Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 1

Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage

Revised Edition-1992

The material presented in this publication is for general information only and should
not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for
any given application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended
as a representation or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of
any other person named herein-that this information is suitable for any general or
particular use or of freedom from infringement of any patents. Anyone making use ot this
information assumes ail Iiability arising from such use.

Published by

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

ln cooperation with and editorial collaboration by

STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.

Revised December 1992

 Acknowledgements

or the preparation of the original version of this technical

F publication on carbon steel plate materials and tanks for liquid

storage, the American Iron and Steel Institute retained Mr. I.E.
Boberg as author. For his skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute
gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. The American Iron and Steel
Institute established a Task Force to produce and supply a special section
on stainless steel tanks to this publication, and wishes to acknowledge its
appreciation to this group for a commendable effort.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and

valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators
Association and representatives from the member steel producing
companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later
revising and updating, the material for publication in this current edition.

Appreciation is expressed to the American Society for Testing and

Materials, the American Petroleum Institute and the American Water Works
Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material.
Much of the i1lustrative material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.

American Iron and Steel Institute

lt is suggested that inquiries for further information on designs of steel

tanks for liquid storage be directed to: Steel Plate Fabricators Association,
Inc., 3158 Des Plaines Avenue, Des Plaines, IL 60018.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street N.W., Suite 1300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

PRINTED IN USA 1992

ii
 Introduction

he purpose of this publication is to provide a design reference for

T the usual design of tanks for Iiquid storage. For unusual

applications, involving materials or Iiquids not covered within these
pages, nor referenced herein, designers should consult more complete
treatments of the subject material. For information related to design of bulk
storage vessels, refer to SPFA publication "USEFUL INFORMATION ON
THE DESIGN OF STEEL BINS AND SILOS" by John R. Buzek.

Part 1contains general information pertaining to ail types of carbon plate

steels. This section may seem elementary to the metallurgist or to one who
is thoroughly familiar with steel industry terminology, practice and
classification. For others, it should be helpful to an understanding of what
follows.

Part Il deals with the particular carbon steels applicable to tanks for
Iiquid storage.

Part III covers the design of carbon steel tanks for liquid storage.

Part IV covers rnaterlals, design, and fabrication of stainless steel tanks

for Iiquid storage. lt has been revised for this publication by the Committee
of Stainless Steel Producers of American Iron and Steel Institute.

Inquiries for further information on design of steel tanks should be

directed to Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

Hi
 Contents

Part 1 Materials-General 1
Part Il Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage . 7
Part III Carbon Steel Tank Design 9
Part IV Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage 27

iv
Part 1
Materials-General
Designation
Ost of the steel specifications referred to in
M this manual are contained in the Book of
ASTM Standards, Part 4, which can be
obtained from the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
Each ASTM specification has a number such as
A283, and within each specification there may be
one or more grades or qualities. Thus an example of
a proper reference would be "ASTM designation
A283 grade C." ln the interest of simplicity, such a
reference will be abbreviated to "A283-C."
ASTM standards are issued periodically to report
new specifications and changes to existing ones
having a suffix indicating the year of issue such as
"A283-C-79." Thus a summary such as is provided
here may gradually become incomplete, and it is
important that the designer of steel plate structures
have the latest edition of ASTM standards available
for reference.
Definitions
At least a nodding acquaintance with the terminology
of the steel industry is essential to an understanding
of steel specifications. This is especially true
because, in common with many other industries, a
number of shop and trade terms have become so
thoroughly implanted in the language that they are
used instead of more precise and descriptive
technical terms. The following discussions may be of
assistance.
Steelmaking Processes
Practically ail steel is made by the open hearth
fumace process, the electric turnace process or the
basic oxygen process. ASTM specifications for the
different steels specify which processes are
permissible in each case.
Steelmaking Practice
The steels with which we are concerned are either
strand cast, or cast into ingots which may be hot
rolled to convenient size for further processing or
alternatively ingots may be hot rolled directly into
plates. In most steelmaking processes, the principal
chemical reaction is the combination of carbon and
oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this
reaction is not removed, the gaseous products
continue to evolve during solidification in the ingot.
Cooling and solidification progress from the outer rim
of the ingot to the center, and during the
solidification of the rim, the concentration of certain
elements increases in the Iiquid portion of the ingot.
The resulting product, known as RIMMED STEEL,
has marked differences in characteristics across the
section and from top to bottom of the ingot.
Control of the amount of gas evolved during
solidification is accomplished by the addition of a
deoxidizing agent, silicon being the most commonly
used. If practically no gas evolved, the result is
KILLED STEEL, so called because it lies quietly in
the ingot. Killed steel is characterized by more
uniform chemical composition and properties than
other types. Although killed steel is a quality item,
the end result is often not so specified by name, but
rather by chemical analysis. Other deoxidizing
elements are used, but in general, a specified
minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis
indicates that a steel is "fully killed."
The term SEMIKILLED designates an intermediate
type of steel in which a smaller amount of deoxidizer
is added. Gas evolution is sufficiently reduced to
prevent rimming action, but not sufficiently reduced
to obtain the same degree of uniformity as attained
in tully killed steels. This controlled evolution of gas
during solidification tends to offset shrinkage,
resulting in a higher yield of usable material trom the
ingot. As a practical matter, therefore, plates
originating from ingots are usually furnished as
semikilled steel unless a minimum silicon content of
0.10% on heat analysis is specified.
Chemical Requirements
A discussion of the effects of the many elements
added to steels would involve a metallurgical treatise
far beyond the scope of this work. However, certain
elements are common to ail steels, and it may be of
help to briefly outline the effects of carbon,
manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur on the
properties of steel.
CARBON is the principal hardening element in
steel, and as carbon increases, hardness increases.
 Tensile strength increases, and ductility, notch .
toughness and weldability generally decrease with
increasing carbon content.
MANGANESE contributes to strength and
hardness, but to a lesser degree than carbon.
Increasing the manganese content generally
decreases ductility and weldability, but to a lesser
degree than carbon. Because of the more moderate
effects of manganese, carbon steels, which attain
part of their strength through the addition of
manganese, exhibit greater ductility and improved
toughness than steels of similar strength achieved
through the use of carbon alone.
PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus can result in
noticeably higher yield strength and decreases in
ductility, toughness, and weldability. In the steels
under discussion here, it is generally kept below a
Iimit of 0.04% on heat analysis.
SULFUR decreases ductility, toughness, and
weldability, and is generally kept below a limit of
0.05% on heat analysis.
HEAT ANALYSIS is the term applied to the
chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel
and is the analysis reported to the purchaser. It is
usually determined by analyzing, for such eleme~ts
as have been specified, a test ingot sample obtained
from the front or middle part of the heat during the
pouring of the steel from the ladle.
PRODUCT ANALYSIS is a supplementary
chemical analysis of the steel in the semifinished or
finished product form. It is not, as the term might
imply, a duplicate determination to confirm a
previous result.
Carbon Steel
Steel is usually considered to be carbon steel when:
1. No minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel,
titaniurn, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other
element added to obtain desired alloying effect;
2. When the maximum content specified for any of
the following elements does not exceed the
percentages noted: manganese 1.65, copper 0.60,
silicon 0.60;
3. When the specified minimum for copper does
not exceed 0.40%.
There are some exceptions to these rules in High
Strength Low AIIoy (HSLA) steels.
Alloy Steel
Steel is usually considered to be alloy when either:
1. A definite range or definite minimum quantity is
required for any of the elements Iisted above in (1)
under carbon steels, or
2. The maximum of the range for alloying elements
exceeds one or more of the Iimits Iisted in (2) under
carbon steels.
Again, the HSLA steels demonstrate some
exceptions to these general rules.
2
High Strength Low Alloy Steels
These steels, generally with specified yield point of
50 ksi or higher and containing small amounts of
alloying elements, are ofteriemployed where high
strength or Iight weight is desired.
Mechanical Requirements
Mechanical testing of steel plates includes tension,
hardness, and toughness tests. The test specimens
and the tests are described in ASTM specifications
A6, A20, A370, and A673.
From the tension tests are determined the
TENSILE STRENGTH and YIELD POINT or YIELD
STRENGTH, both of which are factors in selecting
an allowable design stress, and the elongation over
either a 2" or 8" gage length. Elongation is a
measure of ductility and workability.
Toughness is a measure of ability to resist brittle
fracture. Toughness tests are generally not required
unless specified, and then usually because of a low
service temperature and/or a relatively high design
stress. Conditions under which impact tests are
required or suggested will be discussed in
connection with specific structures.
A number of tests have been developed to
demonstrate toughness, and each has its ardent
proponents. The test most generally accepted
currently, however, is the test using the Charpy V
Notch specimen. Details of this specimen and
method of testing can be found in ASTM·A370,
"Mechanical Testing of Steel Products," and in A20
and A673. Briefly described, an impact test is a
dynamic test in which a machined, notched
specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a
specially designed testing machine. The energy
expressed in toot-pounds required to break the
specimen is a measure of toughness. Toughness
decreases at lower temperatures. Hence, when
impact tests are required, they are usually performed
near temperatures anticipated in service.
Grain Size
Grain size is affected by both rolling practice and
deoxidizing practice. For example, the use of
aluminum as a deoxidizer tends to produce finer
grains. Unless included in the ASTM specifica~ion, or
unless otherwise specified, steels may be furnlshed
to either coarse grain or fine grain practice at the
producer's option. Fine grain steel is considered to
have greater toughness than coarse grain steels.
Heat-treatsd fine grain steels will have greater
toughness than as-rolled fine grain steels. The
designer is concerned only with the question of .
under what conditions is it justifiable to pay the extra
cost of specifying fine grain practice with or without
heat treatment in order to obtain improved
toughness. Guidelines will be discussed in later
sections.
Heat Treatment
POST·WELD HEAT TREATMENT consists of heating
the steel to a temperature between 1100F and
 1250F, furnace cooling until the temperature has
reduced to about 600F and then cooling in air.
Residual stresses will be reduced by this procedure.
NORMALIZING consists of heating the steel to
between 1600F and 1700F, holding for a sufficient
time to allow transformation, and cooling in air,
primarily to effect grain refinement.
QUENCHING consists of rapid cooling in a
suitable medium from the normalizing temperature.
This treatment hardens and strengthens the steel
and is normally followed by tempering.
TEMPERING consists of reheating the steel to a
relatively low temperature (which varies with the
particular steel and the properties desired). This
temperature normally lies between 1000F and 1250F.
Through the quenching and tempering treatment,
many steels can attain excellent toughness, and at
the same time high strength and good ductility.
To illustrate the effect of heat treatment on
toughness and strength, refer to Figure 1-1. The
numerical values shown apply only to the specific
steel described. For other steels, other values would
apply, but the trends would be similar.
Referring to Figure 1-1, if the designer has
selected a Charpy V Notch value of "x" ft.-Ibs, as
desirable under special service conditions, it will be
noted that the steel illustrated would not be
acceptable at temperatures lower than about + 35F
in the as-rolled condition. In the normalized
condition, the same steel would be acceptable down
to about - 55F, and if quenched and tempered, to
about - 80F together with an increase in carbon,
manganese, or other hardening elements. Note,
however, that heat treatment adds to the cost and is
indicated only when service conditions indicate the
necessity for increased toughness and/or increased
strength.
Classification of Steel Plates
Plate steels are defined or classified in two ways.
The first classification, which has already been
discussed, is based on differences in chemical
composition between CARBON STEELS, ALLOY
STEELS and HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY
STEELS. The second classification is based primarily
on the differences in extent of testing between
STRUCTURAL QUALITY STEELS and PRESSURE
VESSEL QUALITY STEELS. * It should not be
construed that these terms Iimit the use of a
particular steel. Pressure vessel steels are often
used in structures other than pressure vessels. The
distinction between structural and pressure vessel
qualities is best understood by a comparison of the
governing ASTM specifications.
ASTM designation A6, General Requirements for
Rolled Steel Plates for Structural Use, covers a
group of common requirements and tolerances for
the steels listed therein, the chemical composition
• Pressure vessel quality steels were previously known as FLANGE
and FIRE-SOX qualities, historically inherited terms used to define
diflerences in the extent of testing, but which have no present-
day significance insofar as the end use of the steel is concerned.
3
and special requirements for which are outlined
under separate specification numbers such as A36,
A283, A514, etc.
Similarly, ASTM designation A20, General
Requirements for Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels,
covers a group of common requirements and
tolerances which apply to a Iist of about 35 steels,
the chemical composition and special requirements
for which are outlined under separate ASTM
specification numbers.
Both A6 and A20 define tolerances for thickness,
width, length, and flatness, but for the designer the
important difference is in the quality of the finished
product as influenced by the difference in the extent
of testing. A general comparison of the two qualities
follows:
1. Chemical Analysis - The requirements for
phosphorus and sulfur are more stringent for
pressure vessel quality than for structural quality.
Both A6 and A20 require one analysis per heat plus
the option of product analysis. Product analysis
tolerances for structural steels are given in A6.
2. Testing for mechanical properties.
a) ln general, ail specifications for structural
quality require two tension tests per heat, size
bracket and strength gradation. A6 specifies the
general location of the specimens.
b) ln general ail specifications for pressure
vessel quality require either one or two
transverse tension tests, depending on heat
treatment, from each plate as rolled, * (and as
heat-treated, if any). This affords a check on
uniformity within a heat. Specification A20 also
specifies the location fram which the specimens
are to be taken.
3. Repair of surface imperfections and the
limitations on repair of surface imperfections are
more restrictive in A20 than A6.
Welding
Inasmuch as practically ail plate structures are
fabricated by welding, a brief discussion of welding
processes tollows.
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical bond between them.
There are many different types of welding, but we
are concerned only with arc welding. Arc welding is
a fusion pracess in which the bond between the
metals is produced by reducing the surfaces to be
joined to a Iiquid state and then allowing the liquid to
solidify. The heat required to reduce the metal to
Iiquid state is produced by an electric arc. The arc is
formed between the work to be welded and a metal
wire which is called the electrode. The electrode may
be consumable and add metal to the molten pool, or
it may be nonconsumable and of a relatively inert
metal, in which case no metal is added to the
workpiece .
"The term "Plate as rolled" refers to the unit plate rolled from a
slab or directly from an ingot in relation to the number and
location of specimens, not to its condition.
 ln the welding of steel plate structures, we are
concerned principally with five variations of arc
welding:
1. Shielded metal arc process (SMAW)
.2. Gas metal arc process (GMAW)
3. Flux-cored arc process (FCAW)
4. Electrogas or Electroslag welding
5. Submerged arc process (SAW)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding
ln the early days of arc welding, the consumable
electrode consisted of a bare wire. The pool of
molten metal was exposed to and adversely affected
by the gases in the atmosphere. It becam.~ obvious
that to produce welds with adequate ductility, the
molten metal must be protected or shielded from the
atmosphere.
This led to the development of the shielded metal
arc process, in which the electrode is coated ",:,ith
materials that produce a gas as the electrode IS
consumed which shields the arc from the
atmosphere. The coating also perforr:ns other .
functions, including the possible addmg of alloymg
elements as weil as slag-forming materials which
float to the top and protect the metal during
solidification and cooling.
ln practice, the process is limited primarily to
manual manipulation of the electrode. Not too many
years ago, this process was almost universally used
for practically ail welding. It is still widely used for
position welding, i.e., welding other than in the down
fiat position. For the down fiat position some of the
later processes described below are much faster and
hence less costly.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
ln the gas-shielded arc welding process, the mol.ten
pool of metal is protected by an externally supplled
gas, or gas mixture, fed through the electrode holder
rather than by decomposition of the electrode
coating. The electrode is a continuous filler-metal
(consumable) bare wire and the gases used include
helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. In some cases, a
tubular electrode is used to facilitate the addition of
fluxes or addition of alloys and slag-forming
materials. Some methods of this process are called
MIG and C02 welding.
The gas-shielded process lends itself to high rates
of deposition and high welding speeds. It can be
used manually, semi-automatically, or automatically.
Flux-Cored-Arc Welding
This is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with an arc between a
continuous filler-material (consumable) electrode and
the work. Shielding ls obtained from a flux contained
within the electrode. Additional shielding may or may
not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or
gas mixture.
4
Electrogas or Electroslag Welding
This process is a method of gas metal-arc welding or
flux-cored-arc welding wherein molding shoes confine
the molten weld metal for vertical position welding.
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged arc welding is essentially an automatic
process, although semi-automatic applications have
been used.
The arc between a bare electrode and the work is
covered and shielded by a blanket of granular,
fusible material deposited on the work ahead of the
electrode as it moves relative to the work. Filler
metal is obtained either from the electrode or a
supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding
materlal is known as melt or flux.
ln submerged arc welding, there is no visible
evidence of the arc. The tip of the electrode and the
molten weld pool are completely covered by the flux
throughout the actual welding operation. High
welding speeds are achieved.
It will be obvious that the necessity of depositing a
granular flux ahead of the electrode lends itself best
to welding on work in the down fiat position.
Nevertheless, ingenious devices have been
developed for keeping flux in place, so that the
process has been applied to almost ail positions
except overhead welding.
Weldability
It will be observed from the above that ail arc
welding processes result in rapid heating of the
parent metal near the joint to a very high
temperature followed by chilling as the relatively
large mass of parent plate conducts heat away from
the heat-affected zone. This rapid cooling of the weld
metal and heat-affected zone causes local shrinkage
relative to the parent plate and resultant residual
stresses.
Depending on the chemical composition of the
steel, plate thickness and external conditions, special
welding precautions may be indicated. In very cold
weather, or in the case of a highly hardenable
material, pre-heating a band on either side of the
joint will slow down the cooling rate. In some cases
post-heat or stress relief as described earlier in this
section is employed to reduce residual stresses to a
level approaching the yield strength of the material at
the post heat temperature.
With respect to chemical composition, carbon is
the single most important element because of its
contribution to hardness, with other elements
contributing to hardness but to lesser degrees.
lt is beyond our scope to provide a definitive
discussion on when special welding precautions are
indicated. In general, the necessity is dictated on the
basis of practical experience or test programs.
 Figure 1-1

Typical Effect of Heat Treatment on Notch Toughness

of a Fine-Grained C-Mn-Si Steel (1 Inch Thickness)

z Ouenehe<l and Temperee

2;-
0-
c:
a
'"
::ll
~
NormalÎzed
'>
0
cr:
w
Z
w
J:'
U
;-
x
a
z
:>
>-
0-
As Rolle<l
œ
~
J: C Mn SI AI
U
0.17 1.26 0.27 0.04
1
T""slie Slrenglh 1 Yield Slrenglh
As Rolled 77.400 psi 52.300 psi
Normali.e<l 76,500 psi 54.800 psi
Ouenehed I!& Temp'd. 83,100 psi 63.000 psi

-100 -75 -50 -25 o 25 50 75

TEMPERATURE·DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

5
Part Il
Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks
for Liquid Storage
Introduction
he intent of this publication is to provide
T information that may be useful in the design of
flat-bottom, vertical cylindrical tanks for the
storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric
pressure. Considerable attention has been directed
to tanks storing oil or water, which constitute most of
the tanks built. However, suggestions have been
included for storage of Iiquids meriting special
attention, such as acid storage tanks.
There are two principal standards in general use:
American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 650
covering "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," and
the American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Standard D100 covering "Steel Tanks for Water
Storage." The abbreviations API and AWWA will be
used for the sake of convenience.
Both API and AWWA permit the use of a relatively
large number of different steel plate materials. In
addition, the basic API Standard 650 and AWWA
Standard D100 Appendix C provide refined design
rules for tanks designed at higher stresses in which
the selection of steel is intimately related to stress
level, truckness and service temperature, as weil as
the type and degree of inspection. As a result,
knowledge of available materials and their limitations
is equally as important as familiarity with design
principles. . with the specific welding and inspection rules have
Useful information concerning plate steel ln
general has been covered in Part 1. lt is the purpose
of this section to assist in the selection of the proper
steel or steels in the construction of tanks for Iiquid
storage.
Factors Affecting Selection of Steel Plate
As you will learn in more detail in Part III of the
publication, both the AWWA ~nd the API offer . carbon steels is improved if part of the hardness and
optional methods of shell design. The AWWA basic
and the API Appendix A procedures are based on
simplified rules which use the same conservative
allowable stress regardless of the plate grade used.
The other design rnethods are based on refined
procedures that take into account plate grade,
service temperature, thickness and higher standards
7
_
of inspection. These procedures are represented by
the AWWA Appendix C and API basic standards.
It will be obvious that inasmuch as the simplified
design provisions of both standards allow identical
design stresses for any of the permissible steels,
economic considerations will lead to the selection of
the least expensive steel that will be satisfactory for
the intended service.
Steel selection is not so simple and straightforward
in the case of tanks built in accordance with either
the API or the AWWA refined design provisions.
Unstressed portions of such tanks, including bottoms
and roofs, will probably be furnished as A36 unless
the purchaser specifies otherwise. The selection of
material for shell demands further attention.
The refined design provisions of both API and
AWWA resulted from a desire to utilize newer and
improved steels and modern welding and inspection
techniques to bulld tanks of higher quality. The use
of higher stresses demanded attention to other
properties of steel, primarily toughness. An
exhaustive discussion of toughness is beyond the
scope of this work, but it can be pointed out that as
the stress level increases and temperature
decreases, toughness becomes more important.
At the stress level existing in API and AWWA
simplified design criteria tanks, experience has
demonstrated that the steels used in combination
been adequate for the service temperatures involved.
Upon venturing into the field of higher stress levels,
steels having greater toughness have been
considered a necessary corollary. Thanks to research
in metals, such steels are available. A number of
factors enter into making a proper selection. For
example, for any given steel, toughness generally
decreases as thickness increases. The toughness of
strength is obtained by a higher manganese content
and lower carbon at the same strength level. Fine-
grained steels exhibit greater toughness than coarse-
grained steels; this can be accomplished in the
deoxidizing process, and in heat treatment.
.Thus as thickness increases and service
temperature decreases, more stringent attention
 must be paid to toughness from the standpoint of
materials selection and fabrication.
The steels permitted by API and AWWA Appendix
C for use at these higher stress levels have
statistically demonstrated that they do have adequate
toughness for the thickness and temperature ranges
shown. The API standard includes an Impact
Exemption chart which establishes requirements for
impact testing, based on thickness, temperature and
type of material.
ln the final analysis the goal is to design the least
expensive but acceptable tank for a given set of
conditions. API and AWWA rules permitting higher
design stresses afford a fairlywide selection of
steels and stress levels to choose from, but they do
present a problem of selection.
A definitive treatment of economics is beyond the
scope of this work. Basically, the factors involved
are:
1. Cost of material
2. Weight of material as it affects freight and handling
3. Fabrication, erection and welding costs
4. Inspection costs
None of these factors is necessarily conclusive in
itself. In any given case, the lightest weight or lowest
material cost may or may not be the least expensive
overail depending on the relative importance of the
factors listed above. The tank fabricator ls usually in
the best position to judge which steel or combination
of steels will permit construction of the most
econornical, safe tank.
It is generally unwise to specify a more expensive
steel than can be justified by the application.
There are material costs not associated with
quality. The cost of plates will vary according to both
width and thickness, and from this consideration tank
shell plate approximately 8' wide will generally be
used. Particular situations may dictate the use of
wider or narrower plates for ail or part of a tank
shell.
Although both the API and AWWA Standard permit
the ordering of plates for certain parts of the tank on
a weight rather than thickness basis, there is no
longer any economic advantage in doing so.
behind technical progress. The extensive research
facilities of individual steel producers and American
Iron and Steel Institute are constantly searching for
ways to better serve the needs of our modern
economy. But before any construction standard such
as those of API and AWWA can accept and permit a
new material, it must have been established that it is
suitable for the structure in which it will be used.
Usually, but not always, acceptance by API and
AWWA implies prior acceptance by ASTM. Primarily
this is because ASTM specifications clearly delineate
the materials to be furnished, whereas any departure
from ASTM requires that the standards involved spell
out the requirements in corresponding detail. New
ASTM steels may or may not eventually find their
way into the construction standards, depending on
economics and the proven properties of the
materials.
It should be left to those who have acquired the
necessary experience in tank design and
construction to pioneer in the use of materials not
approved by API or AWWA. The designer, the user,
and the fabricator assume added responsibilities in
working outside of recognized industry standards. On
the other hand, such pioneering by qualified
organizations in the past led to the progress
represented by the refined procedures of Appendix C
of AWWA D100 and API-650.
As in the case of steels already approved by API
and AWWA, time and experience will eventually lead
to recognition of the steel or combination of steels
that will yield the highest quality tank at least cost.

The Future
To this point, only those steels specifically permitted
by API or AWWA have been discussed. Other steels
have been used to a minor extent by those
thoroughly familiar with the problems involved.
Among these are the materials referred to in Part 1
as high strength low alloy steels, manufactured either
as proprietary, trade named steels, or to ASTM
specifications. Some of these steels offer the
additional attraction of improved atmospheric
corrosion resistance, thus eliminating the necessity
for painting outside surfaces.
As is the case with ail high strength materials, the
designer and user must assure themselves that
factors other than strength (toughness for example)
are properly allowed for in design and construction.
For obvious reasons, ail construction codes lag

8
Part III
Carbon Steel Tank Design
Introduction
art III will consider the design of fiat bottorn,
P vertical, cylindrical, carbon steel tanks for the
storage of Iiquids at essentially atmospheric
pressure and near ambient temperatures. Practically
ail tanks in the United States within the scope of this
part are constructed in accordance with API 650
covering welded steel tanks for oil storage or AWWA
D100 covering welded steel tanks for water storage.
Tanks of other shapes and subject to gas pressure
in addition to liquid head; and tanks subject to
extreme low or high temperatures present radically
different problems. Consult ASME Section VIII, API
650 APPENDICES F & M, and API 620 for further
information.
API 650 and AWWA D100 contain detailed
minimum requirements covering inspection. Any
attempt to summarize the inspection requirements of
either standard would be voluminous and
dangerously misleading. It will be the purpose of Part
III to discuss only those portions necessary to
understand the various design bases. Anyone
concerned with fabrication, erection, or inspection
must obtain copies of the complete standards.
There are basic differences between the standards
of API and AWWA. API 650 is an industry standard
especially designed to fit the needs of the petroleum
industry. The oil tank is usually located in isolated
areas, or in areas zoned for industry where the
probable consequences of mishap are limited to the
owner's property. The owner is conscious of safety,
environ mental concerns and potential losses in his
operations, and will adjust the minimum
requirements to suit more severe service conditions.
AWWA D100 is a public standard to be used for
the storage of water. The water storage tank is
usually located in the midst of a heavily populated
area, often on the highest elevation available. The
consequence of mishap could not be tolerated in the
public interest.
The API 650 and AWWA D100 standards have
been in existence for many decades and the
experience under them has been excellent. Before
applying them to tanks storing Iiquids other than
9
water or oil the designer should consider which
philosophy best fits his circumstances. In either case
the design standards provide minimum requirements
for safe construction and should not be construed as
a design manual covering ail possible service
conditions.
General Design Formula for Tank Shells
Membrane theory, as it applies to cylindrical tanks
of large diameter, is elementary and needs no
explanation here.
Starting with the basic premise that circumferential
load in a cylinder equals the pressure times the
radius, then expressing H and D in feet for
convenience, the circumferential load at any level in
a vertical cylinder containing water weighing
62.4#/cu. tt., can be expressed as:
T=2.6 HO (3-1)
where T = the circumferential load per inch of shell
height
H = depth in feet below maximum Iiquid level
o = tank diameter in feet
Then the minimum design thickness can be
expressed as:
t (inches) = 2.6 HOG + C (3-2)
SE
where G = contained liquid specifie gravity
S = allowable design stress in psi
E joint factor
C = corrosion allowance in inches
Obviously the ideal situation would be to vary the
thickness uniformly from bottom to top, but since
steel plates are rolled to a uniform thickness, any
given course of plates is uniform throughout its
width. Thus a course designed for the stress at its
lower edge will have excess thickness at the top,
which will help carry part of the load in the lower
portion of the course above. API takes advantage of
this and designs each course of plates for the stress
existing one foot above the bottom of the course in
question. AWWA designs on the basis of stress
existing at the lower edge of each course.
Application of other methods of shell design is
permitted and explained in API 650 and AWWA D100.
 Loads To Be Considered
As outlined in the preceding section, the thickness of
the shell is determined by the weight of the product
stored. However, there are other loads or forces
which a tank may have to resist and which are
common to beth oil and water tanks.
Wind - Wind pressure is assumed to be 30 psf on
vertical plane surfaces which, when applying shape
factors of 0.6 and 0.5 respectively, becomes 18 psf
on the projected area of a cylindrical surface, and 15
psf on the projected area of a cone or surface of
double curvature as in the case of tank roofs. These
loads are considered to be the pressure caused by a
wind velocity of 100 MPH. For higher or lower wind
velocity, these loads are increased or decreased in
proportion to the square of the velocity ratio,
(V/100)2, where V is expected wind velocity
expressed in miles per hour. Other standards for
wind design may be specified such as ASCE 7-88
(formerly ANSI A58.1-1982), UBC, BOCA or SSBC.
Snow - Snow load is assumed to be 25 psf on the
horizontal projected area of the roof. Lighter loads
are not recommended even in areas where snow
does not occur because of the live loads that must
be resisted during construction and in service. Fixed
roofs on tanks are not usually designed for non-
symmetrical loads but if such load conditions are
anticipated, these should be considered by the
designer.
Seismic - Because of their flexibility, flat-bottomed
cylindrical steel tanks have had an excellent safety
record in earthquakes. Steel has the ability to absorb
large amounts of energy without fracture.
Prior to the Alaskan earthquake of 1964, oil tanks
had an almost perfect record of surviving ail known
western hemisphere earthquakes with essentially no
effects other than broken pipe connections. In the
Alaskan quake, the horizontal oscillations of the tank
contents caused vertical shell stresses of sufficient
magnitude to permanently deform the shell in a
peripheral accordion-like buckle near the bottom. But
again the properties of steel were sufficient to
accommodate this deformation without fracture of the
shell plates.s
As a result of this satisfactory experience record, it
is generally considered that earthquake is not an
important consideration in oil tanks where the height-
to-diameter ratio is generally small.
The record of water tanks has been
correspondingly good, but in the case of a standpipe
where the height-to-diameter ratio is high, the
problem is obviously aggravated.
AWWA D100 and API 650 contain
recommendations for the seismic design of tanks.
Seismic probability maps of the United States can be
found in each. If applicable, local conditions should
be investigated. UBC and ANSI standards may be
specified but are not as design specifie as AWWA
D100 and API 650 for fiat bottom, vertical, cylindrical
tanks.
10
Negative Pressure (such as partial vacuum) -
Most tanks of this nature at some time will be
subject to a negative pressure (partial vacuum) by
design or otherwise. Approximately one-half oz. per
square inch negative pressure is built into the shell
stability formulae in AWWA D100 and API 650.
AWWA D100 tanks are not usually designed for
negative pressure but negative pressure due to the
evacuation of water is considered in the venting
requirements. Occasionally API 650 tanks are
specified to resist a certain negative pressure,
usually expressed in inches of water column. To
meet these requirements the shell and roof must be
designed to resist the specified negative pressure. It
is left to the discretion of the designer to design for
the negative pressure as part of the specified shell
and roof loads or in addition to said loads. Part III of
volume 2 provides design information for negative
pressure on cylinders. Aiso if the negative pressure
occurs while the tank is empty, the weight of the
bottom plate should be compared against the
specified negative pressure.
Top and Intermediate Wind Girders
Open top tanks require stiffening rings at or near the
top of the shell to resist distortion or buckling due to
wind. These stiffening rings are referred to as wind
girders. In addition some tank shells of open top and
fixed roof tanks require intermediate wind girders to
prevent buckling due to wind. API 650 and AWWA
D100 provide differing design requirements for
intermediate wind girders and are explained in the
examples of Appendix A. The formula for maximum
height of unstiffened shell is based on the
MODIFIED MODEL BASIN FORMULA for the critical
uniform external pressure on thin-wall tubes free
from end loadings.
Anchor BoUs
The normal proportions of oil tanks are such
(diameter greater than height) that anchor bolts are
rarely needed. It ls quite common, however, for the
height of water tanks to be considerably greater than
the diameter. There is a Iimit beyond which there is
danger that any empty tank will overturn when
subjected to the maximum wind velocity. As a good
rule of thumb, if C in the following formula exceeds
0.66, anchor bolts are required:
C = 2M where (3-3)
dw
M = overturning moment due to wind, ft. lb.
d = diameter of shell in feet
w = weight of shell and portion of roof supported by
shell, lb.
Design tension load per boit = 4M - W (3-4)
ND N
where M and W are as above and
N = number of anchor bolts
D = diameter of anchor boit circle, feet
The diameter of the anchor bolts shall be
determined by an allowable stress of 15000 psi on
the net section at the root of the thread with
appropriate stress increase for wind or earthquake
loading.
Because of proportionately large loss of section by
corrosion on small areas, it is recommended that no
anchor boit be less than 1.25" in diameter.
Maximum desirable spacing of anchors as
suggested by API 650 and AWWA D100 is 10'-0.
This spacing is a matter of judgment and should
remain flexible to facilitate plate seams, nozzles and
other interferences. For example, for a shell plate 10
pi feet long, it would be advantageous to use three
anchors per plate and space the anchors at
approximately 10.5 feet.
Obviously the anchor boit circle must be larger
than the tank diameter, but care should be taken so
interference will not occur between the anchor bolts
and foundation reinforcing.
Volume 2 part VII provides design rules for anchor
boit chairs.
Corrosion Allowance
As a minimum for ail tanks, bottom plates should be
1/4" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is required for bottom plates, the
as-furnished thickness (including corrosion
allowance) should be specified. The thickness of
annular ring or sketch plates beneath the tank shell
may be required to be thicker than the remainder of
the bottom plates and any corrosion allowance
should be specified as applicable to the calculated
thickness or the minimum thickness.
API 650 and AWWA D100 specify minimum shell
plate thicknesses based on tank diameter for
construction purposes. If corrosion allowance is
necessary, it should be added in accordance with the
respective standard. A required minimum above
those stated in the standards may also be specified,
but it should be made clear if this minimum includes
the necessary corrosion allowance.
As a minimum for ail tanks, roof plates should be
3/16" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is necessary it should be added
in accordance with the respective standard. A
required minimum greater than 3/16" in thickness
may be specified; bu! it should be made clear if this
minimum includes the necessary corrosion
allowance.
If corrosion allowance is necessary for roof
supporting structural members, it should be added in
accordance with the respective standard. If a
corrosion allowance requirement different from the
standards is necessary, it should be made clear what
parts of the structure require the additional thickness
(flange or web, one side or both sides) and/or the
minimum thickness necessary.
API Standard 650
General
The following information is based on API 650,
eighth edition. Anyone dealing with tanks should
11
obtain a copy of the complete standard.
Shell Design
API requires that ail joints between shell plates shall
be butt welded. Lap joints are permitted only in the
roof and bottom and in attaching the top angle to the
shell.
API 650 offers optional shell design procedures.
The refined design procedures permit higher design
stresses in return for a more refined engineering
design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of
shell plate steels which demonstrate improved
toughness.
The probability of detrimental notches is higher at
discontinuities such as shell penetrations. The basic
requirements pertaining to welding, stress relief, and
inspection relative to the design procedures are
important.
Tank shells designed in accordance with refined
procedures will be thinner than the simplified
procedure, and thus will have reduced resistance to
buckling under wind load when empty. The shell may
or may not need to be stiffened, but must be
checked. This is discussed in the section on wind
girders.
Bottoms
Tank bottoms are usually lap welded plates having a
minimum nominal thickness of 1/4". After trimming,
bottom plates shall extend a minimum of 1 inch
beyond the outside edge of the weld attaching the
bottom to the shell plates. The attachment weld shall
be a continuous fillet inside and out as shown in the
following table of sizes:
Maximum t of Minimum Size of
Shell Plate Fillet Weld'
Inches Inches
3/16 3/16
over 3/16 to 3/4 1/4
over 3/4 to 1·1/4 5/16
over 1·1/4 to 1·3/4 3/8
, Maximum size Fillet 1/2"
Butt-welded bottoms are permissible, but because of
cost, are seldom used except in special services.
Butt-welded bottoms are usually welded from the top
side only using backing strips attached to the
underside. Welding from both sides presents
significant construction difficulties in order to perform
the work in a safe manner.
Top Angle
Except for open-top tanks and the special
requirements applying to self-supporting roofs, tank
shells shall be provided with top angles of not less
than the following sizes:
Minimum
Tank Diameter Size of Top Angle
35 feet and less 2 x 2 x 3/16
over 35 to 60 ft. incl. 2 x 2 x 1/4
over 60 feet 3 x 3 x 3/8
Roofs
The selection of roof type depends on many factors.
ln the oil industry, many roofs are selected to
minimize evaporation losses. Inasmuch as the
ordinary oil tank is designed to withstand pressures
only slightly above atmospheric, it must be vented
against pressure and vacuum. The space above the
liquid is filled with an air-vapor mixture. When a
nearly empty tank is filled with Iiquid this air-vapor
mixture expands in the heat of the day an? the .
resulting increase in pressure causes ventmg. ~urlng
the cool of the night, the remaining air-vapor mixture
contracts, more fresh air is drawn in, more vapor
evaporates to saturate the air-vapor mixture, and the
next day the cycle is repeated. Either the loss of
valuable "light ends" to the atmosphere from filling,
or the breathing loss due to the expansion-
contraction cycle, ls a very substantial loss and has
led to the development of many roof types designed
to minimize such losses.
The floating roof is probably the most popular of
ail conservation devices and is included as
Appendices to API Standard 650. The prin?ipl.e of
the floating roof is simple. It floats on the liquid
surface; therefore there is no vapor either to be
expelled on filling or to expand or contract from day
to night.
Inasmuch as ail such conservation devices are
represented by proprietary and often patented
designs, they are beyond the scope of t~is
discussion, which will be Iimited to the fixed roofs
covered by API Standards.
API 650 provides rules for the design of several
types of fixed roofs.
The most cornmon fixed roof is the column
supported cone roof, except for relatively small .
diameters where the added cost of a self-supportmg
roof is more than offset by saving the cost of a
structural framing. The dividing line cannot be
accurately defined because different practices and
available equipment may affect the decision in any
given case. If economy is the only consideration the
purchaser would be weil advised to specify the size
of tank and let the manufacturer decide whether or
not to use a self-supporting roof.
A self-supporting roof is sometimes desirable for
special service conditions such as an intern~1 floating
roof, or where cleanliness and ease of cleanmg are
especially important.
Ali roofs and supporting structures shall be
designed to support dead -Ioad plus a live load of not
less than 25 psf.
Roof plates shall have a minimum nominal
thickness of 3/16 inch. Structural members shall
have a minimum thickness of 0.17 inch.
Roof plates shall be attached to the top angle with
a continuous fillet weld on the top side only:
1. If the continuous fillet weld between the roof
plates and the top angle does not exceed 3/16
inch and the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment does not exceed 2 inches in
12
12 inches, and when the cross-sectional area of
the roof-to-shell junction does not exceed
A = 0.153W (3-5)
30,800 tan e
where W = total weight of the shell and roof
framing supported by the shell in
pounds
e = angle between the roof and a
horizontal plane at the roof-to-shell
juncture in degrees
the joint may be considered to be frangible and,
in case of excessive internai pressure, will fail
before failure occurs in the tank shell joints or
the shell-to-bottom joint. Failure of the roof-to-
shell joint is usually initiated by buckling of the
top angle and followed by tearing of the 3/16
inch continuous weld at the periphery of the
roof plates.
2. Where the weld size exceeds 3/16 inch, or
where the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment is greater than 2 inches in 12
inches, or when the cross-sectional area of the
roof-to-shell junction exceeds the value
calculated per equation 3-5, or where fillet
welding from both sides is specified, emergency
venting devices in accordance with API
Standard 2000 shall be provided by the
purchaser. The manufacturer shall provide a
suitable tank connection for the device and the
drawings should reflect the need for such a
device to be supplied by the customer. The top
angle may be smaller than previously noted
when a frangible joint is specified.
Supported Cone Roofs - Supported cone roofs are
usually lap welded from the top side only with
continuous full fillet welds. Plates shall not be
attached to supporting members, and shall be
attached to the top angle by a continuous 3/16" fillet
weld or smaller on the top side if specified by
purchaser.
The usual slope of supported cone roofs is 3/4" in
12". Increased slopes should be used with caution.
The columns transmit their loads directly to the
supporting soil through bases resting on but not
attached to the bottom plates. Sorne differential
settlement can be expected. A relatively fiat roof will
follow such variations without difficulty. As pitch
increases, a cone acquires stiffness, and instead of
smoothly following a revised contour, unsightly local
buckles may develop. In general, siopes exceeding
1-1/2" in 12" may be undesirable.
Rafters in direct contact with the roof plates may
be considered to receive adequate lateral support
from friction, but this does not apply to truss chord
members, rafters deeper than 15", or roof slopes
greater than 2" in 12". ..
Rafters are spaced so that, in the outer ring, their
centers are not more than 6.28 feet apart at the
shell. Spacing on inner rings does not exceed
5.5 feet. Ali parts of the supporting structure shall be
so proportioned that the sum of the maximum
calculated stresses shall not exceed the allowable
 stresses as stated in the appropriate section of API
650.
Self-Supporting Roofs - Self-supporting cone,
dome or umbrella roofs shall conform to the
appropriate requirements of API 650 unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser.
Accessories
API 650 contains specifie designs for approved
accessories which include ail dimensions,
thicknesses, and welding details. For ail cases,
OSHA requirements must be satisfied.
No details are shown, but specifications are
included for stairways, walkways and platforms. Ali
such structures are designed to support a moving
concentrated load of 1000 lbs. and the handrail shall
be capable of withstanding a load of 200 lbs. applied
in any direction at any point on the top rail.
Normally ail pipe connections enter the tank
through the lower part of the shell. Historically tank
diameters and design stress levels have been such
that the elastic movement of the tank shell under
load has not been difficult to accommodate.
With the trend to larger tanks and higher stresses,
. the elastic movement of the shell can become an
important factor.
Steel being an elastic material, the tank shell
increases in diameter when subjected to internai
pressure. The fiat bottom acts as a diaphragm and
restrains outward movement of the shell. As a result,
the shell is greater in diameter several feet above
the bottom than at the bottom.
Openings near the bottom of the tank shell will
tend to rotate with vertical bending of the shell under
hydrostatic loading. Shell openings in this area,
having attached piping or other external loads,
should be reinforced not only for the static conditions
but also for any loads imposed on the shell
connections by the restraint of the attached piping to
the shell rotations. Preferably the external loads
should be minimized or the shell connections
relocated outside the rotation area.
Tanks Other Than for Oil or Water
There are many applications for steel tanks other
than the storage of oil or water. Since most such
applications are industrial in nature for which no
industry standard has been developed, it is quite
common to use API Standard 650 as a basis for
design and construction. This is a logical approach
provided that problems peculiar to the contents
stored are taken into account.
Tanks designed to store Iiquified gases at or near
atmospheric pressure are beyond the scope of this
document. However, those interested in such storage
are referred to API 620 appendices Rand Q.
Molasses Tanks - Molasses presents no unusual
problems other than the fact that its specifie gravity
is about 1.48, and the shell design must, of course,
take this into account. It is quite common to require
13
such tanks to be built in accordance with API 650.
It must be remembered that the API Appendix A
design stress of 21,000 psi at 85% joint factor is
predicated on the tank being full of water during test,
and that the actual stress in petroleum service is
usually considerably less. Because molasses is
heavier than water, the full design stress is present
in service. Thus if the designer is depending on the
long and successful record of tanks designed in
accordance with API 650 Appendix A design, it
would be more consistent with the true situation to
use a somewhat lower design stress.
On the other hand, on tanks built to the basic
design of API 650 this difference between usual
petroleum service stress and design stress does not
exist. However, the addition of a corrosion allowance
is required when warranted by service conditions.
Acid and Caustic Tanks - To attempt a
comprehensive discussion of the subject of storing
acids and caustic solutions is beyond the scope of
this work. While stainless steel or other high alloy
materials are often required, some acids and caustic
solutions can be stored successfully in carbon steel
tanks, and the following discussion will be limited to
such application .
ln the absence of personal experience, information
concerning the corrosive properties of many common
solutions can be found in chemistry and chemical
engineers' handbooks or in the publications of the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
However, it should be noted that very small
differences in content (such as slight impurities) or
conditions can influence the corrosive effect of many
chemicals.
As an example, concentrated sulfuric acid does
not attack carbon steel whereas dilute sulfuric acid is
extremely corrosive. Thus concentrated sulfuric acid
can often be safely stored in carbon steel tanks
provided proper precautions are taken to cope with
dilute acid that may form in the upper portions of the
tank when acid fumes and water condensation meet
in the vapor space.
Thus one fundamental requirement for an acid
tank is that the interior of the tank be smooth without
crevices or pockets where dilute acid condensation
can collect. Self-supporting roofs are good practice.
If the design of the roof or size of tank requires
structural stiffeners, it is desirable that they be
placed on the outside. If the roof is lap welded, it
should be welded underneath as weil as the top. The
connection of the roof to the shell should eliminate
any pocket which might exist at the top of a standard
API tank.
When using Appendix A design basis of API 650,
a lower design stress should be considered for the
same reasons as given under "Molasses Tanks."
The tank user should specify the amount of corrosion
allowance, if any required, for his particular purpose.
ln the case of carbon steel tanks storing caustic
solutions, both the concentration and temperature
are important. Carbon steel tanks should not be used
if the combination of concentration and temperature
 exceeds the following values and may in some cases
be unsatisfactory below these Iimits:
50% and 120F
25% and 150F
5% and 200F
It is most important to make sure that the specified
design conditions are not exceeded in service.
Automatic temperature controis are recommended.
ln addition to ordinary corrosion, the principal
problem in caustic tanks is one referred to as
"caustic embrittlement" or "stress corrosion
cracking." ln the presence of high local stresses this
type of corrosion can rapidly result in cracks and
leaks. Local stress concentrations approaching the
yield point can exist at shell penetrations, in the
vicinity of welds and at other details. In caustic
service these are the points where stress corrosion
cracking can occur.
Thus, in the case of caustic storage tanks, ail
fittings penetrating the shell or bottom, or any
permanent attachments welded to the interior surface
thereof, should be installed in a plate in the shop
and the entire assembly thermally stress relieved.
Essentially, this leaves only main seam welding to be
performed in the field.
Self-supporting roofs without structural members
immersed in the tank contents are advisable. It is not
necessary, however, to eliminate crevices and
pockets as is recommended for acid tanks. For
caustic tanks, a standard API roof is acceptable.
Certain additional precautions in welding should be
taken in both acid and caustic tanks. Lap welds in
the bottom and the inside bottom-to-shell fillet should
be made in at least two passes. Since the bottorn-to-
shell weld usually consists of a fillet inside and out, it
is advisable to provide a water stop (complete
penetration) at each vertical shell joint so that if a
leak does occur in the inside fillet, channeling will be
limited to one plate length.
Ali other shell joints should be designed for
complete penetration and fusion. The inside passes
should be made first. The later welding of outside
passes will partially heat treat and reduce residual
stresses in the inside weld. If anticipated corrosion
indicates a bottom plate thickness greater than 3/8",
the bottom should be butt welded and the same
sequence followed; i.e. weld the inside passes first.
Inasmuch as ail welds create locally high residual
stresses, ail brackets, welding lugs, etc. should be
kept to a minimum, be located on the outside, and
attached with small-diameter electrodes to Iimit the
heat input and consequently the effect on the inside
surface.
When the corrosive attack is considered sufficiently
severe to admit the possibility of local penetration,
but not severe enough to warrant the expense of
high alloy or clad steel plates, the tank is sometimes
supported on a structural grillage to permit
inspection from the under side.
1.4
AWWA Standard D100
General
The following information is based on the AWWA
Standard 0100 issued in 1984. Anyone dealing with
tanks should obtain a copy of the complete standard.
With the exception of shells, roofs and
accessories, the comments made in connection with
API tanks also apply to AWWA tanks and will not be
repeated here in detail.
Bottoms may be either lap or butt welded with a
minimum thickness of 1/4 inch.
AWWA does not specify top angle sizes, but the
rules of API represent good practice.
Shell Design
AWWA 0100 offers two different design bases, the
standard or basic design and the alternate design
basis as outlined in Appendix C. The alternate
design basis permits higher design stresses, in
return for a more refined engineering design, more
rigorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels
with improved toughness.
AWWA 0100 Appendix C includes steels of
significantly higher strength levels and
correspondingly higher design stress levels. This
introduces new design problems. For example, for
A517 steels, the permissible design stress of 38333
psi will result in reaching the minimum required
nominal thickness several courses below the tank
top. It would be uneconomical to continue the
relatively expensive steel into courses of plates not
determined by stress. The obvious answer is to use
less expensive steels in the upper rings. To govern
this transition, Appendix C adds the following
requirements:
"In the interest of economy, upper courses may be
of weaker material than used in the lower courses of
shell plates, but in no instance shall the calculated
stress at the bottom of any course be greater than
permitted for the material in that course. A plate
course may be thicker than the course below it
provided the extra thickness is not used in any stress
or wind stability calculation. "
Compliance with this requirement will probably
result in the course or courses immediately below
the transition point being somewhat heavier than
required by stress. Using a steel of intermediate
strength level as a transition between A517 steel and
carbon steel may help the situation. In any event the
use of two or more steels will result in plates of the
same thickness made of different steels. Careful
attention to plain marking for positive identification
becomes very important. Consideration might be
given to varying plate widths for different materials of
the same thickness to aid in identification in the
event markings are lost.
Roofs
Whereas oil tanks are strictly utilitarian, a pleasing
appearance is generally an important consideration
in the case of water tanks. Since the roof line has an
important effect on appearance, this striving for
beauty has led to a wide variety of roof designs.
Often a self-supporting roof, such as an ellipsoid,
will extend a considerable distance above the
cylindrical portion of the shell, and the high water
level will extend up into the roof itself. The resultant
upward pressure on the roof is resisted by the
combination of the roof dead load and the weld joint
between the roof and shell.
AWWA requires that for ail roof plate surfaces in
contact with water, the minimum metal thickness
shall be 1/4". Roof plate surfaces not in contact with
water may be 3/16".
As applied to rolled shapes for roof framing, the
foregoing minimum thicknesses shall apply to the
mean thickness of the flanges regardless of web
thickness.
Roof plates not subject to hydrostatic pressure
from tank contents may be welded from the top side
only with either a continuous full fillet or butt joint
weld with 90% joint penetration. Where roof plates
are subjected to hydrostatic pressure, the roof may
be continuous double lap welded or butt welded.
Roof supports or stiffeners, if used, shall be in
accordance with current specifications of the
American Institute of Steel Construction covering
structural steel for buildings, with the following
exceptions:
1. Roof plates are considered to provide the
necessary lateral support by friction between
roof plates and rafters to eliminate reduction in
the basic allowable compressive stress, except
where trusses and open web joists are used for
rafters, or rafters having nominal depth greater
than 15 in. or rafters having a slope greater
than 2 in 12.
2. The roof, ratter and purlin depth may be less than
fb
600,000
times the span length in inches where fb is the
maximum bending stress in psi, providing slope
of the roof is 3/4 to 12 or greater.
3. The maximum slenderness ratio (Ur) for roof
support columns shall be 175.
4. Roof support columns shall be designed as
secondary members.
5. Roof trusses, if any, shall be placed above the
maximum water level in climates where lee may
form.
6. Roof rafters shall preferably be placed above
maximum water level, although their lower
ends, where connected to the tank shell, may
project below the water level.
Accessories
AWWA does not provide detailed designs of tank
fittings, but specifies the following:
1. Two manholes shall be provided in the first ring
of the tank shell. Manholes shall be either a
24" diameter or at least 18" x 22" when
elliptical manholes are used.
2. The purchaser shall specify pipe connections,
15
sizes, and locations. Due to freezing hazard
these connections are normally made through
the tank bottom and as near to the shell as
practical. A concrete valve box may be provided
to permit access to piping. This valve box must
be designed as a part of the ringwall.
3. If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at
least 4" high. If not required, then the
connecting pipe shall extend at least 4" above
the tank bottom.
4. The purchaser shall specify the overflow size
and type. A stub overflow is recommended in
cold climates. If an overflow to ground is
required, it should be brought down the outside
of the tank and discharged onto a splash block
or other appropriate drainage structure. Inside
overflows are not recommended. They are
easily damaged by ice, and a failure in the
overflow will empty the tank to the level of the
break.
5. An outside vertical ladder shall begin 8 feet (or
as specified) above the tank bottom and afford
access to the roof. Need for access to AWWA
tanks is infrequent and a conscious effort is
made to render access difficult for unauthorized
personnel.
6. The contractor shall provide access to the roof
hatches and vents. The access must be
reached from the outside tank ladder and fulfill
the AWWA 0100 requirements consistent with
the roof slope or as specified by the purchaser.
7. A roof door or hatch whose least dimensions
are 24" x 15", with a curb 4" high, provided
with a hinged door and clasp for locking shall
be placed near the outside tank ladder. A
second opening of at least 20" in diameter and
with a 4" neck must be provided near the
center of the tank. Additional openings may be
required for ventilation during painting.
8. Safety devices shall be provided on ladders as
required by federal or local regulations, or as
purchaser so specifies.
9. Adequate venting shall be provided to
accommodate the maximum tilling and
emptying rates. These rates should be specifiee
by the purchaser.
Venting for outflow (partial vacuum condition)
is based upon the unrestricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed between the outside and inside of the
tank. This differential is established by
quantifying the strength of the roof and shell
above and beyond other structural
requirements; for example, the margin of extra
strength of the shell against buckling with
respect to the design wind load.
Venting for inflow (pressure condition) is
again based upon the restricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed before lifting the roof plates. For
example, if 3/16" roof plates are used, the
pressure differential would be 7.65 PSF, 0.053
 psi, or 1.47 inches water column. If the Calculate shell thickness using the basic equation:
differential is limited to the weight of the roof, t = 2.6 hp D G (3-8)
the shell/roof juncture does not become sE
involved. The overstress in the shell would be
Ali nomenclature in the above and following
minimal.
The equation for outflow vent capacity is: equations is defined in the AWWA D100 standard.
Notice that hp in the above equation is the full Iiquid
YTx [(~~) 0.286 12 height above the design point rather than h - 1 as
Q = 0.5Ax110x -1r (3-6) used in API 650.
where Q = vent capacity in cubic feet per second The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:
A = minimum clear vent open area in ts = 2.6 x 7.66 x 150 x 1.0 = 0.1547"
square feet 19,330 x 1.0
T = air temperature in degrees
The thicknesses for the remaining rings calculate:
Rankine
Pa = atmospheric pressure in psia hp = 15.63' S = 19,330 psi t4 = 0.3152"
Pi = pressure in tank during withdrawal hp = 23.58' S = 23,330 psi 13 = 0.3942"
in psia hp = 31.54' S = 23,330 psi ta = 0.5273"
The equation for inflow vent capacity is: hp = 39.50' S = 23,330 psi 11 = 0.6603"
using A36 steel for rings 4 and 5 and A573 GR70 for
Q = 0.5A {6.25X106[(:~)0.286_1]}1j2 (3-7) rings 1, 2, and 3. Ring 5 will be increased to 0.3125"
because of minimum thickness requirements in
AWWA D100.
Shell stability is calculated using the basic
equation:
h = 10.625 X 106 x t (3-9)
Pw (D/t)1.5
The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:
APPENDIX A
hs = 10.625 X 106 x 0.3125 = 17.54' > 7.96'
Design Example 18 x (15010.3125),·5
For typical examples of tank design consider two For each ring the h calculated is compared to the
tanks 150 feet in diameter by 40 feet nominal height actual height of shell above the design point. When
with fiat cone supported roofs. Consider one tank per h calculates less than the height of shell above, the
AWWA D100 and the other tank per API 650. See shell is unstable. This may be corrected by
figure 3A-1 for tank dimensions. thickening the shell or adding a stiffening ring. For
These examples are for illustration only and are this example we will consider only thickening the
not to be used for an actual design or construction. shell.
Design of similar tanks should be accomplished by h4 = 17.73'> 15.92'
competent people experienced in the design of like ha = 21.76' < 23.87'
structures and the use of applicable standards.
For the AWWA tank consider Appendix C, shell Recalculate the thickness of ring 3 by using a lower
design by equation 3-10 (AWWA D100), and zone strength steel (A36).
one fixed percentage seismic loads. 13 = 0.4758"
For the API 650 tank consider the standard (non Recalculate:
Appendix A), shell design by the variable point
h3 = 26.37' > 23.87'
method, 1/16 inch corrosion allowance on the shell
only, and zone one API 650 seismic loads. The shell is now stable above ring 3; continuing;
Consider design metal temperature (DMT) of 20°F, h2 = 34.10'> 31.83'
standard 100 mph wind loads, standard 25 PSF roof hl = 45.67' > 39.79'
loads, a maximum Iiquid content height of 39'-6, and The entire shell is now stable for a design wind
a design specifie gravity of 1.0 for both tanks. velocity of 100 mph. See table 3A-1 for shell
The economics of plate selection with respect to thicknesses before and after minimum thickness and
width and grade and structural selection will differ wind stability adjustments.
with location and construction capabilities. Factors to For 100 mph wind load, design loads are 18 PSF
consider are plate width and grade availability in a on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces (shell) and
particular locality and structural rolling schedules. 15 PSF on projected areas of double curved
Aiso the availability of plate and structural stock in a surfaces (roof). Based upon the tank geometry and
particular locality will sometimes influence the the design loading, the wind shear is calculated:
selection of material. Further discussion of material
selection will be beyond the scope of this paper. Shell = 150 x 40.04 x 18 = 108,113 lbs.
The following design example covers the AWWA Roof = 150 x 4.69 x 0.5 x 15 = 5,273
D100 tank. Total = 113,386 lbs.

16
 The minimum required coefficient of friction
against sliding is:
Wind Shear = 113,386 = 0.154 (3-10)
Tank Weight 734,250
This coefficient is weil below established values
which range as high as 0.4 to 0.5.
The wind moment at the base of the shell is
calculated:
Shell = 108,113 x 20.02 = 2,164,421 ft.. lbs.
Roof = 5,273 x 41.60 = 219,357
Total = 2,383,778 ft-lbs.
The ratio, C = 2M/dw, calculates to be 0.076 < 0.666;
therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
Roof framing concepts, layout and detail vary
among tank designers and suppliers. Rafter spacing
is dependent upon roof loading and plate thickness.
For reasons of plate strength and construction a
maximum rafter spacing of approximately 7.00 feet is
desirable. For this example consider nine girders and
outer columns, 36 inner rafters and 72 outer rafters
(see figure 3A-2). The outer columns will be located
on a 42'-6" radius. The rafter spacing is 6.54 feet at
the shell and 6.92 feet at the girder. Consider 25
PSF snow load and 7.65 PSF (3/16" roof plate) dead
load.
Using an inner support radius of 2.38 ft, which is
dependent upon the method of supporting the inner
rafters, the maximum design length of the inner
rafters is 39.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The
maximum design moment calculates to be 27,580 ft-
lbs. Using an AISC allowable stress of 0.66 x Fy, a
section modulus of 13.93 in3 is required. A W12 x
14 section with a section modulus of 14.9 in3 is
chosen. See figure 3A-3 for a typical rafter loading.
The maximum design length for the outer rafters ls
35.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The maximum
design moment calculates to be 27,890 ft-lbs. A
section modulus of 14.09 in3 is required and again
we will choose a W12 x 14 section.
The rafter reactions are placed on the girder at the
locations as determined by the roof framing layout.
The outer rafter reactions are 3480 lbs.; the inner
rafter reactions are 2840 lbs.; and the girder design
length is 29.07 ft. The maximum design moment
calculates to be 150,440 ft-lbs. Again using AISC
allowable stresses, a section modulus of 75.98 in 3 is
required. AW18 x 46 section with a section modulus
of 78.80 in 3 is chosen. See figure 3A-4 for a typical
girder loading.
For the center column a design load of 74,900 lbs.
is calculated from the accumulated reactions of the
inner rafters. Using AISC design procedures an
allowable compressive stress is determined based
upon the unsupported column length of 486.5 inches
and a calculated slenderness ratio of 131. A 10"
diameter schedule 20 pipe will meet the design
criteria. See figure 3A-5 for typical center column
detail.
For the outer columns we have chosen an 8"
. 17
diameter schedule 20 pipe based upon a design load
of 41,400 lbs., an unsupported column length of
470.6 inches, and a slenderness ratio of 159; using
the same design criteria as the center column. See
figure 3A-6 for a typical outer column detail.
For zone 1 AWWA seismic loading the entire water
and dead load mass will be subject to an
acceleration of 0.025. For the seismic shear a simple
calculation of 0.025 times the accumulated weight of
the water and dead load equals 1,102,800 lbs. For
seismic moment the center of gravity of the dead
load is a matter of geometry. The water mass is
divided into the impulsive and convective modes with
appropriate masses and centers of gravity for each.
Using the procedure and nomenclature from AWWA
0100:
WT = 43,556,600 lbs.
W l = 0.3 X WT = 13,067,000 lbs.
W2 = 0.65 X WT = 28,311,800 lbs.
Xl = 14.615 ft
X2 = 20.935 ft
From the above criteria the seismic moment
calculates to be 19,946,500 ft-lbs. The ratio
M
0 2 (W + Wd calculates less than 0.785; therefore,
t
no anchors are required for seismic overturning.
WL in the above ratio is determined by the equatior
WL = 7.9 tb (fy HG)'!' (3-11)
WL is the portion of the contents that may be used to
resist overturning for an unanchored tank. The value
of WL is based upon a bottom plate width L that will
carry the resisting contents and is calculated by the
equation:
L = 0.216 t b (fy HG)'j, (3-12)
L is limited to 0.0350 which limits the value of WL to
1.28 HDG.
The following design example covers the API 650
tank.
Calculate the shell thicknesses by the VARIABLE
POINT DESIGN method as explained in API 650. A
detailed example is in the API 650 Appendix. The
thickness calculations for rings 1 and 2 are shown in
figure 3A-7. The thickness for ring 5 is governed by
minimum thickness requirements. Table 3A-2
summarizes final required thicknesses based upon
static head, specified corrosion allowance, minimum
thickness, and material economics.
Shell stability is calculated using the equation:
H = 600,000 t (3-13)
(D/tt 5
For API 650 design t is the thickness of the top
ring and not the average shell thickness as in
AWWA design.
H = 600,000 x 0.3125 = 17.83 ft < 39.79 ft
(150/0.3125)15
It should be noted here that unless otherwise
specified the as-built thicknesses are used in the
shell stability calculations rather than the corroded
thicknesses.
 Since H calculates less than the shell height,
calculate a transposed shell height using the
equation:
Wtr = W (ttiform)5/2 (3-14)
actual
The transposed shell height is the sum of Wtr for
each ring. If H is less than the sum of W tr, the shell
is unstable. As in the AWWA design the unstable
condition may be corrected by thickening the shell or
adding a stiffener ring(s). See figure 3A-8 for Wtr for
each ring and the sum of Wtr. H is less than the sum
of W tr; therefore, the shell is unstable for 100 mph
wind loading.
For this example consider stabilizing the shell by
adding a stiffener ring(s). If one-half the sum of W tr is
greater than H, then two (or more) stiffener rings are
required.
1/2 x 25.33 = 12.67 ft < 17.83 ft
Therefore, only one stiffener ring is required. Place
the stiffener ring at the mid-point of the transposed
shell height. This location on the actual shell may be
found by back calculating through the transposed
shell heights. By inspection one can determine that
the stiffener ring will be located on ring 4, 12.67 ft
from the top of the shell or 27.0 ft. from the bottom.
The stiffener ring required section modulus is
calculated by the equation:
2 = 0.0001 0 2 H (3-15)
2 = 0.0001 x (150)2 x 12.67 = 28.5 in 3
The configuration of the stiffener ring may take on
many different shapes at the preference of the
purchaser or supplier.
The shell is now stable for a design wind velocity
of 100 mph.
The wind loads on the API 650 tank are identical
to the AWWA tank; therefore, the resulting wind
shear and moment at the bottom of the API 650 tank
are the same as the AWWA tank.
Shear = 113,386 lbs.
Moment = 2,383,778 ft-lbs.
The ratio, C = 2M/dw, calculates to be 0.094 <
0.666; therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
The roof framing scheme will change significantly
from the AWWA design since the maximum rafter
spacing at the shell cannot exceed 2 x pi (6.28 ft)
and the maximum rafter spacing between inner
rafters cannot exceed 5.50 ft. For this example
consider twelve girders and outer columns, 48 inner
rafters and 84 outer rafters, Consider 25 PSF snow
load and 7.65 PSF dead load. Using identical design
procedures as the AWWA 0100 design and API 650
allowable stresses, we will choose the following roof
framing members:
Inner rafters = W12 x 14
Outer rafters = W12 x 14
Girders = W16 x 31
Center column = 12" dia. sch 20
Outer columns = 8" dia. sch 20
18
For zone one seismic loading the effective mass
method of API 650 will be used. The design method
considers two response modes of the tank and
contents: the impulsive and convective modes. The
impulsive response mode is the relatively high
frequency amplified response to lateral ground
motion of the tank shell and roof together with the
portion of the contents that moves in unison with the
shell. The convective response mode is the relatively
low frequency amplified response of the portion of
the contents that moves in the fundamental sloshing
mode. The content total, impulsive and convective
masses, are identical to the AWWA design. The
dead load mass is slightly different due to the
different shell and framing design criteria of AWWA
and API 650. The equation for overturning due to
seismic loading applied to the bottom of the shell is:
M = 21 (C1WSXS + C1WrH t + C1W1Xl + C2W2X2 ) (3-16)
For zone one: Z = 0.1875
1 = 1.0
Cl = 0.24
C2 = 0.0301 (based upon a natural
period of the first
sloshing mode of 8.2
sec. and S = 1.5)
The moment calculates to be 12,804,400 ft-lbs.
The ratio M calculates less than 0.785;
0 2 (Wt + WJ
therefore, no anchors are required for seismic overtuminç
APPENDIX B- TANK FOUNDATIONS
Soils Investigation
The subgrade of a potential tank site must be
capable of supporting the weight of the tank and
contained fluid. A qualified geotechnical engineer
should be retained to conduct the subsurface
exploration and to make specific recommendations
concerning: the type of foundation required,
anticipated settlements, allowable soil bearing and
specific construction requirements.
The ultimate soil bearing capacity should be
determined using sound principles of geotechnical
engineering. The following minimum factors of safety
should be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity
when determining the allowable soil bearing:
1. A factor of safety of 3.0 for normal operating
conditions.
2. A factor of safety of 2.25 during hydrotest.
3. A factor of safety of 2.25 for operating
conditions plus the maximum effect of wind or
seismic forces.
An allowable soil bearing based solely on the
above factors of safety may result in excessive total
settlements. If required, these factors of safety
should be increased in order to Iimit the anticipated
total settlements to acceptable values. Factors of
safety larger than the above minimums are also
required by certain codes and standards, such as
AWWA 0100.
Factors of safety lower than the above minimums
 3/16" ROOF PL
LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLy

,
('l
12
::::::1 3/4 1

RING 5 ~Î
<,
.....
RING 4
- 1
0J
<,
.....
r-,
RING 3 0
1
~
0
Vl
RING 2 LJ 'G"
Z
......
a::
RING If)

1. 150'-0 .1
1/4' BOTTOM PL LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY

Figure 3A-1 - Flat Bottom Tank

a.) CALCULATED SHELL THICKNESSES FROM b.) ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES FOR STATIC
STATIC HEAD ONLY (AWWA DESIGN) HEAD AND WIND STABILITY (AWWA DESIGN)

1
RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL
1 ,1

5 0.1547" A36 5 0.3125" A36

4 0.3152" A36 4 0.3152" A36
1
3 0.3942" A573GR70 3 0.4758" 1 A36 1
!

2 0.5273" A573GR70 2 0.5273" A573GR70 [

!
1 0.6603" A573GR70 1 0.6603" i A573GR70 i

Table 3A-1 - Shell Plate Thicknesses

19
 ~
R = 75'-0 J

R = 42'-61
36 RAFTERS RAFTERS
R = 2'-4 1/2

Figure 3A-2 - Framing Layout - AWWA

NON-UNIFORM LOAD

UNIFORM LOAD (INCLUDES RAFTER ~T.)

R2 11-----===::.:-::=:..:.;.;..----
DESIGN LENGTH

Figure 3A-3 - Typical Rafter Loading

______ REACTIONS FROM

INNER RAFT ERS
------ REACTIONS FROM
OUTER RAFTERS
1
,-r.......--,-~--r_'__;-;~r_r'_,__.,._'_,__,..._...._...,..__'..." GIRDER DEAD LOAD

Figure 3A-4 - Typical Girder Loading

20
 ~ INNER RArTERS OUTER RArTER

~
____ II
-, =
~
=
#
r ~ INNER RArTER

CoLUMN CoNE
GIRDER
1: :k-
.
CAP PLATE
1 1; ~ CoLUMN 1 1 CoLUMN

1 1

l'V
..... 1 1
0 0
\) \)

0
\)
1 1 \)
0
VJ VJ
~ ~

-j -<
r'l J> 1 1 n J>
Z Z
no n 0
or or
;un ;Ur'l
z VJ 1 1 BASE PLATE Z VJ Il Il BASE PLATE
r'l n
;uo ;00
VJ Z Vl z
1 1 ) sor ro- PLA TE 1 Il /1 / BoTToM PLATE

1 1

Figure 3A-S - Typical Center Column Figure 3A-G - Typical Outer Column
 VARIABLE POINT DESIGN: API 650 8TH ED. PARA.3.6.4.
RING NO. 1

DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625

Td = 2.6*D*(H-1)*G/S+CA = 0.5362 + CA = 0.5987
T1d = [1.06 - (0.463*D/H)*SORT(H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S + CA =
T1d = 0.5469 + CA = 0.6094

HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 30000.

TT = 2.6*D*(H -1)*G/S = 0.5005
TH = [1.06 - (0.463*D/H)*SORT(H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S = 0.5115

USE: 0.599 IN. A573 70

UH = SORT(6.0*D*T)/H3 = 0.5929 <= 2.0 OK

RING NO. 2

DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 31.542 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625

Td = 2.6*D*(H-1)*G/S+CA = 0.4254 + CA = 0.4879
TX = 2.6*D*(H-X/12)*G/S

TU TL K C X2 X1 X3 X TX
0.4254 0.5362 1.2606 0.1211 45.847 26.607 23.872 23.872 0.4116
0.4116 0.5362 1.3028 0.1390 52.595 28.571 23.482 23.482 0.4121
0.4121 0.5362 1.3013 0.1384 52.369 28.506 23.495 23.495 0.4121
TX = 0.4121 + CA = 0.4746

DESIGN: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SORT (6*D*0.5362)] = 4.3471
T2 = Tx+(T1 - Tx)*(2.1-4.3471/1.25) = 0.2410
T2D = 0.4121 + CA

HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 31.542 G = 1.000 S = 30000.

TT = 2.6*D*(H -1)*G/S = 0.3970
TX = 2.6*D*(H-X/12)*G/S

TU TL K C X2 X1 X3 X TX
0.3970 0.5005 1.2606 0.1211 45.846 26.202 23.062 23.062 0.3851
0.3851 0.5005 1.2998 0.1377 52.127 28.036 22.711 22.711 0.3854
0.3854 0.5005 1.2985 0.1372 51.924 27.977 22.723 22.723 0.3854
TX = 0.3854

HYDROSTATIC: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SORT(6*D*0.5005)] = 4.4997
T2 = TX + (T1 - TX)*(2.1 - 4.4997/1.25) = 0.2128
T2T = 0.3854

MINIMUM DESIGN THICKNESS = 0.4746

USE: 0.475 IN. A573 70

FIGURE 3A-7 - API 650 VARIABLE POINT CALCULATIONS

22
 1
RING # THICKNESS MATERIAL
5 0.3125" A36
4 0.3125" A36
3 0.3750" A573GR70
2 0.4750" A573GR70
1 0.5990" A573GR70

TABLE 3A-2 - ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES

(API 650 DESIGN)

Wtr (ring 5) = 95.50 INCHES

Wtr (ring 4) = 95.50
Wtr (ring 3) = 60.54
Wtr (ring 2) = 33.61
Wtr (ring 1) = 18.79
SUM OF Wtr = 303.94 INCH ES
= 25.33 FEET
FIGURE 3A-8 - TRANSPOSED SHELL HEIGHT
(API 650 DESIGN)

may be considered when actual experience with similar
tanks and foundations at a particular site indicates
that satisfactory performance can be expected.
Tank Grade
The tank grade (surface which supports the tank
bottom) can be constructed of earth materials
provided the subgrade beneath the tank bottom is
capable of supporting the weight of the contained
fluid. The tank grade usually consists of a 4" sand
cushion placed over properly compacted fill or sail. lt
is recommended that the finished tank grade be
constructed at least 6 inches above the surrounding
ground surface and be crowned from its outer
periphery to its center. A slope of 1 inch to 10 feet is
suggested. The sand should be clean and free of
corrosive elements. Care should be taken to exclude
lumps of earth or other deleterious materials from
coming into contact with the bottom. These materials
can cause electrolytic action that will result in pitting
of the bottom plate.
If the sand cushion is placed on top of crushed
rock fill, the rock should be carefully graded from
coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. If this is not
done, the sand will percolate down through the voids
in the coarser rock.
An excellent tank grade can also be obtained by
substituting about 1'12 inches of asphalt road paving
mix for the sand cushion.This material is available
from ready mix plants in many sections of the
country. It is very important that the paved tank
grade be constructed level and to the proper profile,
particularly near the shell. Once the asphalt has set
up, it is extremely difficult for the tank builder to
correct inaccuracies by taking down the high and
filling in the low spots.
Drainage is important both from the standpoint of
soil stability and bottom corrosion. Good drainage
should be provided under the tank itself and in the
general area around the tank. Where the terrain
does not afford natural drainage, proper ditching
around the tank may help to correct the deficiency.
Foundations
The shell of a fiat bottom tank can be supported on
a compacted granular berm, concrete ringwall or
concrete slab foundation. Local soil conditions, tank
loads and the intended use of the tank will determine
which of these foundations is suitable for a particular
site. Tanks that require anchor bolts must be
supported by ringwall or slab foundations.
Granular Berm Foundation - When a qualified
geotechnical evaluation concludes that it is
unnecessary to construct a ringwall or slab
foundation, the shell can be supported by a granular
berm foundation. The berm should be constructed of
weil graded and properly compacted stone or gravel.
The berm should extend a minimum of 3 feet beyond
and 2 feet inside the tank shell as shown in Figure
38-1. The berm should be level to within + 1/8 inch
in any 10 feet of circumference and to within ± 1/2
inch in the total circumference. Adequate drainage

23
away from the berm must be provided to prevent The top of the ringwall should be smooth and level
erosion of the berm under the shell. Alternatively, a to within ± 1/8 inch in any 30 feet of circumference.
welded or bolted steel grade band can be used to No point on the total circumference should vary more
retain the outer portion of the berm. than ± 1/4 inch from the specified finish elevation.
Concrete Ringwall Foundation - When suitable Slab Foundation - When the subgrade beneath the
bearing is not available at the surface, but is tank bottom cannot adequately support the weight of
available at a reasonable depth below the surface, a the contained fluid, a slab foundation is required.
ringwall foundation should be considered. The depth The area of the slab must be sufficient to produce a
of the ringwall will depend on local conditions and soil bearing (due to the total weight of the tank,
must be sufficient to place the bottom of the ringwall foundation and contained product) less than the
below anticipated frost penetration and within the allowable soil bearing. The depth to the bottom of
specified bearing strata. As a minimum, the bottom the slab will depend on local conditions and must be
of the ringwall should be located 2 feet below the sufficient to place the bottom of the slab below
lowest adjacent finish grade. The width of the anticipated frost penetration and within the specified
ringwall must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing bearing strata.
less than the specified allowable soil bearing. As a The detailed design of the slab and requirements
minimum, the ringwall width should be 1 foot. The for the materials, construction and testing should be
inside horizontal projection (inside the tank shell) in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's
should be no less than 4 inches. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
The ringwall must be reinforced to resist the (ANSI/ACI 318).
following forces:
1. Direct hoop tension resulting from the lateral References, Part III
earth pressure on the inside face of the
1. API Standard 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
ringwall. Unless substantiated by proper
Storage, Division of Refining, American Petroleum
geotechnical analysis, the lateral earth pressure
Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988.
should be assumed to be 30% of the vertical
2. AWWA Standard D100-84 Welded Steel Tanks for
pressure due to the contained fluid and the soil
Water Storage, American Water Works
weight. Association.
2. Bending moment resulting from the uniform
3. Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute
moment load. The uniform moment load is due
of Steel Construction, Inc., Ninth Edition.
to the eccentricities of the shell and pressure
4. "Oil Storage Tanks", The Prince William Sound,
loads relative to the centroid of the soil bearing
Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks,
stress. The pressure load is due to the fluid
Volume Il, Part A, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967.
pressure on the inside horizontal projection of 5. "Fluid Mechanics", Dodge & Thompson.
the ringwall.
3. Bending, torsion and shear resulting from
lateral, wind or seismic, loads. A rational
analysls, which includes the effect of the
foundation stiffness, should be used to
determine the soil bearing stress distribution
and the above internai design forces.
The area of reinforcement provided must be
sufficient to resist the above forces and should not
be less than the following minimums. These
minimums are intended to prevent excessive
cracking due to shrinkage and temperature.
1. For wall-like ringwalls the area of vertical
reinforcement provided should not be less than
0.0015 times the horizontal cross-sectional area
of the ringwall.
2. The area of hoop reinforcement provided should
not be less than 0.0025 times the vertical cross-
sectional area of the ringwall.
The detailed design of the ringwall and
requirements for the materials, construction and
testing should be in accordance with the American
Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ANSI/ACI 318).
Recesses shall be provided in the concrete ring-
wall for flush type cleanouts, drain off sumps and any
other appurtenances that require recessing. Refer to
API 650 for details of recesses at flush type c1eanouts.

24
 Figure 38·1 - Example of Foundation with Crushed Stone Ringwall
from API 650, Eighth Edition, November 1988

4' MIN. OF CoMPACTED CRUSHED STONE,

SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND,
OR SIMILAR MATERIAL
3' MIN. 2' MIN.
SLoPE IF
PAVED
SLoPE

. . '. " ... .....

'

'
.. .. .. .. ".
' " " " '" .
~ .• -:; e. • • • ! .. ! .• ! .• !

~RSE
~~OROUGHlY
"" 1 1
STONE OR
CoARSE GRAVEL -
l' MAX. SI ZE COMPACTED FllL
OF FINE GRAVEL, CoARSE SAND,
OR oTHER SUITABLE MATERIAL

Note: Bottom of excavation should be level. Remove any unsuitable

material and replace with suitable fil1r thoroughly compacted.

Figure 38·2 - Example of Concrete Ringwall Foundation

1/2' THICK CMIN) 4' MIN. OF CoMPACTED CRUSHED STONE,
Il
ASPHALT - IMPREGNATED SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND,
BOARD CoPTIoNAL) Il OR SIMILAR MATERIAL i
Il 1 SLoPE
i _0-=-='---..:::--
IL----------t--

il FINISH

~I GRADE

MATERIAL AND
FILL,
z

REINFoRCEMENT AT BoTH FACES FOR

RINGWALL WIDTHS EXCEEDING 12
INCHES. CLoSED STIRRUPS MAY BE
1.1' MIN,.1 REQUIRED FOR SHEAR AND/OR TORSION

25
Part IV
Stainless Steel Tanks
for Liquid Storage - - - - -
Introduction
t the present time, the only rules for stainless
A steel storage tanks are given in Appendix Q
of API Standard 620(1) which covers low-
pressure tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon gases,
particularly Iiquefied ethane, ethylene, and methane,
at a minimum temperature of - 270F. Rules for the
design and construction of pressure vessels -
including stainless steel vessels - are given in the
ASME (2) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1 and Division 2, Pressure Vessels.
ln the following discussion rules are presented for
design and construction of stainless steel tanks at
atmospheric pressures. These rules are not intended
to coyer storage tanks which are to be erected in
areas subject to regulations more stringent than
specified in the following pages. These rules are
recommended only insofar as they do not conflict
with local requirements.
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION
OF STAINLESS STEEL
There are a total of 62 stainless steel compositions
that are recognized as standard by the American
Iron and Steel Institute (3), as weil as commercially
available proprietary compositions.
The five stainless steels most generally used as
plate material for construction of Iiquid storage tanks
are Types 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 410S. The last
is not recognized as standard by American Iron and
Steel Institute. The chemical compositions of these
types are Iisted in Table 4-1 and their mechanical
properties are listed in Table 4-2.
The selection of a particular type of stainless steel
for a given corrosive environment often follows
extensive study of comparative data, and sometimes
even pilot or service testing. However, a general
understanding of the corrosion resistance capabilities
of the five stainless steels, in terms of their relative
resistance to various common media, is shown in
Table 4-3. The five types fall within two categories:
namely, Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are in the
chromium-nickel group, while Type 410S is in the
straight chromium group.
27
_
Type 304
Possessing corrosion resistance, strength and
fabricability, this is the general purpose stainless
steel, long known as "18-8". Attesting to its wide
usage is the fact that it accounted for 35% of ail
stainless steels produced in the United States in
1980. Type 304 is extensively specified for food
handling and storage, dairy equipment, nuclear
fluids, and in general most applications where even
small amounts of corrosion product would be
intolerable.
Type 316
Containing higher nickel than Type 304, and 2-3%
molybdenum, Type 316 possesses greatly improved
resistance to corrosion by pitting. It is used under
conditions too severe for Type 304, such as minerai
acids (phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid), strong organic
acids (oxalic, formic, etc.) and halides in various
dilutions.
Types 304L and 316L
Containing 0.03% maximum carbon, these are the
low carbon counterparts of Types 304 and 316. The
lower the carbon content, the less the chromium
carbide that can be formed.
Chromium-nickel stainless steels form a grain
boundary chromium-carbide precipitate when heated
in the 800-1650F temperature range for sufficient
time (see Figure 4-1) (5). If the degree of precipitation
is severe - i.e. the grains are completely
surrounded - there may be a loss of corrosion
resistance in aggressive media such as hot, oxidizing
acids (e.g. strong nitric acid), iron or copper sulfates
in hot dilute sulfuric acid, and air-saturated hot
sulfuric acid. Such aggressive corrosion conditions
do not normally exist in storage tanks.
Intergranular corrosion attack used to be a
common occurrence when the stainless steels
contained up to 0.12% carbon (as in Type 302, for
example). This was enough carbon to remove
considerable chromium from solution during welding
cycles, causing mild to heavy carbide precipitation in
the weld heat-affected zone. Corrosive attack would
be evident in this zone, if the environ ment was
severe. This situation resulted in widespread
specifying of low carbon (0.03% maximum) stainless
steels, but it should be understood that there are
relatively few situations where the L grades are
actually required for storage vessels. Even these
should be carefully investigated to establish such a
need before the additional expense of the L grades
is incurred. Types 304 and 316 (0.08% maximum
carbon) can, in many cases, be welded free of
carbide precipitation. If a small amount does
develop, it may be unaffected by the liquid being
stored, except possibly as indicated above.
lt should be noted here that galvanized material or
other zinc products welded to stainless steel will
cause intergranular cracking.
ln general, the L grades should be used when -
and only when - it is ascertained that conditions will
be present, which are conducive to intergranular
attack on as-welded 0.08% maximum carbon
stainless steel (see Figure 4-1). The general
corrosion and pitting resistance of the L grades is
not better than their higher carbon counterparts in
the annealed condition; nor is there any advantage in
weldability or fabricability.
Type 4105
This straight-chromium stainless steel is not subject
to the above form of carbide precipitation. It finds
use where moderate corrosion resistance is needed,
and slight product contamination is not critical (see
Table 4-3). The low carbon (0.08% maximum) results
in a tough plate product which avoids formation of
the less-tough metallurgical structures possible in
high-strength, low-alloy steels.
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Another phenomenon associated with the chromium-
nickel stainless steels Types 304, 304L, 316 and
316L, is stress corrosion cracking.
By definition, stress corrosion cracking involves the
combined action of a tensile stress and a corrosive
medium. Aside from some ultra-pure metals, most
commercial metals are subject to this phenomenon
in certain specific environments. While the initial
reaction may be one of great concern, it should be
emphasized that throughout industry there are
numerous applications of stainless steel in
environments where stress corrosion cracking does
not occur or which have been engineered to avoid
stress corrosion cracking.
Although stress corrosion cracking is not fully
understood, there are some general guidelines that
can be related to stainless steels:
1. The form of stress corrosion usually found in
the AISI 300 stainless steels is related to
exposure to hot chloride-containing corrosive
media.
2. At temperature much below 160 oF, stress
corrosion failures are not very likely to occur.
3. At temperatures exceeding 160 oF, the time to
28
failure of life of the vessel is very dependent on
temperature, concentration of chloride and
stress. Increased values in each case will
shorten the life of the vassel.
4. While Types 304 and 316 are both susceptible
to hot chloride stress corrosion cracking, Type
316 under similar service conditions tends to
give better life than Type 304.
5. Because of variation in fabrication and service
stresses, it is frequently difficult to predict the
Iife of an austenitic stainless steel vessel in hot
chloride-containing media.
STAINLESS STEEL PLATE
Manufacture
Stainless steel plate is defined as a fiat rolled or
forged product, 3/16 inch (4.76 mm) and over in
thickness, and 10 inches (254 mm) and over in width
(3). lt is formed in the same type of equipment as
utilized for carbon steel plate, although production
allowances must accommodate the much greater hot
strength of stainless steel over carbon and low alloy
steels.
ln producing plate, care is taken to attain the good
surface condition that is essential to corrosion
resistance. The first of several surface cleaning
operations occurs at the slab stage, where the 4 to
10-inch-thick bloomed slab is ground or scarfed
overall to remove not only the scale but some of the
underlying base metal as weil. The slab is then cut
to size, yielding the ordered plate size, reheated and
hot rolled. The plate is then annealed, and again
cleaned of scale by either a chemical solution or
mechanical means, or both.
During the hot rolling, high pressure water jets and
other mechanical devices are employed to assure
that the refractory scale is not rolled into the surface.
Light gauge plate (3/16 inch and 1/4 inch thick)
can be rolled in coils up to 60 inches wide on
continuous mills. This product normally has improved
surface, gauge accuracy and offers greater flexibility
in length.
Forming
Press brake flanging or bending, and roll bending
are the most widely used cold forming operations
performed on stainless steel plate.
Type 410S has cold forming characteristics similar
to carbon and low alloy steels in the 35,000-50,000
psi yield strength range.
The chromium-nickel stainless steels (Types 304,
304L, 316, 316L), on the other hand, work-harden
quite rapidly with increasing plastic deformation. As
the steel increases in strength with increased
deformation, the bending forces exerted by the
forming equipment rise commensurately.
The most noticeable effect of work hardening is
the greater degree of springback, compared with
carbon steel. Dies for brake bending and rolls for roll
bending must overbend the stainless steel to
compensate for the springback. In brake bending,
bending to a smaller radius can compensate for the
greater springback.
Cutting
Most stainless steel plates are cut by tank fabricators
with the plasma arc process. Thin plates can be
sheared. Thicker plates can be cut by saw cutting or
abrasive wheel cutting. Gas-oxygen (oxy-gas) is also
applicable if used in conjunction with iron powder.
Stainless steel cannot be eut by conventional flame
cutting, but in some cases may be eut and beveled
with the carbon-arc gouge if the eut edges are
ground to remove oxides.
Welding
Gas metal arc and submerged arc welding are high-
production methods and are usually used in the
downhand position, fully automated. Both give deep
penetration and, for high volume welding that can be
positioned, are the lowest cost methods for joining
plates. A modification of gas metal arc called
interrupted (or pulse) arc welding is useful for butt,
fillet, and lap welding.
Shielded metal arc welding is widely used for ail
types of stainless steel welding, particularly where
automatic welding is impractical. Advantages are low
cost equipment and mobility. Disadvantages are slow
speeds and high labor cost for skilled operators. An
essential requirement for any welding method is
c1ean edges (and near-edge areas) prior to welding.
Contaminants, whether organic or inorganic, can
cause problems when they decompose in the arc
heat. The oxide film on stainless steel surfaces is
very refractory and reduces the wetting action
between parent and weld metal.
The filler metals for welding stainless steels are
Iisted in Table 4-4.
Wh en stainless steel is welded to carbon or low
alloy steels, Type 309 electrodes are normally used.
Cleaning and Passivation
These two terms are actually synonymous if the word
c1ean is strictly interpreted to mean "the complete
removal of ail contaminating materials from the
stainless steel surface". If the surface is clean, it will
self passivate.
Iron particles and/or oil are the contaminants most
generally encountered, and to the extent that they
are present some surface staining or rusting may
occur. Whether such an occurrence is serious or not
depends on the requirements of the application
which can range from "food quality surfaces" to
sim ply "retention of structural strength".
Prevention of contamination is to be preferred over
removal of contaminants. A main source of
contamination due to iron particles results from co-
mingling plate fabrication operations involving carbon
steel and stainless steel. Another source is the
existence of weld scale or weld spatter, which can
only be removed by energetic chemical or
rnechanical means. In extremely demanding
29
requirements, finishing may include a final polishing
to produce the brightest surface possible.
Various cleaning practices are summarized in
ASTM A380 (6) and more comprehensively described
in ASTM Special Technical Publication 538 (7).
FACTORS AFFECTING TANK DESIGN
The design rules and details of API Standards 650
(8) and 620 (1) are applicable for stainless steel
tanks at atmospheric pressure with certain
exceptions. In the following discussion, the design
stresses recognize the increased toughness of
stainless steels over carbon steels and the low yield/
tensile ratios of Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L. The
increased toughness permits designing to a higher
proportion of yield strength, but the lower yield
strength introduces the problem of permanent strain.
Section VIII of the ASME Code (2) recognizes the
strain by stating two allowable design stresses for
the austenitic stainless steels. The higher stresses
are related to the following footnote to the ASME
table of stresses:
"Due to the relatively low yield strength of these
materials, these higher stress values were
established at temperatures where the short time
tensile properties govern to permit the use of these
alloys where slightly greater deformation is
acceptable. These higher stress values exceed
62112 percent but do not exceed 90 percent of the
yield strength at temperature. Use of these stress
values may result in dimensional changes due to
permanent strain. These stress values are not
recommended for flanges of gasketed joints or
other applications where slight amounts of
distortion can cause leakage or malfunction."
After consideration of the allowable design
stresses of the ASME Code and the API Standards,
the following stress basis is suggested for stainless
steel tanks at atmospheric pressure:
a. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .05% is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .8 x Fyor
.3 x Ft see Table 4-5(a)
b. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .1% is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .9 x Fyor
.3 x Ft see Table 4-5(b)
where Fy = min. yield strength
Ft = min. tensile strength
Sd = design stress
c. Because the lower carbon grades (Types 304L,
316L) usually exhibit yield strengths at room
temperature greater than the specified minimum
value, the allowable stress for 100 OF has been
based only on the tensile factor.
d. Where a lower level of permanent strain is
desirable such as mentioned above for
gasketted joints or other applications where
slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or
mechanical malfunction see Table 4-5(c) for values.
 e. The yield values at temperature can be
obtained from table AHA2 of ASME Section
VIII, Div. 2.
The allowable stresses Iisted in Table 4-5, a, b, and
c, result from these bases, with the higher stresses
for the austenitic grades taking into account the
greater deformation of item b above. Table 4-5(b)
should be the default basis unless directed otherwise for
shells and Table 4-5(e) should be used for fianges.
The design thickness for each shell course can be
calculated by the formula in API Standard 650,
modified by the allowable stress and joint efficiency:
t = (2.6) (0) (H-1) (G) + C
(E) (1000Sd)
where:
t. minimum thickness, in inches
C = an additional thickness required for corrosion
allowance (rarely if ever required)
o nominal diameter of tank, in feet. This shall
be the centerline diameter of the shell plates,
unless otherwise specified by the purchaser
H = height, in feet, from bottom of course under
consideration to top of top angle, or to
bottom of any overflow which limits tank
filling height
G = specifie gravity of liquid to be stored, but in
no case less than 1.0
Sd = maximum allowable stress in ksi. Values
tabulated in Table 4-5, a or b
E = 1.0 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with section 6
= 0.85 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with A.5.3
= 0.7 if tank is not radiographed. This value
shall be given as part of the buyers'
specifications
Stainless steel separation pads (or poison pads)
should be considered at points where carbon steel is
welded to the stainless steel tank to avoid carbide
precipitation. Typical areas for this would be anchor
bolts and support brackets.
The recommended nominal thickness of shell
plates should not be less than the following based
on construction minimums:
Nominal Tank Nominal Plate
Diameter Thickness
Smaller than 50' 3/16"
50' to 120' excl. 1/4"
120' to 200' incl. 5/16"
Over 200' 3/8"
Throughout this design procedure it shall be
remembered that Young's Modulus for stainless steel
is less than that of carbon steel. Therefore designs
for compression and stability should consider this
fact.
Normally the tank shell should be designed to
resist the design wind velocity given in the
customer's specifications. API Standard 650 provides
rules for stiffening tank shells. The background for
the API rules was given in a paper, "Stability of API
30
Standard 650 Tank Shells", presented in May, 1963,
to the API Division of Refining.
For the design of shells under external load (small
negative pressures) the designer should refer to
ASME Section VIII or Part III of "Design of Plate
Structures" (11). For the design of structural
members, the designer should refer to the Stainless
Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual (10).
NOTE: Roof designs for stainless steel tanks may be
done in a similar manner as that outlined in part III
for carbon steel tanks but normally ail structural units
will need to be fabricated in custom shapes. A Iighter
gage, Iighter than .17 allowed in API 650 for carbon
steel structural units, may be used to accommodate
forming.
FACTORS AFFECTING
FABRICATION & CONSTRUCTION
Before proceeding with any fabrication or
construction of a stainless steel tank, satisfactory
weld procedure qualifications should be performed in
accordance with ail the essential variables of Section
IX, Welding Qualifications, of ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, including conditions of
postweld heat treatment or the omission of postweld
heat treatment. Requirements and restrictions for
postweld heat treatment are described in ASME
Section VIII. Materials that wou Id require postweld
heat treatment should not be used for storage tanks
designed by the rules in this manual.
Ali austenitic chromium-nickel alloy steel welds,
both butt and fillet, between plates exceeding 3/4
inch nominal thickness, shall be examined for
detection of cracks by the Iiquid penetrant method,
before the hydrostatic test of the tank. Ali cracks
shall be eliminated.
Butt-welded joints in Type 410S welded with
electrodes that produce an austenitic chromium-
nickel weld deposit shall be radiographed when the
thinner plate at the welded joint exceeds 11/z inches.
Referring to Part AM of ASME Sect VIII Div 2 it
will be noted that both values of thermal conductivity
(TC) and thermal diffusivity (TD) (given in Btu/hr ft OF
and ft2/hr respectively) are considerably lower (about
2 to 1) for stainless compared to carbon steel, which
indicates that heat (from welding) is not conducted
away or diffused as rapidly with stainless steels and
therefore distortion is Iikely unless design steps are
taken to assure that nozzle location (with respect to
vertical and horizontal seams) should be thought out.
Also the tolerances given in API 650 for banding and
peaking may not be achievable for stainless steel
shells.
For the design of stainless steel tanks at
refrigerated temperatures, the designer is referred to
Appendix Q "Low-Pressure Storage Tanks for
Liquefied Hydrocarbon Gases" of API Standard 620.
This subject is beyond the intended scope of this
discussion.
 FIGURE 4·1

900 1652
/
0.080 /
.......... /
1
800 '472

.."
U
:; 700 1292
;:-
ci
:;
~ ;;
"
0.
E
R
E
,5! ,!i
600 1112

SOO 932

10see. 1min. 10 min. lhr. 10 hnl. loohrs. iooonrs. to.ooon-s.

Time

Time required for formation of carbide precipitation in stainless steels

with various carbon contents. Carbide precipitation forms in the areas
to the right of the various carbon-content curves. Within time-periods
applicable to welding, chromium-nickel stainless steels with 0.05%
carbon would be quite free from grain boundary precipitation. (5)

3~
 TABLE 4·1 - STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLy USED
FOR CONSTRUCTION OF UaUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
COMPOSITION, PERCENT
ASTM UNS Carbon Manganese Phosphorus Sulfur Silicon Other
Type No.a max. max. max. max. max. Chromium Nickel Elements

304 (830400) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00 - 8.00-

N 0.10 Max.
20.00 10.50
304L (830403) 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 18.00 - 8.00-
N 0.10 Max.
20.00 12.00
2.00-3.00
316 (831600) 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00- 10.00 -
Molybdenum
18.00 14.00
N 0.10 Max.
2.00-3.00
316L (831603) 0.03 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.00 16.00 - 10.00-
Molybdenum
18.00 14.00
N 0.10 Max.
4108 (841008) 0.08 1.00 0.040 0.030 1.00 11.50- 0.60
13.50 (max)

aUnified Numbering System, originated by A8TM and 8AE, developed to provide a single orderly system for designating
commercial metals and alloys.

TABLE 4·2 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

COMMONLy USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OFUQUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
Tensile Strength, Yield Strength, Elongation,a Hardness,
ASTM UNS min min min max
Type No. ksi MPa ksi MPa Percent Bhn b RBc

304 (830400) 75 515 30 205 40 202 92

304L (830 403) 70 485 25 170 40 183 88

316 (831600) 75 515 30 205 40 217 95

316L (831603) 70 485 25 170 40 217 95

4108 (841008) 60 415 30 205 22.0 183 88

a Elongation in 2 inches (50.8 min)

b Brinell
c Rockwell-B

32
 TABLE 4-3 - RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS
COMMONLy USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF L1aUID STORAGE TANKS
ASTM UNS Mild Atmospheric Atmospheric Salt Chemical
Type No. and Fresh Water lndustrlalMarine Water Mild Oxidizing Reducing

304 (830400) X X - - X - -
304L (830403) X X X - X X -
316 (831600) X X - X X - X

316L (831603) X X X X X X X

4108 (84100S) X - - - X - -
Note: X's indicate environments to which the various stainless steels
may be considered resistant.

TABLE 4-4 - TYPICAL FILLER METALS FOR WELDING STAINLESS STEELS

Base Metal Electrodes (AWS)

Type 304 E30S-15 or 16; ER30S; E30ST-2

Type 304L E30SL-15 or 16; ER30SL; E30ST-2

Type 316 E316-15 or 16; ER316; E316T-2

Type 316L E316L-15 or 16; ER316L; E316T-2

Type 4108** E410*-15; ER410*; E410T*-2

*Type 410 electrodes must be specified to O.OS% maximum carbon in ail cases.
* * It is permissible (and often desirable) to weld Type 4108 with austenitic
(chromium-nickel) electrodes.

33
 TABLE 4·5 - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F SOO°F SOO°F

304 a 30.0 75.0 22.5 20.0 18.0 16.6 15.5 14.6

304 b 30.0 75.0 22.5 22.5 20.3 18.6 17.5 16.4

304La 25.0 70.0 21.0 c 17.0 15.3 14.0 13.0 12.4

304Lb 25.0 70.0 21.0 c 19.2 17.2 15.8 14.7 14.0

316 a 30.0 75.0 22.5 20.6 18.6 17.1 15.9 15.0

316 b 30.0 75.0 22.5 22.5 21.0 19.3 17.9 16.8

316La 25.0 70.0 21.0 c 16.9 15.1 13.8 12.7 12.0

316Lb 25.0 70.0 21.0 c 19.0 17.0 15.5 14.3 13.5

410S a 30.0 60.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0

Note: a, b, & c explained on page 32.

34
 TABLE 4-5(a) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Limiting % Strain = 0.05%
Minimum Minimum 1 For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
1
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F SOO°F 1 SOO°F
1

304 30 75 22.5 20 18 16.6 15.5 14.6

1
304L 25 70 21 17 15.3 14 13 12.4

316 30 75 22.5 20.6 18.6 17.1 15.9 15

316L 25 70 21 16.9 15.1 13.8 12.7 12

410S 30 60 18 18 18 18 18 18
,

TABLE 4-5(b) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL

Limiting % Strain = 0.1 %
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile,
KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F SOO°F SOO°F
1

304 30 75 22.5 22.5 20.3 18.6 17.5 16.4

304L 25 70 21.0 19.2 17.2 15.8 14.7 14.0

316 30 75 22.5 22.5 21.0 19.3 17.9 16.8

316L 25 70 21.0 19.0 17.0 15.5 14.3 13.5

TABLE 4-5(c) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR FLANGES OR GASKETTED JOINTS OF STAINLESS STEEL
=
Limiting % Strain 0.01 % per 62.5% Fy Yield Strength limit
Minimum Minimum
For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding
Type Yield, Tensile, 1

KSI KSI 100°F 200°F 300°F 400°F SOO°F SOO°F

304 30 75 20.0 16.7 15.0 13.9 12.9 11.5

304L 25 70 16.7 14.3 12.8 11.7 10.9 10.3

316 30 75 20.0 16.7 15.0 13.9 12.9 11.5

316L 25 70 16.7 14.3 12.8 11.7 10.9 10.3

4108 30 60 18 18 18 18 18 18
1

35
References, Part IV TABLE 4-6
1. API Standard 620 - Recommended Rules for FACTORS FOR L1MITING PERMANENT
Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low- STRAIN IN HIGH-ALLOY STEELS1
Pressure Storage Tanks; Division of Refining,
American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, Limiting Permanent
June 1990. Strain, % Factors
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
1980. 0.10 0.90
3. "Steel Products Manual - Stainless and Heat 0.09 0.89
Resisting Steels", December 1974, American 0.08 0.88
Iron and Steel Institute. 0.07 0.86
4. ASTM Designation A240-80b (ANS G81.4) - 0.06 0.83
Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting 0.05 0.80
Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel 0.04 0.77
Plate, Sheet and Strip for Fusion-Welded Unfired 0.03 0.73
Pressure Vessels. 0.02 0.69
5. Svetsaren English edition 1-2; 1969, p. 5. 0.01 0.63
6. ASTM Designation A380-78 (ANS G81.16)
Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning
and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment NOTE:
and Systems. (1) Table 4-6 Iists multiplying factors which, when
7. ASTM S.T.P. 538 "Cleaning Stainless Steel" applied to the yield strength values shown on
includes ASTM A380 and 22 papers presented at Table AHA-2, will give a value that will result in
a symposium. lower levels of permanent strain. If this value is
8. API Standard 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil less than the design stress intensity value Iisted
Storage; Division of Refining, American in Table AHA-1, the lower value shall be used.
Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November
1988.
9. ASTM Designation A370-77 (ANS G60.1) -
Standard Methods and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Steel Products.
10. "Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design
Manual - 1974 Edition", American Iron and
Steel Institute.
11. "Desiqn of Plate Structures", Vol. 2, AISI/SPFA,
1991.
12. Steel Products Manual - Plates; Rolled Floor
Plates: Carbon, High Strength Low AIIoy, and
AIIoy Steel, January 1979.

Other Information on Corrosion

"Corrosion Resistance of the Austenitic Chromium-
Nickel Stainless Steels in Chemical
Environments", The International Nickel Co., April
1970, 16 pages.

"Selection of Stainless Steels", American Society for

Metals, 1968, 82 pages.

"Corrosion Engineering", G. Fontana and N.D.

Greene, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1967.

"The Possibility of Service Failure of Stainless Steels

by Stress Corrosion Cracking", J.E. Truman and
H.W. Kirkby, Metallurgia, August 1965.

36
Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 2

Useful Information on the

Design of Plate Structures
Revised Edition- 1992

Published by
AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

With cooperation and editorial collaboration

STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.

Revised December 1992

 Acknowledgements

or the preparation of the original version of this technical publication,

F the American Iron and Steel Institute initially retained Mr. I.E. Boberg
and later obtained the services of ML Frederick S. Merritt. For their
skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowledges its
appreciation.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable

contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association
and representatives from the member steel producing companies of
American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and
updating, the material for this publication.

Appreciation is expressed to the American Institute of Steel

Construction, American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Business Communications, Inc., Chicago Bridge
and Iron Company, Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., U.S. Army Mobility Equipment
Command, and the American Water Works Association for their
constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the
illustrative and documentary material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.

American Iron and Steel Institute

The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance wlth recognized
engineering principles and is for general information only. This information should not be used
without first securing competent advice wilh respecl to ils suilabilily for any given application. The
publication of the material conlained herein is not intended as a representation or warranty on the
part of American Iron and Steel Instilute-or of any other person named herein-that this
information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from infringement of any
patent or patents. Anyone making use of this information assumes ail Iiabilily arising from such use.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 1300 Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

December 1992

ii
 Introduction

olume 1 of this series, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage," deals with

V the design of flat-bottom, cylindrical tanks for storage of Iiquids at

essentially atmospheric pressure. Steel plates, however, are used in a
wide variety of other structures, such as pipe, penstocks, pressure vessels,
stacks, elevated tanks, and bulk storage tanks. These structures present
special problems in design and detail, the answers to which are not readily
available without searching a number of sources. Volume 2 gives useful
information to aid in design of such structures.

Scope
Volume 2, "Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures," does
not coyer in depth the design of any particular structure. For example,
design of stacks involves problems of vibration that are beyond the scope
of this volume. Similarly, design of pressure vessels requires a detailed
knowledge of ASME, state and, sometimes, city codes. Designers should
work with the applicable code. Any attempt to summarize pressure-vessel
codes could be misleading and even dangerous, because of constant
revision and updating by the various regulatory bodies.
There are, however, many facets of plate design that are generally
applicable to many types of structures. Information on these is not now
conveniently collected in one source.
Drawing on many sources, this volume offers such information and
discusses some of the more commonly encountered problems. Included is
an outline of membrane theory, data for weld design, commonly used
details, plus data and mathematical tables useful in design of steel plate
structures. The intent is to include information principally pertinent to plate
structures. For convenience of users of this volume, some data readily
available elsewhere, particularly in mathematical tables, has been
incorporated.
Volume 3, "Welded Steel Pipe," and Volume 4, "Penstocks and Tunnel
Liners," of this series treat these applications in detail and are available
from Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

iii
 Contents

Part 1 Flat Plates 1

Part Il Large Diameter Plate Tubular Columns 7
Part III External Pressure on Cylinders 11
Part IV Membrane Theory " . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Part V Self-Supported Stacks 27
Part VI Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe Lines 35
Part VII Anchor Boit Chairs 49
Part VIII - Design of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Part IX Inspection and Testing of Welded Vessels 63
Part X Appendices 65

v
Part 1
Flat Plates
lat plates are used in many convention al
F structural forms, such as plate girders, built-up
columns, or component parts of trusses. 8uch
uses are weil covered in standard texts or
handbooks and are not discussed in this volume.
Instead, Part 1 will coyer applications in steel tanks.
Bending Stresses and Deflections
Used as a membrane, as in the shell of a tank, a
steel plate is a very efficient member. In contrast, a
fiat plate in bending normal to its plane is inefficient.
Circumstances, nevertheless, sometimes dictate the
use of a flat-walled tank because of space
limitations, or the storage of a corrosive Iiquid may
dictate use of a grillage-supported bottom to facilitate
inspection. In such cases, a stiffened fiat surface is
indicated.
On the next page, formulas are given for
calculating the maximum bending stresses and
maximum center deflections of certain fiat plates.
These formulas have been derived from various
sources, the most important being based on an
analytical derivation from elastic theory. However,
those relating to three classes of elliptical plates and
to certain others with a central applied load are less
rigid in their derivation though sufficiently reliable for
the use of the designer. It must be remembered that
ail formulas apply to materials such as steel, for
which Poisson's ratio is 0.30.
The inherent limitations of these formulas must be
kept in mind. lt is assumed that tensions in the plane
of the plate appropriate to membrane action are
small or negligible compared with the stresses due to
bending. ln general, the deflection must be small
compared with the plate thickness if this ls to be
true. For greater deflections, other more complicated
formulas must be used in whose derivation both
membrane and bending action are considered. The
formulas given may yield reliable working stresses
yet be absolutely unreliable in calculating the load at
failure and the corresponding deflection, particularly
in the case of materials which elongate materially
before failure, or which assume a dished form under
load through initial stressing beyond the elastic limit.
ln general it must not be expected that these
formulas will yield stresses accurate to better than 5%.
1
_
The mode of support and manner of loading
specified must be complied with if the stresses are to
be realized. No commercial edge fastening will
correspond exactly with the theoretical conditions.
The exact restraint of the edqe, where bending is of
prime importance, will depend on the rigidity of the
support, the flexibility of any gaskets used, the
position of the bolting circle and the spacing of the
bolts therein, as weil as the tightness with which the
joint is bolted up. When membrane action is of
importance, the degree of bolting up and the ability
of the reinforced opening to resist slight deformations
under radial tensions will largely determine the exact
stress in the plate and the corresponding
deformation. The bending moment at the edge is of
less importance th an at points where plate resistance
depends primarily on bending. In view of these
remarks, the conditions "Fixed" and "8upported"
serve as guides to the possible range of stress and
deflection.
Notation
a = length, in., of semi-minor axis of supporting
ellipse for elliptical plates
A = length, in., of semi-major axis of supporting
ellipse for elliptical plates
b = length, in., of short side of rectangular plate at
supports
8 = length, in., of long side of rectangular plate or
side of square at supports
81 = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, fixed-
edge, rectangular plates (Tables 1A and 1B)
82 = factor for stress in uniformly loaded, simply
supportee, rectangular plate (see Tables 1A
and 1B)
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
f = maximum fiber stress in bending, psi
Fy = specified minimum yield strength, psi
H = uniform load, ft. of water
Ls = stiffener spacing, in.
n = a/A or b/8
p = uniform load or pressure, psi
P = concentrated load, lb.
r = radius, in., of central loaded area plate approaches a catenary between supports,
r' = inside knuckle radius, in., for fiat, unstayed the support spacing is given approximately by the
circular plates ' following formula:
R = radius, in., to support for circular plates
S = spacing, in., of adjacent staybolts at corners
L, =~ (2:')'" (1-3)

of square plates Because of the approximate nature of the

t = plate thickness, in.
II = center deflection, in., of plate relative to
supports
<1> = factor for stress in circular flanged plate
(see Table 1A)
<1>1 = f.actor for deflection of uniformly loaded,
f1xed-edge, rectangular plates (see Tables
1A and 1B)
<1>2 = f~ctor for deflection of uniformly loaded,
slrnply supported rectangular plates (see
Tables 1A and 1B)
<1>3 = factor for deflection of fixed-edge,
rectangular plates subjected to central
concentrated load (see Tables 1A and 1B)
One of the most commonly encountered
conditions is a uniformly loaded fiat plate
supported on uniformly spaced parallel stiffeners.
ln the absence of any code or specification
requirement, assume an allowable bending stress
equal to 3/4 of the specified minimum yield stress
value in the plate for determination of stiffener
spacing Ls, in.
The plate stress can be obtained from the
formula in Table 1A for the case of a rectangle b
x a,where a
= co and b is taken as Ls . Thus,
for the fixed condition (continuous over the
s~pports), the maximum permissible spacing of
stitteners becomes:
solution, a conservative value for fis indicated.
Assur:ning f = 10,000t and E = 29,000,000 psi
for mlld carbon steel, the equation becomes:
Ls = 900 1- = 2,076 1- (1-4)
P H
Figure 1-2 gives graphical solutions for Eqs. 1-3
and 1-4.
For the catenary approach, it is essential that
a lateral force of 10,OOOt be resisted at the
peripheral support. Since this is not always
practicable, application of the catenary approach
is Iimited. Similarly, it should not be used where
pressure is reversible or where deflection is
objectionable.
ln the above discussion, only plate stresses
have been considered, and it ls assumed that any
welded pl~te joi.nts will develop the fuI! strength of
the plate lncludinq appropriate joint efficiencies.
Also, the stiffener system should be in
accordance with accepted structural design
principles.
Protection against brittle failure of a structure
sho~ld be considered at the time of design. Since
enwonmental extremes, design detail, material
selection, fabrication methods and inspection
adequacy are ail interrelated in protecting a
structure from such failure, these factors should
be evaluated.

L, = (54.0%0 " ) '" (1-1)

For convenience in connection with tank bottoms,

the load can be expressed in feet of water, rather
than psi, in which case:

L, • ( 124.~15 ") '" (1-2)

Figure 1-1 gives graphically stiffener spacing

determined from Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2 for an allowable
bending stress of 27,000 psi (Le. Fy = 36,000
psi).
If deflection exceeds t12, the plate will tend to
act as a membrane in tension and exert a lateral
pull on the outside support that must be taken
into account. An alternative solution, therefore, is
to assume that yielding does occur at the support
and the plate acts as a catenary between
supports. At intermediate supports, the tension in
the plate will be balanced; but at the outside
support, restraint must be provided to resist that
tension. This is not always easily accomplished.
When the span is such that the profile of the

2
 CONTINUOUS BEAM
50
~,"",-",.:..;..:..o..:.":";-"""''''''-i-...,,l-r-:-:-'''''"-r-:-:-'''''"-i''+
-r;; 0' H

,
45
40
-....
CD
+-' 35
NOla: Plata flgura<l al a conlinuou. beam wlth a unit Slr9ll8
of 27.000 palin bendlng. May 00 uaed for Oihar
slrassas by varylng H dlreetly wllh unit strsas.

+--.lr----1-\----k--~&-_>.;;_t-"""___:;,.f__--t_=-j-k_/8_" (54'O~ /2) (124.~15 /2)

ca

-
$
0
+-'
CD
CD
30
25
Formuls: Ls • 112 • lf2

-
LL.

:c 20
-ci"
ca
CD 15
:c
10
5
0 l '

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1·1. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate Acting as Continuous Bearn.

CATENARY ACTION

~~ . \ I ~ 10.000
H
50
10.000 t - , , l ' h · . i"',~
45 \ L, , .
,- \ 1l l'
• '! 1

40 Caution: Usa thls graph only to datermina IImitlng

-+-~--"--~+-----"<:--+-"-<--:::>""'''"'''''!:-----l----t--- vf:~;:I:~::r~Fi ·19~t)

-;::
CD Ls
+-'
ca 35 Based on or

-
$
0
+-'
CD
CD
30
25
t = 7/16" NOTE: Pistas f1gurad as a catenary at 10.0001
tension. Ends must 00 reSlralned and capabla of lakJng
a horizontal pull per Inch of 10.000 umes IhlcknSS8.
t = 1/2"

-:c 20
LL.

"'0
ca 15
CD
:c
10
t = 3/16"
5
0 1 1 l' 1 1

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1-2. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate with Catenary Action.

3
 Table 1·1A. Flat Plate Formulas
Poisson's Ratio = 0.30

Center Dcflection
Edge Maximum Fiber Stress, psi
SHAPE Loading À Remarks
Fixation f
ln.
2
R4
(~) ?
R
Fixed 0.75P7: 0.17 f max. at edge
Uniform t
P 2
Circle
Supported 1.24p-
R
r
2
O.695(E.}7
E t3
f max. at center
Radius
Central 2 P uniform over
R
concen-
Fixed 1.43 [109 I O (-~)+0.11 (11) 2J P/r
2 0.22(!..) R3 ci rcle , radi us r ,
E t Center Stress
trated
1.43·EOglo(-~r 0.334 + 0.06~~YJ
2
P
on r
Supporred
P
,-
r-
0.55 ~p) R3
As above
Cen ter Stress
E t
2 4
Fixed 6 a 1.365 (p) a a Exact
Il =-
Uniform 3n
4
+ 2n 2 + 3
P7 3n
4
+ 2n 2 + 3 E ?" A Solution
p 2 a A ppro xrrnate
.
3 a n =A
Suppor ted 4+n 2+1 P-:;
r- *
0.42n Fiis n = 0 and n = 1
Ellipse
2A X 2a
n a/A Appr o xirna re
50 P
Fi ts n = 0 and n = 1
a< A Central
Fixed 4
3n + 2n 2 + 12.5 "7 t Load over 0.01% of
concen- area
trated
13.1 P n = a/A Ap;Jroximate
P Fits n = 1. load over
Suppor ted
0.42n
4 2
+ n + 2.5 "7 t
0.01 % of area

Uniform
Fixed
b
B p_
1 t2
2
rjJI
(0)
Ë 7
b4 CPj and BI depend
on B/b. See Table 1 B.
p
b-
, 4
Supported B 2 P -:;- r/J, (.e.) b
rjJ2 and B 2 depend
- E t 3 on B/b. See Table 1 B.
Rect.angle t-
a Xb 2 b .
4.00
---2 ,.
P
t cp. -- ËÏ = n Appr o xirnate
b<a Central Fixed
1 + 2n t-
(0)
3 E t3
b
concen- Fits n = 1 and n = 0
trared .s, b
P Supported
P
5.3
+ B = n Appro xrrnate
2 .."
1 + 2.4n t- Fits n = 1 and n = 0
2

Uniform
Fixed
B
0.308 p -
,2
0.013B (E.E) ~
t3
f max. center of side

P ,
Supported 0.287 p B
2-
0.0443 (..E) lê3 f max. 01 center
Square t E t
As above ,
axa Central Fixed
P
1.32"2 De tle cuon nearly
concert- t exact.
trared P 2 Appro xirnara lor J;
P Supported 1.582' 0.125(!..) B3 area 01 contact not toc
t E t small.
Stav bof ts Il plate as a who le de-
Flat spaced at S2 forrns, superimpose the
Stayed
Unilorm
p
corners 01
square of
0.228 PT
t
0.0284(p)
E t
3
t... stresses and dellections
on those for plate fiat
Plate

t
when lcaded.
sideS

(R_~"~
)]
Fastened
rjJ varies wi th shell
Cir cular Unilorm p.!..+rjJ 2 R and joint stiffness Irom
to 0.33 tO C.38
Flanged p
shell 2t t
Knuckle Padius, r'

• Formula of prcper form to fit circle and inflniterectançle as n varies from 1 to O.

tFormulas for load distributed over 0.0001 plate area to match circle when n = 1. They give reasonable values
for stress wh en n = O. Stress is lower for larger area subject to load.
tFormulas of empirical form to fit Hutte values for square when n = 1. They give reasonable values when
n = O. Assume load on 0.01 of area.
Apparent stresses only considered.
Thèse formulas are not to be used in determining failure.

4
 Table 1-1B. Flat-Plate Coefficients

Stress Coefficients - Circle with .Concentrated Center Load

rlR 1.0 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01
Fixed l 0.157 1.43 1.50 1.57 1.65 1.75 1.86 2.00 2.18 2.43 2.86
Supportee? 0.563 1.91 1.97 2.05 2.13 2.23 2.34 2.48 2.66 2.91 3.34

Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Ellipse

Ala 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 0::>

Uniform Load
Fixed.
Stress 3 0.75 1.03 1.25 1.42 1.54 1.63 1.77 1.84 1.91 1.95 2.00
Detlection" 0.171 0.234 1.284 0.322 0.350 0.370 0.402 0.419 0.435 0.442 0.455
Uniform Load
Supported" 1.24 1.58 1.85 2.06 2.22 2.35 2.56 2.69 2.82 2.88 3.00
Central Load
Fixed 6 2.86 3.26 3.50 3.64 3.73 3.79 3.88 3.92 3.96 3.97 4.00
Supported? 3.34 3.86 4.20 4.43 4.60 4.72 4.90 5.01 5.11 5.16 5.24

Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Rectangle

Blb 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.6 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 0::>

Stress B, 0.308 0.399 0.454 0.490 0.497 0.500

Stress 82 0.287 0.376 0.452 0.517 0.569 0.610 0.713 0.741 0.748 0.750
4 1.33 1.75 2.12 2.25 2.42 2.67 3.03 3.27 3.56 3.70 4.00
1 + 2n 2
5.3 1.56 2.09 2.56 2.74 2.97 3.31 3.83 4.18 4.61 4.84 5.30
1 + 2.4n 2

Deflection 4>1 0.0138 0.0199 0.0240 0.0264 0.0277 0.0284

Deflection 4>2 0.0443 0.0616 0.0770 0.0906 0.1017 0.1106 0.1336 0.1400 0.1416 0.1422
Deflection 4>3 0.1261 0.1671 0.1802 0.1843 0.1848 0.1849

IValues of 1.43 [10910R/r+0.11 IrIR)2] sValues of 3/(0.42n 4 +n2 + 1)

2Values of 1.43 (10910 R/r + 0.334 + 0.06 IrIR)2] ~Values of 50/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 12.5)
3Values of 6/13n 4 + 2n2 + 3) Values of 13.1/10.42n 4 + n2 + 2.5)
4Values of 1.365/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 3)

5
Part Il
Large Diameter Plate
Tubular Columns
olume 1, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage,"
V covered the design of cylindrical tanks
subjected to internai pressure. Cylinders (and
cones), however, may also be used as colurnns, in
which case they are subjected to axial compression.
This application is discussed in the following. The
cylinder-cone junction is discussed in Part V.
Notation
A = cross sectional area of column, in.2 =
rc(D o - t)t
Cc = column slenderness ratio separating elastic and
inelastic buckling for AISC formulas
C~ = column slenderness ratio separating elastic and
inelastic buckling for Proposed AWWA formulas
D, = inside diarneter of cylinder, in.
Do = outside diameter of cylinder, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
Fa = allowable axial compressive stress in the
absence of bending moment, ksi
Fb = allowable bending stress in the absence of
axial force, ksi
Fy = yield stress of steel being used, ksi
FS = factor of safety
1 = moment of inertia of column, in.4 =
rc(D o4 - Dj4)/64
K = effective length factor
K<lJ = slenderness reduction factor for Proposed
AWWA formulas
M = moment at design point, in.-kips
P = vertical axial load on colurnn, kips
Ro = outside radius of cylinder, in.
R 1 = outside conical radius, in.
S = section modulus of column, in.3 =
rc(D o4 - Dj4)/32 Do = 21100
fa = computed axial stress, ksi = PIA
fb = computed bending stress, ksi = MIS
L = actual unbraced length of colurnn, in.
r = radius of gyration, in. = 1/4 Y 0 0 2 + 0,2
t = wall thickness of cylinder or column, in.
t, = wall thickness of cone, in.
7
e = half apex angle of cone, deg.
CJL = critical local buckling stress for Proposed
AWWA formulas, ksi
Column Formulas for Circular Tubes
Small diameter pipe columns have long been
desigried using conventional column formulas.
However, for tubular columns of relatively large
diameter and thin plate, when local buckling controls
the column strength, the conventional column rules
no longer apply.
The PIA:::;; XY formula, developed in the 1930's
for mild carbon steels with minimum yield strengths
of 30-33 ksi, has been widely used for design of
carbon steel columns. It has been specified for
elevated tank colurnn designs by AWWA and NFPA
for the past 50 years.
Formulas suitable for use with carbon or alloy
steels having higher minimum yield strengths are
now available for use. The ASME code, section VIII,
Division 1 and the AISC specification for buildings
include such formulas, and AWWA is proposing them
for the next revision of the water tank standard.
The allowable stresses are applicable to axially
loaded cones if e:: ; 60 degrees and R1 and t1, at the
point being investigated, are substituted for Ro and t
respectively, in the formulas.
The formulas for tubular columns are useful in
determining allowable axial and bending stresses in
many structures, such as tanks, buildings, stacks,
pipes and skirt-supported vessels. The requirements
of the specification, standard or code that is
applicable to the specific structure being designed
should be used to determine the allowable axial,
bending and combined stresses.
When forces due to earthquake or wind are
included, the allowable stresses may be increased by
1/3.
Only the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas
are presented here. Persons interested in the current
AWWA and the ASME formulas are directed to those
documents for information. Values of Fa for KUr = 0
for both the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas
are shown graphically in Fig. 2-1 for Fy = 30 ksi and For tiRa':?:. Fy /1650
in Fig. 2-2 for Fy = 36 ksi. Fb = 0.66 r, (2-13)
Fa = the value obtained from formula 2-11 when
Proposed AWWA KUr < Cc or from formula 2-12 when KUr;;:::
Fb = crL/FS (2-1 ) Cc'
Fa = crLK<t/FS (2-2) Cc = ";2 n2 E/Fy (2-14)
fa/Fa + f~Fb S 1 (2-3)
References
For Fy S; 34 ksi Proposed Revision to AWWA Standard 0100-84.
tiRa Range AISC 1989 Specification for Structural Steel
tiRa s 0.0031088 3500 tiRa [1.0 + 50000 (t/Ra)2] (2-4) Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
0.0031088 < tiRa < 0.012 11.55 + 1476 tiRa (2-5) Design
tiRa;::: 0.0125 30

For Fy > 34 ksi

tiRa Range
s
tiRa 0.0035372 Formula (2-4)
0.0035372 < tiRa < 0.012 13.86 + 1771.2 tiRa (2-6)
tiRa;::: 0.0125 36

FS = 2
C'c = yr;::;2~n-;;2:;=E/"cr-L (2-7)

«; = 0.5 KUr C'C)2 when KUr':?:. c» (2-8)

(
«; = 1-0.5 (~~r when KUr < C'c (2-9)

«; = 1 when KUr S; 25

Aise
Some of the formulas in the AISC Specifications are
presented in terms of Dclt. Those formulas, when
shown below, have been converted to tiRa terms, so
they are not in the exact same form as those in the
specification.
Members subjected to both axial compression and
bending stresses should be proportioned to satisty
the combined stress requirements of the AISC
specification. The combined stress formulas are not
presented here so must be obtained from the AISC
specification.
The AISC specification contains no
recommendations for allowable stresses when t/R; <
Fy/6500.
For r, /6500 S; tiRa < r, /1650
Fb = 331 tiRa + 0040 Fy (2-10)
Fa = smaller of the value obtained
from formula 2-10 or
1 - (KUrF] F
[ 2Cc 2 y
when KUr < Cc (2-11)
~ + 3(KUr) _ (KUr)3
3 8Cc 8Cc3
12 n 2 E > (2-12)
or 23(KUr)2 when KUr _ Cc

8
 20
1 1
18
Alse- ~

16
~
--- L.---

---
~
L.--- /'
14
/'"
12
----- /
Fa
(ksi) 10
k
/'
V f"-- PR PPOSE DAVM ~
8

6
/
4
If
2
/
o 1/
o 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.Q16 0.02
tl Ro

KU, = 0, Fy = 30 ksi
Figure 2-1

22
l---
20
l---'- -l---

------
Aise
18 ~ l---
r-'/"
16 - 1/
1

14
A
Fa
(ksi)
12

10
-: Î"--p OPos DAWV VA

8
/
6
/
4
V 1

2
/
o i/
o 0.004 '0.008 0.012 0.016 0.02
tl Ro

KU, = 0, Fy = 36 ksi
Figure 2-2

9
Part III
External Pressure
on Cylinders
ylindrical vessels subjected to external
C pressure must be designed as tubular
columns to resist axial loads imposed on the
heads. In addition, circumferential stiffeners may be
required to prevent buckling of the shell due to radial
pressure.
Notation
A = strain factor (see Fig. 3-1)
As = cross-sectional area, sq in., of stiffener
B = allowable pressure factor (see Fig. 3-1)
Do = outside diameter, in., of cylinder plate
Ra = outside radius, in., of cylinder
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
F = safety factor w/respect to predicted failure
Fa = allowable unit stress, psi
h = height or length, in., of cylindrical shell
between end stiffeners
Is = required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring
cross section about its neutral axis parallel to
the axis of the shell, in.4
1; = required moment of inertia.of the combined
ring-shell cross section about its neutral axis
parallel to the axis of the shell, in. 4
L = design length, in., of cylinder = largest of
following:
Distance between head bend Iines plus one-
third depth of each head if there are no
stiffener rings
Greatest distance center to center between any
two stiffener rings
Distance from first stiffener to head bend line
plus one-third depth of head
t., = half the distance, in., from center of stiffener to
next stiffener or line of support on one side
plus half the distance, in., to next stiffener or
line of support on the other side
N = number of complete waves into which stiffener
ring will buckle
= number of waves into which unstiffened shell
between end stiffeners will buckle
11
_
P = external pressure, psi
Pa = allowable external pressure, psi
For a vessel with atmospheric pressure inside,
and greater than atmospheric pressure outside,
P and Pa refer to the gage pressure outside the
tank. For a vessel with atmospheric pressure
outside and a partial vacuum inside, P and Pa
refer to the partial vacuum inside the tank, in
psi, taken as a positive number. For vessels
which are simultaneously exposed to a partial
vacuum inside and greater than atmospheric
pressure on the outside, P and Pa should be
taken as the maximum difference in the inside
and outside absolute pressures.
= minimum thickness, in., of cylindrical plate; or
for determining stiffener spacing, average
thickness, in., of unsupported shell between
stiffeners; or for short spans, thickness, in., of
middle quarter of span
t, = weighted average thickness, in., of shell
between end stiffeners
Il = Poisson's ratio = 0.30 for steel
Types of Pressure Vessels
With respect to the spacing and sizing of stiffeners,
cylindrical vessels may be grouped into three general
classifications:
A. Vessels designed for an external (or internai)
pressure greater than 15 psi. These are usually
subject to the rules of ASME Code. The code
pravides a safety factor of 3 for stiffener spacing
based on buckling of the shell between stiffeners.
S. Vessels subject ta bath axial and radial laads
and designed to aperate at 15 psi or less. These are
not always specified to be in accordance with code
rules. When the external pressure approaches the
upper Iimit or the pressure cycle alternates between
internai and external, the stiffener design might best
be in accordance with code rules with a minimum
safety factor of 3. For less severe conditions, some
designers have reduced the safety factor to 2112 with
successful results.
C. Starage tanks of large diameter. These are
 sometimes subjected to relatively static, small,
external pressures that are radial only. Examples are
earth pressure on buried tanks, or granular or Iiquid
pressure on the inner shell of a double-walled tank.
ln such cases, successful results have been
achieved with the stiffener design based on a safety
factor of 2.
It should be noted that the ASME code as weil as
most of the experimental and analytical shell
buckling information available are for a uniform
round shell with uniform static loading. In the case of
a buried or submerged horizontal tank, or a vertical
tank subjected to wind loading, the external pressure
will vary around the periphery of the tank. In the
case of a partially buried vertical tank, varying
compaction and soil conditions may cause the
external pressure to vary in an irregular way around
the tank. Wind or water currents may produce
dynamic effects which would present problems in the
analysis. Any such variation in the loading, or any
significant deviation from a true circular shape, may
result in bending stresses in the cylindrical shell and
stiffeners, which are not accounted for by the
following analysis. Additional investigation may be
required in these cases.
The selection of the factor of safety in ail cases
should take into account the consequences
associated with a failure of the structure, as weil as
the accuracy of the analysis and accuracy and
duration of the loadings. Caution should also be
exercised in applying ASME design equations to
shells which do not meet ASME tolerances.
Design of Pressure Vessels
Design of types A, Band C vessels is discussed in
the following:
Type A. ASME Code Rules. To serve as an
illustration, Figs. UCS 28.1 and 28.2 and UGO-28.0
have been reproduced here as Figs. 3-1 and 3-2.
These charts are used to determine shell thickness
of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external
pressure when constructed of carbon steel having a
yield strength of 30,000 to 38,000 psi. The procedure
for using the chart is as follows:
Step 1. For the assumed t, determine ratios
UD o and Dr/t.
Step 2. Enter left-hand side of Fig. 3-1 at the value
of UD o'
Step 3. Move horizontally to the line representing
Dr/t.
Step 4. From this intersection move vertically
downward to determine the value of factor
A.
Step 5. Using the value of A from Step 4, enter the
applicable material chart in Fig. 3-2. Move
vertically to the material/temperature line for
the maximum design temperature.
Step 6. From this intersection, move horizontally to
the right and read value of B.
Step 7. Compute the allowable external pressure
from the following formula:
Pa = --±ê- (3-1)
3Dr/t
12
If A from Step 4 is to the left of the applicable
materialltemperature line, then use:
Pa = 2AE
3(Dr/t) (3-2)
When t may be determined by factors other than
external pressure, then, for known values of Pa and
Do, and a known or assumed value of t, factor B can
be determined from Eq. 3-1. The steps outlined
above can be reversed to determine stiffener spacing
from the corresponding UD o ratio obtained from the
chart.
ASME also provides charte for steels of other
strengths, as weil as other metals and alloys. Where
pressure-vessel codes apply, reference should be
made to the latest edition of the code.
Sizing the stiffener rings as prescribed by ASME is
done as follows:
The required moment of inertia should not be less
than:
' s = D02LsCt + AILsJA
14 (3-3)
or:
- D0 2LsCt + A/LsJA
s -
" 10.9 (3-4)
The width of shell contributing to the combined
moment of inertia (Is') should not be greater than
1.10 YDot. Assume that half the width lies on each
side of the centroid of the ring, except that there
should be no overlap of effective widths between two
adjacent stiffeners.
The procedure for stiffener design is as follows:
Step 1. Assuming the shell has been designed, Do,
L, and tare known. Assume a stiffener
section and determine its area, As, and
moment of inertla, 'So Then calculate B from
pOo ]
B = 3/4 [ t + AILs (3-5)
Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of chart on
Fig. 3-2 at the computed value of B.
Step 3. Follow horizontally to the design
temperature line.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart
and read the value of A.
Step 5. Calculate required value of ' s from Eq. 3-3
or 1; from Eq. 3-4.
Step 6. If ' s required is greater or substantially less
than ' s provided, assume a new section and
repeat the steps.
Step 7. If the value of B in Step 3 is below the left
end of the applicable material temperature
line, then use A = 2B/E.
Type B. Non-Code Vessels Subject ta Bath Axial and
Radial Loads. For pressure vessels, stiffener design
might best be in accordance with code rules with a
minimum safety factor of 3. Code charts, however, do
not include Dr/t ratios greater than 1,000 whereas
many non-code vessels are of relatively large
diameter and have Dr/t ratios greater than 1,000. In
such cases, internai pressure often controls shell
thickness. But even small external pressures may
require stiffeners because of the large diameter.
 50.0
r--e 1 ~ r--'e le l'ef-~ _Ie-~
40.0 r-- • _
r-f- .
•
_ r--1-_ Cl_ ....
i-- • - '
-'.-':: -:
'f--' _.-.
J5.0

JO.O ,.3 8 _.~ s 8 g s s

25.0
1 1 1

20.0
1
III
1 J 1
1 1 J
18.0
1 l ,
15.0
14.0
1 Il
12.0
Il
10.0
~\! f\ f\ \ Il
9.0 ~~~ 1\ 1
1
Il i
1
\

~\\
8.0
7.0
\ f\ 1\ \ 1
1
1
1 .1

s.o
1
" 1 1
1\ 1 1 1

s.o k-~~.~\ 1\ 1 \ 1 1 1 1

1- "<0\ \ \ \ f\ 1 \ J 1 J J

-
Q'" 4.0
o 1\ f\ 1\ \ \ \
, 1 1

~
~~\ 1\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Il
.... J.5
\ 1\ i\ \ 1\ \1 \ 1
1
J.O ~ ~ f\ \ f\ 1\ f\
g

~ 2.5
~ f\ \f\ \ f\ \ \ \ \ \ f\\ \ \
~~\
sg
2.0
i--
f--I'~ 1\ f\ 1\ \ 1\ ,\ \
1\
\ [\ '\ 1\ :\ \ \ f\ \ \ 0
:g 1\ \ \ \ "
\~c~
1
1.8
:; \ f\ 1\ \ 1 1\ 1\ :\ \ \ \
0
.,. i.s
1\ \ \ \ \ \ \ '\\ \ 0,-~
1.4
1\1
,\ 1\ \ \
\~
e; \ \ 1\ \ 1\
1_~lcr
; 1\ \ 1\
..J
1.2

1.0
\ f\ \ \ f\ \
'\
\ 1\ <\ \ f\ \ '\ \

.~~
\ \ \ \ \
.90
.80
\ \ 1\ '\ \ \ 1\ \ 1
.JO \ 1\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ 1\ \ \ 1\.
1 1 ....
0
\ \ ~
.50

.50
\ \ \
\ \ \
\
'0
.J5
\ 1\ \
.JO
\ \ \ f\
.25
i\ 1\ \1\ \
\ [\1\
.20
\
.18
.15 1\ \ 1\ 1 \ o.11t
.14 \ \ 1\ \ \ \ \ I\.~L
HeT~: S~e T.ble U~O.2B.p lo~ \.lbulu Y;~UtS
.12

2 J '56789 J 456189 2 J456J89

.00001 .0001 .COI .01 .1

FACTOR A

Fig. S-UGO-28.0 Geometrie Chart for Cylindrieal Vessels under External

or Compressive Loadings (for Ali Materials)
FIGURE 3-1
13
 20.000
J. 1 1.1 1 1 1 1 111 1 1 1 1
~ NOTE: SEl<! Table !HJCS-26.1 for taourar vaiues 1 1 1
18.000
1
up 10 ~oof 16.000
V 14.000
1-100- ~ .... dOOIF

- , 12.000
V 1......1.... 1
1.- 1.-" 700 F
e,..... 10.000
LI t- ~f.- 800 F
f- 9.000
...... i--'" ...... ~ lo.-. 1 1
1 '-- l-
6.000
l.-' V i--'" vJ.,... V 900 F
1
Cll
1 l/ ..... 7,000 Cl:
Il ~
..... 6.000
...0U
~ <:
l,V V u..
5.000
'1 V V
.E • 29.0 x 10"
E. 27.0 x 10" r---- 1 /, 1..-
4,000
~
E • 24.5 x 10" r-. YI ....1.--"
3,500
E ·22.6
E • 20.6
x
x
10"
10"
r--... 1.7. ~\I f-
3.000
/, ~ V i'"
2.500
~~ 2.000
2 3 4 5 6769 2 3 4 5 6769 2 3 4 5 6789 23456789

.00001 .0001 .001 .01 .1

FACTOR A

Fig. S-UCS-28.1 Chart for Oetermining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 24,000 psi To, But Not Including, 30,000 psi)

25.000
Ndn:: 1~ ..fablei s-!JdS-:2~11for t~ularlval~~ Tl11
up 10300 F_
.. 20.000

............ - ~
.- ......
SOO F'-,-
1 1 1
V?ooF'-
v:
16.000
16.000

-
1 l ,
,,;;; ;;i' 600t F-- 14.000
V ......... 1.- ~ J 1
900 F._ 12.000

Il
1 ...........
V
v - v _1.0-
l.-
l-- ~ ....... ~17
v
~
JO.ooo
9.000
c:J

VI l..-
l.....--""
V -- ~
l--"
1.- ......
6.000
7.000
Cl:
...
0
U
<:
'1' u,
\,/.
6.000
(ff 1,..0
5.000
V
E • 29.0 x 10"
E • 27.0 x 10"
r--- t-... 4.000
E • 24.5 x 10" t---- VI 3.500
x .,.~
E • 22.6 10" t--
i i lOi; 17.~~ ,10"
3.000

2.500
23456769 23456769 23456769 23456789

.00001 .0001 .001 .01 .1

FACTORA

Fig. S-UCS-28.2 Chart for Oetermining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 30,000 psi and Over Except for Materials Within This Range
Where Other Specifie Charts Are Referenced) and Type 40S and Type 410 Stainless Steels
FIGURE 3-2

14
 Where this situation occurs, design may be in
accordance with the following discussion of type C
vessels If The Limitations Given Therein Are Folio we d.
Note that the curves in Fig. 3-2 based on material
strength (temperature curves) are not straight over
their entire length. The procedure outlined for type C
vessels is applicable only to the straight portion of
the curve, where most type C vessels will fall. If the
same rules were applied indiscriminately, inadequate
design could result.
Where the rules do apply to type B vessels, the
safety factor for stiffener spacing should preferably
be at least 3, but may be less at the designer's
discretion, depending on severity of loading, inherent
hazard, etc.
Type C. Storage Tanks of Large Diameter Subject
to Radial Loads Only, or Small Vacuums Where the
Axial Load is Negligible. In determination of stiffener
ring spacing, the safety factor of 3, as specified by
the ASME code, seems excessive for storage tanks
of this type. Furthermore, the code design of
stiffeners assumes that they will buckle into two
waves. Stiffeners on short tanks with large diameters
may be stayed so that buckling takes place in more
than two waves. In that case, design in accordance
with the code may be overconservative.
The following procedure was developed to provide
a more reasonable design basis for such tanks. In
using this approach, however, designers should
remember that it applies to a special situation,
frequently encountered, and is not a general solution
for ail cylinders subjected to external pressure. (See
preceding discussion of type B structures.)
The procedure is based on the use of two end
stiffeners of sufficient strength to permit installation
of small intermediate stiffeners based on the wave
pattern postulated for the unstiffened shell between
end stiffeners. An example for a vertical storage tank
would be incorporation of one end stiffener at the
bottom of the shell and one at the roof or at an
upper point of the shell where the radial external
pressure becomes zero. Intermediate stiffeners would
be located between these end stiffeners.
Intermediate Stiffener Rings
Within the following limitations, the spacing L s of
intermediate stiffeners may be determined from the
David Taylor Model Basin formula' (Eq. 3-6). The
formula, however, does not :PPIY if the resulting
spacing L s is less than 0.9 Dot. The circumferential
stress in the shell alone, not including the stiffeners,
should not exceed the allowable working stress for
the shell material in compression.
The David Taylor Model Basin formula is:
b.s = • ft' f0,45 + 2,42E (tID o )2]
Do t' 0: l Fp (1 - 1l 2)O.7j
For shells constructed of mild carbon steel under
radial pressure only and for temperatures to 300°F,
1 Collapse by Instability of Thin Cylindrical Shells Under External
Pressure, by Dwight Windenburg and Charles Trilling.
it is recommended that a minimum safety factor of 2
be used.
Some vessels may be subjected to external
pressures that vary from zero at an upper point on
the shell to a maximum at the shell-to-bottom
junction. For this type of triangular radial loading,
determination of the first lower unsupported span LS 1
should be based on the pressure at the bottom. This
locates the first intermediate stiffener above the
bottom. Then, the next span Ls2 should be based on
the pressure at the first stiffener. This procedure
should be repeated up the shell. For each span, the
thickness should be assumed as the thickness of the
middle quarter of the span, or the average thickness
of the plates in the span.
To prevent buckling of the intermediate stiffeners,
the moment of inertia should be at least:
I~ = FpL:P 0 3
8E (N2 - 1) (3-7)
ln Eq. 3-7, computation of I~ provided may include a
portion of the shell equivalent to the lesser of
1.1t ViDot = 1.56t ViRot or the area As of the
stiffener.
The moment of inertia for intermediate stiffeners
attached to shells under radial pressure only or
under both radial and axial pressures should have a
minimum safety factor of 2.
ln Eq. 3-7, N is an integer with approximate value
of:
N2 = 0.663 s;;: 100 (3-8)
h ./JL
Do t' Do
To prevent yielding of the stiffener, it should also
satisfy the following requirement for minimum cross-
sectional area:
As = l.2.!::.s!ia (3-9)
Fa
where Fa should be taken as 15,000 psi for mild
carbon steel.
ln determination of As provided, a width equal to
0.78 vRot of the available shell each side of the
stiffener should be included in the composite area.
To insure a norninal-size stiffener, in no case should
the area of the stiffener alone be less than half the
required area.
Both Eq. 3-7 and 3-9 are based on the assumption
that ail the circumferential shell force is carried by
the stiffeners. This is a very conservative assumption
and could be relaxed with a more rigorous analysis.
End Stiffener Rings
For the preceding design procedure for
intermediate stiffeners to apply, the ends of the
(3-6) cylindrical shell must be held circular. It is assumed
that half the total external radial load on the shell is
transferred to the end stiffeners. This load is further
distributed to the end stiffeners in inverse proportion
to the ratios of their distances from the resultant of
the load on the shell to the distance between end
15
stiffeners. The required moment of inertia for end
stiffeners therefore should be at least
I~ = Fph 0 0 3 (3-10)
16 E(N2_1)
For open top tanks, N for the top end stiffener
must be taken as 2. When the end stiffener is stayed
by a cone roof or radial framing, N equals the
number of rafters at the sheH. For a fiat bottom, a
fuH diaphragm, or a self-supporting roof, N should be
calculated in the same way as for intermediate
stiffeners.
An end stiffener can be a circular girder composed
of a portion of a fiat bottom for a web, a portion of
the sheH for one flange, and a circumferential
member welded to the bottom for the other flange.
The 'proportions of such a girder should be Iimited by
the AiSe rules for compression members.
The required cross-sectional area of a composite
end stiffener should be at least
As = ph Do (3-11)
4 Fa
If available, a portion of the sheH equal to
0.78 y' Rot on each side of the stiffener can be
16
assumed as part of the required area. Fa should be
taken as 15,000 psi for mild carbon steel.
Top Intermediate Stiffener Ring
For a cylindrical sheH with external pressure on
only a portion of its total height, such as a partly
buried tank, additional consideration must be given
to the distribution of load to the end stiffeners. In any
case, always locate the top intermediate stiffener at
the surface elevation of the external pressure. N
should be taken the same as that recommended for
intermediate stiffeners (unless this stiffener is
assumed to be the end stiffener). The load on the
top intermediate stiffener depends on the distance
from this stiffener to the top end of the cylinder. If
this distance is greater than twice the greatest
intermediate stiffener spacing, assume that no load
is transmitted through the sheH to the top end of the
cylinder. Therefore, the top intermediate stiffener
should be designed as a top stiffener. If this distance
is less than twice the greatest intermediate stiffener
spacing, the regular end stiffener design may be
provided at the top of the cylinder, while the load on
the top intermediate stiffener is computed as for the
other intermediate stiffeners.
 Part IV
Membrane Theory
M
OSt vessels storing Iiquid or gas are surfaces
of revolution, formed by rotation of one or
more continuous plane curves about a
straight line in their plane. The line is called the axis
of revolution. Ali sections of a shell of revolution
perpendicular to the axis of revolution are circles.
Usually the axis of revolution of a storage vessel is
vertical, in which case ail horizontal sections are
circles.
Notation
P = The internai pressure on shell. It may be due
to gas alone (PG) , liquid alone (Pd, or both
together (PG + Pd (psi).
71 = The meridional force (sometimes called
longitudinal force). This is force in vertical planes,
but on horizontal sections (pounds per inch).
71 is positive when in tension.
72 = The latitudinal force (sometimes called hoop or
ring force). This is force in horizontal planes,
but on vertical section (pounds per inch).
72 is positive when in tension.
R = Horizontal radius at plane under consideration
from axis of revolution (in).
R1 = Radius of curvature in vertical (meridional)
plane at level under consideration (in).
Generally R1 is negative if it is on the
opposite side of the shell from R2 .
R2 = Length of the normal to the shell at the plane
under consideration, measured from the shell
to its axis of revolution (in).
Generally R2 is positive unless the plane
results in more than one circle.
W = Total weight of that portion of the vessel and its
content, either above or below the plane under
consideration, which is treated as a free body
in computations for such plane (pounds). W has
the same sign as P when acting in the same
direction as the pressure on the plane of the
free body, and the opposite sign from P when
acting in the opposite direction.
Ar = Cross section al area of the interior of the vessel
at the plane under consideration (square
inches).
y = Density of product (pounds per cubic inch).
17
_
Note:
Radii Rl and R2 lie in the same line, but have
different lengths except for a sphere where Rl = R2.
71 and 72 are loads per inch and will give the
membrane stress in the plate when divided by the
thickness of the plate.
General Equation for Membrane Forces
Consider an element of a spherical section of unit
length in each direction.
Figure 4-1 indicates the radii and forces 71 and 72
acting on the element.
Figures 4-2 and 4-3 indicate the pressure on the
element and the components of the membrane unit
forces in the latitudinal and meridional planes.
For equilibrium, the summation of forces must be
equal to zero.
~ Outward Force = P.R2 <'h.R 1 <Pl
~ Inward Force = 271 <P1R2<P2 + 272 <P2Rl<Pl
'2 '2
Equating the two:
P.R2 <P2.R 1<Pl =
271 <P1R2<P2 + 27 2 <P2R 1<Pl
2" '2
:. PR1R2 = 71R2 + 72R1
:. P = Il + 12 (4-1)
Rl R2
Equation 4-1 is the general equation for membrane
forces. This equation considers membrane forces
primarily praduced by the product contained within
the vessel. The weight of the vessel itself may add to
these forces and should be considered in the
analysis,
Modified Equations for Membrane Forces
ln general, the meridional force is the unit force in
the wall of the vessel required to support the weight
of the product, internai pressure, and plate weights
at the plane under consideration.
ln the free body diagram (figure 4-5), consider the
forces acting at plane 1-1.
The total forces acting at plane 1-1 from above the
plane = P.TI.R2.
 General Equation for Membrane Forces

PLANE B-B
(VERTICAL)

PLANE A-A
(NORMAL TO SURFACE)

FIGURE 4·1

Plan View, Plane A-A Elevation View, Plane B-B

FIGURE 4-2 FIGURE 4-3
18
 Modified Equations for Membrane Forces

-
I
--+-+I
r
---I _ _
U NE OF
SUPPORT

FIGURE 4·4

l--A'

FIGURE 4·5
19
 Total forces acting at plane 1·1 from below the For figures 4·6, 4·7, 4·8, 4·9, and 4·14, the equations
plane = W. for membrane forces are:
Total vertical downward force = P. Il. R2 + W
Vertical force required along circumference at
plane 1·1 to support the downward forces:
T, = .s«.
2
[p + .Yf-]
Ar
T
VI -
_ P.IlR2+ W
2IlR
T2 = R2 [p - ~:]
For figures 4·10, 4·11,4·12, and 4·13 where R, =
Membrane force co, the equations for membrane forces reduce to:
_ -.I.!LL _ P.IlR2 + W T, =~ [p + .-J:L]
T, - Sin <I> - 2IlR Sin <I> 2 Ar
or T, PR .W T2 = PR2
= 2 Sin <I> + 2IlR Sin <I>
The sign of R" R 2 , P, W, and Ar are shown in table
= 2 s~n Il~2] 4·1 and must be included in computing the forces.
<I> [ P + For any other vessel configuration, a free body
R diagram can be drawn and the forces T, and T2
Since Sin <I> = R2 and IlR2 = Ar calculatsd in a similar way.

Further Simplifications
T, = .s«.
2
[p + .-J:L]
Ar
(4·2)
The equations for membrane forces can be further
simplified for some of the shapes.
From Equation 4·1
T . a.. Spheres
T2 = R2 [ P - ---,t] For spheres with no product (gas pressure
only), the equations reduce to:
These are the equations used in API 620.
T, = PGR2
Simplified Equations for 2
Commonly Used Shapes
Figures 4·6 to 4·14 show the common vessel shapes
T2 = R2 [p _ PR2]
2R,
used and the direction and magnitude of the radii, Since R, = R2 = R
pressure, and weights acting on the free body
diagram. Table 4·1 indicates the sign for each PR
variable. The figures use the following notations: T, = T2 = 2
where R = radius of sphere.
ff8] Level of product in the vessel.
b. Cylinders
~ Volume of product to be used in calculating If the weight of the plate is neglected and
the weight of product above or below the free there is no internai pressure in the vessel and since
body diagram. R2 = R:
• Area of plate to be used in calculating the
weight of plate above or below the free body T, = 2"R [ PL -
IlR2yH ]
Il R2
diagram.
Since yH = PL
For ail figures: T, =0
P = PG + yH T2 = PL·R
Ar = IlR2 where R = radius of cylinder.

20
 rL_ UNE OF
SUPPORT

FIGURE 4-6
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

.r 1
l---'-----,.,.lIIf--1"-r-'t-t''-t--i--lH-f-i-f-t-'''t--f-t-"'''t--r-..-'l-t''~
r UNE
L_ SU OF
PP0 RT

T
FIGURE 4-7
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

21
 L1NE OF

J -T SUPPORT

R=R 2 SIN cp
FIGURE 4·8
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

-r-
FIGURE 4·9
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

22
 UNE OF
SUPPORT

R=R 2 COS cp

R 1 = .DO
FIGURE 4·10
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R 2 COS cp

1 1
UNE OF
SUPPORT

R 1 = DO
FIGURE 4·11
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.

23
 l

UNE OF
SUPPORT

R=R2COS cp

R1 = 00

FIGURE 4·12
Conical Vessel or Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

- ·2

PGI
c. / { /:
I
1 J
L, 1-
UNE OF .,
F ..': .... ,.'.
SUPPORT
'\t '>'.,..:: ,,:: ..... :/
...:C

:...:... ..•./ ...:,.. : ., ::,., ,.....,:.

~ .: ...
,....• : ..: .:}/
.•....
",· ..cc· ..,··:·,,·. ..-.:
....'.:.

t
1
R1 = DO
FIGURE 4·13
Cylindrical Vessel. Plane above line of support.

24
 I

UNE OF
SUPPORT

FIGURE 4-14
Curved Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

TABLE 4-1

Figure R1 R2 P W Ar

4-6 + + + + +

4-7 + + + - +

4-8 + + + + +

4-9 + + + - +

4-10 co + + + +

4-11 co + + - +

4-12 co + - + +

4-13 œ + + - +

4-14 - + + - +

25
Part V
Self-Supported Stacks
Scope
he scope defined for this Volume stated that
T stacks would not be discussed in detail
because of the complicated problem of
resonant vibrations. Apart from this phase, however,
there are purely structural facets that may be of
interest. For the benefit of those not familiar with the
problem, a brief explanation of stack vibration
follows:
Wind-Induced Vibrations
When a steady wind blows on an unsheltered,
unguyed stack, formation and shedding of air
vortices on each side of the stack can apply
alternating lateral forces that cause movement of the
stack perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
The frequency of vortex shedding is a function of
wind velocity and stack diameter. The term critical
velocity denotes the wind velocity at which the
frequency of vortex shedding equals the natural
frequency of the stack. Under such conditions,
resonance occurs.
Excessive lateral dynamic deflection and vibration
of the stack from vortex shedding may occur at wind
velocities considerably below the maximum wind
velocity expected in the area.
One way to avoid resonance and consequent
damage to the stack is to proportion the stack so
that the critical wind velocity exceeds the highest
sustained wind velocity that is Iikely to occur. In most
areas, for example, it ts unlikely that a steady wind
of more than 75 mph will occur. Hence, a stack
having a critical velocity of 75 mph is probably safe
in those regions, though gusts of greater velocity
might occur.
There may be reasons, however, why a stack of
such proportions will not serve the purpose. If so, the
effects of dynamic vibrations must be thoroughly
investigated. If the critical wind velocity is low
enough, it may be that the stresses due to dynamic
deflections are within design limits. In that case, the
stack is structurally adequate if noticeable movement
of the stack is not objectionable.
If investigation shows that stresses due to
vibrations are not within safe Iimits, the only
solutions are to change the stack diameter or to add
27
_
a damping device. Such devices might consist of a
gunite or similar Iining or so-called "wind spoilers"
on the exterior of the stack.
The subject is quite complex. To attempt a brief
summarization could be dangerously misleading.
Instead, a bibliography of references is appended at
the end of this part for the benefit of those who wish
to explore the subject more thoroughly.
Minimum Thickness and Corrosion
ln view of the corrosive nature innate to stack
operation, it is wise to add a corrosion allowance to
the calculated shell thickness. The nature of the flue
gasses and moisture content in the area are some
important parametersin determining the amount of
corrosion for which to allow.
Erection requirements usually dictate minimum
plate thicknesses and the stress formulae in this part
are not considered valid for thicknesses less than
114". Therefore, the minimum thickness for shell plate
is taken to be 114" nominal.
Notation
A = Cross sectional area of base ring, in.2
a. = Vertical angle of cone to cyl., degrees
AB = Anchor boIt circle, in.
As = Required area for stack stiffeners, in.2
~ = Critical damping ratio of stack
C = See Fig. 10 Sec. A·A
Cie = Euler Factor
CL = Lift coefficient (0.2 for circular cylinder)
D = Outside diameter of stack, in.
Do = Outside diameter of cylindrical portion of
stack, ft.
E = Modulus of elasticity, psi at design temperature
E1 = Joint efficiency for base plate design
Fa = Allowable compressive stress for
circumferential stiffeners, 12000 psi
(unless otherwise noted)
Fb = Allowable bending stress, 0.6 F4, psi for
stiffeners
Fe = Allowable compressive stress, ksi
Fer = Critical buckling stress, ksi
FL = Equivalent static force, lb/ft of height
Fs = Allowable compressive stress, psi (in cene-
cylinder junction area)
 Fy = Yield point of stack material, ksi f-Do~
FS = Factor of safety -,---r--
H = Overall height of stack, ft.
Hl = Overall height of stack, in.
Minimum base diameter
ls = Required moment of inertia for stack do = HI10 (5-1)
stiffeners, in. 4
Kep = Effective length factor Minimum bell height
h = 0.3H (5-2)
K = Sienderness reduction factor
L s = Stiffener spacing, ft. Minimum diameter of
L = length for KUr cylinder, Do = HI13
(5-3)
LS1 = Stiffener spacing, in.
M = Moment at any design point, inch-pounds
N = Number of anchor bolts
Pd = Wind load, psi
R 1 = Outside conical radius, in.
Ra = Outside radius of cylinder portion of stack, in.
S = Strouhal number (0.2 for steel stack)
Ss = Required section modulus for stack stiffeners, Stacks are Iikely to be subjected at least to the
in. 3 following loads:
1. Metal Weight.
T = Load per boit, lb. 2. Lining Weight.
V = Total direct load at any design point, lb. 3. Wind: Wind load provisions may be found in
Ver1 = Critical wind velocity, mph ASCE 7-88. Local building codes should also be
Ver2 = Critical wind velocity, ft/sec. consulted.
Va = Resonance velocity, ft/sec. 4. Icing (if required).
5. Seismic (if required).
W = Chord for arc W', in. 6. Thermal cycling (vertical & circumferential).
W' = Arc length of breeching opening, in. 7. Possible negative pressures.
Ws = Unit weight of stack snell, Ib.lin. 3 8. Other requirements of local building codes.
do = Outside diameter of belled stack base, ft.
Dynamie Wind Criteria
fe = Compression stress, ksi
The dynamic influence of wind may be approximated
fo = Frequency of the lowest mode of ovaling by assuming an equivalent static force, Fv in pounds
vibration, cps per foot of height, acting in the direction of
ft = Natural frequency, cps oscillations, given by:
g = Acceleration of gravity, 386 in.lsec. FL = CL Do qer/2~ (5-4)
h = Height of stack bell, ft. NOTE: ~ = Critical damping factor which varies from
p = Wind load, psf 1% for an unlined steel stack of small
qer = Dynamic wind pressure, psf diameter to 5% for concrete.
r = Radius of gyration, in. The dynamic wind pressure, qeft in pst, is given by:
= Thickness of stack, in.
*qer = 0.00119 Vel. The critical wind velocity, Ver2 in
fps, for resonant transverse vibration is given by:
w = Uniform load over breeching opening, Ib.lin.
VedftJsec) = !12.D. (5-5)
S
The natural frequency, ft (eps), of vibration of a stack
Statie Design Criteria
of constant diameter and thickness is given by:
ln the suggested static design criteria below, the
proportions indicated are those desirable from a
ft = 3.52 D
41tH 12
[.DL]
2Ws
',1, (5-6)
structural standpoint. Independent calculations are
Critical velocity for a steel stack with an S value of
needed to determine sizes to satisty draft or capacity
0.2 is given by:
requirements. In general, stacks proportioned as
suggested will probably have a high critical wind v.; (mph) = 3.41 Dit (5-7)
velocity, but a dynamic check should be made to Values of effective diameters and effective height for
verity this. stacks of varying diameter and thickness may be
Short stacks (Iess than 100 ft. high) may be determined by methods found in reference number 19.
straight cylinders without a belled base. "Reference number 14(b)

28.
Critical Wind Velocity for Ovaling Vibrations p

ln addition to transverse swaying oscillations, stacks

experience flexural vibration in the cross-section al
M--f-
plan as a result of vortex shedding. This frequency
of the lowest mode of ovaling vibration in a circular
shell is:
Do V
t, = 678.5t (5-8)

~"
0 02 Re

Resonance occurs when frequency of the lowest

mode of ovaling vibration is twice the vortex
shedding frequency; thus, the critical wind velocity
for ovaling frequency is:
V
Vo = foDo = (ft/sec) (5-9) -
cos t
28
Unlined stacks are subject to ovaling vibrations. In
order to prevent this phenomenon, the thickness of
the stack should not be less than 0/250 or
intermediate stiffeners are required to raise the
resonant velocity above 60 mph. Care should be
1 \
exercised in coastal areas to give special attention to Figure 5-2. Loads on Cylinder-Cone Junction
high winds as outlined in the aforementioned A8CE
7-88. Cylinder-Cone Junction
Stack Stresses ln many applications of tubular columns, it is
desirable to use a base cone to provide a broader
The stresses associated with buckling have four base for anchorage. At the junction of the cone and
ranges into which they can fall depending on the tiR cylinder (Fig. 5-2), it is necessary to provide
ratio. They in turn may be affected by the Euler reinforcement to resist the maximum vertical force.
effect or slenderness ratio reduction factor. The
stresses calculated in this manner are not to be V = -p- + -.M- (5-11)
increased for wind or earthquake stresses. 21tR o 1tR0 2
and the radial thrust
Fer tlRo Range
H = V tan Ct (5-12)
5.8 x 103 tlRo 0.017 < ve, $: Fy/11600
The ring compression to be resisted is
Fy [0.35 + ~t] Fy/11600 s tlRo $: 0.01
G = HRo = VRo tan Ct (5-13)
The area of reinforcement required is
Fy [ 0.8 + ~:] 0.01 s tlRo $: .04
As = VRo tan Ct (5-14)
Fy ve;» .04 Fs
Under load, the junction reinforcement, or stiffener,
-21t 2E will move elastically inward. This will induce
G'e = a/ FS = 2.0 secondary vertical bending stresses on each side of
t' Fer
the junction. For that reason, it is desirable to keep
Fe = Kèl>Fer/FS (5-10) allowable stress Fs relatively low. If Fs is in the range
of 8,000 psi, the secondary stresses can usually be
If c» < KUr Kèl> = 0.5 [~]2 ignored if Do is not greater than about 15 ft. For
KUr
greater diameters or higher values of Fs it would be
If G'e ::::: KUr Kèl> =1 _ 0.5 [ KUr ]2 advisable to evaluate the secondary stresses. Note
G'e that V is the maximum value resulting from both
vertical load and bending moment in the cylinder at
Tables 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3 have been developed the junction leve\.
using A8TM A36 steel with a yield of 36 ksi. The The moment of inertia Is of the stiffener section
value of K is taken as 2 in view of the fact that a should not be less than:
stack is normally a cantilever.
These allowable stresses will also be used for HR0 3 (5-15)
tapered or belled base stacks using the equivalent E
cylindrical radius approach as ~hown bel?w. In o:der
based on a factor of safety of 3 for critical buckling.
to arrive at allowable stresses ln the conical section
one would substitute Rt into the above formulae for The area of reinforcement and computation of
provided by a stiffener may include an area of
's
e;
29
cylinder and cone plate equal to and bottom flanges. The shell of the stack will serve
as the web. Each ring girder must be capable of
0.78(t ~/Rot + t, yR ,t) (5-16)
carrying a uniform distributed load, in terms of
where R 1 = R o Icos a pounds per inch of arch W', of:
This approach can be used in designing the w =~ + ~ (5-22)
junction of two cones having different slopes, except «o, nD 0 2
that H would be the difference between the The bending moment in the girder is:
horizontal components of the axial loads in the two
cones. Mq = WW'2 (5-23)
12
Circumferential Stiffeners Allowable bending stresses may be chosen using
AiSe rules.
A stiffener is required at the top of the stack, also
intermediate ring stiffeners are required to prevent
deformation of the stack shell under wind pressure Base Plates
and to provide structural resistance to negative draft.
Spacing of intermediate stiffener L s is: ln addition to bending stresses due to bending loads,

i, = 60 yi 7! (5-17)
the stack base plate must resist ring tension due to
the horizontal component of the base cone if one is
used. Maximum ring tension should be Iimited to
To insure a nominal size of intermediate stiffener, 10,000 psi to account for secondary bending
the spacing is Iimited within 1.5 times the stack stresses in the base cone. This value may be varied
diameter. upward depending upon the extent of secondary
Intermediate stiffeners should meet the following stress evaluation. Tension should be checked at the
minimum requirements: minimum cross-section occurring at the anchor boit
holes or at a weld joint where 85% or 100%
S = pL S 1 D2 (in3 ) (5-18) efficiency may be assumed.
s 1100Fb
A base plate area may be calculated by the
(5-19) following equation:
A = VDqlana (5-24)
(5-20) 20,000E,
A = Pd Ls l D
s 2F a
To satisfy the requirements of the above
intermediate stiffener design formulae a portion of
the stack equal to 1.1t yI Dot may be included.

Breeching Opening
The breeching opening should be as small as
consistent with operating requirements with a
maximum width of 2D o/3.
The opening must be reinforced vertically to
replace the area of material removed increased by
the ratio of DaiC. Therefore, each vertical stiffener on
each side of the opening should have a cross-
sectional area of:
A = W'tD o (5-21)
s 2C A A
(Fig. 5-4) (Fig. 5-4)
Each vertical stiffener in conjunction with a portion
of the liner shell would be designed as a column.
Each stiffener should extend far enough above and
below the opening to develop its strength.
Horizontal reinforcement should be provided by a
ring girder above and below the opening. These
glrders should be designed as fixed-end beams to Figure 5·3. Elevation of Stack.
carry the load across the opening above and below.
The span in bending is the width W between the side
column, but the girders should encircle the stack to
preserve circularity at the opening. To form each ring
girder, stiffener rings should be placed to act as top

30
 Base plate thickness may be determined by using
AiSe formulae and allowable bending stresses.

Anchor Bolts
Minimum diameter = 1'12"
c Maximum spacing of anchor bolts = 5'-6'
Maximum tension at root of threads = 15,000 psi
Each boit should be made to resist a total tension in
pounds of:
T = 4M _ V (#/Bolt) (5-25)
ND N
N = # of AB
Figure 5·4. Horizontal Section Through Opening. A suggested design procedure for anchor boit
(Section A-A, Fig. 5-3) brackets is covered in Part VII.

For tiRa trom .0017 through Fyl11600

~
.0017 .00192 .00214 .00236 .00258 .0028 .00302
KLlr ~

0 4930 5568 6206 6844 7482 8120 8758

17.5 4917 5551 6185 6819 7452 8085 8717
35 4878 5502 6124 6744 7362 7979 8594
52.5 4813 5419 6071 6618 7212 7803 8389
70 4722 5303 5876 6443 7003 7556 8101
87.5 4605 5154 5691 6217 6733 7238 7732
105 4462 4971 5414 5942 6404 6850 7281
122.5 4293 4755 5196 5616 6015 6392 6747
140 4097 4507 4887 5240 5565 5862 6132
157.5 3877 4225 4537 4814 5056 5263 5434
175 3630 3909 4145 4338 4487 4593 4655
Table 5·1
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

31
 For tiRa from Fy/11600 to .01

~
.003104 .00425 .0054 .00655 .0077 .00885 1 .00999
KUr .;.
0 9094 10128 11162 12196 13230 14264 15298
17.5 9049 10073 11095 12116 13136 14155 15173
35 8917 9908 10895 11888 12855 13829 14797
52.5 8695 9634 10562 11480 12387 13284 14171
70 8386 9250 10095 10928 11732 12523 13295
87.5 7988 8756 9496 10207 10889 11543 12168
105 7501 8152 8762 9331 9859 10345 10791
122.5 6926 7439 7896 8297 8642 8930 9163
140 6262 6616 6896 l:1Q~ 19~7. 19~~ l~QJ.
157.5 RRJ.9. RR~~ Rl~9. 5769 5769 5769 5769
175 4670 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673
Table 5·2
Fc Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

For ve; from .01 to .04

~
.01 .015 .02 .025 .03 .035 .04
KUr ~

0 15300 15750 16200 16650 17100 17550 18000

17.5 15175 15617 16060 16502 16944 17385 17827
35 14798 15219 15638 16057 16474 16891 17307
52.5 14173 14556 14936 15315 15692 16067 16440
70 13296 13627 13954 14277 14597 14914 15227
87.5 12169 12432 12690 12942 13189 13431 13666
105 10792 10972 11146 11311 11468 11618 11760
122.5 ~:Hl9. ~g~E ~~g9. ~~~9. ~~~;:! ~H7.~ ~RQ~
140 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302 7302
157.5 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769 5769
175 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673 4673

If un;» .04 Fc = .5 X Fy X KcI>

Table 5·3
Fc Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

Dotted Iines are an indicator at which point C'e> KUr

32
References
1. M.S. Ozker and J.O. Smith, "Factors Influencing
the Dynamic Behavior of Tall Stacks Under the
Action of Winds," Trans. ASME Vol. 78, 1956,
pp. 1381-1391.
2. P. Priee, "Suppression of the Fluid-Induced
Vibration of Circular Cylinders," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 82, EM3, Paper No. 1030, 1956, p.
22.
3. W.L. Dickey and G.B. Woodruff, "The Vibration
of Steel Stacks," Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 80,
1954, p. 20.
4. T. Sarpkaya and C.J. Garison, "Vortex Formation
and Resistance in Unsteady Flow," Journal of
Applied Mechanics, Vol. 30, Trans. ASME, Vol.
85, Series E, 1963, pp. 16-24.
5. A.W. Marris, "A Review on Vortex Streets,
Periodic Wakes, and Induced Vibration
Phenomena," Journal of Basic Engineering,
Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 86, 1964, pp.
185-196.
6. J. Penzien, "Wind Induced Vibration of
Cylindrical Structures," Proceedings of ASCE,
Vol. 83, EM 1 Paper No. 1141, January, 1957, p.
17.
7. W. Weaver,"Wind-Induced Vibrations in Antenna
Members," Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 127, Part
1, 1962, pp. 679-704.
8. C. Scruton and D. Walshe, "A Means of
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Nearly Circular Cross-Section,"
NPUAero/335, October 1957.
9. C. Scruton, D. Walshe and L. Woodgate, "The
Aerodynamic Investigation for the East Chimney
Stack of the Rugeley Generating Station,"
NPUAero/352.
10. A Roshko, "On the Development of Turbulent
Wakes from Vortex Streets," NACA Report 1191,
1954.
11. A. Roshko, "On The Drag and Shedding
Frequency of Two-Dimensional Bluff Bodies,"
NACA Technical Note 3169, July 1954.
12. N. Delany and N. Sorensen, "Low-Speed Drag of
Cylinders of Various Shapes," NCA Technical
Note 3038, November, 1953.
33
13. G.B. Woodruff and J. Kozok, "Wind Forces on
Structures: Fundamental Considerations,"
Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper No.
1709, 1958, p. 13.
14. F.B. Farquaharson, "Wind Forces Structures:
Structures Subject Oscillations," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper 1712, 1958, p.13.
15. ASCE Transaction Paper #3269 ("Wind Forces
on Structure").
16. C.F. Cowdrey and J.A. Lewes, "Drag
Measurements at High Reynolds Numbers of a
Circular Cylinder Fitted with Three Helical
Strakes," NPUAero/384, July 1959.
17. L. Woodgate and J. Maybrey, "Further
Experiments on the Use of Helical Strakes for
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Near Circular Cross-Section,"
NPUAero/381, July 1959.
18. A Roshko, "On the Wake and Drag Bluff
Bodies," presented at Aerodynamics Sessions,
Twenty-Second Annual Meeting, lAS, New York,
N.Y., January, 1954.
19. J.O. Smith and J.H. McCarthy, "Wind Versus
Tall Stacks," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 87,
January, 1965, pp. 38-41.
20. Gaylord and Gaylord, "Structural Engineering
Handbook." 2nd Edition, Chapter 26.
21. R. Stuart III, AR. Fugini, A DeVaul, Pittsburgh-
Des Moines Corp. Research Report #98528,
"Design of Allowable Compressive Stress
Cylindrical or Conical Plates, AWWA D100,"
May, 1981.
22. Roger L. Brockenbrough, Pittsburgh-Des Moines
Corp. Research Report 98030, "Determination of
The Critical Buckling Stress of Cylindrical Plates
Having Low tiR Values." October 5, 1960.
23. Tom Buckwalter, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Corp.
Supplement to RP 98030, "Determination of the
Critical Buckling Stress in a Cylinder Having a
tiR of 0.00426," December 20, 1960.
24. AISC 1989 "Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
Design."
 Part VI
Supports for Horizontal
Tanks and Pipe Lines - - - - _
hers is considerable information available on different distribution of stress in the pipe or vessel

T design of supports for horizontal cylindrical

shells where a complete ring girder is used.
There are many installations where a horizontal
tank, pressure vessel, or pipe line is supported by a
saddle extending less than 180 0 around the lower
part of the cylinder. The effects of vertical deflection
of the cylinder and the concentration of stress
around the horn of the saddle, which result in a
wall from that encountered with a full ring support,
are discussed in the following paper by L.P. Zick. It
includes some revisions of and additions to the
original paper published in "The Welding Journal
Research Supplement", September, 1951, and
reprinted in "Pressure Vessel and Piping Design -
Collected Papers 1927-1959", published by ASME in
1960.

Original paper published in September 1951 "THE WELDING JOURNAL RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT." This paper
contains revisions and additions to the original paper based upon questions rsised as to intent and coverage.

Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical

Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports
Approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various conditions
and design of stiffening for vessels which require it

by L.P. Zick

INTRODUCTION which vessels may be designed for internai pressure

The design of horizontal cylindrical vessels with
dished heads to resist internai pressure is covered
by existing codes. However, the method of support is
left pretty much up to the designer. In general the
cylindrical shell is made a uniform thickness which is
determined by the maximum circumferential stress
due to the internai pressure. Since the longitudinal
stress is only one-hall of this circumferential stress,
these vessels have available a beam strength which
makes the two-saddle support system ideal for a
wide range of proportions. However, certain
limitations are necessary to make designs consistent
with the intent of the code.
The purpose of this paper is to indicate the
approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels
supported on two saddles at various locations.
Knowing these stresses, it is possible to determine
L.P. Zick is a former Chief Engineer for the Chicago Bridge & Iron
Co., Oak Brook, IIJ.
atone, and to design structurally adequate and
economical stiffening for the vessels which require it.
Formulas are developed to cover various conditions,
and a chart is given which covers support designs
for pressure vessels made of mild steel for storage
of Iiquid weighing 42 lb. per cu. ft.
HISTORY
ln a paper' published in 1933 Herman Schorer
pointed out that a length of cylindrical shell
supported by tangential end shears varying
proportionately to the sine of the central angle
measured from the top of the vessel can support its
own metal weight and the full contained liquid weight
without circumferential bending moments in the shell.
To complete this analysis, rings around the entire
circumference are required at the supporting points
ta transfer these shears to the foundation without
distorting the cylindrical shell. Discussions of
Schorer's paper by H.C. Boardman and others gave

35
 Figure 6·1. Strain gage test set up on 30,000 gal. propane tank.

approximate solutions for the half full condition.
When a ring of uniform cross section is supported on
two vertical posts, the full condition governs the
design of the ring if the central angle between the
post intersections with the ring is less than 126°,
and the half-full condition governs if this angle is
more than 126°. However, the full condition governs
the design of rings supported directly in or adjacent
to sadd les.
Mr. Boardman's discussion also pointed out that
the heads may substitute for the rings provided the
supports are near the heads. His unpublished paper
has been used successfully since 1941 for vessels
supported on saddles near the heads. His method of
analysis covering supports near the heads is
included in this paper in a slightly modified form.
Discussions of ML Schorer's paper also gave
successful and semi-successful examples of
unstiffened cylindrical shells supported on saddles,
but an analysis is lacking. The semi-successful
examples indicated that the shells had actually
slumped down over the horns of the saddles while
being filled with liquid, but had rounded up again
when internai pressure was applied.
Testing done by others-> gave very useful results
in the ranges of their respective tests, but the
investigators concluded that analysis was highly
indeterminate. In recent years the author has
participated in strain gage surveys of several large
vessels.s A typical test setup is shown in Fig. 6-1.
ln this paper an attempt has been made to
produce an approximate analysis involving certain
empirical assumptions which make the theoretical
analysis closely approximate the test results.

Table 6·1 - Values of Coefficients in Formulas for Various Support Conditions

Maximum Circumf. Additional Ring Ring stiffeners Tension
Saddle long. bending Tangent. stress top head compres. Circumf. Direct across
angle, stress, snesr, of saddle, stress, in shell, bending, stress, saddle,
e Min. Kt' K2 Kst K4 Ks Ka K7 Ka
Shell unstiffened
120 0 0.63 (AIL = 0.09) 1.171 0.0528 0.760 0.204
150 0 0.55 (AIL = 0.11) 0.799 0.0316 0.673 0.260
Shell stiffened by head, A $ R/2
120 0 1.0 (AIL = 0) 0.880 0.0132 0.401 0.760 0.204
150 0 1.0 (AIL = 0) 0.485 0.0079 0.297 0.673 0.260
Shell stiffened by ring in plane of saddle
120 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.319 0.0528 0.340 0.204
150 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.319 0.0316 0.303 0.260
Shell stiffened by rings adjacent to saddle
120 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 1.171 0.0132 0.760 0.0577 0.263 0.204
150 0 0.23 (AIL = 0.193) 0.799 0.0079 0.673 0.0353 0.228 0.260
'See Fig, 6·5, which plots K, against A/L, for values of K, corresponding to values of A/L not Iisted in table,
tSee Fig, 6·7,

36
 -.r-, \
f\ r 1 1 Il e- 120'/
'j
-,
r-, \ Il e= 120' 1el = 120 1
~=~
L 1Il /

r-,
-,
r-, 1\ O:!
A
'L:! .2 U A
os L :! .12
1/ / /
"~ r-. Î\1l 1/V r7/
f7e~ •150.II
VA DD
RII-GS

'\ / ~
"'" i"z~
AT
r-, r-, ,r' V L PORT~

k Ve-I~~ V
<,
~ ~ r..;::s' K \ ~2A~lle, IADD biNeS AT / t= '7
........ <, <, \ l7
~ K6' <,
" \
./

.... V""_ 'fin'

"
V.l7 SUPPORT
~ ~ ~ .24 / I~
INOT

'~
t' ~"" r-,
\ V ..
...f",
6; ~ ~~ f)l
'1( ... '''1'\/ -:
V
./
~
BE
PPOR} ED CN
TWO SADD ES

~
PI. tTHK. ,.....f'l:I.: ....... V
~ .,.,r\ ~~ ~ ADD RII-GS AT SU F>PoRT !s t- .25

V2 ~e 3/4 ~ ~(2 20
4 30 ~ 1'0...
l:re 1}4 lYS 1 !YS 1

»
SHELL THICKNESS, r. IN INCHE:S 3o
"\: ~'" 1'-...

~ ~
4 4C

~ .!l0
~ ii'..."" r-, so
101 ~"- <,
L
BASIS OF OE:SIGN
A-2S5 GRADE: C CARBON STE:E:1.
UQUID WT.•. 42 LBS PE,R CU FT
::: 6
~

~
:r
eo
7
"0
.'"
Î'.~
<,
r-, <,
"\ 1'-." ~~
60
7o
eo

R -
L- 80'
5'}
E:XAMPLE SHOWN BY ARROWS
USE: 120' SAOOLtS
A = R/2 OR LESS
...
~
:\1-
90

~'" '9~ ~.
~ K 100
9o

~.s
<,
1 - 3/4 CHECK HE:AD PI. THK
~ 110
101
°12
~
"-, '\
~ r-,
<,
-,
<;
<,
il o

12o
~I

Figure 6-2. Location and type of support for horizontal pressure vessels on two supports.
'"
-, -, -. ~3
1

SELECTION OF SUPPORTS should be increased for extremely heavy vessels,

When a cylindrical vessel acts as its own carrying
beam across two symmetrically placed saddle
supports, one-hait of the total load will be carried by
each support. This would be true even if one support
should settle more than the other. This would also
be true if a differential in temperature or if the axial
restraint of the supports should cause the vessel
acting as a beam to bow up or down at the center.
This tact alone gives the two-support system
preference over a multiple-supporting system.
The most economical location and type of support
generally depend upon the strength of the vessel to
be supported and the cost of the supports, or of the
supports and additional stiffening if required. In a few
cases the advantage of placing fittings and piping in
the bottom of the vessel beyond the saddle will
govern the location of the saddle.
The pressure-vessel codes limit the contact angle
of each saddle to a minimum of 120 0 except for very
small vessels. In certain cases a larger contact angle
should be used. Generally the saddle width is not a
controlling factor; so a nominal width of 12 in. for
steel or 15 in. for concrete may be used. This width
and in certain cases it may be desirable to reduce
this width for smail vessels.
Thin-wall vessels of large diameter are best
supported near the heads provided they can support
their own weight and contents between supports and
provided the heads are stiff enough to transfer the
load to the saddles. Thick-wall vessels too long to
act as simple beams are best supported where the
maximum longitudinal bending stress in the shell at
the saddles is nearly equal to the maximum
longitudinal bending stress at mid-span, provided the
shell is stiff enough to resist this bending and to
transfer the load to the saddles. Where the stiffness
required is not available in the shell alone, ring
stiffeners must be added at or near the saddles.
Vessels must also be rigid enough to support normal
external loads such as wind.
Figure 6-2 indicates the most economical locations
and types of supports for large steel horizontal
pressure vessels on two supports. A liquid weight of
42 lb. per cu. ft. was used because it is
representative of the volatile Iiquids usually
associated with pressure vessels.

37
 ssl.
3 \L+~
2Q a::=:
(a) UNSTIFFENED SHELL
A4t ..L
3H A BI ;
ë r ...,
1
1
l
1
\

1
\
, ~ A+BI :
ASSUMED
TANGENTIAL
SHEAR STRESS
A- ïio (7 +t)
. 1io(*.:lJ)
-r-
... /
ADJACENT TO SADDLE B i
(bl SHELL STIFFENED BV RINGS
i

R(~)
(] B.j.
~i
:
OS::. (~ :~)
a
SECT A·A

~·~-RING

(C) SHELL STIFFENED BV RING IN

PLANE OF SAOOLE .2. (" • 2A)
.ïëïT~3"·~
~J
(dl SHEAR DIAGRAM SADDLE
MAX""
AWAY FROM HEAD

Ci
~rr---IO -----1 ~!!-~..
~!
(e) SHELL STIFFENED SY HEAD UAX. ~t l' (
• '7
Cl 1

Figure 6·3. Cylindrical shell acting as beam over supports.

_.
t~'
UAX~OS~-.: .. (
....
.. -SINuces..)
S<NoC05a~i.- :
\\ \ ""2:

Where Iiquids of different weights are to be stored (f) SHEAR OIAGRAM SADDLE NEAR HEAD ~( a - SIN", COS<> ) :
or where different materials are to be used, a rough ~f W-Q .. SlhQCOSa

design may be obtained from the chart and this

design should be checked by the applicable formulas
outlined in the following sections. Table 6-1 outlines
the coefficients to be used with the applicable
formulas for various support types and locations. The
notation used is Iisted at the end of the paper under
the heading Nomenclature.
MAXIMUM LONGITUDINAL STRESS
The cylindrical shell acts as a beam over the two
supports to resist by bending the uniform load of the
vessel and its contents. The equivalent length of the
vessel (see Figs. 6-2 and 6-3) equals L + 4HI3,
closely, and the total weight of the vessel and its
contents equals 20. However, it can be shown that
the liquid weight in a hemispherical head adds only
a shear load at its junction with the cylinder. This
can be approximated for heads where H ~ R by
representing the pressure on the head and the
longitudinal stress as a clockwise couple on the head
shown at the left of Fig. 6-3. Therefore the vessel
may be taken as a beam loaded as shown in Fig.
6-3; the moment diagram determined by statics is
also shown. Maximum moments occur at the
midspan and over the supports.
Tests have shown that except near the saddles a
cylindrical shell just full of liquid has practically no
circumferential bending moments and therefore
behaves as a beam with a section modulus
Ile = rcr2t.
However, in the region above each saddle
circumferential bending moments are introduced
allowing the unstiffened upper portion of the shell to
deflect, thus making it ineffective as a beam. This
reduces the effective cross section acting as a beam
Figure 6·4. Load transfer to saddle by tangential
shear stresses in cylindrical shell.
just as though the shell were split along a horizontal
line at a level above the saddle. [See Fig. 6-4 (a)]. If
this effective arc is represented by 2ô (ô in radians)
it can be shown that the section modulus becomes:
2
Ô + sin ô cos ô - 2 sin ô )
Ile = rcr2 t Ô
( rc ( Si: ô - cos Ô )
Strain gage studies indicate that this effective arc is
approximately equal to the contact angle plus one-
sixth of the unstiffened shell as indicated in Section
A-A of Fig. 6-4. Of course, if the shell is stiffened by
a head or complete ring stiffener near the saddle the
effective arc, 2ô, equals the entire cross section,
and Ile = rcr2t.
Since most vessels are of uniform shell thickness,
the design formula involves only the maximum value
of the longitudinal bending stress. Dividing the
maximum moment by the section modulus gives the
maximum axial stress in lb. per sq. in. in the shell
due to bending as a beam, or
S1 = ± 3K 10L
rcr2 t
K1 is a constant for a given set of conditions, but
actually varies with the ratios AIL and HIL ~ RIL for
different saddle angles. For convenience, K1 is
plotted in Fig. 6-5 against AIL for various types of
saddle supports, assuming conservative values of

38
 , 6
, .
~/
12
, 0
?7
.e ~<v~
..............
<,
,,: e
' ............ '4
"'
6 from the heads the maximum shear stress in lb. per
"'"
o 3
o 02 .04 .06 .08 10
Figure 6·5. Plot of longitudinal bendlnq-moment
constant, K1 •
H = 0 when the rnid-span governs and H = R when
the shell section at the saddle governs. A maximum
value of RIL =0.09 was assumed because other
factors govern the design for larger values of this
ratio. As in a beam the mid-span governs for the
sm aller values of AIL and the shell section at the
saddle governs for the larger values of AIL; however,
the point where the bending stress in the shell is
equal at mid-span and at the saddle varies with the
saddle angle because of the reduced effective cross
section. Fig. 6-5A in App. B gives acceptable values
of K,.
This maximum bending stress, 5" may be either
tension or compression. The tension stress wh en
combined with the axial stress due to internai
pressure should not excesd the allowable tension
stress of the material times the efficiency of the girth
joints. The compression stress should not exceed
one half of the compression yield point of the
material or the value given by
5, ~ ( ~) (tir) [2 - (2/3) (100) (tir)]
which is based upon the accepted formula for
buckling of short steel cylindrical columns. * The
compression stress is not a factor in a steel vessel
where t/r> 0.005 and the vessel is designed to be
fully stressed under internai pressure.
'See also par UG·23 (b) ASME Code Section VIII Div. 1.
TANGENTIAL SHEAR STRESS
Figure 6-4 (d) shows the total shear diagram for
vessels supported in saddles away from the heads.
Where the shell is held round, the tangential
shearing stresses vary directly with the sine of the
central angle <P, as shown in Section B-B of Fig. 6-4,
and the maximum occurs at the equator.
However, if the shell is free to deform above the
saddle, the tangential shearing stresses act on a
reduced effective cross section and the maximum
occurs at the horn of the saddle. This is
approximated by assuming the shears continue to
vary as the sin <P but only act on twice the arc given
by (0/2 + ~/20) or (Ti - a) as shown in Section A-A
/
/ of Fig. 6-4. The summation of the vertical
<v.;f components of these assumed shears must equal
" ~'
.;f'
"'.;.:j
,,"
,,<v
e;;-',«
the maximum total shear.
The maximum tangential shear stress will occur on
:<-~
':i ~~
the center side of the saddle provided the saddle is
~<,; beyond the influence of the head but not past the
,,~
,oF
.':i
quarter point of the vessel. Then with saddles away
J
sq. in. is given by
-
'---..1I/ lvG
Sr'l:_
<,
~~
'''Iv
5 = K20 (L - 2A )
2 rt L + 4H
.12 14 16 ,18 .20 .22 24
RATIOA
Values of K2 Iisted in Table 6-1 for various types of
L supports are obtained from the expressions given for
the maximum shears in Fig. 6-4, and the appendix.
Figure 6-4 (f) indicates the total shear diagram for
vessels supported on saddles near the heads. In this
case the head stiffens the shell in the region of the
saddle. This causes most of the tangential shearing
stress to be carried across the saddle to the head,
and then the load is transferred back to the head
side of the saddle by tangential shearing stresses
applied to an arc slightly larger than the contact
angle of the sadd le. Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates
this shear distribution; that is, the shears vary as the
sin <P and act downward above angle a and act
upward below angle a. The summation of the
downward vertical components must balance the
summation of the upward vertical components. Then
with saddles at the heads the maximum shear stress
in lb. per sq. in. is given by
52 = K20
rt
in the shell, or
in the head.
Values of K2 given in Table 6-1 for different size
sadd les at the heads are obtained from the
expression given for the maximum shear stress in
Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 and the appendix.
The tangential shear stress should not exceed 0.8
of the allowable tension stress.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT
HORN OF SADDLE
ln the plane of the sadd le the load must be
transferred from the cylindrical shell to the saddle.
As was pointed out in the previous section the
tangential shears adjust their distribution in order ta
make this transfer with a minimum amount of
circumferential bending and distortion. The
evaluation of these shears was quite empirical
except for the case of the ring stiffener in the plane
of the saddle. Evaluation of the circumferential
bending stresses is even more difficult.
Starting with a ring in the plane of the saddle, the
shear distribution is known. The bending moment at
any point above the saddle may be computed by any
39
 v • 12.0 S"':L.. VIolST Irrc...:

/
1
1
1
.0'
/ .. 150· ...c" UN' '''Chl CO

1 1/
~ 02
.. V/
..
120·
t .0 1

1 o
1)0·

1 o .s
1 1
LI
...110
-.
..!..

Figure 6-7. Plot of circumferential bending-

moment constant, Ka.
Figure 6-6 Circumferential bending-moment
diagram, ring in plane of saddle. near the horn of the saddle. Because of the relatively
short stiff members this transfer reduces the
of the methods of indeterminate structures. If the circumferential bending moment still more.
ring is assumed uniform in cross section and fixed at To introduce the effect of the head the maximum
the horns of the saddles, the moment, M(p, in in.-Ib. moment is taken as
at any point A is given by:
Mp = K30r

M(p = Or
n
{ cos <I> + ~
2
sin <I> _ ~
2
sin 13 +
~
where K3 equals K6 when A/R is greater than 1.
Values of K3 are plotted in Fig. 6-7 using the
assumption that this moment is divided by four when
AIR is less than 0.5.
cos 13 _ .1 (cos <I> - .ê!!:LI3.) x The change in shear distribution also reduces the
2 4 e direct load at the horns of the saddle; this is
9 _ 4 - 6( TY + 2 cos
2
~ ] }
assumed to be 0/4 for shells without added

[ p
Si 13 cos ~ + 1 - 2 ( Si 13
This is shown schematically in Fig. 6-6. Note that ~
must be in radians in the formula.
The maximum moment occurs when <I> = ~.
Substituting ~ for <I> and K6 for the expression in the
brackets divided by n, the maximum circumferential
bending moment in in.-Ib. is
Mp = K60r
When the shell is supported on a saddle and there
is no ring stiffener the shears tend to bunch up near
the horn of the saddle, so that the actual maximum
circumferential bending moment in the shell is
considerably less than Mp, as calculated above for a
ring stiffener in the plane of the saddle. The exact
analysis is not known; however, stresses calculated
on the assumption that a wide width of shell is
effective in resisting the hypothetical moment, Mp,
agree conservatively with the results of strain gage
surveys. It was found that this effective width of shell
should be equal to 4 times the shell radius or equal
to one-half the length of the vessel, whichever is
smaller. It should be kept in mind that use of this
seemingly excessive width of shell ls an artifice
whereby the hypothetical moment M p is made to
render calculated stresses in reasonable accord with
actual stresses.
When the saddles are near the heads, the shears
carry to the head and are then transferred back to
the saddle. Again the shears tend to concentrate
p t stiffeners. However, since this load exists, the
effective width of the shell which resists this direct
load is limited to that portion which is stiffened by
the contact of the saddle. It is assumed that St each
side of the saddle acts with the portion directly over
the saddle. See Appendix B.
Internai pressure stresses do not add directly to
the local bending stresses, because the shell rounds
up under pressure. Therefore the maximum
circumferential combined stress in the shell is
compressive, occurs at the hom of the saddle, and is
due to local bending and direct stress. This
maximum combined stress in lb. per sq. in. is given by
S3 = - 0 - 3K30, if L':?:. 8R
4t(b + 10t) 2t 2
or
S3 = - - 12K3 0 R, if L * < 8R
4t(b + 10t) Lt2
•Note: For multiple supports:
L = Twice the length of portion of shell carried by saddle.
If L ~ BR use 1st formula.
lt seems reasonable to allow this combined stress to
be equal to 1.50 times the tension allowable provided
the compressive strength of the material equals the
tensile strength. In the first place when the region at
the hom of the saddle yields, lt acts as a hinge, and
the upper portion of the shell continues to resist the
loads as a two-hinged arch. There would be Iittle
distortion until a second point near the equator
started to yield. Secondly, if rings are added

40
to reduce this local stress, a local longitudinal
bending stress occurs at the edge of the ring under
pressure." This local stress would be 1.8 times the
design ring stress if the rings were infinitely rigid.
Weld seams in the shell should not be located near
the horn of the saddle where the maximum moment
o
occurs.

EXTERNAL LOADS
.s: - CO)1. CO)" )
cu',,,
Long vessels with very small tir values are . ...\n-8+ $'H~ CO" .. yl ... - a:. ), .. a:CO)O:I

susceptible to distortion from unsymmetrical external _ ......x = ~ ( 1+ ,osa )

loads such as wind. It is assumed that vacuum relief ' - -_ _~ .. f>-·t'+SIN,dCOS08

valves will be provided where required; so it is not

necessary to design against a full vacuum. However,
experience indicates that vessels designed to
withstand 1 lb. per sq. in. external pressure can
successfully resist external loads encountered in
normal service.
Assume the external pressure is 1 lb. per sq. in. in
the formulas used to determine the sloping portion of
the external pressure chart in the current A.S.M.E.
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Then when the vessel
is unstiffened between the heads, the maximum
length in feet between stiffeners (the heads) ls given
approximately by
L + 213H = E Yif( 1)2
52.2 r
When ring stiffeners are added to the vessel at the
supports, the maximum length in feet between
stiffeners is given by
L _ 2A= E Yif( 1)2
52.2 r
ADDITIONAL STRESS IN HEAD
USED AS STIFFENER
When the head stiffness is utilized by placing the
saddle close to the heads, the tangential shear
stresses cause an additional stress in the head
which is additive to the pressure stress. Referring to
Section G-G of Fig. 6-4, it can be seen that the
tangential shearing stresses have horizontal
components which would cause varying horizontal
tension stresses across the entire height of the head
if the head were a fiat disk. The real action in a
Figure 6·8. Loads and reactions on saddles.
This stress should be combined with the stress in
the head due to internai pressure. However, it is
recommended that this combined stress be allowed
to be 25% greater than the allowable tension stress
bec ause of the nature of the stress and because of
the method of analysis.
RING COMPRESSION IN
SHELL OVER SADDLE
Figure 6-8 indicates the sadd le reactions, assuming
the surfaces of the shell and saddle are in
frictionless contact without attachment. The sum of
the assumed tangential shears on both edges of the
saddle at any point A is also shown in Fig. 6-8.
These forces acting on the shell band directly over
the saddle cause ring compression in the shell band.
Since the saddle reactions are radial, they pass
through the center O. Taking moments about point 0
indicates that the ring compression at any point Ais
given by the summation of the tangential shears
between 0. and <1>.
This ring compression is maximum at the bottom,
where <1> = n. Again, a width of shell equal to 5t
each side of the sadd le plus the width of the saddle
is assumed to resist this force. See Appendix B.
Then the stress in lb. per sq. in. due to ring
compression is given by
S5 = 0 ( 1 + cos 0. )
t(b + 1Dt) n - 0. + sin 0. cos 0.

dished head wou Id be a combination of ring action or

and direct stress; however, for simplicity the action S5 = KsO
_.;....;,,0."'--_
on a fiat disk is considered reasonable for design t(b + 1Dt)
purposes.
Assume that the summation of the horizontal The ring compression stress should not exceed
components of the tangential shears is resisted by one-half of the compression yield point of the material.
the vertical cross section of the fiat head at the
center line, and assume that the maximum stress is WEAR PLATES
1.5 times the average stress. Then the maximum The stress may be reduced by attaching a wear
additional stress in the head in lb. per sq. in. is plate somewhat larger than the surface of the saddle
given by to the shell directly over the saddle. The thickness t
2 used in the formulas for the assumed cylindrical shell
S4 =30
-( sin 0. )
thickness may be taken as (t 1 + t2 ) for S5 (where t, :
8rth n - 0. + sin 0. cos 0.
or shell thickness and t2 = wear plate thickness),
S4 = K40 provided the width of the added plate equals at least
rt h (b + 1Dt,) (see Appendix B).

41
 The thickness t may be taken as (t 1 + t2 ) in the
e
formula for S2' provided the plate extends r/10 r1ir: [ ......lL
W.IoI• •
«
101
inches above the horn of the saddle near the head,
and provided the plate extends between the saddle
and an adjacent stiffener ring. (Also check for S2
stress in the shell at the equator.)
The thickness t may be taken as (tt + t2 ) in the
first term of the formula for S3' provided the plate
extends r/10 inches above the horn of the saddle
near the head. However, (tt 2 + ti) should be
substituted for t2 in the second term. The combined
circumferential stress (S3) at the top edge of the
wear plate should also be checked using the shell
plate thickness tt and the width of the wear plate.
When checking at this point, the value of K3 should Figure 6·9. Circumferential bendlnq-rnoment
be reduced by extrapolation in Fig. 6·7 assuming El diagram, stiffeners adjacent to saddle.
equal to the central angle of the wear plate but not
more than the saddle angle plus 12°. shown in Section A-A. Conservatively, the support
may be assumed to be tangential and concentrated
DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS at the horn of the sadd le. This is shown
schematically in Fig. 6-9; the resulting bending-
When the saddles must be located away from the moment diagram is also indicated. This bending
heads and when the shell alone cannot resist the moment in in.-Ib. at any point A above the horn of
circumferential bending, ring stiffeners should be the saddle ls given by
added at or near the supports. Because the size of
rings involved does not warrant further refinement, Mep = Or { ~ - <I> sin <I> -
the formulas developed in this paper assume that the 2nn sin 13
added rings are continuous with a uniform cross cos <I> [3/2 + (n - 13) cot 131 }
section. The ring stiffener must be attached to the
shell, and the portion of the shell reinforced by the For the range of saddle angles considered, MqJ is
stiffener plus a width of shell equal to 5t each side maximum near the equator where <I> = p. This
may be assumed to act with each stiffener. The ring moment and the direct stress may be found using a
radius is assumed equal to r. procedure similar to that used for the stiffener in the
When n stiffeners are added directly over the plane of the saddle. Substituting p for <I> and K6 for
saddle as shown in Fig. 6-4 (c), the tangential shear the expression in the brackets divided by 2n, the
distribution is known. The equation for the resulting maximum moment in each ring adjacent to the
bending moment at any point was developed saddle is given in in.-Ib. by
previously, and the resulting moment diagram is
Mp = K6 Or
shown in Fig. 6-6. The maximum moment occurs at n
the horn of the saddle and is given in in.-Ib. for each
stiffener by Knowing the moments Mp and Mt, the direct load at
p may be found by statics and is given by
MIl -- K6Or
-
n Pp = .Q [ p sin p - cos p] _
nn 2(1 - cos p)
Knowing the maximum moment Mil and the moment
at the top of the vessel, Mt, the direct load at the cos P (Mp + Mt)
point of maximum moment may be found by statics. r(1 - cos p)
Then the direct load at the horn of the saddle is or
given in pounds by
Pp = K7 Q
n PIl = Q [ 13 sin 13 - cos 13 ] + n
n 2(1 - cos 13)
Then the maximum combined stress due to Iiquid
cos 13 (Mil - Mt) load in each ring used to stiffen the shell at or near
r(1 - cos 13) the saddle ls given in lb. per sq. in. by
or S6 = - !5:zQ ± K60r
PIl = K7 Q na nlle
n
where a = the area and Ile = the section modulus
If n stiffeners are added adjacent to the saddle as of the cross section of the composite ring stiffener.
shown in Fig. 6-4 (b), the rings will act together and When a ring is attached to the inside surface of the
each will be loaded with shears distributed as in shell directly over the saddle or to the outside
Section B-B on one side but will be supported on the surface of the shell adjacent to the sadd le, the
saddle side by a shear distribution similar to that maximum combined stress is compression at the

42
shell. However, if the ring is attached to the opposite th thickness of head, in.
surface. the maximum combinee stress may be b = width of saddle, in.
either compression in the outer fiange due to Iiquid F = force across bottom of saddle, lb.
or tension at the shell due to liquid and internai
S1' S2. etc. = calculated stresses, lb. per sq. in.
pressure.
The maximum combined compression stress due K1, K2, etc. = dimensionless constants for various
to Iiquid should not exceed one-half of the support conditions.
compression yield point of the material. The Met>. Mp, etc. =
circumferential bending moment due
maximum combined tension stress due to Iiquid and to tangential shears, in.-Ib.
pressure should not exceed the allowable tension 8 = angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees.
stress of the rnaterial.
~ =( 180 - .!?) = central angle from vertical to
2 horn of saddle, in degrees
DESIGN OF SADDLES (except as noted).
Each sadd le should be rigid enough to prevent the
separation of the horns of the saddle; therefore the
~ = .2E- ( ~ +
180 2
Q)
6
= -1!..- (
58 + 30 ).
180 12
2~ = arc, in
saddle should be designed for a full water load. The
horn of the saddle should be taken at the radians, of unstiffened shell in plane of saddle
intersection of the outer edge of the web with the top effective against bending.
fiange of a steel sadd le. The minimum section at the a = n: - ~ ( .!? + ...ê...) = the central angle, in radians,
low point of either a steel or concrete saddle must 180 2 20
resist a total force, F, in pounds, equal to the from the vertical to the assumed point of
summation of the horizontal components of the maximum shear in unstiffened shell at saddle.
reactions on one-half of the saddle. Then
<t> = any central angle measured from the vertical, in
F =0 [ 1 + cos (3 - 1/2 sin 2 (3 ] = KeO radians.
n: - ~ + sin ~ cos ~ p = central angle from the upper vertical to the point
The effective section resisting this load should be of maximum moment in ring located adjacent to
Iimited to the metal cross section within a distance saddle, in radians.
equal to r/3 below the shell. This cross section E = modulus of elasticity of material, lb. per sq. in.
should be Iimited to the reinforcing steel within the Ile = section modulus, in.3
distance r/3 in concrete saddles. The average stress n = number of stiffeners at each saddle.
should not exceed two-thirds of the tension allowable
a = cross-sectional area of each composite stiffener,
of the mate rial. A low allowable stress is
sq. in.
recommended because the effect of the
circumferential bending in the shell at the horn of the Pp, Pp = the direct load in lb. at the point of
saddle has been neglected. maximum moment in a stiffening ring.
The upper and lower flanges of a steel sadd le
should be designed to resist bending over the Bibliography
web(s), and the web(s) should be stiffened according 1. Schorer, Herman, "Design of Large Pipe
to the A.I.S.C. Specifications against buckling. The Lines," A.S.C.E. Trans., 98, 101 (1933), and
contact area between the shell and concrete saddle discussions of this paper by Boardman, H.C., and
or between the metal saddle and the concrete others.
foundation should be adequate to support the 2. Wilson, Wilbur M., and Oison, Emery D., "Test
bearing loads. of Cylindrical Shells," Univ. III. Bull. No. 331.
Where extreme movements are anticipated or 3. Hartenberg, R.S., "The Strength and Stiffness
where the saddles are weided to the shell, bearings of Thin Cylindrical Shells on Saddle Supports,"
or rockers should be provided at one saddle. Under Doctorate Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1941.
normal conditions a sheet of elastic waterproof 4. Zick, L.P., and Carlson, C.E., "Strain Gage
material at least V4 in. thick between the shell and a Technique Employed in Studying Propane Tank
concrete saddle will suffice. Stresses Under Service Conditions," Steel, 86-88
(Apr. 12, 1948).
Nomenclature 5. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Penstock Analysis
o = load on one saddle, lb. Total load = 20. and Stiffener Design. Boulder Canyon Project Final
Reports, Part V. Technical Investigations, Bulletin 5.
L = tangent length of the vessel, ft.
A = distance from center line of saddle to tangent
line, ft. Appendix
H = depth of head, ft. The formulas developed by outline in the text are
developed mathematically here under headings
R = radius of cylindrical shell, ft.
corresponding to those of the text. The pertinent
r = radius of cylindrical shell, in. assumptions and statements appearing in the text
= thickness of cylindrical shell, in. have not been repeated.

43
Maximum Longitudinal Stress The bending moment in ft.-Ib. at the mid-span is
Referring ta Fig. 6-3, the bending moment in ft.-Ib. at 20 [(L - 2A)2 _ 2HA _ A2 + R2 - H2 ] =
the saddle is L + 4H 8 3 2 4
20 [2HA + A2 _ R2 - H2] = 3
L + 4H 3 2 4
3 OL ( 1 + 2 R2 ~ H2 _ 4 ~ )

OA [1 _ 1- Z+ R2 ~:2
1 + ~
] 4

The section modulus = nr2 t, and

1 + 4H
3L
L

3L
$1 = 3K10L
Referring ta Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 the centroid of nr2 t
the effective arc = r sin /),.. If 0 equals any central
/),. where
angle measured from the bottom, the moment of 1 + 2 R2 L2
- H2 )
~
§:(
inertia is
2r3 t cose 0 - 2 cos 0 Si: /),. + Si~2 /),. ) do =
K1 =
(
---+-4-H-- - 4
3L

2r3t [1/2 sin 0 cos 0 + §. _ 2 sin 0 sin /),. + sin 2/),.

2 /),. /),.2
o]t. =
0
Tangential Shear Stress
Section B-B of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the shears
adjacent ta a stiffener. The summation of the vertical
r3t [sin /),. cos /),. + !:i. - 2 Si~/),. ] components of the shears on each side of the stiffener
must equal the load on the saddle O. Referring ta Fig.
The section rnodulus for the tension side of the 6-4 (d) the sum of the shears on bath sides of the
equivalent beam is stiffener at any point is 0 sin èP/nr. Then the summation
2 of the vertical components ls given by
/),. + sin /),. cos /),. - 2 sin /),. ]
r 2t
~n0 [~
!:i.
[ 2 sin 2 éI> rdéI> = 20 _ sin èP cos èP ] rt = 0
sin /),. - cos 0
/),. ~ o. nr n 2 2 0

Then the stress in the shell at the sadd le in lb. per The maximum shear stress occurs at the equator
sq. in. is given by when sin éI> = 1 and K2 = 1/n = 0.319.
Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the
A R2 - H2
shears in an unstiffened shell. Again this summation
$1 = 30L [
nr2 t
4AL (1 - _- _
l + --=....:=-_)
2AL
X of the vertical components of the shears on each
1 + ~ side of the saddle must equal the load on the
3L saddle. Then the total shear at any point ls

n( Si: /),. - cos /),. ) o

sin éI>

~
r(n - a + sin a cos a)
!'> + sin!'> cos!'> - 2 ] and the summation of the vertical components is
given by
or
2 ~ rr 0 sin 2 éI> rdèP =
~ 0. r(n - 0. + sin 0. cos a)
where
o[
éI> - sin éI> cos èP ]n = 0
n( Si: /),. - cos /),. ) ] n - 0. + sin a cos a a
K, = [ !'> . 2
+ sin /),. cos /),. - 2 sm/),. /),.
X
The maximum shear occurs where èP = a and
K2 = sin a
n - 0. + sin a cos 0.

~ ----=----=-=--) ]
_ ~ + R2 - H2 Section G-G of Fig. 6-4 indicates the shear transfer
L 2AL across the saddle ta the head and back ta the head
[ ( 1 - side of the saddle. Here the summation of the
1 + 4H vertical components of the shears on arc 0. acting
3L downward must equal the summation of the vertical

44
 component of the shears on the lower arc (1t - a) ~ ct> Q sin ct>, rdct>, = _ ~ ct> Q sin ct>2dct>2 =
acting upward. Then ~ cr nt ~ a (1t - a + sin cr cos a)

2 ~a 0 sin 2 ct>, rdct>, =

~0 nt [ O. ] [ cos ct>2 ] ct> =
- 1t - a + sm a cos a cr
2 ~~ 1t _=-:::':"':'--='-'=-_
o sin 2 ct>z [ a sin a cos a
~ + sin a cos a
1rdct> - cos ct> + cos a ]
a 1tr 1t _
o[ n - a + sin a cos a
or The ring compression becomes a maximum in the
20 [ct>, _ sin ct>, cos ct>,] a = shel1 at the bottom of the saddle. Or if ct> = rr this
expression becomes
1t 2 2 0

20 [ a - sin ~ cos a ] [ct>z _ sin ct>z cos ct>2] 1t o[ 1 + cos a ]

1t 1t - a + sm a cos a 2 2 cr 1t - a + sin a cos a
Then
Final1y

9 (a - sin a cos a) = Q (a - sin a cos a) K5 = [ 1 + cos a ]

1t 1t 1t - a + sin a cos a
The maximum shear occurs when ct>z = a and
Design of Ring Stiffeners;
Kz = sin a [ a - sin ~ cos a ]
Stiffener in Plane of Saddle
1t 1t - a + sm a cos a
Referring to Fig. 6-6, the arch above the horns of the
Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle saddlé resists the tangential shear load. Assuming this
See under the heading Design of Ring Stiffeners. arch fixed at the top of the sadd les, the bending moment
may be found using column anal ogy.
Additional Stress in Head Used as Stiffener If the arch is eut at the top, the static moment at any
point A is
Referring to Section C-C of Fig. 6-4, the tangential
shears have horizontal components which cause
tension across the head. The summation of these Ms = Qr ~ <P (sin <P, - sin <P, cos <P, cos <P - sin 2<p , sin <P) d<p,
components on the vertical axis is 1\ ~ 0

~a Q sin ct>, cos ct>, rdct>, - = Or [ _ cos ct>, _ cos ct> sin z ct>, +
~ 0 tir 1t 2

~ 1t Q sin ct>z cos ct>2 [ a - sin Cl; cos a ] rdct>z = ~ sin ct> sin ct> cos ct> _ ct>, sin ct> ] ct> =
~ a tir 1t - a + sm a cos a 2 " 2 0

Q {[ sin z ct>,]cr _ [ cr - sin ~ cos a ] [Sin 2 ct>z]1t} =

rr 2 0 1t - cr + Sin cr cos cr 2 cr ~[ 1 - cos ct> - ~ sin ct> ]
~ ( 1t - a :in:i: a cos a ) Then the MslEI diagram is the load on the analogous
column.
Then assuming this load is resisted by 2rth and that The area of this analogous column is
the maximum stress is 1.5 times the average
a, = 2 ~B .L: dct> = ~
S4 = K40 ~o El El
rt h
where The centroid is sin BIBr, and the moment of inertia

K4 = ~ sin z a
( 1t - a + sin a cos a
)
about the horizontal axis is

Ih = 2 ~ B( cos ct> _ ~ )2 r3 dct> =

Wear Plates ~o B El

_ 2 sin <I> sin ~ + <I> sin2 p] ~ =

The ring compression at any point in the shel1 over
the saddle is given by the summation of the 2r3 [ J... sin <I> cos <I> + J... <I>
El 2 2 ~ ~2 0
tangential shears over the arc = (ct> - a) shawn in
Section A-A or C-C of Fig. 6-4 or in Fig. 6-8. Then
r3 sin B cos B + B _ 2 sin
2
p]
_ ~ ct> 0 sin ct>z (
[
a - sin a cos a ) rdct>z _ B B
~ a nr 1t - a + sm a cos a
45
 VALUES OF ~ wHEN R =H

H/L = .10 sv ç[)- 0> .rtY o3Y ~ .')7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .# .~

H/L =.05
VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVi/1/VYV
H/L = 0

.4 +-+-+-+-t-t-t-t-t-I--I--I--I--t-t<--.-+-~~/~tvr. (.'.::--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+-+--+--+.4
...... ~.!EF'EA
~~. AD~~ -
. 2 +-+-+-+-f--I--I--I--HHHHHHHHHH-+~"-'lo..;..;;o~=-t-l--l--l--+-r
2
-

""",o~~'9 ""'o~ '019 ~o ~ "Y"il ~ ""<e ""~o""~~~"il .~(J

VALUES OF ~ WHEN R = 2H
Figure S·SA. Plot of longitudinal bendlnq-rncrnent constant K 1 •

The load on the analogous column is Or3 [ g sin B cos B + ~ B _ 3 sin2 13 + 13 sin2 13 J
rtEI 4 4 B 2
q = 2 ~ BMs rd<l> = 2Qr2 ~ B( 1 _ cos <1> _ ~ sin <1» d<l>
~0 El rtEI ~ 0 2 Then the indeterminate moment is

q = 20r2 [ <1> _ sin <1> _ sin <1> + <1> cos <1> JoB = Mi = -SL - MJJY. = Or { 213 - 3 sin 13 + P cos 13 -
«e 2 2 U1 Ih rt 2B

Qr2
rtB
[2 B _ 3 sin B + B cos B ] ..r.4r [ 913 sin B13 sin 2
cos P + 3132 - 12 sin 13 + 213 sin p J }
B cos B + B2 - 2 sin B 2
2 2

The moment about the horizontal axis is The distance tram the neutral axis ta point A is

Mh = - 2
~ BM (
~
o El
",in A
cos <1> - ~
B
)
r 2d<l> =
given by Y = (

Finally, the combined moment is given by

COS <1> - si~ 13 ) r
1-'

- Or
3

rtE/ ~ 0
~ B [ 2 cos <1> - 2 cos2 <1> - <1> sin <1> cos <1> -
Mt> = - Ms + Mi = Or
1 cos <1> + <1> sin <1> -
rt 2
si~ 13 (2 - 2 cos <1> - <1> sin <1» J d<l> =
1-' 3 sin 13 + cos 13 - 1/4 ( cos <1> - ~ ) x
3
2 B 2 B
- Or [ 2 sin <1> - cos <1> sin <1> _ <1> _ sin <1> cos <1> +
nB 4 4 - 6 ( siê B )2 + 2 cos2 B

~-
4 2
2
<1> sin <1> _ sin 13 (2<1> - 2sin<1> - sin<1> + <1> cos <1» J P =
P 0
T ~ cos + 1 - 2( T )' .1 }
46
 This is the maximum when <P = ~; then Design of Sadd/es

f ~ sin [3 - ~ cos ~ + ~ ~ + The summation of the horizontal components of the

Mc = Or
TC l 2 4 4 ~
radial reactions on one-half of the saddle shown in
Fig. 6-8 must be resisted by the saddle at <P = n.
Then this horizontal force is given by

cos e_~)I 4 - 6( ~ )2 + 2 cos2~ ]} F = ~ rt O( - cos <P sin <P

~C
+ cos ~ sin <P) rd<P =
r(1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~)
( 4 [3 sin [3 ~cos [3 + 1 _ 2 ( s~n 13 ) 2
o[ - 1/2 sin 2 <P - cos <P cos [3 ]1t =
Finally Mc = KsOr TC - ~ + sin ~ cos ~ ~

Because of the symmetry the shear stress is zero

at the top of the vessel; therefore, the direct load in
o[ 1 + cos [3 - 1/2 sin2 [3 ]
the ring at the top of the vessel, Pt, may be found by
1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~
taking moments on the arc ~ about the horn of the Then Ka = 1 + cos [3 - 1/2 sin 2 [3
saddle. Then 1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~
(1 - cos ~)rPt = C;; [ 1 - cos ~ - %sin ~ ] - (Mc - MJ
The bending at the hom would change the saddle
reaction distribution, and lncrease this horizontal
Pt = Q [ 1 - [3 sin [3 ] - 1 (M - MJ force.
11: 2(1 - cos ~) r(1 - cos B) c
Appendix B
The direct load, Pc, at <P = ~, the point of
maximum moment may be found by taking moments After the article nad been published, certain
about the center. Then refinements seemed desirable; therefore, the
following has been added to take greater advantage
r(Pc + pa = Or (1
TC
- cos ~) - (Mc - MJ of the inherent stiffness of these vessels. The
methods outlined in the paper will give conservative
Substituting the value above for Pt, and solving for Pc results.
gives The effective width of shell has been limited to 10t
in order to prepare the chart of Fig. 6-2. It has been
Pc = Q7( [ 13 sin 13
2(1 - cos ~)
- cos ~ ]+ cos 13 (M - MJ
r(1 - cos B) c
showns that this effective width may be taken as
1.56 .If[ That is, where 5t each side of the saddle or
stiftener has been usee, the more liberal value of
or 0.78 Yrt each side couId be used.
The values plotted in Fig. 6-5 for K, cover
where conservatively ail types of heads between H = 0
and H = R. More Iiberal values are given in Fig.
6-5A for hemispherical and 2 to 1 ellipsoidal heads
K7 = _7(1 [ 13 sin 13 - cos ~ ] + cos 13 (Mc - MJ for values of HIL between 0 and 0.1. The minimum
2(1 - cos ~) Or(1 - cos ~)
values of K, given in Table 6-1 have not been Iisted
for specifie values of RIL and HIL; so they are
If the rings are adjacent to the saddle, Ks and K7
conservative. Specifie minimum values of K, may be
may be found in a similar manner, except that the
read from Fig. 6-5A.
static structure would become the entire ring split at
the top and loaded as indicated in Fig. 6-9.

47
 Part VII
Anchor Boit Chairs
w = weld size (leg dimension), in.

W
hen anchor bolts are required at supports
for a shell, chairs are necessary to W = total load on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
distribute the load to the shell. Smail
tubular colurnns (less than 4 ft in diameter) may be WH = horizontal load, kips per lin. in. of weld
an exception if the base plate is adequate to resist Wv = vertical load, kips per lin. in. of weld
bending. Otherwise, chairs are always needed to e = cone angle, degrees, measured from axis of
minimize secondary bending in the shell. cone
For flat-bottom tanks, choose a boit circle to just
barely clear the bottom without notching it. For other Z = reduction factor
structures, follow the minimum clearances shown in
Fig. 7-1 a. The designer must evaluate anchor boit
location for interference with base or bottom plate. Top Plate
Critical stress in the top plate occurs between the
Notation hole and the free edge of the plate. For convenience
a = top-plate width, in., along shell we can consider this portion of the top plate as a
beam with partially fixed ends, with a portion of the
b = top-plate length, in., in radial direction total anchor boit load distributed along part of the
c = top-plate thickness, in. span. See Fig. 7-2.
d = anchor-bolt diameter, in.
e = anchor-bolt eccentricity, in. S = 1:..2 (0.3759 - 0.22d) (7-1)
fc
emin = 0.886d + 0.572, based on a heavy hex nut
. or
clearing shell by 1/2 in. See Table 7-1
f = distance, in., from outside of top plate to
edge of hole c =[ :f (0.3759 - 0.22d) l" (7-2)
fmin = d/2 + 1/8
9 = distance, in., between vertical plates Top plate may project radially beyond vertical plates
(preferred 9 =d + 1) [Additional distance may as in Fig. 7-1d, but no more than 1/2".
be required for maintenance.]
h = chair height, in.
Chair Height
j = vertical-plate thickness, in.
Chair must be high enough to distribute anchor boit
k = vertical-plate width, in. (average width for load to shell or column without overstressing it. If the
tapered plates) anchor boit were in line with the shell the problem
L = column length, in. would be simple - the difficulty lies in the bending
m = bottom or base plate thickness, in. caused by eccentricity of the anchor boit with respect
to the shell. Except for the case where a continuous
P = design load, kips; or maximum allowable ring is used at the top of chairs, maximum stress
anchor-bolt load or 1.5 times actual boit load, occurs in the vertical direction and is a combination
whichever is less of bending plus direct stress. Formulas which follow
r = least radius of gyration, in. are approximations, based on the work of Bjilaard.
R = nominal shell radius, in., either to inside or
centerline of plate (radius normal to cone at
bottom end for conical shells) S = Pe [ 1.32 Z + .O~ ] (7-3)
t2 1.43 ah 2 + (4ah 2 ) .333 ~., Rt
S = stress at point, ksi Rt
t = shell or column thickness, in.

49
 Table 7-1. Top-Plate Dimensions
Based on anchor-bolt stresses up to 12 ksi for 1V2-in.-dia.
bolts and 15 ksi for bolts 13/4 in. in diameter or larger;
..0 higher anchor boit stresses may be used subject to
designer's decision.

Top Plate Dimensions, in. Boit Load, kips

d f g=d+1 a emin Cmin p
1V2 7~ 2V2 4V2 1.87 0.734 19.4
13/4 1 23/4 43,4 2.09 0.919 32.7
2 11~ 3 5 2.30 1.025 43.1
2% 1114 3% 5% 2.52 1.145 56.6

and where earthquake or winds over 100 mph

(a) Typical Plan & (b) Vertical Column must be considered.
Outside Views or Skirt Maximum recommended chair height h = 3a.

If chair height calculated is excessive, reduce

eccentricity e, if possible, or use more anchor bolts
of a smaller diameter. Another solution is to use a
continuous ring at top of chairs.
If continuous ring is used, check for maximum
stress in circumferential direction, considering the
ring as though it were loaded with equally spaced
concentrated loads equal to Pe/h. Portion of shell
within 16t either side of the attachment may be
counted as part of the ring. (Refer to Fig. 7-3)
Note that the base plate or bottom is also
(c) Flat Bottom Tank (d) Conical Skirt subjected to this same horizontal force, except
inward instead of outward. This is true even if a
continuous ring is not used around the top of the
Figure 7-1. Anchor-Bolt Chairs. chairs - but it should never cause any very high
stresses in the base, so we do not normally check it.
r---'" However, it is a good thing to keep in mind in case
-LI 1
r>.
\.)
1
1
you have a very light base ring.

1 1 Vertical Side Plates

t d / ~ Total lood Be sure top plate does not overhang side plate (as in
uL H Fig. 7-1d) by more than 1/2" radially.

t(~)'-.
Vertical-plate thickness should be at least
jmin = 1/2" or 0.04 (h - c), whichever is greater.
Po,,;oll, Another requirement is jk::::: P/25, where k is the
lJ "J F ixed Ends average width if plate is tapered.
~ These limits assure a maximum Ur of 86.6 and a
maximum average stress in the side plates of .12.5
Figure 7-2. Assumed Top-Plate Beam.

1.0
Where: Z = ------'-:..::..-----
.1~ ( 7 r + 1.0
(7-4)

Maximum recommended stress is 25 ksi. This is a

local stress occurring just above the top of the chair.
Since it diminishes rapidly away from the chair, a
higher than normal stress is justified but an increase
for temporary loads, such as earthquake or wind is
not recommended. The following general guidelines
are recommended. Po -+
h
Minimum chair height h =6", except use h = 12"
when base plate or bottom plate is 3/8" or thinner Figure 7-3. Chair with Continuous Ring at Top.

50
ksi, even assuming no load was transmitted into the
snell through the welds.

Assembly of Chair
For field erected structures, ship either the top plate
or the entire chair loose for installation after the
structure is sitting over the anchor bolts.
Where base plate is welded to skirt or column in
shop, attach side plates in the shop and ship top
plate loose for field assembly. See Fig. 7-4.
Where base or bottom plate is not welded to shell
in the shop, as for ftat-bottorn tanks and single.
pedestal tanks" shop attach side plates to top plates
and then ship the assembly for field installation.
When you do this, weld both sides at top of side
plates- so shrinkage will not pull side plate out of
square. See Fig. 7-5.
Welds between chair and shell must be strong Figure 7·6. Loads on Welds.
enough to transmit load to shell. Y4 Il minimum fillet
welds as shown in Figs. 7-4 and 7-5 are nearly Formulas may also be used for cones, although
always adequate, but you should check them if you this underrates the vertical welds sorne.
have a large anchor boit with a low chair height.
Seal welding may be desired for application in Wv = P (7-5)
corrosive environments. a + 2h
Assume a stress distribution as shown in Fig. 7-6
as though there were a hinge at bottorn of chair. For
WH = Pe (7-6)
ah + 0.667h 2
the purpose of figuring weld slze, the base or bottom
plate is assumed to take horizontal thrust only, not
moment.
W = v~ + ~ (7-7)
Note that loads are in terms of kips per inch of For an allowable stress of 13.6 ksi on a fillet weld,
weld length, not in terms of kips per square inch the allowable load per lin. in. is 13.6 x 0.707 = 9.6
stress. Critical stress occurs across the top of the kips per in. of weld size. For weld size w, in., the
chair. The total load per inch on the weld is the allowable load therefore is
resultant of the vertical and horizontal loads.
9.6w ~ W (7-8)

Design References
H. Bednar, "Pressure Vessel Design Handbook",
1981, pp. 72-93.
M.S. Troitsky, "Tubular Steel Structures", 1982, pp.
5-10 - 5-16.
P.P. Bjilaard, "Stresses From Local Loadings ln
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," ASME
Transactions, Vol. 77, No. 6, 1955.
P. Buthod, "Pressure Vessel Handbook," 7th
Edition, pp. 75-82.

Figure 7·4. Typical Welding,

Base Plate Shop Attached.

-li1-
16

Figure 7·5. Typical Welding,

Base or Bottom Field Attached.

51
Part VIII
Design of Fillet Welds - - - - - - - -
esign of butt welds is closely controlled by following:

D weld details and joint efficiencies clearly

specified in various codes and specifications.
Design of fillet welds, however, is not so clearly
outlined. The following pages are intended to fill the
gap. While referring to the following pages and
designing fillet welds, the designer is encouraged to
keep in mind actual shop and field welding practice
and the quality of fillet welds that can consistently be
expected. The size and length of the weld as weil as
the allowable stresses used in their design should
reflect the actual shop and field welding and not
necessarily the value used here.
Size of an equal-Ieg fillet weld is the leg width W
of the largest 45 ° right triangle which fits in its cross
section. They are referred to by their leg sizes, such
as a 1/4 in. fillet weld.
1. Use of 45° (equal leg) fillet welds whenever
possible
2. Minimum size of fillet
3. Lower cost of down welding position
4. Locate weld to eliminate eccentricity
5. Balanced welds to control distortion
6. Avoid locating welds in highly stressed areas
7. Readily accessible
Use the smallest size of fillet permitted (see Fillet
Weld Limitations). Flat fillets 5/16" and smaller are
normally made in one pass and are more economical
than larger fillets. Generally, the fillet with the least
cross-sectional area is the most economical.
Increasing the size of a fillet weld from 1/4" to 3/8"
more than doubles the amount of filler metal, but the
strength only increases 50%. A gap also requires
additional filler metal.

Figure 8·1. Fillet·Weld Sizes (Leg Dimensions).

Size of an unequal length fillet weld is described 4 iriongle 9 triangle 13 triangle
by the leg lengths of the largest right triangle which yolumes ve lume s yolumes
fits in its cross section, such as a 3/8" by 1/2" fillet Figure 8·2. Volumes of t-In, Long Welds.
weld.
The strength of a fillet weld is assumed to equal Flat welding position is the most economical and
the allowable shearing stress times the throat area of overhead the least. For example, the relative costs of
the weld. The throat area of a weld is the length of 3/8" fillets for different positions are:
weld times the theoretical throat distance, which ls
the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the lap fiat 100%
theoretical weld's surface. fiat fillet 110%
Sorne codes, however, define the throat distance vertical fillet 240%
differently. overhead fillet 250%
AWWA defines the throat as .707 times the length The costs can vary according to weld procedure
of the shorter leg of the fillet weld. used.
AiSe distinguishes between welding processes to Specify shop welding whenever practical. The
be used when determining throat distances (e.g. fitted-up material can normally be repositioned easier
AiSe 1.14.6.2). The designer should check to see in the shop.
what code, if any, applies to the work.
ln these papers, however, the fillet weld throat Types of Fillet Welded Joints
dimension for an equal-leq fillet is assumed to be the
leg length times 0.707 (Le. cos 45°).
Single·fillet welded joints
Strength depends on size of fillet.
Economy of Welding Do not use when tension due to bending is
Economical design of fillet welds includes the concentrated at root of weld.

53
 00 not use for fatigue or impact loading.
Oifficult to control distortion.
Figure 8·3. Types of Single Fillet Welds.
Douote-tilie: welded joints
Used for static loads.
Economical when fillet size is 1/2" or less.
Lap joint maximum strength in tension when length
of lap equals at least 5 times the thickness of thinner
material.
Figure 8·4. Types of Double Fillet Welds.
Double-fil/et welded corner joint
Complete penetration and fusion.
Used for ail types of loads.
Economical on moderate thickness.
Figure 8·5. Corner Joint.
Welds transmit forces from one member to
another. They may be named according to the
direction of the applied forces.
Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to their
axis. Fillet weld throat is stressed only in shear.
Parallel welds may also be called longitudinal welds.
Figure 8·6. Parallel Weld.
Transverse welds have forces applied at right
angles to their axis. Fillet weld throat has both shear
and normal (tensile or compressive) stresses.
Transverse welds are about 33% stronger than
parallel welds.
Figure 8·7. Transverse Weld.
54
Allowable Loads on Fillet Welds
Stress in a fillet weld is assumed as shear on the
throat area, for any direction of applied load.
Many codes express the allowable shear stress for
fillet welds in psi on the throat area. It is more
convenient, however, to express the strength of fillet
welds as allowable load t, kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet.
The following formula may be used to convert
allowable shear stress on throat area to allowable
load for 1" fillet with equal leg lengths:
f = 0.707 x allowable shear stress, ksi (8-1)
Since transverse welds are stronger than parallel
(or longitudinal) welds some codes permit different
allowable stresses for them. API 620 6th Edition and
AWWA 0100-84 are two codes that have different
allowable stresses for the two types of welds. API
650 8th Edition and AISC 9th Edition, however, make
no distinction between transverse welds and parallel
welds and use the same allowable stress for both.
The designer is cautioned to check which code
applies to the work at hand as weil as the most
recent edition of the code to see if their approach to
these types of stresses has changed.
ln the following pages, however, for the sake of
completeness, a distinction will be made between the
two types of stresses, fp and ft.
When a joint has only transverse forces applied to
the weld, use the allowable transverse load ft. If only
parallel forces are applied to the weld, use the
allowable parallel load fp . If one of the forces is
parallel and the other forces are transverse, use the
allowable transverse load when the resultant force is
found from Eq. 8-3.
New specifications on allowable stress for fillet
welds are given in Section 8 of the latest revision of
AWS Structural Welding Code, 01.1.
Current AISC specifications also refer to:
1. allowable stress at weld for both weld metal and
base metal
2. minimum length of fillet weld
3. minimum size of fillet weld
4. maximum size of fillet weld
5. end returns or "boxing of welds"
6. spacing of welds
7. fatigue loading of welds
Notation
A = cross-section area, sq. in., of member
transmitting load to weld
A w = length, in., of weld
b = length, in., of horizontal weld
C = distance, in., from neutral axis to outer parallel
surface or outer point
Ch = horizontal component of c, in.
Cv = vertical component of c, in.
d = depth, in., of vertical weld
f = allowable load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in.
per in. of weld size
fb = bending stress, ksi Fillet weld size w, in., is found by dividing the
fp = allowable parallel load on fillet weld, kips per force W, kips per Iineal inch, on the weld by the
lin. in. per in. of weld size allowable load f (kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet) for the
weld.
ft = allowable transverse load on fillet weld, kips
W=W (8-2)
per lin. in. per in. of weld size f
fto = torsional stress, ksi
Table 8-1. Formulas for Force on Weld
1 = moment of inertia, in. 4 , of member transmitting
load to weld or of weld subjected to torque Common
Design Formula for
10 = moment of inertia about 0 axis, in. 4 Type of Loading I:ormulas for Force on Weld
lx = moment of inertia about x axis, in.4 . Stress, psi K/Kips per ln.
1y = moment of inertia about y axis, in. 4

Iii
J = polar moment of inertia, in. 4 , of member
transmitting load to weld Tonsion or p p
J w = polar moment of inertia, in. 3 , of weld Iines
W -A"
Compr 0 S 5 i on A w
subjected to torque
L = column length, in.
M = bending moment, in.-kips
n = number of plate sides welded or number of

®
Vertical y
welds loaded V
W--
Shocr A s~
P = allowable concentrated axial load, kips
Q = statical moment of area, in. 3 , above or below a
point in cross section, about neutral axis
r = least radius of gyration, in. ../1

~)
S = section rnodulus, in. 3 , of member transmitting M M
load to weld or of weld subjected to moment Bending Wb--
S Sw
Sw = section modulus, in. 2 , of weld Iines subjected
to bending moment
= plate thickness, in., or thickness, in., of
thinnest plate at weld
T = torque, in.-kips

~\
Tc W _ Tc
Torsion
V = vertical shear, kips T t Jw
w = fillet weld size (leg dimension), in.
W = total load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
V c

Wb = bending force on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wh = horizontal component of torsional force on
weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wq = longitudinal shear on fillet weld, kips per lin.
in. of weld
Ws = average vertical shear on fillet weld, kips per
lin. in. of weld
Wsa = actual shear on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of
weld
Wt = torsional load on fil let weld, kips per lin. in. of
weld
Wv = vertical component of torsional force on weld,
kips per lin. in.
x = distance from y axis to vertical weld
y = distance from x axis to horizontal weld
Combined Loads on Welds
lt is necessary to designate the size and length of
fillet welds. Since neither are known, it is usually
simpler to assume the length and then calculate the
size.
~
Longi~udinal
YQ YQ
Wq --;;1
-tl
Shocr
Force W on a weld depends on the loading and
shape of the weld outline. Table 8-1 shows the basic
formulas for determining weld forces for various
types of loads.
Combining forces: There may be more than one
force on the weld, such as bending force and shear
force. It is usually easier to determine each force
independently and then combine vectorially to obtain
a resultant force. Ali forces which are vectorially
added must occur at the same position in the weld.
Be sure to find the position on the welded
connection where the combination of forces will be
maximum.
To simplify calculations increase parallel forces by
the ratio ft/fp before combining to account for the
lower allowable parallel shear stress specified by
some codes.

55
 w =~ =~ = 0.25" Use 1/4" fillet
f 9.6

Weld volume = (1/4)2 x 12.5 = 0.39 cu. in.

2

Try A w2 = 5 + 5 = 10"
W2 = - P = -30- = 30
. k'IpS per l"ln. In.
A w2 10

W2 = ~ = ..1.JL = 0.312" Use 5/16" fillet

f 9.6
Figure 8·8. Forces on Weld Combined.
Weld volume = (5/16)2 x 10 = 0.49 cu in.
Ta determine the resultant force for combined 2
forces, use Eq. 8-3. If only two forces exist, use 0 for
one force. Use 1/4" fillet on three sides because of less weld
volume. Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).
W = v'W1 2 + W22 + [ W3 (ft/fp )]2 (8-3)
Shear load is considered uniformly distributed
Refer ta Fig. 8-8 for explanation of W 1 , W 2, and W 3 • over the length of weld. Force formula Ws = V/Aw
The total force shall be determined in accordance fram Table 8-1 gives average shear force. Use
with the applicable code. average shear force when combining with bending
force or torslonal force. However, if the average
Simple tension or compression loads: The force W, shear force about equals or exceeds the bending or
kips per inch of weld, is the load P divided by the torsional force, determine the actual shear force
length A w of weld. As shawn in Table 8-1 the tensile distribution ta aid in locating the maximum combined
or compressive force on a weld is: force.
The actual shear force per weld at any point can
W=_P- (8-4) be determined from:
Aw
Wsa = VQ (8-5)
With this force W, the required fillet weld is nI
calculated from Eq. 8-2.
For example, the average shear force and actual
Example: Find size of fillet welds for the shear force distribution are compared for a
connection shawn in Fig. 8-9. Assume A w = 5 + 5 rectangular member in Fig. 8-10.
+ 2V2 = 12V2", max
ahear
t W force
1 r:2 "1 ~ ~

{-~;':1-'
aectlon
av; actual
ahear ahear
thru member
30,000 Iba at weld
force force
Figure 8·9. Tension-Mernber connecttcnt. c1la;ram dlagram

Figure 8·10. Shear Distribution at Welds.

Referring ta API 650 the allowable basic shearing
stress of an E60 electrode fillet weld is 13.6 ksi.
f = (.707)(13.6 ksi)(1 inch weld) = 9.6 kips/inch/1
Average shear force Ws =~ =~ (8-6)
Aw 2d
inch weld
VQ tQ
W = .-E- = ~ = 2.4 kips per lin. in. Wsaat1 = VQ = 2 4 = 3V = 1.5Ws (8-7)
Aw 12.5
nI 2 (~~) 4d
Wsa at 2 = VQ = ~ =0 (8-8)
nI nI
lAISC for E60 electrodes would give f = (.707)(.3)(60) = 12.7 ksi
shear stress with max shear stress on base metal of .4 yield of Bending or torsional load may be applied ta the
base metal. same weld outline.

56
 Table 8·2. Properties of Weld Outlines
(Treated as a Line)

r Outline of
Welded Joint
Bending
(about x-x axi s)
Torsion

d1
Bending and Torsional Weld outline
d8-- x
SW a
6 in . 1
-
.
ln.
l

shear load and shear load ~ d(3b 1 + d 1 )

on a weld on a weld

Figure 8·11. Moment and Torque on Weld.

d[f-+x Jwa 6

ln the figure with the bending load, the weld must

transfer the same stress as in the member at the
connection. This stress can be determined using the
cornmon formula for bending stress.

(8-9)

ln the connection with the torsional load, the weld

wants to rotate or twist about the center of gravity of
the weld group. The stress in the weld can be found
from:
- Tc
fto - - (8-10)
J

However, before using these formulas, it is

necessary to determine the section modulus S or
polar moment of inertia J of the weld without
knowing its width (size). A simple way to determine
the section modulus or polar moment of inertia of the J • (b +d)l
weld is to treat the weld as a line. The property, w 6
such as section modulus S, of any thin area is equal
to the property of the section when treated as a line
dEB-x
1
S a_
17d 1 J a 17d
Sw times its thickness w. W 4 W 4

(8-11 ) Revised and expanded outline properties given in Lincoln Electric pub,
lication 0810.17. Solutions to Design of Weldments. p. 3.
The common formula for bending stress can now
be used to find the bending force on the weld.

Wb = Mw = M (8-12) Bending and shear forces on a welded connection

S s; are combined vectorially after determining each force
independently from Eqs. 8-12 and 8-6. Determine the
Properties of sections treated as Iines for typical combined force Won the weld using Eq. 8-3. Make
weld outlines are shown in Table 8-2. The method sure you have found the position on the welded
for determining these properties is given later. connection where the combination of forces will be
When designing welds using the line method, maximum. See Fig. 8-10 for shear force distribution.
select the weld outline with care. Several Calculate the required weld size from Eq. 8-2.
combinations of line welds will produce the required
property Sw or Jw ' However, select the weld outline
where the weld distribution is consistent with the
load distribution in the member at the connection.
For non-circular members (such as beams, channels,
etc.) resisting torsion loads, transverse forces on the
weld are present in addition to parallel forces
computed from Tc/Jw. These transverse forces are
the result of the non-circuler cross section warping
and should not be neglected. Fig~Jre 8·12. Bending and Vertical Shear on Welds.

57
 Example: Find size of fillet weld on clip
loaded as shown in Fig. 8-13.
Use ft =
8.9 kips per lin. in.
4k and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in.
from API 620. Assume length
of fillet =
10" (5" each side)
[EN (a)
Ch

SI'{ from Table 8-2

.
= cJ2 = 52 =
3
M
3
8.33 sq. in.

4 x 3
:~'Wh
v
cg
W
v
Bendmg force Wb = - = -- (c)
SI'{ 8.33
= 1.44 kips per lin. in. Figure 8·14. Torque and Shear on Welds.
Avg shear force Ws V = -4
=-
AI'{ 10 The horizontal torsion al force component is
= .40 kips per lin. in.
Wh = § (8-14)
JI'{

The vertical torsional force component is

Figure 8·13. Loaded Clip. w, = fu (8-15)

JI'{
ft = (.707) (12.6 ksi) (1 inch weld) = 8.9 kips/inch/1 inch weld
fp = (.707) (9.0 ksi) (1 inch weld) = 6.4 kips/inch/1 inch weld
Equation 8-3 can now be used to find the resultant
force on the weld. Increase the forces parallel to the
weld at the point considered by ft/fp before
Resultant force W =
yWb2 + [ Ws ( t )r combining.
The required fillet size is calculated from Eq. 8-2.

= Y1.44 2
+ [0.40 ( ~::) r 3"
Example: Find fillet size for connection
3*" Sk shown in Fig. 8-15.

Use ft = fp = 9.6 kips per

= 1.544 kips per lin. in. lin. in.

Fillet size w = W = 1.544 = .173"

ft 8.9
Use 3,/16" fillet (a) w

Note that the designer is still cautioned to check the Ch

shear capacity of the plate.
G9
h~u>l
Wh
Torsional and shear forces on a welded connection
are combined vectorially after determining each force
independently from Eq. 8-6 and the torsion al force
formula
cg

-l- x (c)
(11
Wv
1

(b)
Wt = Tc (8-13) Figure 8·15. Loaded Bracket.
JI'{
From Table 8-2,
Maximum torsional force occurs at the most distant
weld fiber measured from the center of gravity of the x = b2 32
_ _--='---_ = 0.75"
weld outline. This distance to the outer fiber is c in 2b + d 2 x 3 + 6
Eq. 8-13.
The direction of the torsional force Wt may be JI'{ = (2b + d)3 _ b2 (b + d)2
other than horizontal or vertical. By resolving the
torsional force into vertical and horizontal 12 2b + d
components, the problem of combining forces is
simplified. Resolve the torsional force into = (2 x 3 + 6)3 _ 3 2 (3 + 6)2 = 83.25 in. 3
components by using the horizontal and vertical 12 2 x 3 + 6
components of dimension c as indicated by Eqs.
8-14 and 8-15.

58
 Find components of maximum torsional force at 1.

Cv =

Ch =3
3"

- x = 2.25" T
By Eq. 8-14, the horizontal component of torsional Figure 8-16. Examples of Built-up Members.
force is
Longitudinal shear force at any position along the
Wh = I.s. length of beam is calculated from
Jw
= 5(3.75 + 2.25) (3) Wq = VQ (8-16)
83.25 nI

= 1.08 kips per lin. in. Longitudinal shear force may vary along the length
of the beam. The vertical shear diagram for the
NOTE: .(3.75 + 2.25) is the distance from the point beam can be used as a picture of the amount and
load to the centroid of the weld. location of welds between flange and web.

By Eq. 8-15, the vertical component of torsional

force is fI! III! 11111\
w, = T.2.a Beaml Bec:m 2 Boam 3
Jw
= 5(3.75 + 2.25)(2.25)
83.25

= 0.810 kips per lin. in. Figure 8-17. Shear in Beams.

Find average vertical shear force:
Ws =~ = 5 required in this portion. When there is a difference in
Aw 3 + 6 + 3
= 0.416 kips per lin. in.
Combine forces using Eq. 8-3.
W = Y(0.810 + 0.416)2 + [ 1.08 (
= 1.635 kips per lin. in.
Calculate weld size using Eq. 8-2.
w = W = 1.635 = 0.17"
f 9.6
Use 3/16" fillet.
Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).
Welds in Buïlt-up Members
Built-up members subject to bending:
Welds attaching the flange to the web are stressed
in longitudinal shear and must be adequate to
transfer the calculated longitudinal shear force.
• Note that il we nad been using API 620 where ft = 8.9 kips per
Notice there is no shear in the middle portion of
beams 1 and 2; therefore, little or no welding is
shear along the length of beam, as in beam 3, the
welding could vary in this same ratio along the
length of beam. This is why continuous welding is
sometimes used at the ends of beams and reduced
size or intermittent fillet welds used throughout the
rest of the beam.
::~ )] 2*
Built-up members subject to axial compression:
Welds joining the component parts of a built-up
compression member, such as a cone roof tank
column, are also stressed in longitudinal shear.
Determine this longitudinal shear force Wq from Eq.
8-16 using the shear V at any position along the
member as given by Eq. 8-17 or 8-18.
V = 0.02P for Ur> 60 (8-17)
V = 0.01P for Ur <: 60 (8-18)
Aiso at each end of a built-up compression
member, use a total length of continuous fillet weld
equal to the maximum width or depth of the member
or 4", whichever is greater.
Fillet weld size at any position along the beam or
column is determined from Eq. 8-2 with the
longitudinal shear force Wq at the same position.
w = W =~ (8-19)

r
lin. in. and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in.• this equation would be
f fp
w= y(.810 + .416)2 + [ 1.08 ( ~:: )
59
 Table 8-3. Length and Spacing of Intermittent Welds Maximum clear space between intermittent fillet
Continuous Length of Intermittent Welds and welds depends on the component parts of the built-up
Welds % Distance Between Centers, ln. member. The clear space between welds must be close
enough to prevent local buckling of the component
60 1 3·5 parts when the loading develops the full strength of the
57 4·7 built-up member.
50 2·4 3·6 4-8
44 4·9 Example: Find size and spacing of fillet weld
43 3-7 joining plate and angle of built-up member shown in
Fig. 8-19. Use ft = 8.9 kips per lin. in., fp = 6.4 kips
40 2-5 4-10 per lin. in.
37 3·8
33 2-6 3-9 4-12 0.170 kips oer ft 6" 3"

~
30 3·10 r---"1J16"
0.612"+:-~1"
25 2-8 3-12 1.575"L~
20 2-10 7.33' 2"xlV,"x3/16"
16 2-12 fIItr-r.- 0.17 (7 .33)
'<tlQ(j].1 y - 2
sheor diogrom
Use intermittent fillet welds when the calculated • 0.623 kips
leg size is smaller than the minimum specified in Figure 8-19. Plate Girder.
Table 8-5. The calculated size divided by the actual
size used, expressed in percent, gives the length of Shear diagram for beam shows that welding for
weld to use per unit length: longitudinal shear could be reduced in center portion
% = calculated le9 size (continuous) x 100 (8-20) of beam. Because the vertical shear is small, design
actual leg size (intermittent) the welds for maximum shear throughout the length
of beam.
Intermittent weld lengths and distances between The longitudinal shear force is

rJ va
centers for given percentages of continuous welds W = = 0.623(0.1875)6(0.518)
are shown in Table 8-3. q nI 1(1.094)

b -6 'b
12" 12"
W 2-12 ~
6" 6"
1
12"
= 0.332 kips per lin. in.

.t
~I.o,\-2"
! m ••
2" j 2 «: 1-2: ' The continuous weld size required is
spoc. w -12 i-fcleo' spoc:.
w = ~ = 0.332 = .052
Figure 8-18. Spacing of Intermittent Welds. fp 6.4
Minimum length of fillets for intermittent welds is 2" (Use fp because longitudinal shear force is parallel
or 4w, whichever is greater. Selecting the longest fillet to weld.)
possible is usually the most economical. However, do
not exceed the maximum c1ear space between fillets in Minimum size fillet from Table 8-5 is 3/16".
Table 8·4.
% continuous weld = 0.052 x 100 = 27.7%
0.1875
Table 8-4. Maximum Clear Space
Between Intermittent Fillet Welds Minimum length fillet permitted for intermittent
(Carbon Steel Bullt-up Members) welds is 2".
Maximum clear space between fillets is, from
plate flange 24t (12" max)* Table 8-4, 22 x 3/16 = 4.1".
Tension rolled shape 24" Maximum spacing with 2" fillet = 2" + 4.1" =
fiange 6.1".
Use 2" - 6" intermittent fillet on one side. This
provides 33% (Table 8-3) continuous weld which is
plate fiange 22t (12" max)* more than adequate to transfer the calculated
Compression rolled shape 24" longitudinal shear.
flange
Fillet Weld Limitations
"Many ot the built-up members we use have an assumed tlange. This Minimum size fillet: The calculated weld size may
tlange, usually part ot a root, bottorn or shell, may be partially
restrained trom local buckling when the maximum Joad is applied.
be small. To eliminate cracks resulting from rapid
When the buitt-up member has restraint on the tJange, the clear space cooling, it is best not to put too smail a fillet on a
between tillet welds could be increased to about 321 maximum. thick plate. Follow Table 8·5 for minimum sizes.

60
 Table 8·5. MinimumSize Fillets From handbook,

When w is small, let ly = 0

Thickness 1 Minimum Leg Size
Of Fillet 2 J =~ + ~ = wd3 + 0
! 12
i ::;: 1/2" 3/16" Treated as a line, then
1 ::;: 3/4" 1/4"3
s; = ~ = si:.. (8-22)
! > 3/4" 1/4"3.4
w 12
"Thlckness of thicker part to be joined.
From handbook, for a horizontal
2Leg size of fillet need not exceed thickness of thinner part to be w3b
joined. weld, lo = -
3A minimum fillet of 3/16" is acceptable provided 200°F preheat
12
or surface examination of the weld (PT,MT) is performed.
lx = 10 + Ay2 = 0 + wby2
4AWS 01.1-82 or AiSe require a minimum 5/6" fillet.
o
..1
Maximum size fillet for strength welds: l"
1 w

~d""PI'"
" -1--" S = lx -:- y = wby

~
d g •. of rolled
section
,
y
Figure 8·22. Horizontal Weld.
t

max fil let • t max fil let • t Treated as a line, then

Figure 8·20. Weld Size Limited to Plate Thickness. Sw = ~ = by about x axis (8-23)
w
Minimum length of fillets for strength welds:
1112" or 4w, whichever is greater From handbook
(Use 2" or 4w for intermittent welds)
1 _ Wb3
Spacing of Fillet Welds: y -1"2
1. When bars or plates are connected only by a
-wb
3
set of parallel longitudinal fillets, the length of J = lx + ly = wby2 +
those welds should not be less than the 12
perpendicular distance between those two
welds. Treated as a line, then
2. When fillet welds are used for end connections, b3
the distance between them must not be greater J w = -J = by2 +- (8-24)
than 8 inches unless transverse bending is W 12
otherwise prevented.
By adding the properties of the two basic Iines in
Determining Weld Outline Properties Figs. 8·21 and 8-22, properties for other straight line
Properties Sw and J w of a weld outline when treated outlines may be determined. For example, find Sw
as a line are nearly equal to the section modulus or and J w for the outline in Fig. 8-23:
polar moment of inertia divided by the width w of the
weld. When w is small, say 10% of d, the error is
usually less than 1%.
The properties Sw and J w in Table 8-2 are
determined as follows:
From handbook
lx = wd3
12
S = lx -:- ft. = wd2
2 6
Treated as a line by dividing by w,
then

y
Sw = -S = -d2 about x aXIs
w 6
. (8·21 ) Il ][
Figure 8·21. Vertical Weld. Figure 8·23. Combination of Welds.

61
 3
lx = 2 wd + 2 (Wby2) = wd3 + 2wby2 Cautionary Note
12 6
Some designers and engineers are not aware of a
When y = s, form of cracking called lamellar tearing, which can
occur beneath highly stressed T-joints in steel plate.
2
Plate forced to deform plastically in the thru-
lx = wd3 + wbd2 = wd2 (d + 3b) thickness direction by welds which are large, multi-
626 passed, and highly restrained can decohere at a
plane of microscopie inclusions. A crack may then
Wb3 _ wb 3
l y -- 0 + 2 - progress from plane-tc-plane in a terrace-Ilke fashion.
--
12 6 While lamellar tearing is not frequent, even one
incident has the potential of becoming a serious
s; = ( lx ) ~ = 2wd2 (d + 3b) problem. Since there are means to minimize the
w d 6wd hazard, it behooves the engineer to take every
2 precaution by optimizing joint design and welding
= d + bd about x axis (8-25) procedure selection. Where these factors cannot be
3
controlled, it may be necessary to use special steels.
Jw = .:L = ~ = wd2 (d + 3b) + Wb3 The reader is referred to the following sources for
w w 6w guidance in designing against lamellar tearing:
1. Engineering Journal, Third Quarter, 1973, Vol.
= b3 + 3bd 2 + d3 (8-26) 10, No. 3, pages 61-73. American Institute of
6 Steel Construction, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, New York 10020
2. Bibliography on Lamellar Tearing, Welding
Research Council Bulletin 232. Welding
Research Council, 345 East Forty-Seventh
Street, New York, New York 10017

62
 Part IX
Inspection and Testing
of Welded Vessels - - - - - - - -__
treatise on the subject of defects in welded
A vessels and their detection is beyond the
scope of this work. But an acquaintance with
some of the available inspection and testing tools
may serve to dispel the mystery of unfamiliar terms.
ln the interest of economy, the refinement of
inspection and testing must be in tune with the
degree of perfection necessary for various classes of
work. For example, a pressure vessel storing a lethal
. substance, or one constructed of a special material
known to be crack sensitive, may require as a
minimum that 100% of ail main joints be
radiographed. On the other hand, simple structures
such as oil and water tanks, constructed of readily
weldable materials, usually require only spot
examination. In general, it is safe and wise to follow
the inspection requirements of the applicable codes.
First, let us distinguish between hydrostatic or
overload testing to demonstrate strength or Iiquid
tightness, and inspection to determine weld quality.
Testing for Strength and Tightness
Required overioad tests are clearly outlined in the
various governing codes. Whenever the structure
itself, its supports, and foundation conditions will
permit, the overload test is usuallyhydrostatic, l.e.,
the structure is full of water when the overload, if
any, is applied.
For the water and oil tanks of Volume 1, no
overload can be applied other than that inherent in
any difference between the specific gravity of water
and that of the product to be stored in service. The
normal cone roof will withstand pressures only
slightly greater than the weight of the roof plates. It
will not withstand hydrostatic pressure due to
overfilling. Hence, the water test level is Iimited to
the top capacity line.
The testing of the fiat bottom, however, may
warrant brief comment. The Iiquid tightness of a fiat
bottom is usually demonstrated by means of a soap
bubble test. A soapy liquid is brushed on the weld
and a small differential positive pressure created on
the opposite side of the plate. Leaks in the weld will
be indicated by bubbles as the air passes through
the leak. Since the bottom of a tank is inaccessible
from the underside, the differential pressure
63
necessary for the test is accomplished by means of
a vacuum box placed on the top side. This box has
a glass top and is open on the bottom. The portion
of the weld to be inspected is brushed with a soapy
solution, the box is fitted over it, and a vacuum
created in the box. The weld is inspected through
the glass top for leak-indicating bubbles.
Inspection for Weld Quality
Prior to the beginning of any welding, weld qualification
and welder certification tests should be performed.
These tests insure that the type of welds proposed
are adequate for the application and that the workers
proposed to be used are capable of applying the
required welds.
VISUAL INSPECTION is usually the first stage in
the inspection of a finished weld, regardless of any
other tool that may be employed. Visual inspection
can determine conformity with specifications as to
dimensional accuracy, extent, etc. lt can also reveal
noticeable surface flaws, such as obvious cracks,
surface porosity, undercutting of parent metal, etc. In
some types of work, visual inspection is the only
inspection performed; e.g., welds subjected only to
compression as in a tubular column, or low-stressed
fillet welds. But for most important structures, further
inspection ls usually required for the main joints, on
which the strength of the structure depends. Some of
the more commonly used methods are described below.
RADIOGRAPHY is an inspection method that
shows the presence and nature of macroscopic
defects or other discontinuities in the interior of
welds. Just as in the case of medical X-rays with
which we are ail familiar, radiography utilizes the
ability of X-rays or gamma rays to penetrate objects
opaque to ordinary Iight. Radiograph films can reveal
slag (non-metallic) inclusions, porosity or gas
pockets, cracks, lack of fusion, inadequate
penetration, and even surface defects, such as
undercut. However, welds are rarely perfectly free of
ail miner defects nor do they need to be. As a result,
the inspector must have a good background of
experience in reading films, and a knowledge of
standards. The various construction codes, such as
AWS and ASME, define limits of acceptability.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION is an aid to
 visual inspection for surface defects too fine to be
detected by the naked eye, plus those that lie slightly
below the surface. With special equipment, more
deeply seated discontinuities can be detected. The
method is applicable only to magnetic materials. It
will not function on non-magnetic materials such as
the austenitic stainless steels.
The basic principle involved is as follows: When a
magnetic field is established in a ferro magnetic
material containing one or more discontinuities in the
path of the magnetic flux, minute poles are set up at
the discontinuities. These poles have a stronger
attraction for magnetic particles than the surrounding
surface of material.
Normally the area to be inspected is magnetized
between two "prods" by introducing high amperage
current or some other convenient means. Then the
area is covered with a powder of finely divided
magnetic particles. These form a visible pattern of
any discontinuity due to the stronger attraction at
those points.
UOUID PENETRANT INSPECTION is another
method for detecting surface discontinuities too small
to be readily seen by the naked eye. lt is particularly
useful on non-magnetic materials where the
magnetic particle method is ineffective.
The method utilizes Iiquids with unusual
penetrating qualities, which, when applied to a
previously cleaned surface, will penetrate ail surface
discontinuities. The surface is then cleaned of ail
excess penetrant and a developer applied. Penetrant
that has entered a crack or other discontinuity will
seep out, make contact with the developer and
indicate the outline of the defect.
There are two principal types of penetrant used.
64
When a FLUORESCENT PENETRANT is used, the
indications will fluoresce when exposed to near ultra
violet or black Iight. DYE PENETRANT utilizes visible
instead of fluorescent dyes. As the dye penetrant
rises from the flaw by capillary action, it stains the
developer (usually a chalky substance) and clearly
marks the flaw.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION requires a great deal
of explanation for even a rudimentary understanding
of how it works. Briefly, ultrasonic testing makes use
of an electrically timed wave of the same nature as a
sound wave, but of a higher frequency, hence the
name ultrasonic. The sound wave or vibrations are
propagated in the metal being inspected and are
reflected back by any discontinuity or density
change. The search unit contains a quartz or similar
crystal, which can be moved over the surface much
like a doctor's stethoscope. The search unit applies
energy to the metal surface in short bursts of sound
waves for a very short, controlled period of time. The
crystal then ceases to vibrate for a sufficient period
of time to receive the returning echoes. The reflected
signais are indicated on a cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope. From the reflection or oscilloscope
pattern, a trained operator can determine the
distance to the discontinuity and some measure of its
magnitude.
Ultrasonic testing is a valuable tool for certain
applications. But it must be used only by an operator
skilled in the interpretation of the reflection patterns.
ln addition to the above methods the following can
be used: Eddy Currents, Acoustic Emission, Video
Enhancement, Ultrasonic Holography, and Neutron
Radiography. Only technically qualified personnel
should use these methods.
 Part X
Appendices

A. Trigonometry A-1
B. Elements of Sections A-2
C. Properties of Circles and Ellipses A-7
D. Surface Areas and Volumes A-8
E. Miscellaneous Formulas A-10
F. Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes A-12
G. Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat
Bottom Storage Tanks A-13
H. Conversion Factors A-15
Specifie Gravity and Weights of Various Liquids A-17
A.P.1. and Baume Gravity and Weight Factors A-18
Pressure Equivalents A-18
Wire and Sheet Metal Gages A-19

65
 Appendix A. Trigonometry

TRIGONOMETRie FORMULAS

Radiul AF -1
TRIGONOMETRIC - Iln l A + COli A - lin A eesec A
FUNCTIONS - ees A sec A - tan A cot A
_ COI A ___1_ _ cos A tan A _ .,r;::::;;ë)il"'A _ BC
~ /0/0
H Sine A
cot A cosecA

COllne A _ aln A _ _1_ _ aln A cot A _ ~ï=ïTiiiA _ AC

tanA aecA
_ sin A _ _1_ _ lin A .ec A

'1/1\,
Tangent A - FO
cos A cot "-
cos A 1
Cotangent A - iTiiA - tan A - COI A cosec A -HG

tan A 1
Secant A -AD
- aln A - ë'Da'A
cot A 1
Coaecant A - ë'Da'A =' iTiiA -AG

RIGHT ANGLED
-,
TRIANGLES al _ Cl _ bl

~
bl • Cl - al

" a Cl - al + bl
Abe

ReQuired
Known
A B a b c Area
1
a, b tan A - i tan B - ~
a ~~
ab
"2
a, c aln A-.!. COI B - ~ ~ca=::aï a ~ca=::aï
c e
2
a al cot A
A,a 90'-A a cotA --2-
ë'ii1A
b bltan A
A, b 90'-A b tan A --2-
cal A
Cl ain 2 A
A, C 90'-A cain A e coa A --4--
OBLIQUE ANGLED
TRIANGLES' a+b+c al _ bl + Cl - 2 bc COI A
1 - 2

~
bl - al + Cl - 2 ac co. B
c ..
K _ ~ (1 - a) (1:- b) (a - e) cr _ al + bl - 2 ab cal C
Abe
-
.
_
~
_
.
-
ReQuired
Known 1
A
;
B C b e Area
1 1 1 1
a, b c
l tan "2 A - tan "2 B- tan "2 C- ~ a (a-a) (I-b) (s-e)
K K K
a-a a=ïi a-c
aaln B aaln C
a, A, B 18O"-(A+B}
""8iii"A aln A

a. b,A alnB-~ bain C

a ""ii'iïif
ab aln C
a,b. C tanA-' aalnC ~ a l+b'-2ab cal C --2-
b-acosC
1

A·'
 PROPERTIES Of GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES Of GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

A:= d2
SQUARE RECTANGLE
c • d Axl. of momanu on baH A bd
Axl. of moments through eant.,' 2
d
1= li!
_..l.
c

S =
12

si!
-,-
bd'

1.U.l -,-
8 bd'
Il
r = .!L .288875 d
Viï d
fi - .on'lOd
z = si! b
4

RECTANGLE
»
"0
SQUARE
A bd "0
Axl. of moment. on base A=d2 A_I. of momenb on dl.oona. œ
bd :J
e =d 0-
V b' + d'
1 = li! b'd'
X·
3
+ d')
1.-1 Ll
Jnil" CD
S = si!
» 3
Il
b'd l m
1 Ilvî)1 +d' rn
N r = JI.- = .571350 d
Y3 bd 3
V Il lb' + d') œ
:J
.-+
V>
-
o-...
A = d2
SQUARE
RECTANGLE en
JI.- = .707107 d A.la of moment. Any lin. A bd œ
Axis of moments on diagonal v'ï through center of gr.vlty o
bain a + d coe • .-+
1 = !I!
12
2 o'
:J
bd (hl aln'. + d' coe l . ) V>
S = ..JR. := ,117851 dl 12
8V2
8
bd (hl ain'. + dl coe l . )
r = -!L := .289675 d + d cee a)
Ge (b ain •
Viï
_fiiï-.rniiTêiIëOëia
=~ := -!H.. = .235702 dl
3 3\1'2 " 12

A = bd A - bd - b,d.
HOLLOW RECTANGLE
RECTANGLE d
e = g
A)(I. 01 momentl lhrough center 2
Axla of momenta through canter - "2
1= IllE bd' - b,dl'
12 12

d -
e
..l.. S = IllE
6
_1 8
bd' - b,dJI
Ild

r := ..!L = .288675 d _fbd-=-b,d,'

vU , , - 1214.

Z = IllE
4 z bd'
T -.-
b,dl~
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

-
TRAPelOIO
EQUAL RECTANGLES A - b (d - dt!
AJcl. 01 moments through A :::J dlb t b ,•
Axil of moment. through e _ ~ center of gravlty 2

l centor of guvity

1 1·c1
2

b (d' - -
d,') -b'1 C = d(2b t

3tb -+ b ,)
b ,•_

1\= j-'-
1 - - -- -
12
l T l "" dl (ta t 4bb , " b,ll

8
l b{dl-d,l)
351b , b,l

· - -' .."=,,
r - 1 12id _ d,l
1 -----
d .1 S = dl (ta .. 4bb. t
12 t2b + b ,)
d
b,l.
_
, '" 6th .. b V 2 (b2 t .. bb t • bl')
b Z _ .!. Id' - dt') l)
_b-----)
4

UNEQUAL RECTANGLES A - bt + bit, A '= ~ '" "A2 = .785398 dl'" 3.141593 R2

A_l. of moment. through ~ btt .... b.ta (d - ~ tl)
CinClE
Aldi of moments
•
center of gravit y c - ----A------ through cent., c = ~ =R
2

~
t
~ bt S bit.'
1 - -- + bty' + --- + b,t,y,' ~ ~

JB1
t --- ·T t2 12 '" ... '" .1)49081 dol '" .185398 R4
~
.1 t
64 •

j J------
C

S - 1 S, - d ~ . 1 S :: ndJ '" ~= .098175 dJ "" .785398 Rl

"0
"0
~ 1 l, - d, _ :Πc,
=
J2

~ = -2
R
• CIl
::J
a.
W 1- -=t-+'!
Ji 1A • X
Z - 1[.-('~t1)] z • d'
rn
5

TRIANGLE
04.1. of momentll through A - ~
1l0UOW CIRCLE
Axl. of moments
A

c
:1

• ~
-.--
Tl(tU - d,')
= .7553911 Id> - d,>'
()
o
::J
r-+
center of gra,,'t)' 2 Ihrough cent.r
2 cl
2d
-=

~
1 Tl(d4 d,"}
T --54-···· :1 .049017 (d" - d,")

bd'
S "" 1I(d4 - d,'" = ."5175 d4 - d,")
38
~ d
bd'
Il - 24 r l:l: V d2f-d"
d
-I1ï - .235702 d
•
Z a dJ d,'
"8 T

TRIANGLE IIAlF CIRClE A :1 "lU = 1.5707911 R2

~ Axis of mom.nta thtough 2
A.la of momenU on ba.. A - cent.t of gravlty

d e =R ('-~)= .575517 R

• - 12
bd'
12
bd'

d
fi - ._d
-§I 1

,
•

al
Rf

AJ
24~
.. R VIn' - H
(n -'-)
1
19Tf2 - M)
9Tf ,..

:1
a
.109757 R"

.190681 Rl

.254338 n
Sn
 PROPERTIES Of GEOMETRIC SECTIONS PROPERTIES Of GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

PARAI!IOLA
• HALF ELLIPSE
1 A - ~ab
1 A a: -.:. neb
2 2
m - "1_
m = ~
3.
I " - ,' 185 .'b
'T 4,
" ... ,lb
(-i- - :.)
1 : I.La l, - 1 ab'

1~15
. 1:1 ... !- nlb2
•
l, - .Db b-J1 ~ n.lb
•
" c;

HALF PARABOLA A - fab

1 4

. rJ.. p ••
m - {.

.
n - {- b
• QUARTER ELLIPSE A == .!..-. nIb }>
i 4 1:l
Il - ""i1'6.'b 1 4 1:l

.1~7---fl~]~ r1 =40
_ CD
Il - ::0 ab l
n m
3. ::J
0-
}> 65 n i::~
1 I, - "0 .Ib 3n X
~
CXJ
4 1.. - .25 ab'
---rI
" ". .lb
(;6-9:)
m o0
COMPLEMENT OF HALF
• ....â.] '2 ::: .hZ
(~-9:) ::J
PARABOLA
A
- 1. ab
S 4
1] = 2.-
16 ll'.3b
1
..-+
Q..

m
- .!-a
10
'.. = ..!--
16 nlb3

n
- .!.b
4

1.
- 2!... .Ib
2100
• ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT A = Ib(I-~)
Il
- -!-
10
ab'
('~ )
1

-
b
..AftABOLIC ,.ILLET IN
RIGHT ANGLE a - t 6(1-';'-)
li
1--'" b
-
2112

112
t t IJb(~
] . 16 _,)
- ft (~
)
A l
'
2 lb]
] 16
m
- - -i-t
n

.. - - 2!-t
Il
2100
4

• Ta obl.ln propertles of haU clrcle, quarter elrcle and clrcular complement substltutll' := b = R.
 PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS
AND STRUCTURAL SHAPES

REGULAR POL YGON Number of eides

A.la of momenta 180"

throuoh center
2\·'iiî-=-R 11 IRREGULAR PLANE SURFACE
n a
~

", 2 tan
a
0

A ~ na2 cot • = i nRZ sln 20 ':2 nR 12 tan _

.E s .E .E
,
A
+ a2)
., ::1 1
2
A(6RZ - dl
24
AillA,'
... ,
.c.I_J._c!._
'1 "" '2
= ..j6fU24- al ";12"'2""
4.
a2

ANGLE
Divide the plane surface into an even number of parallel strips of equal width.
AMI. of momen" throuoh
cent.,. of gravlty
'.n 28 2K
... - l,
The given figure has been divided into ten strips of width, d; the ordinales are ho 10 h 'o. »
l:J
l:J
A ttb + cl Je ". bl .... ct Y = dl ....., When the ends are curved, ho and hlO are zero and cancel out of formulas. CD
21b + cl 21b + cl ::J
»
1 K .,. Product of Inertla about X·X lit y-y
Simpson', Rule: Q.
(]1 X
abcdt Arca = ~ [b" + hlO + 4 (h, + h, + h, + h, + h,) + 21h, + h, + h. + h.I). OJ
+4{b+c) 3

.. =(i Ild- VI' + bv, - aIV -t1') Dunnd 1s

Rule: o
o
le
ly 1:; (i lib - _)JI ... dxJ - che - Il') Arca = d[O.4lho + hw) + 1.1 (h, t 14,) th, t h, th. th, th, + h, + h.). ::J
r+

'. • 1. ,1010 + l, cos2t ... K sin 20 Trapezold.' Rule: cL

.. • 1. cotZo .... l, .lnZ. - K aln28 Arca = d [\1 lho + hw) + hl + h, t h, + h. + h, + h. + h, + h. + '''].
K la "eg.tln WMn hHI of angle. wfth rnpect to c.I., fI'n
y 11t or 3rd quadrant. potUln wh." ln 2nd or 4th quadranL when the ends are nol curved, but are the straight lines hl and ~ then.
z·z la ••11 of minimum 1
Arca = d [ \1 (h, + h.,) + h, t h, + h, + h, + h. + h, + h.).

BEAM5 AND CHANNEL5

TransvI,... forc. oblique
throuoh center of gravit y

.. lI' IJ "" ...ln2 " eoa1C1

~ '4k~.
7*'
1.. D .. coa1 Iy .ln2.

(r in• +çro.. )

.~~
D M

wh.J. M 1. bondlng momant duo la 'oree f .

.,.--< 1
1 ..
4 4
Appendix B. (Cont'd) Thin Wall Sections (Dimensions are to Center of Wall)

A = ndt

3
/ = rrd t
S
t
S = rrd2 t
4
r = O.355d

b =d
-of"'-t
A = 4dt
d
3
b / = 2d t
3
r = 0.40Sd

- 1-- t
d>b

A = 2(b + dït
- d f--
/ 1-1 = d 62 t (3b+d)

. dt
b SI_I=3 (3b+d)

r 1-1 =02S9d-~
• ltJ+ëï

Sector of thin
annulus
2
1 A = 2aRt
11~]:: YI = R (1 - sin o.)
~
a.
1
2
h =R (Si: a. - cos o.)

A-6
 AREA OF CIRCULAR SECTIONS
PROPERTIES Of THE CIRClE

mf(~
Circular Sector, mon p
Arca = ) 'l (length of arc. m p n x radius, r)
. 1 arc. m p n, in dczrees
~--= arca {} f circ e x 3(iO

V
ClrcumferenclI '" 6.28318 r " ],'4159 d
Di.moto' 0.31831 drcum'Dutnce
=·0.0087266 x square of radius, r', x nngle of arc, m p n, Are. 3.14159,2
in degrees,
A..
,...
~ ,., 0.017483, A*

P~~
b
Y-. \n
Circular Segment, m p n, less than hait circle
Area = arca of sector, mon p-v area of triangle, mon
Angl.

n.dlu,
A* ~

.. bl. cl
57.2951111 8
.
m~ f
--.-b-
-< -- .......... ~.-----~ >-
o =
(lenzth of arr. m p n, x radius. r)- (radius. r.- rise. h)x ehorrl. c
2 Chard C 2V2~bï 2, lin ~
»
u
2
'o
v.zv'.';l-~ "~tan~ CD
Circular Segment, m q n, greater than half circle Aise
2 • :J
q Q
Arca = arca of circle-e-area of segment. m n p 2 t IIn2 ~'. t 1 Y \r,2-~2

. r •
•\/;Z-"J;ï X
()
Circular Segment, from Table l, pages 282 and 283 v';2~-bii
lJ
...,
Civen: rise, b. and diameter. d = 2r. Dlamet", 01 clrcle of .qual pllrlphery as square '.27324 sld. of squa,. o
Area = square of diameter, d'. rnultiplied hl' the ('()('ffirient gin'n g~~~:~:~~i~~r~l'e"c1~c~~:~lfl~~a~~~~~I:uar. 0.18S40 diamele, of eltete
'.41421 .Id. 01 square u
...,
h~
CD
. 1 . fil
OPPOSltC t IC quotient 0 d'
Sida Dt squaro Inscrlbed in circlo 0.10111 dlamat'" 01 ch cie
.....
»
1
Intermediate coefficients for values of ~ not given in tables
CD

V
U"J
--J CIRCULAR SECTOR
are obtained by interpolation.
o....,
t ., ,.dlus Dt chcte v» angle ncp ln degr.os

~
Example-Civen: rise = 2; " and diarneter = 5'r..

.. Ar•• Dt S.ctor ncpo .. 112 (Iangth 01 arc nop x ri ()

b ...,
d = 2' 16 + 5'~ = O.17!1528. L,Ar .. Dt Circl.)( y ()
m
~
Coefficient by interpolation = O.:lï 12:!:!. CD
U"J
Area = d' x cocû. = 25.!~H;2!) x O.:IïI2:l:1 = '1.6321. '" 0.0087268 Jo( ,2 )( Y
CU
:J
Q
Circular Segment, from Table Il page 284 m
Given: rise. b, and chord, r. CIRCULAR SEGMENT ." ••dlusold"l. • chord b" .1••

"Sb.
u

e
Area = product of risc and rhord. b xc rnultiplied hl' the e<)('lTkil'nt Ar.. 01 Segment nop '" Areo Dt Socto, ncpo - Ar•• ot triangle nep U"J
b I(ivcn opposite the quotient of h " ILenglft of arc nop )1' r. JI f, .. bl
CD
U"J
--y- c 2
-< -- - - c .. ). c •
Intcrmediate coeflicientv for values of b not uivcn in tables
c Ar.a 0' S.gment nsp Ar•• Dt Clrcla - Ar.a 01 Segment nop
are ohtained by interpolat ion.
Exarnplc- Civen: rise = 1.·1'1and chord " :1.5~.
•
b ~ l.·II) _ O 1?33
r-a.52-·· ..... · C ( )'fT"', - () -5 ~
(HI(nt-.I.L.
VALUES FOR FUNCTIONS nF 1T
Aren = b x c x eoelT. = 1. I!) x :l ;,~ x () ï;'·12 = :1.%5(;.
n '" 3.14159265359. log., 0.4971499

., 9.86966«. log" 0.9942991 0.318J099. log '" 1.5028501 ~ '" 0.5641896, log "'- 1.75'.25'

~u
Circular Zone, t u w V
Arca = arca or circle-s-Iarca or segment. 1 p u 1 an-a or St'Kmen!. .J ,. 31.0otl2167.log 1.4914496 -.!... n
v q w). n2
0.1013212, log 1.0057003
,.0 .., 0.0114533, log 2.2418174

<:: q
Arca
Circular lune, m p n s
= segment, m P n-e-segment, m s n.
~ • 1.7124539. log 0.2485149 1
.J
0.0322515, log .. 2.5085500 ~ ,-, 51.2951195.log

Noto: logs of f,actlons auch as 1:5028501 and 2.5085500 may .lso ba wettten 9.5028501 - 10 and 8.508550
1,1581226

10 respectivaly,
 Appendix D. Surface Areas and Volumes

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

CIRCULAR RING (TORUS)

D and R = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius. respectively,
of Ring
d and r = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius, respectively,
of Section
1
Surface = ".2 Dd = 4".2Rr
k-R-o-l ".2
1 1
Volume = 2".2Rr2 ="4 Dd 2
1---------1--------------------------
PRISMOID
End faces are in parallel planes.
1
Volume = 6 (A + A' + 4M). where
1 = perpendicular distance between
ends
A.A' = areas of ends
M = area of mid section. parallel to ends

UNGULAS FROM RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

(As formed by cutting plane oblique to base)
1. Base. abc. less than semicircle;
Convex Surface
= h[2re- (d X length arc abc)] -ê- (r-d)

Volume = hneL-(d X area base abC)]";- (r-d)

II. Base, abc. = sernicircle:
Convex Surface = 2rh Volume = 1 r 2h
III. Base. abc. greater than semicircle (figure);
--",- Convex Surface
,, = h [2re + (d X length arc abc)] ..;- (r + d)
,,
, Volume = h[~e3 + (d X area base abc) J..;-(r + d)
~1 IV. Base. abc. = circle, oblique plane touching circumference.
-" ,
1
1
Convex Surface = ".rh Volume = Y2".r 2h
_'L V. Base. abc. = circle, oblique pinne entirely above (figure)
Convex Surface = 2".r
X Y2 (h, minimum + H. maximum)
Volume = ".r2 X Y2 (h, minimum + H. maximum)

ANY SOUD OF REVOLUTION

Let abcd represent the generating section about axis A·A of
solid abef.
Let g at distance h from A·A be the center of gravity of abcd.
Let aO be the angular amount of generating revolution.
Then
Total Surface of solid abef
= (2".ha -ê- 360) X perimeter abcd
Volume of solid abef = (2".ha -ê- 360) X area abcd
For complete revolution (2".ha ..;- 360) = 2".h

A-S
 SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS
Convex Surface = ..dh
CYLINDER

ël
..d' • 1
SPHERE
Total Surface = ..dh + T

fi
:L
1
1
Volume=~ dth .
Volume Cylinder, right or oblique = area of section at right angles
to sides X length of side.
Center of Gravity above Base .. 2
h
O'
11

----y-
1" r
Surface = wd' = ·hr'
wd' 4
Volume = 6- = 3 ..r'
Side of an l'quai cube = diameter of sphère X O.R06
Length of an equal cylinder = diarneter of sphère X0.661,7
Center of Gravit y of BaH Sphère = %r above spherical center

([Dr
PRISM
Lateral Surface = h X Base Perimeter
SPHERICAL SECTOR
t) Total Surface c Lateral Surface + (2 X Base Area) k-----c- - - - ...:

~'
•
-}- Volume = h X Base Aren ",
Total Surface = 2 (4h +c)
Center of Gravity above Base "" ~ ::L
,,;., Volumc » 1..r'h= l ..r'( (r- \jr~-~')

.:
,/,r"
PYRAMID ~J!
Center of Gravit y _ ~(r_h)
, 1 Lateral Surface = ~ X Rase Perimeter above center of sphère - 2
, '
·s
r
.
ft
; Total Surface = Lateral Surface + Base Area
h
Volume = 3 X Base Area
1 1
SPHERICAL SEGMENT
~

bJr
~-- - c---->t U
" .1_ U
Center of Gravit y = ~, above base : : Il
Spherical Surface =2 ..rh = w(c' + 4h') + 4 œ
Total Surface = Spherical Surface + (..c' -i- 4) :J
L
-..-..... _,...f ... Volume =..h'(3r - h) -i- 3 = wh(3c' + ·Ih') + 21 0..

.
~
<.D
f[li'-.s·
, ,
li1
FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID
Lateral Surface = s (Top + Base Perimeters) + 2
1f a = top area and A = base area,
Center of gravit y above base of segment = h (4r - h) + 4(3r - h) X
o
Total Surface = Lateral Surface + (a + A) l ,
SPHERICAL ZONE o
c==3-r
, '4--C L - - >l
1 ___ ..... y_ Volume = h (a + A + .yaA) +3 o
Convex Surface = 2..rh
Center of Gravit y = h C~_-t::_A±_?-.y_aj\)
:J
. . .r-:• ft1
Total Surface = 2",h + ..4 (c,+ c,')
M-
above base 4 a + A + .yaA . _t_
o..
k----.c>---->l
l , ..h
Volume - 24 (3c' + Je" + 4h')

-f
{S'-
"
1

1
1

1
L
•

~1
Convex Surface

Volume =
12
z.
2 4
CONE
= ~ ds = ~<! .yar:t4ïi'
Total Surface = Convex Surface + 4-
d'h = ", d' .y'4st=al
24 h
..d' ElUPSOID (1. Revolution about transverse axis)
- 'e
Surface - 2..r [ r + R Cin'I
e)] Sin-le = Angle. in radians.
whose sine = e
t4---d--->: f+-----o----->l
Center of Gravit y above base = 4' 4
-F'
rl i :
----n,- Volume - 3" Rr'
_'t. ______i_ Cs
FRUSTUM OF CONE

Or
ElllPSOID (II. Revolution about conjugate axis)
s
• \-<d>!
~
Convex = !~ (d + d') = ,~ (d + d') .y4Jïf+lO=<J')'
Surface 2 ..s 4 ..
: ::;ri __ .1_:
I-R- Surface -.. [ 2R' + 2.303r' +e)]
- ë --log. ('i-e
r' .-----. . 1
....... Total Surface = ,,(d + d') + i (dl + d")
Volume = 1~ (dt '+ dd'
+ d")
4
Volume - j ..R'r Where e >
.J R'- ri
l 1
. h(dt + 2dd' + 3d") R
~--"d·---~
Center of Gravit y above base ~ 4(d' + da; +d")- Use common or base 10. log.

!-t---rrt---~ PARABOlOIO

_x )l~
~<-
v
"

-~- / 1--'---
f

--_!.,.
- --f·
w
1
h

--->;
___ .:1..
1
1 Surface
Volume- 6- (1 + m + n)
WEOGE
Sum of surfaces of bounding planes
wh
ee

U ,
t<--... ~
~L
Convex Surface - ifi;[ (r' + 4h'l~~ -
Total Surface ~ Convex Surface
Volume-
",th
--z
+ .. r·
.
Center of Gravit y =
h
r.]

3 above base
 Appendix E.
l\USCELLANEOlJS FûRMlJLAS
1. Area of Roofs. 7. Heads for Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks:
Umbrella Roofs: Hernietlipsoùial lleads have an ellipsoidal cross section, usually
D =diarneter of rank in Ieet, with miner axis equal ta one hal] the major axis-that is, depth
=
Surface area in 1, {
square Ieet f
=0.842
= OS (when radius = diameter )
0.882 OS (when radius = 0.8 diameter)
~~ D, or more.

Dished or Basket Heads consist of a spherical segment nor-

mally dished to a radius equal 10 the inside diameter' al the
Conical Roofs: tank cylinder (or within a range of 6 inches plus or minus)
Surface area in} {
square Ieet
= 0.787
= DI lwhen pitch is % in 12l
0.792 OS (when piteh is 1% in 12)
and connected ta the straight cylindrical flange by a "knuckle"
whose inside radius is usually not less than 6 per cent al the
imide diaroeter al the cylinder nor less than 3 limes the thick-
2. Average weights. ness of the head plate. Basket heads clcsely approxirnate herni-
ellipsoidal heads.
Steel -490 pounds per cubic foot-s-specifie gravity 7.85
Wrought iron -485 pounds per cubic Ioot-s-specific gravity 7.7; Bumped Heads consist 01 a spherical segment joining the
tank cylinder directly without the transition "knuckle." The
Cast iron -450 pounds per cubic fool-specific gravilY 7.21 radius = D, or less, This type of head is used only for pressures
01 10 pounds per square inch or less, exceptinz where a corn-
1 cubic fOOI air or gas al 32' F., 760 m.m. barcmerer = mole-
pression ring is placed al the junction al head and shell.
cular weighl x 0.0027855 pounds.
Sur/ace Area 0/ Il eads:
3. Expansion in steel pipe = 0.78 inch per 100 linéal
(7a l Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads:
feet per 100 degree>' Fahrenheit change in temperature
= 0.412 inch per mile per degree Fahrenheit tempera- 5 =" R' [l +K II2-K)]

ture change. 5 = surface area in square Ieet

R = radius al cylinder in feet
K = ratio al the depth 01 the head (not including the
4. Linear coefficients of expansion per degree increase straight flance ) la the radius al the cylinder
in temperature:
The above formula is nol exact but is within limits of
Per Degree Per Degree practical accuracy,
Fahrenheit Centigrade
STRUCTURAL STEEL-A-7 17b) Dished or Basket Heads:
70· 10 200· F 0.0000065 Formula (7a) l'ives surface area within practic al Iirnits.
21.1 • to 93·C . 0.0000117 17e> Bumped Heads:
STAINLESS STEEL-TYPE 304
32· to 932·F 0.0000099
5 =,.Rt (l KI) +
S. R, and K as in formula (7a)
O· to 500·C . 0.0000178
ALUMINUM JIolume 0/ Heads :
-76· 10 68·F 0.0000128
-60· tO 20·C . 0.0000231 (7d) Herni-ellipsoidal Heads:
\'=;~"'Kfi'
5. To determine the net thickness of shells for horizontal R = radius of cyl inder in feet
cylindrical pressure tanks: K = ratio al the depth of the head (not including the
straight (lanae ) la the radius al the cylinder
T= 6PD
S (7el Dished or Basket Heads:
Formula (7d) gives volume within pracrical limiis.
P = working pressure in pounds per square inch
D = diameter of cylinder in feet (7{) Bumped Heads:
V =
Y: ,.. K RI (1 % K')+
S = allowable unit working stress in pounds per square inch V, K and R as in formula (7d)
T = Net thickness in inches Nole: K in above lormulas may be determined as folIows:
Resulting net thickness must be corrected to gross or actual Herni-ellipsoidal heads-K is known
thickness by dividing by joint efficiency. Dished Heads-K = ~1- V (M-Il (M +1- 2ml

6. To determine the net thickness of heads for cvlindrical

Bumped Heads- K = [M- v \l'-IJ

pressure tanks: •
MR = principal radius of head in feet
mR = radius 01 knuckle in Ieet
(6a) Ellipsoidai or Bumped Heads: R = radius of cylinder in leet
T= 6PD _ "IR _ mR
5 . -T
\1 rn_If
T. P and D as in lormula 5 For hurnped heads, m = 0

(ôb ) Dished.or Basket Heads:

T = IO.6PIMRl
s
8. Total Volume of a Sphere:
V = total volume
CI 1
I)'\"J
lU
T. 5 and l' as in formula ;;
D = diameter of sphere in feet ;--D~I------,;...-
1
MR = principal radius of head in feel V = -0.523599 D3 Cubic Feet F+l---"----1
Resulting net thickness of heads is both net and gross thick- V =-0.093257 D3 Barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons
nees if one piece searnless heads are used, otherwise net thick-
ness must he corrected 10 j:ro~s thickness as above. Number of barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons at any inch in a true sphere =
(3d-2h) h2 x .0000539681 where d is diarneter of sphere and h is
Formula. ;; and (\ mu-t olten I.e modified 10 campi y wilh depth of liquid both in inches.
various enj1;ineering codes. and slale and municipal rej1;ulations.
Calculated j{l'oss plate thicknesses are sometimel arbitraril)' The desired volume must include appropriate ulIage for the stored
increascd to provide an addilional a\lowance for corrosion.' liquid.

A·10
 Appendix E. (Cont'd)
MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS
( CONTINUED)

9. Total volume or length of shell in cylindrical tank with ellipsio- (lOc) Dished or Basket Heads:
dal or hemispherical heads: Formula (lOb) gives partially filled volume within practical
...----"'O-----.;::r-r Iimits, and formula (7d) gives V within practical limits,
v Total volume
< 0 i
L Length of cylindrical = = (IOd) Bumped Heads:
shell '&""'77...,.,.-=-=7'~ Formula (lOb) gives partially filled volume within practical
<j 0 t
lirnits. and formula (7f) gives V.
KD Depth of head
Note: To obtain the volume or quantity ofliquid in partially filled tanks, add
v 1TD2 (L + 1Y3 KD)
the volume per formula (lOa) for the cylinder or straight portion to twice
4
(for 2 heads) the volume per formula (lOb), (lOc) or (lOd) for the type of
L =(V -ê- 1T~2)_ lY3KD head concemed.

J. Volume or contents of panially filled horizontal cylindrical

tanks: Il. Volume or contents of partially filled herni-ellipsoidal heads
(IDa) Tank cylinder or shell (straight portion only) with major axis vertical:

Q R2L[(~~) - sin e e]
cos Q Partially filled volume
or contents in cubic
Q partially filled volume or feet
contents in cubic feet V Total volume of one
R radius of cylinder in feet head per formula , ~;;r;;o

~L~fl
(7d)
L length of straight portion of cylinder in feet
R Radius of cylinder
The straight portion or !lange of the heads must be considered a part of , =
the cylinder. The length of flange depends upon the diameter of tank
in feet
---'"
and thickness of head but ranges usually between 2 and 4 inches.
a = t:J. R = depth of liquid in fee! (l l a) Upper Head:
A a . IVlVt:J.(l-Ylt:J. 2)
'" = R = a rano Q
Cos e = 1 - t:J.. or R-a a
KR = a ratio
.
R
e = degrees a t:J. KR = depth
(lOb) Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads: of liquid in feet
Q 314 V t:J.2 (l - V3 t:J.)
Q partially filled volume or
contents in cubic feet (I lb) Lower Head:
V total volume of one head
per formula (7d) Q
a .
~ ~ = a ratio ;1
Q:i
=1 ,,1
!
t:J.

a
KR = a ratio

t:J. KR = depth
a t:J. R = depth of liquid in feet
of liquid in feet
R radius of cylinder in feet

A-"
 Appendix F. Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes

HEM. 1 ELLIP. -'.tELLIP. eONE SEGMENTAL STO. UMBRELLA SHAPES 90° eONISPH. 60° CONISPH F & 0 HEAD
D.R.:o D

~~
~..

~TI:"~aol '(;~;tr:~1 ~ noij

fj D D H D D

~~
0 l;l
K.R. = .06D

~
,t • 1 rf 1 1

--~~ \ç-:'A-f-TI
y ~\:~1 900 P- ~ 2600 1>- 0

D D D
Depth or Rlse h h 0.134D 0.1755D 0.707D D 0.169D
2" 3" 4'"

Volume, cu.It, 0.2618D 1 0.1745D 1 0.1309D 1 0.2618D'h 1.0472h'(3r-h) 0.0539D' 0.07175D 1 0.2777D 1 0.3272D 1 0.0810D'

Volume, gols. 1.9584D 1 1.3056D 1 0.9792D 1 1.9584D'h 7.83 3h'(3r-h) 0.4031D' 0.5367D 1 2.0772D 1 2.448101 0.6059D'

ITDa
Surface, sq.lI. 1.57ID' 1.24D' 1.084D' -2- 2ITrh 0.8418D' 0.8822D' 1.66610' 1.9635D2 0.9286D'

Lenglh 01 Arc 1.5708D 1.322D 1.211D - calculale ongle 1.0472D 1.080D - - 1.10430

Dh calculale
Pro jecled Area 0.3927D' 0.26180' 0.1964D' 0.0906D' (\.1195D' 0.44640 2 0.5639D 2 0.1255D 2
"2 s ec tor - V

Y 10 Cenlroid 0.2878D
2h 5
0.0560 0.0755D 0.4543D 0.6602D 0.1000D
»
1
Praj. Ar.
0.1919D 0.14390
T !Sh (roughly)
-"
N
'1 la Cenlroid 3h 8rh - 3h'
01 Mas.
0.3125D 0.20830 O.1563D -4-
12r - 4h
0.0451D 0.0596D - - -

tl.95D 0t~) t2.60 0t~)

Str e s s {wc ter] 2.6 H Do
2.6r (H +h) - - - - -
~;.6D (~ +f)
1.3 (H ti!-) D
lbs. pc r inch
-2.6D(H t~) h

Str e s s duc la t 4.5 pD

Gas pressure
"p" lbs p er
3pD or + 6pD
-6 pO or ~
h
6pr - - - - -
3pO
inch --4-

Partiol Volume colculote new

(D'-3X') ITX4'"
ED' 4X') calculale
wilhin de pth X ITX ED'
4" X')
-3 ITX 4'" 4 -""3 vol. V - vol.V
vol. on basis - - - - -
(cu. li.) (h - x) & subIra cl
-
Bell Line SIres s
0 0 0
0.0796WD 0.3183W~r' _ ~. 0.276W 0.198W 0 0 0
(pound s ) h
D
. __._-
Angle 01 edge 90 0 90 0 90 0 calculale calculare 30 0 38.67 0 90 0 90 0 90 0

NOT E: Ali dimensions e xpre s s ed in leel; H :0 waler e lev. above bell line {Shell Heighl).

W = 10101 load carried, including dcad load.

 Appendix G. Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat Bottom Storage Tanks
Pipe Columns
1
Column Length and
Pipe Properties
Allowable Load
Max Load
Sch Max @ lir
Weight Area 1 S r
Dia /Ir
Thickness Length lb/ft sq. in. in." in." in.
1
, kios
40 180 33 '-8 36.8 19.0
6 5.58 28.1 8.5 2.25
.280 175 32 '-9 37.6
20 180 44'-3 43.3 22.4 6.58 57.7 13.4 2.96
.250 175 43 '-3 44.4
8
40 180 44'-2 55.3 28.6 8.40 72.5 16.8 2.94
.322 175 42 '-10 56.6
20 180 55'-8 54.3 28.0 8.25 113.7 21.2 3.71
.250 175 54'-1 55.5
10
40 180 55 '-0 78.5 40.5 11.91 160.8 3.67
29.9
.365 175 53 '-6 80.2
20 180 66'-4 64.6 33.4 9.82 191.9 30.1 4.42
.250 175 64'-6 66.1
12
40 180 65 '-9 96.0 49.6 14.58 279 4.38
43.8
.375 175 64'-0 98.0
10 180 83 '-6 81.4 42.1 12.37 384 5.57
16 48.0
.250 175 81 '-4 83.2

A WWA DI00-84 Column Formulas Maximum permissible slenderness ratios Ltr shall be
175 for columns carrying roof loads only.
The maximum permissible unit stress for structural col-
The maximum permissible compressive stress for
umns shall be determined by the formula
tubular columns and struts shall be determined by the
formula
p =[ 18000 ]
A 1 + [2 E = Xy
18 ooo- A

or 15,000 psi, whichever is less. in which X is the smaller of

Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds. 18000
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches. [2
L = the effective 1ength of the column, in inches.
+ --=--
is ooo-
r = the least radius of gyration, in inches.
or 15 000 psi and

y = (~) (100 ~) [2 - (~) (100 ~)]

for values of tiR less than 0.015, and unity (1.00) for
values of tiR equal to or exceeding 0.015.
Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds.
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches.
L = the effective length, in inches.
r = the least radius of gyration, in inches.
R = the radius of the tubular member to the
exterior surface, in inches.
t = the thickness of the tubular member. in
inches (minimum allowable thickness is 1;.\ in.).

A·13
API Standard 650 where:
Cma = maximum allowable compression, in pounds per
The maximum allowable compression shall not exceed
square inch.
the following limits:
L = unbraced length of column, in inches.
r = least radius of gyration of column, in inches.
For columns on cross-sectional area, when Llr <
120 (See Note 1), - y = 1.0 for structural or tubular sections having tiR
values greater than or equal to 0.015
2
Cma = [ 1 _ (L/r) 33,000Y )
2~0 ( ~ 2~0 ~
] (
34.700 FS [ )] [ 2 _ ( )]
for tubular sections havina tiR values less than
When 120 < L/r s 131. 7 (see Note 2), 0.015. ~
(L/r) 2 ] ( 33,000Y ) = thic~ess of the tubular section. in inches, less any
34.700 FS specified corrosion allowance. (The minimum
thickness, including any corrosion allowance on
1.6 - (LI200r)
the exposed side or sides, shall not be less than lA
inch for main compression members or 3/16 inch
When L/r> 131.7
for bracing or other secondary members.)
R = outside radius of tubular section, in inches.
C = 149.000.000Y
FS = safety factor
ma (L/r)2[1.6 - (LI200r)]
= ~ + L/r _ (L/rp
Note 1: The allowable stresses, not including y, are
3 350 18.300.000
tabulated in AISe S 310-311. Specifications for the For main compression rnembers, L/r shall not exceed 180.
Design, Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings (969), Table 1-33, column headed "Main and
Secondary Members.'
Note 2: The allowable stresses, not including y, are
tabulated in AISe S 310-11. Table 1-33, column headed
"Secondary Members."

A-14
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
International System of Units (SI)8 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
(Metric practice)
United States System

BASE UNITS SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

Ouantity Unit Symbol Ouanlity Unil Symbol
length metre m plane angle radian rad L1NEAR MEASURE
mass kilogram kg solid angle steradian sr Inches Feet Yards Rods Furlongs Miles
time second s 1.0 = .08333 = .02778 = .0050505 = .00012626 = .00001578
electric current ampere A 12.0 = 1.0 .33333 = .0606061 = .00151515 =
.00018939
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K 36.0 = 3.0 1.0 = .1818182 = .00454545 = .00056818
amount 01 substance mole mol
198.0 =16.5 5.5 = 1.0 .025 = .003125
luminous intensity candela cd
7920.0 = 660.0 220.0 = 40.0 1.0 =
.125
63360.0 = 5280.0 1760.0 = 320.0 = 8.0 = 1.0

OERIVEO UNITS (WITH SPECIAL NAMES)

Sym- SQUARE AND LAND MEASURE
Ouantily Unit bol Formula Sq, Inches Square Fee! Square Yards Sq. Rods Acres Sq. Miles
lorce newton N kg·m/s2 1.0= .006944 .000772 »
'0
pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m 2 144.0 = 1.0 .111111 '0
energy, work, 1296.0 = 9.0 1.0 .03306 = .000207 CD
quantily 01 heat joule J N·m 39204.0 = 272.25 30.25 1.0 .00625 .0000098 ::J
0-
power watt W J/s 43560.0 4840.0 160.0 1.0 .0015625
X
3097600.0 = 102400.0 =
640.0 = 1.0
I

.
»
....
U1
Ouantity
area
OERIVEO UNITS (WITHOUT SPECIAL NAMES)
Unil
square metre
Formula
m2 AVOIROUPOIS WEIGHTS
o
o
::J
volume cubic metre m3 Grains Orams Ounces Pounds Tons <
1.0 .03657 .002286 = = ..,
CD
velocity metre per second mIS .000143 .0000000714 li>
acceleration metre per second squared m/S2 27.34375 = 1.0 .0625 .003906 = .00000195 o
437.5 16.0 1.0 .0625 .00003125 ::J
specilic volume cubic metre per kilogram m3 /kg 7000.0 256.0 16.0 1.0 .0005 ."
density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3 = =
14000000.0 512000.0 32000.0 = 2000.0 = 1.0 OJ
o
ri
SI PREFIXES o
..,
li>
Multiplication Factor Prefix Symbol DRY MEASURE
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 10 18 exa E Cubic
1 000 000 000 000 000 10 15 pela P Pints Quarts Pecks Feet Bushels
1 000 000 000 000 10 12 tera T 1.0 =.5 .0625 .01945 .01563
1000000000 10 9 giga G 2.0 = 1.0 .125 .03891 .03125
1000000 106 mega M 16.0 = 8.0 1.0 .31112 .25
1000 10 3 kilo k 51.42627 = 25.71314 = 3.21414 1.0 .80354
100 10 2 hectob h 64.0 = 32.0 4.0 1.2445. = 1.0
10 10 1 dekab da
0.1 10- 1 decib d
0.01 10- 2 cenli b c L1aUIO MEASURE
0.001 10- 3 milli m U.S. Cubic
0.000001 10- 6 micro IL Gills Pints Quarts Gallons Feet
0.000 000 001 10- 9 nano n 1.0 = .25 = .125 .03125 =
.00418
0.000 000 000 001 10 - 12 pico p 4.0 =1.0 .5 .125 .01671
0.000 000 000 000 001 10- 15 femto 1 8.0 = 2.0 1.0 .250 .03342
0.000 000 000 000 000 001 10- 18 atto a 32.0 =8.0 4.0 1.0 .1337
7.48052 = 1.0
nRefer 10 ASTM E380-79 for more complete information on SI.
bUse is not recomrnended.
 SI CONVERSION FACrORSa SI CONVERSION FAcrORSa
Quantity Multiply by to obtain Quanlily Mulliply by to oblain
Length inch b25.400 millimetre mm Force ounce-lorce 0.278014 newton N
fool b 0.304800 metre m pound-force 4.448222 newlon N
yard b 0.914400 metre m
mile (U.S. Slatule) 1.609347 kilomelre km newton 3.596942 ounce-lorce
newton 0.224809 pound-lorce Ibl
millimelre 39.370 079 x 10-3 inch in
metre 3.280840 1001 fI Bending pound-lorce-inch 0.112985 newton-melre N.m
metre 1.093613 yard yd Moment pound-torce-foot 1.355818 newton-meIre N.m
kilomelre 0.621370 mile mi
newlon-metre 8.850748 pound-lorce- Ibl.in
Area square inch b 0.645160 x 103 square mm 2 inch
millimelre newton-metre 0.737562 pound-force- Ibl.1I
square fool b 0.092903 square metre m2 foot
square yard 0.836127 square melre m2
square mile 2.589998 square km 2 Pressure, pound-lorce per 6.894757 kilo pascal kPa
(U.S. Slalule) kilomelre Stress square inch
acre 4.046873 x 103 square melre m2 foot of waler (39.2 F) 2.98898 kilopascal kPa
acre 0.404687 hectare inch of mercury (32 F) 3.38638 kilopascal kPa
square millimelre 1.550003 x 10-3 square inch in 2 kilopascal 0.145038 pound-force Ibliin 2
square metre
square metre
10.763910
1.195990
square
square
loot
yard
112
yd 2
per square
Inch
»
-0
square kilomelre 0.386101 square mile mi 2 kilopascal 0.334562 loot 01water -0
square metre 0.247104 x 10.3 acre (39.2 F) CIl
heclare 2.471044 acre kilopascal ::::J
0.295301 inch 01mercury 0.
»
....
1 Volume cu bic inch b16.387 06 x 103 cubic millimelre mm'
(32 F)
·X
cubic loot 28.31685 x 10-3 cubic metre m3 Energy, foot-pound-lorce 1.355818 J
œ cubic yard 0.764555 cubic metre m3 Work, cBrilish thermal unit
joule I
1.055056 x 10 3 joule J
gallon (U.S. Iiquid) 3.785412 litre 1 Heat <calorie b 4.186800 joule J
quart (U.S. liquid) 0.946353 litre 1 kilowall ho ur ()
b 3.600000 x 106 joule J o
cu bic millimetre
cubic metre
61.023 759 x 10.6
35.314662
cubic inch
cubic loot
in 3
ft'
joule 0.737562 loot-pound- ft.lbf ....
::::J
force 0.
cubic metre 1.307951 cubic yard yd 3 joule 0.947817 x 10.3 <British termal Btu
litre 0.264172 gallon (U.S. gal unit
liquid) Ioule 0.238846 <calorie
litre 1.056688 quart (U.S. qt Joule 0.277 778 x 10-6 kilowall hour kW.h
Iiquid)
Power foot-pound-torce/ 1.355818 wall W
Mass ounce (avoirdupois) 28.34952 gram g second
pound (avoirdupois) 0.453592 kilogram kg cBritish thermal unit per 0.293071 wall W
short ton 0.907185 x 103 kilogram kg hour
horsepower (550 It. 0.745700 kilowatt kW
gram 35.273 966 x 10-3 ounce oz av Iblls)
(avoirdupois)
kilogram 2.204622 pound lb av wall 0.737562 foot-pound- ft.lbl/s
(avoirdupois) lorce/second
kilogram 1.102311 x 10.3 short ton wall 3.412141 cBritish thermal BIU/h
unit per hour
kilowall 1.341022 horsepower hp
liReler to ASTM E380-7910r more complele inlormation on SI. (550 It..lbl/s)
b Indicales exact value. Angle deJiree 17.45329 x 10-3 radian rad
ra Jan 57.295788 degree
Tempera- degree Fahrenheil t"C ~ (tOF x 32)/1.8 degree Cel suis
lure degree Celsius t'F ~ 1.8 x 1"C 1 degree
32 Fahrenheil
li Reler 10 ASTM E380-79 lor more complete information on SI.
b Indicates exact value.
c Inlernational Table
 Appendix H. (Cont'dl

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS Of

VARIOUS LIQUIDS
W~ighl in W~ighl in
Liquid AI T~j!" Z!',~ci/ic Lbs. pet Lbs. ~er
of· rad/)' V.S. Gal. Cu. l.
--
Acetaldehyde 64.4 0.783 6.52 49
Acetic Acid 68.0 1.049 8.74 65
Acetic Anhydride 68.0 1.083 9.0: 68
Acetone 68.0 0.792 6.60 49 The parameters given are
Aniline 68.0 1.022 8.51 64 approximate for estimating purposes
Asphaltum 68.0 1.1-1.5 9.2-12.5 69-94
25.98 195
only. The properties of the stored
Bromine 68.0 3.119
Carbon Disullide 68.0 1.263 10.52 79 liquid should be determined
Carbon Tetrachluride 68.0 1.595 13.28 100 analytically and used in the final
Castor Oil 59.0 0.969 8.07 60 design.
Caustic Soda, 66'70 Solution 68.0 1.70 14.16 106
Chloroform 68.0 1.489 12.40 93
Cilric Acid 68.0 1.542 12.84 96
Cocoanui Oil 59.0 0.926 7.71 58
Colza Oil (Rape Seed Oil) 68.0 0.915 7.62 57
Corn Oil 59.0 0.921-0.928 7.67-7.73 57-58
Collonseed Oil 60.8 0.926 7.71 58
Creosote 59.0 1.040-1.100 8.66-9.2 65-69
Dimethyl Aniline 68.0 0.956 7.96 60
Ether 77.0 0.708 5.90 44
Ethyl Acetate 68.0 0.901 7.50 56
Ethyl Chloride 42.8 0.917 7.64 57
Ethyl Ether 77.0 0.712-0.714 5.93-5.95 44-45
Forrnaldeh yde 68.0 1.139 9.49 71
n Fuel Oil 60.0 0.80-0.85 6.7-7.1 50-53
tz Fuel Oil 60.0 0.81-0.91 6.7-7.6 51-57
li4 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.84-1.00 7.0-8.3 52-62
li5 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.91-1.06 7.6-8.8 57-66
li6 Fuel Oil 60.0 0.92-1.08 7.7-9.0 57-67
Furfural 68.0 1.159 9.65 72
Gasoline (Motor Fuel) 60.0 0.70-0.76 5.8-6.3 44-47
Glucose 77.0 1.544 12.86 96
Glycerin 32.0 1.260 10.49 79
Hydrochloric Acid, 43.4% Sol. 60.0 1.213 10.10 76
Kerosene 68.0 0.82 6.83 51
Lacric Acid 59.0 1.249 10.40 78
Lard Oil 59.0 0.913-0.915 7.60-7.62 57
Linseed Oil-Raw 68.0 0.93 7.8 58
Linseed Oil-Boiled 59.0 0.~42 7.84 59
Mercury 68.0 13.595 113.23 849
Molasses 68.0 1.47 12.2 92
Naphthalene 68.0 1.145 9.54 71
Neat ifoot Oil 59.0 0.913-0.918 7.60-7.65 57
Nitric Acid. 91% Solution 68.0 1.502 12.51 9.4
Olive Oi! 59.0 0.915-0.920 7.62-7.66 57
Pean ut Oi! 59.0 0.917-0.926 7.64.-7.71 57
Phenol 77.0 1.071 8.92 73
Pitch 68.0 1.û7-1.15 8.91-9.58 67-72
Rasin Oil 68.0 0.98 8.61 61
Say Bean Oil 59.0 0.924-0.927 7.70-7.72 58
Sperm Oil 59.0 0.878-0.884 7.31-7.36 55
SuIfer Dioxide 80.0 1.363 11.35 85
Sulfuric Acid , 87'70 Solution 64.4 1.834 15.27 114
Tar 68.0 1.2 10.0 75
Tetrachloroethane 68.0 1.596 13.29 100
Trichloroethylene 68.0 1.464 12.19 91
Tung Oil 59.0 0.939-0.949 7.82-7.90 59
Turpentine 68.0 0.87 7.25 54
Water (Sea) 59.0 1.025 8.54 64
Water (O· C) 39.2 1.00 8.34 62.4
W.ter (20· C) 68.0 0.998 8.32 62.3
Wh.le on 59.0 0.917-0.924, 7.64-7.70 57

A-17
 Appendix H. (Cont'd)

A.P.I. AND BAUMÉ GRAVITY AND WEIGHT FACTORS

The relation of Degrees Baumé or A.P.l. to Specifie Gravity is expressed by Formulas are based on the weight of 1 gallon (U.S.) of oil with a volume of
the following formulas: 231eubie inehes at 60 degrees Fahrenheit in air at 7~ rn.rn. pressure and 50%
For liquids lighter than wtuer: humidity. Assumed weight of 1 gallon of water at ~o Fahrenheit in air is
8.32828 pounds,
Degrees Baumé =~ - 130, 140
G 130 + Degrees Baumé To determine the resulting gravity by mixing oils of different gravities:
Degrees A.P.l. = 141.5 - 131.5, 141.5
D = md, + nd'
G 131.5 + Degrees A.P.l. m.,. n
For liquids heavier than wtuer:
D = Density or Specifie Gravity of mixture
Degrees Baumé = 145 - 145, G = 145 m'; Proportion of oil of dl density
G 145 - Degrees Baumé
n = Proportion of oil of d, density
G = Specifie Gravity = ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil at ~o d, = Specifie Gravity of m oil
Fahreheit to the weight of the same volume of water at ~ Fahrenheit. d, = 'Specifie Gravity of n oil

PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS

PRESSURE
1 lb. per sq, in. = 2.31 n. water at ~oF
= 2.04 in. hg at ~o F
1 n. water at ~'F = 0.433 lb. per sq, in.
= 0.884 in. hg at ~oF
1 in. Hg at ~oF = 0.49 lb. per sq. in.
= 1.13 n. water at ~oF
lb. per sq. in. = lb. per sq. in. gauge (psig) + 14.7
Absolute (psia)

A-18
 Appendix H. (Cont'd)

WIRE AND SHEET METAL GAGES

Equivalent thickness in decimals of an inch
u.s. SW'KW1l G41vaniud U.S. StlnOillO GilrnnLZed
Gagl fOI Sheet Gagl USA Gilge 101 snlel Gilge USA .
GiigI Ufl(;œ!td fOI HoI-Dlpped StuJ GiiOI UncoilleO tor HOI·Oipped Steel
No. Hal & Cold Zinc CoiIIed Wirl GilOI- No. Hal & ColO Zinc CoiIIIO Wire GigI
Rolled SIleets' S/letts' Rolled SheelS' StleelS'
7/0 - - .490 13 .0897 .0934 .092"
6/0 - - .462" 14 .0747 .0785 .oso
-
---
5/0 .430" 15 .0673 .0710 .072

---
4/0 .394' 16 .0598 .0635 .062"
3./0 .362" 17 .0538 .0575 .054

---
210 .331 18 .0478 .0516 .048'
1/0
1
-- .306
.283
19
20
.0418
.0359
.0456
.0396
.041
.035'
2
3
-
.2391 ---
.262"
.244'
21
22
.0329
.0299
.0366
.0336
-
-
4 .2242 .22S' 23 .0269 .0306 -
.-- -
5 .2092 .207 24 .0239 .0276
6 .1943 .192 25 .0209 .0247 -
7
8
.1793
.1644
-
.1681
.177
.162
26
27
.0179
.0164
.0217
.0202
-
-
9 .1495 .1532 .148' 28 .0149 .01S7 -
10 .1345 .1382 .135 29 - .0172 -
11
12
.1196
.1046
.1233
.1084
.120-
;106"
30 - .0157 -
• Rounded value. The steel wire gage has been taxen Irom ASTM ASl0 "General Require-
rnerus lor Wire Rods and Coarse Round Wire, careon Sleel". Sizes originally quoteO 10 4
decimal equlvalern places have been rounded 10 3 decimal places in accordance wilh
rounding procedures of ASTM "Recommended Practice" E29.
b The equivalent Ihicknesses are lor information only. The proouct is commonly specilied 10
decimal Ihicl<ness. nol to gage number.

A-19
TÉCNICAS REtINIDAS - BIBLIOTECA
TiTULO: Steel plate engineering data
AUTOR:
N° EJEMPLAR: 1000784

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