conditions will
never be scheduled. This is illustrated in (a) in the following figure.
where Ri is the instantaneous data rate for user i and Ri is the average data rate for user
i. The average is calculated over a certain averaging period TPF. To ensure efficient
usage of the short-term channel variations and, at the same time, limit the long-term
differences in service quality to an acceptable level, the time constant TPF should be set
longer than the time constant for the short-term variations. At the same time TPF should
be sufficiently short so that quality variations within the interval TPF are not strongly
noticed by a user. Typically, TPF can be set to be in the order of one second.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Compared with the single-carrier CDMA system, LTE has, in addition to the time
domain, also access to the frequency domain to implement channel scheduling and rate
control, due to the use of OFDM in the downlink and DFTS-OFDM in the uplink.
Therefore, the scheduler can, for each frequency region, select the user with the best
channel conditions. In other words, scheduling in LTE can take channel variations into
account not only in the time domain, as HSPA, but also in the frequency domain. This
is illustrated in the following figure.
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Channel condition information of different bands is required at the base station side. In
the downlink direction, the information is acquired by measuring full-bandwidth public
reference signals, then, the information is quantified to Channel Quality Identity (CQI)
information and is reported to the base station. In the uplink direction, the information
is acquired by measuring Sounding Reference Signals (SRS).
10.2 HARQ
number of bits transmitted over the channel is larger then the number of original
information bits and a certain amount of redundancy has been introduced in the
transmitted signal.
The hybrid ARQ protocol uses multiple stop-and-wait hybrid ARQ processes similar to
HS-DSCH. The motivation is to allow continuous transmission, which cannot be
achieved with a single stop-and-wait scheme, while at the same time having some of
the simplicity of a stop-and-wait protocol. The use of multiple parallel stop-and-wait
processes for the hybrid ARQ protocol has proven efficient for HSDPA and is used for
Enhanced Uplink for the same reasons – fast retransmission and high throughput
combined with low overhead of the ACK/NAK signaling. Upon reception of the single
transport block transmitted in a certain TTI and intended for a certain hybrid ARQ
process, the NodeB attempts to decode the set of bits and the outcome of the decoding
attempt, ACK or NAK, is signaled to the UE.
If the signal receiving time and signal processing time are not considered, RTT = 2*TP.
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Tsf
data @ eNodeB 0 1
ACK/NAK @ eNodeB 0 1
TTX
Tp Tp
TRX
ACK/NAK @ UE 0 1 2 nAN
data @ UE 0
The following figure shows the uplink HARQ for FDD, where RTT = 2*TP + 2*Tsf +
TRX + TTX, and Nproc = RTT / Tsf.
data @ eNodeB 0
TRX
Tp Tp
TTX
data @ UE 0
ACK/NAK @ UE
TRTT=Nproc·Tsf
t=0
For TDD, RTT is related to factors including transmission delay, receiving time,
processing time, timeslot ratio, and subframe position where the transmission is located.
The following figure uses downlink HARQ as an example. Assuming the processing
time at the base station side is 3*Tsf and the processing time at the mobile terminal side
is 3*Tsf - 2*TP,
For data transmissions started from subframe 0, the RTTs and the number of
processes are different in the case of different timeslot ratios, see (a) and (b) in the
following figure.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
For data transmissions started from different subframes, the RTTs and the number
of processes are different in the case of the same timeslot ratio, see (a) and (c) in
the following figure.
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0
T/R
5*Tsf
TP TP
3*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T/R
3*Tsf
TP TP
3*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2
T/R
3 *Tsf
TP TP
6*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
For a data transmission, the ACK/NACK messages are transmitted at a predefined time.
Because data transmissions are continuous in any direction for FDD, the
ACK/NACK message for a transmission in any subframe can be sent at a
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predefined time which has a specified time difference from the subframe. For
example, for a data transmission in downlink subframe n, the ACK/NACK
message can be transmitted in uplink subframe n+4.
Because data transmissions are not continuous in any direction for TDD, the time
interval between an ACK/NACK message and the previous transmission cannot
be a fixed value. When to send an ACK/NACK message depends on factors
including timeslot ratio and subframe position.
See the following figure, assuming the processing time at the base station side is 3*Tsf,
the processing time at the mobile terminal side is 3*Tsf - 2*TP.
n+4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
TP TP
3*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
(a) FDD
n+4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T/R
TP TP
3*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
n+7
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
T/R
TP TP
6*Tsf - 2*TP
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
If the retransmission occurs at a predefined time after the previous transmission, the
process number can be implicitly derived, and this is called synchronous HARQ
protocol. If the retransmission can occur at any time after the previous transmission,
the process number must be explicitly notified, and this is called asynchronous HARQ
protocol. In the LTE system, the asynchronous HARQ protocol is used in the downlink
direction while the synchronous HARQ protocol is used in the uplink direction. With
the synchronous HARQ protocol, the time interval between the initial transmission and
the retransmission is a predefined value rather than a fixed value. Therefore, different
RTTs can be selected for different timeslot ratios to reduce uplink trasnmission delay.
HARQ falls into two categories: adaptive HARQ and non-adaptive HARQ. An
adaptive hybrid-ARQ protocol implies that the frequency location and possibly also the
more detailed transmission format can be changed between retransmissions. A non-
adaptive protocol , in contrast, implies that the retransmission must occur at the same
frequency resources and with the same transmission format as the initial transmission.
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Hybrid ARQ with soft combining is categorized into Chase Combining (CC) and
Incremental Redundancy (IR), depending on whether the retransmitted bits are required
to be identical to the original transmission or not.
In CC, the retransmissions consist of the same set of coded bits as the original
transmission. After each retransmission, the receiver uses maximum-ratio combining to
combine each received channel bit with any previous transmissions of the same bit and
the combined signal is sent to the decoder. As each retransmission is an identical copy
of the original transmission, retransmissions with CC can be seen as additional
repetition coding. Therefore, as no new redundancy is transmitted, CC does not give
any additional coding gain but only increases the accumulated received Eb/N0 for each
retransmission, see the following figure.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
With IR, each retransmission does not have to be identical to the original transmission.
Instead, multiple sets of coded bits are generated, each of them representing the same
set of information bits. Whenever a retransmission is required, the retransmission
typically uses a different set of coded bits than the previous transmission. The receiver
combines the retransmission with previous transmission attempts of the same packet.
As the retransmission may contain additional parity bits, not included in the previous
transmission attempts, the resulting code rate is generally lowered by a retransmission.
Furthermore, each retransmission does not necessarily have to consist of the same
number of coded bits as the original and, in general, the modulation scheme can be
different for different retransmissions.
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Orthogonal multiple access is used in both the uplink and downlink directions for LTE.
Therefore, inter-cell interference is the major interference in the LTE system. However,
unlike the CDMA system, co-frequency networks cannot be implemented in the LTE
system. The following four methods can be used to eliminate inter-cell interference for
LTE:
Power control
Bit-level scrambling
Especially, if the location of the interfered user is known, the radiation energy in the
direction can be actively reduced.
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Expected user
Interfered
expected user
r1 h1 hI ,1 n1
r s s I h s hI s I n
r h h n
NR NR I ,NR NR
The interfering signal will be completely suppressed if the weight vector w is selected
to fulfill the expression
w H hI 0
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
IRC can also be applied in the uplink direction to suppress interference from a
neighbor cell (inter-cell-interference ), see the following figure.
The following figure shows a frequency resource coordination method. The frequency
resources are divided into three parts. The users in the cell center can use all frequency
resources while the users at the cell edge can only use some frequency resources. The
users at the edge of neighboring cells use different frequency resources, thus the
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interference is reduced.
7 3
Users at the outer part of the cell
may only be assigned part of the
full spectrum.
1
6 4
The following figure shows a power resource coordination method. The frequency
resources are divided into three parts. All frequency resources can be used in all the
cells, but for a cell type, only some frequencies are allowed to use a higher transmit
power. Different types of cells use different frequencies. Thus the interference on the
users at cell edges is reduced.
Cell type 2
Cell type 3
f
P(f)
2
1 f
3
P(f)
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LTE_FDD_eNB_E_10 LTE Overview
Serving cell UE
Power control can also be implemented in the downlink direction for LTE. Intra-cell
power control can be implemented without requiring any specific support in a
corresponding radio-interface standard.
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User A
Scrambling A
Cell-specific scrambling is used for BCH, PCH, and control signaling for LTE. There is
a one-one mapping relationship between the scrambling and physical-layer cell IDs.
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Appendix A Abbreviation
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Appendix B Reference Document
SN Name
25.912 Feasibility study for evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) and
1
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
2 25.913 Requirements for Evolved UTRA (E-UTRA) and Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN)
36.300 Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA) and Evolved Universal
3
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN), Overall description
4 25.814 Physical layer aspects for evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA)
5 36.211 Physical Channels and Modulation
6 36.212 Multiplexing and channel coding
7 36.213 Physical layer procedures
8 36.214 Physical layer – Measurements
9 36.302 Services provided by the physical layer
10 36.331 Radio Resource Control (RRC)
11 36.104 Base Station (BS) radio transmission and reception
12 36.321 Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol specification
23.401 General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enhancements for Evolved Universal
13
Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) access
14 23.203 Policy and charging control architecture
99