J. Soc.

CosmeticChemistry,20, 159-171 (March 4, 1969)

Differences Between Adult and

Children's Hair

HERMAN BOGATY, B.S?

$ynopsis•A review--much of it from the anthropological literature--is given on the

structural, morphological,and color changesof hair on the head with aging of the subject.
Children's hair is on the averagefiner, rounder, lessfrequently medullated, and lighter in
color than adults' hair. Scalinessand cuticle-cortex ratio are less certainly related to age,
nor is there a consistenteffect reported on changes in chemical and physical properties.
The physics of hair color is discussedand some limited experimental data are reported
suggestingthat children's hair is more transparent and is less red in hue, with a trend to
higher purity.

INTRODU GTION

In connectionwith hair color studies,the technical literature on the

differences between adult and children's hair was searched. While hair
appearance and colorwerethe primaryconcern,informationon the geometry,
shape, and chemistrywas also uncovered. Much of the publisheddata
foundappearedin literaturenormallynot availableto cosmeticscientists
in physicalanthropology and anatomy---andin the periodbetween1925 and
1945. Because the findingsmay be of generalinterest,it wasthoughtuseful
to bring togetherin one place the information obtained and to provide a
fairly completeset of references againstfuture needs.
Somebrief commenton backgroundand terminologymay be helpful.
Criteriafor classificationof hair haveincludedgrosssize,time of appearance
during the life span, and structural variations. Lanugo, or primary hair,
is characteristicof the fetal stageof life. It tends to be fine and silky, is
nonmedullatedand may be considerablypigmented. Secondary,or vellus,
* The Toni Company, Chicago, Ill. Present address: Warner I.ambert Research
Institute, Morris Plains, N.J. 07950.
159
160 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

hair is short,fine, and usuallyunpigmented;the downy underfur of some

mammalsand the fine body hair of children and women are probably
characteristic. Some authors restrict the term vellus to such fibers rather
than to any type of scalphair. The tertiary, or terminal,hair is normally
considered to be long,coarse,and pigmented,and associated with the mature
individual. There is considerable overlapin the varioustypes,and on any
givenanimalor in any specificregionof the skin all typesmay be evident,
as well as intermediatevarieties. Most anthropologists view the changes
that take placeas developmental, wheneverthe transitionfrom the primary
throughthe terminaltypesoccurswith increasingage (1-3). A corollary
of this view is that the changesdo not occurall at once,and that at any
giventime somefractionof the moreprimitivehairsmay be present. Thus,
Danforth (1) observes that between6 and 21% vellushairs may still be
presentin late childhoodduring the transitionto terminal piliation.

DIMENSIONS AND MORPHOLOGY

Cross-Sectional
Size and Shape o[ the Hair
Both of thesecharacteristics
have usuallybeen measuredtogetheron
the same samples. In an early paper, Wynkoop (4) concludesthat "hair
shaft diameterbearslittle or no relationshipto the age of the individual,
though there seemsto be a rough correlation. . . with age group of
individuals.... " Examinationof her data indicatesthat the 0- to 9-year
agegroupof hair samplesdoeshavesubstantiallyfiner hair than the samples
of older groupsmeasured.
Trotter and her coworkers(5-7) investigatedthese hair characteristics
more thoroughlyby usinga somewhatbetter technique. Some data from
these sources,regroupedand rearranged,are given in Tables I and II.
Theseresultsshowthe averageincrease in lineardensityand of cross-sectional
area with age at leastthroughthe teen years. There is also a suggestion
o[ a modestdeclinewith older agegroups. The ellipticity, as measuredby
hair index,doesnot in thesedata correlatewith age. It is emphasized that
theseresultsare averagesand that each head containsindividual fibers of
a wide rangewith much overlapamongthe age groups.
In view of the subject-to-subject variability, the results from two
additionalpapersby thisgroupof workersare more conclusive(8, 9). The
hair indexand sizeof a smallgroupof childrenwerefollowedby sampling
their headson a regulartime schedulefrom birth throughearly teen age;
the data are givenin Table III.
 ADULT AND CHILDREN'S HAIR 161

Table I

Finenessand Ellipticity of Hair of American Whites"

Average
Cross-Sectional Average
Number of Area, Hair Index,
Age of Group Subjects Square"Units"b

0-4
5-9 24
42 31}
42
47
75
10-14
15-19
20-29
40
35
55
}
56
50
73
77
30-49 100 51 74
50+ 44 46 76

•From Trotter (5).

bThepreciseunitsemployedare not clear in the originalpaper. The computedarea is
bascd on the microscopescaling device employed.
CRatio of minor to major axis.

Table II

Finenessand Ellipticity of Hair of French Canadians and Americans•

French Canadians Americans

Age Hair Cross-Sect.

of No. of Index, Area, Wt./100 No. of Wt./100
Group Subjects % mm2 X l0 s cm, mg Subjects cm, mg

0-4 46 73 268 3.4 17 2 9

5-9 36 74 341 4.2 37 3 9
10-14 45 74 378 4.7 36 45
15-19 46 73 425 5.4 38 53
20-29 52 72 422 5.3 55 46
30+ 75 72 380 4.7 137 45

•After Trotter and Dawson (6).

Table III

Cross Section and Hair Index of Children from B•rth to Youth •

Hair Cross-Sect.
Age Group, Index, Area,
Individuals years mm 2 X lO s

15 I 76 75
16 2-4 7O 237
16 5-9 72 312
11 10+ 73 336

•After Trotter et al. (8, 9).

162 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

The relationshipof age and crosssectionis very evidentand is shown

consistently
by all of the subjects. The averagehair index is not clearly
related to maturation, althoughthere is a suggestionthat the hair from the
one-year-olds is somewhatrounder. This suggestionis reinforcedby the
detailedresultsof Trotter and Duggins (8) giving hair index measurements
at one month, sevenmonths,and two yearsfor each of 15 children. In 14
out of 15 casesthe two-yearindicesare lower than either of the younger
values, and in 13 of the 15 the seven-month indices are lower than the

Table IV

Medullation and Scale Index as a Function of Age•

Proportion of
Medullas of
Approximate the Broken or
No. of Incidence Continuous
Individuals of Medullas, Typeb
Age Group, Years in Group % % ScaleIndex•
0-9 70 40 48 0.24
10-19 30 82 89 0.085
20-29 40 55 67 0.10
30-49 37 80 68 0.11
50-99 60 76 65 0.135

•After Wynkoop (4).

bFourtypesare described:
absent,fragmentary,
broken(largesegments),
andcontinuous.
The latter two representmore definite and massivemedullation.
•Ratio of scalelength (proximo-distal)to fiber diameter.

one-monthvalues. Interestingly,the averagehair indicesmeasuredon three

differentracial groupsof Australianaborigines(7) showa trend to greater
flatteningof the hair with increasingage.

Medullation and Scalinesso[ the Hair

Somedata on theseaspectsof morphologyare given in Table IV from
data obtainedby Wynkoop(4). Medullasare lessfrequentlyobserved
in
hair sampledfrom youngpeople. Even when presentin youth,the medullas
are more often fragmentaryin appearancerather than massiveor continuous
as in older ages. The scaleindex measurements also indicatethat larger
scalesrelativeto fiber diameterare observedin youngsters'hair. A rough
calculationsuggests that the individualscalesare absolutely,as well as
relatively,larger in the 0- to 9-year group. Curiously,the author rejects
the conclusion that the incidence of medullation increases and that the scale
indexdecreases
with age. Shebelievesthe correlationis mostlikelywith
 ADULT AND CHILDREN'S HAIR 163

Table V
Medullation in Children's Hair •

No. of Hairs No. of Subjects

Showing Showing Any
Medullas, Medullas, Types of
Age Group % % MedullasSeen6
At birth

1-2
3-5
mos.
mos.
1.0 17
0.4
7.7
f Scanty
and 32
31
extremely
fragmented
Scanty-broken
6-7 mos. 34 73 Broken -continuous

1 yr. 48 Most
2-4 yrs. 25 Most
5-9 yrs. 36 Most
10 q- yrs. 31 Most

•Aftcr Duggins and Trotter (9).

bScefootnote,Table IV.

fiber diameter,but her evidenceand argumentin the publishedpaper are not

persuasive.
Hausman (10) alsoconcludesthat medullation and scaliness
are functions
of diameterfrom a consideration of a large number of animal species,but
he did not studyage per se; Wynkoopwas probablya studentof Hausman
and,thus,wasled to the sameconclusion. In a later paper,Hausman( 11)
briefly notes "a study of 483 specimensof human head hair taken from
individualsrangingfrom 3 hoursto 91 yearsof age" with correlationbei_ng
found with diameter of the hair shaft.
A goodreviewof the earlierliteratureand viewson hair morphologyis
givenby Noback (12).
Dugginsand Trotter (9), in followingthe same group of children
referredto earlier, also examinedmedullationin samplesfrom the same
heads. Data compiledfrom thispaper (Table V) showthe rapid increase
in the incidenceof medullation in the first monthsof life; the changein
characterof the medullafrom scanty-fragmentary to brokenand continuous
is noteworthy. Theseauthorsconcludethat the presence of medullasis a
developmental characteristicrelatedto age.
The sameauthors(13) alsoexaminedthesechildren'shair for scaliness
by counting the numberof scales per unit lengthin a directionparallelto
fiberaxis. They foundno relationship with ageand very high individual
andsamplevariability.A goodsummary of all of the workwith thissingle
groupof childrenis givenby theseauthors(14).
164 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

With the groupsof Australiannativesmentionedearlier (7), the fre-

quencyof observedhairs containingmedullasriseswith age and extends
into the olderagegroupsas well. No correlationof scalecountwith age
couldbe asserted for this group.
Fourt (15) interestedhimselfin hair structurein relationto physical
propertiesof humanhair. Someof hisfindingsare assembled in Table VI.
In the upperportionof thistable,the tendencyfor finerhairsto havea large
fraction of their crosssectionin the cuticleis to be noted; in this casethe
finesthairscomefrom children. The relationship betweencoarseness and
medullafrequency is alsoshown,with the finechildren'shair beinglessoften
medullated. Fourt observes that fiberswith high cuticle-to-cortex
ratio tend
to be finer and rounder. In a secondseriesof measurements (lower half of
TableVI), he sortedtwo lotsof adulthair into fine and coarsesubgroups.
His resultsindicatethat finehair froma givenadultcontains proportionately
more cuticle,is lessfrequentlymedullated,and is rounder than the coarse
hair from the samehead. Thesesortingexperiments lend supportto the
viewof Wynkoop andHausman referredto earlierthatfinenessistheprimary
correlaterather than ageper se; nonetheless,
vestigialfine hair on an adult
head may involvea lack of maturationfrom the developmental point of
view.

The actualthickness
of thecuticleisslightlylargerfor thecoarse
thanfor
the fine hair, but not verymuchso. Fourt'slimited data on fiber mechanical
properties
showno consistent
effectrelatingto age,size,or morphology.
Table VI

Fineness,CuticleThickness,Medullation,and Ellipticityof Human Hair •

Cuticle Area

Average
Cross- Fraction Minor/
Sect. % of % of of Sample Major Cuticle
Area, Cross Cortex Medullated, Axis, Thickness,
Sample mm2X 105 Sect. Area microns

A 610 16.6 .... 66

B 448 18.9 .... 32
C 435 19.0 .... 34
2« yr. girl 325 21.4 .... 16
6mo. boy 136 26.3 .... 4

RMH--Coarse 331 .... 18.7 20 70.1 2.60

Fine 143 .... 27.2 0 91.9 2.42
146 --Coarse 568 .... 16.3 91 64.7 2.96
Fine 210 .... 21.8 16 79.6 2.35

Note: All samplesadult hair exceptwhere noted.

aAfter Fourt (15).
 ADULT AND CHILDREN'S HAIR 165

CHEMICAL DIFFERENCES RELATING TO AGE

Cystineand Sulfur Content

An earlypaper(16) describes theresults
of elementalanalyseson a variety
of hair types. ThisworkreportsCaucasian adulthair to be richerin sulfur
and nitrogen and poorer in oxygen content than children'shair. This
paperis so poorlydoneand the methodsare so uncertainthat its credibility
is very dubious.
Wilson and Lewis (17) concludethat no relation can be demonstrated
betweencystinecontentof the hair and age of the subject,although"we
cannot fail to be impressedby the apparent tendency. . . for cystinein
adult hair to be slightlylower .... "
More recent work (18) reports measurementsof cystine, cysteine,
nitrogen, and sulfur with no consistentrelation with age. In contrast,
Japaneseworkers(19) publisheddata which revealedwide variation but
sometrend to decliningcystinecontentswith age of the group.
To add to the confusionon this point, it might be noted that hair of
young,nonhumanmammals(cowsand chimpanzees)reportedly(20) has
lowercystinelevelsthan that of adults. Also,someof the publishedwork
(18, 21-23) suggests an association of cystinewith hair color; the more
heavilypigmentedfibersusuallyexhibit higher cystinelevels. As will be
shownlater, children'shair is lighter in color on the average,and if this
secondarycorrelationexists,then one would expect children'shair to be
lowerin cystineand sulfur.
Thiswelterof inconsistencymerelyindicates largeandexpected biological
variability. Mostof the workdonehassimplybeeninadequate in method-
ologyand in samplingscopeto ascertainthe existence of a relationship,
if
present. Furthermore,it seemsprobablethat factorsother than age--e.g.,
diet and hormonalpatterns--wouldhave a stronginfluenceon some of
these chemical characteristics.

Fatty MaterialsAssociated
with Scalp Hair
It is well knownthat changesin oily secretionsassociated
with skin and
hair arerelatedto age,e.g.,the increase
in secretion
associated
with puberty.
A numberof workers(24, 25) havepublished data indicatingthat children
exhibit hair of lower fat content than adults. The chemical character of
the fat is alsodifferent:cholesterol
and cholesterol
estersare at higherlevels,
and squalene,free fatty acids,and wax estersare at lower levels in cl•ildren
than in adults. These differencesare undoubtedlyrelated to hormonal
effects.
166 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

HAIR COLOR

Changeswith Age
It is a commonlyacceptedopinion that hair darkenswith age of the
subject,and this view is amply confirmedin the anthropometric literature.
Sometypical data obtainedby matchingagainstcolorstandards(made of
dyed swatches)for Americanwhites (5) and French Canadians(6) are
collectedin Table VII. The trend to darkening with age is clear and
seemsto occurmostrapidly in the early years. Similar findingshave been
reportedwith all populationgroups: in Virginians,Danes,Swedes,French,
Czechs(26), and evenin very dark-hairedAustralians(7). A reviewby
Trotter (27) notesmany commentsby otherson this subjectand discusses
meansfor describinghair color.
A usefullongitudinalstudyon color and agingwas done by Steggerda
(28). In thiswork, a seriesof childrenwasfollowedover a 10-yearperiod
in Holland, Michigan. Color comparisons were made annuallyby match-
ing againstthe Fischer-Sallerscaleand convertingthe letter designationsto
numbersfor averagingpurposes. A light blonde corresponds to a low
number like one, and a pure black corresponds to a high number like 24.
The relevantinformationin thispaper is givenin Table VIII. In substance,
the head hair of this group of childrenbecomesdarker by almostone unit

Table VII

Hair Color as a Function of Age•

Percentageof Samplesof American Hair of the Specified

Hair Color in Age Group
Hair Color 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-49 50-79

White-Lt. Blonde 19 3 0 0 0
Blonde-Dark Blonde 61 44 35 25 16
Brown-Brown Black 20 53 65 75 84

Percentageof Samplesof French-Canadian Hair of the Specified

Hair Color in Age Group
Hair Color 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-29 30-89

White-Lt. Blonde 15 3 0 0 0 0
Blonde-Dark Blonde 50 22 4 2 2 3
Brown-Brown Black 35 75 96 98 98 97

Note: A small number of red colors have been omitted in computing the percentages in
this table. Only pigmentedfibersread by the authors;i.e., senilegray not considered.
•After Trotter (5) and Trotter and Dawson (6).
 ADULT AND CHILDREN'S HAIR 167

with eachyear of agefor the agesof 6 to 18. No significantsexdifferences

were found.
Curiously,the basisfor the changein color is hardly discussed in the
literatureexceptasthe comment,"adultsappearto generatemore pigment"
not a very satisfactoryexplanation. In view of the apparent continued
changewith time overthe full life spanof the individual,a specifichormonal
basisis unlikely.
Physicaland MorphologicalEffects on Color
The appearanceof hair depends,of course,on the opticalphysic;of thc
situation--thenatureof theincidentlightandthewayit i; reflected,absorbed,
and scatteredby structuralclementsof the fiber and by the geometrical
arrangements of the hairs as a group. On the latter point, it is a fact of
commonexperiencethat a neatly parallel array of fibers is conduciveto
highlusterand brightness if the anglesof the incidentlight and of the eye
are properlydisposed; a tousledheadof hair is generallydull in appearance.
Somefactson thephysics of hair color,followingtheviewsof Garn (29),
may be instructivefor generalbackground.
Light that fallson hair is absorbed to a largeextent(70-95%), a small
amountis transmittedthroughthe fiber, and from 2-20% is reflected--the
lastbeingmostimportantin thehair'sappearance.The reflected light has
two components: (a) that reflectedfrom the surfaceof the fiber, and
(b) that re-reflected
afterabsorption.The surface-reflected light is plane-

Table VIII

Hair Color as a Function of Age•

Mean Hair No. of
Age Color Cases
6 5.5 80
7 6.4 178
8 7.6 224
9 8.7 218
10 9.2 246
11 10.2 267
12 11.1 285
13 11.9 304
14 12.5 307
15 13.5 302
16 14.3 219
17 15.2 128
18 15.7 43

"After Steggerda(28).
168 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

polarizedand contributes
to the senseof sheenor gloss;smoothcoatings
like oilsincreasethe mirror-likereflectance,and particulatedepositssuchas
dirt, detergent residue,or hair sprayparticlesdecrease it. A smoothcuticle
and a regularcrosssectionlead to maximumreflectance.Greaterscaliness
and the presence of lateralridgesalongthe shaft (saidto be presentin some
Negrohair) or a crenulated, irregularcross-sectional
shaperesultin a more
diffusereflectionpattern. The reflectedlight has the samespectralchar-
acteristicsas the incidentlight--"the hair shineswith the samecolor as the
illuminant"--and thus the tonal characteristic of the innate hair color is
diluted.
The absorbedlight that is re-reflectedis selectivewith respectto wave-
length. The maximumabsorptionis in the near UV, about 400 m/•, and
the minimumabsorptionis at 700 m• and beyond. In the visibleregion,the
curve of reflectancewith wavelengthis quite linear over the range of 400-
700 m/•, with a slightupward curvaturefor reddishtone hair (30). Other
things being equal, two pigment characteristics influence the reflectivity
after absorption: the size of the pigment particlesand their densityof
distribution. These factors plus the depth of the pigment bed--i.e., the
lengthof the absorptionpath--affect the color. Darkeningwith aging may
be related to the larger diameterdiscussedearlier, but there is alsoevidence
for increasein sizeand numberof pigmentgranulesas well.
A smallfractionof light transmittedthroughthe hair exhibitsa different
spectrumfrom that for absorptionand reflectance;it is redder due to
scatteringby the pigment granules. Since the incidenceof medullation
increaseswith aging,scatteringfrom thiscausewouldbe expectedto increase
and to resultin reddeningof the hue with age.
It may be desirablehere to sketchan over-all basisfor the existenceof
various kinds of natural hair color.
Color in hair is producedby pigmentparticles(brownish-blackmelanin
granules)dispersed in a clear transparentmatrix of hair keratinsubstance.
The principal differencein the appearancewith respectto blondnessor
brownnessis a consequence of the number of pigment granulespresent.
A high densityof pigmentleadsto the appearanceof brown or dark hair
and a low densityof pigmentto blonde. An analogous situationis seenin
screenprinting,wherethe densityof blackdotson a printedpageaffectsthe
visualappearance of darkness or lightness.It seemsreasonableto suppose
that productionof melanin pigment increaseswith age, and thus more
granulesper fiber are presentin olderpeople.
in additionto the melanotic brownpigment,theremay alsobe present
a muchmorediffuselydispersed or "soluble"red-goldstainthroughoutthe
 ADULT AND CHILDRENS' HAIR 169

cortex(11, 27). The presence of the diffusered materialgivesrise to

reddishtonesvaryingfromtrueredsin the absenceof muchmelaninthrough
strawberryblonds,chestnutbrowns,to reddishblacks. With the diffuse
red component absent,ashand drabhair coloris seen,tendingto the blue-
black as the melanin granule contentincreases.Fleschet al. (31, 32)
have discussed an iron-containing
nonmelaninpigmentfound in red hair.
With regardto thesubjectof agingandhair appearance, the morphologi-
cal changesare likelyto influencethe modeby whichlight is reflectedon
the hair and henceits appearance. If "young"hair exhibitsa lowerdensity
of melanin,islessfrequentlymedullated,andis composed of a largerfraction
of nonpigmentedcuticle, one would expect children'shair to be more
transparentthan adults'. This mightbe construedas givingchildren'shair
a quality of depth, softness,
and transparency. Some measurements with
the Den Bestereflectometer(33), which can partition the light reflected
from the surfaceand internally, are consistentwith this speculation. In
Table IX, data are givenfor hair taken from four peopleat different ages.
The columnheaded"Transparency"givesthe ratio of light reflectedafter
penetratingthe hair to that believedto comefrom the hair surface. The
transparencydoesdecreasewith age for all four subjects.
The pigment densitymay be expectedto affect the hue, sincemelanin
is brown. Thus ageshouldincreasethe reflectancein the lower wavelengths.
The data in Table IX showthat the dominantwavelength,computedfrom
tristimulus
values,increases
slightlybut consistently
with age. Thus, younger
hair might be thoughtof as coolerand calmerin appearance,i.e., lessred.

Table IX

Reflectometer Measurementsof Hair of Individuals at Several Ages

Hue,
Trans- Dominant Purity,
Subject Hair Color Age parencya Wavelength %
Lavonne Blonde 5 1.26 578 17
10 1.12 581 20

Lynette Reddish-Blonde 10 1.05 580 51

14 0.69 584 28

Becky Brown 3« 0.76 579 24

7 0.66 585 20

Vivian Black 8 0.85 589 20

21 0.55 604 11

"Ratio of rcfiection after passagcthrough hair to that reflected from the surface.
170 JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF COSMETIC CHEMISTS

The significance of the purity valuesgiven is not clear. The data

suggesta trendto lesspurity with age,purity beingthe degreeof closeness
with which a colorresembles a true spectrumcolor. Low purity colorsare
closerto white, gray, or black, and thus youngerhair may be more truly
colored,lessdrab, perhapsfrom the smalleramountof pigmentpresent.
(ReceivedAugust 1, 1968)
REFERENCES

(1) Danforth, C. H., Hair, Amcr. Med. Assn.,Chicago,II1., 1925. (Out of print.)
(2) Garn, S. M., Types and distribution of hair in man, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 53, 498
(March 27, 1951).
(3) Montagna, W., and Van Scott, E. J., Chap. 3, in Montagna, W., and Ellis, R. A.,
The Biology of Hair Growth, Academic Press,New York, 1958.
(4) Wynkoop, E. M., Study of the age correlationsof the cuticular scales,medullas and
shaft diameters of human head hair, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol., 13, 177 (July-
Sept., 1929).
(5) Trotter, M., The form, size and color of head hair in American whites, Ibid., 14•
433 (July-Sept., 1930).
(6) Trotter, M., and Dawson, H. L., The hair of French Canadians, Ibid., 18• 443
(Jan.-March, 1934).
(7) Trotter, M., Duggins, O. H., and Setzler, F. M., Hair of Australian aborigines,Ibid.,
U.S., 14, 649 (1956).
(8) Trotter, M., and Duggins, O. H., Index and size of hair of children, Ibid., 6• 489
(Dec., 1948).
(9) Duggins, O. H., and Trotter, M., Medullation in hair of children, Ibid., 8• 399
(Sept., 1950).
(lO) Hausman, L. A., Recent studies of hair structure relationships, Sci. Monthly, 30•
258 (1930).
(11) Hausman,L. A., Applied microscopyof hair, Ibid., 59• 195 (1944).
(12) Noback, C. R., Morphology and phylogeny of hair, Ann. N.Y. /lead. Sci., 53• 476
(March, 1951 ).
(13) Trotter, M., and Duggins, O. H., Cuticular scalecountsof hair of children, Am. ].
Phys. Anthropol., U.S., 8, 467 (Dec., 1950).
(14) Duggins,O. H., and Trotter, M., Changesin morphologyof hair during childhood,
Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 53, 569 (March, 1951).
(15) Fourt, Lyman, private communication;unpublisheddata.
(16) Rutherford,T. A., and Hawk, P. B., A studyof comparativechemicalcomposition
of the hair of different races,]. Biol. Chem., 3, 459 (1907).
(17) Wilson,R. H., and Lewis, H. B., The cystinecontentof hair and other epidermal
tissues,Ibid., 73, 543 (1927).
(18) Clay, R. C., Cook,K., and Routh,J. I., Studiesin the composition of humanhair,
J. Am. Chem. Soc., 62, 2709 (1940).
(19) Koyanagi, T., and Takanohashi,T., Cystinecontentin hair of children, Nature, 12,
No. 4801, 457 (Nov. 4, 1961).
(20) Block,R. D., and Lewis, H. B., The amino acid contentof cow and chimpanzee
hair, J. Biol. Chem., 125, 561 (1938).
(21) Flesch,P., The cystinecontentin coloredand white hair of mottledanimals,
J. Invest. Dermatol., 14, 157 (1950).
 ADULT AND CHILDREN'S HAIR 171

(22) Wolfram, L., and Lennhoff, M., The cystinecontent of hair: fiber-to-fibervariation,
Textile Res. J., 37, 145 (1967).
(23) Ogura, R., Knox, J. M., Griffin, A. C., and Kusuhara, M., The concentration of
sulfhydryl and disulfide in hmnan epider•nis,hair and nail, J. Invest. Dermatol., 38,
69 (1962).
(24) Eckstein, H. C., The cholesterolcontent of hair, wool, and feathers,J. Biol. Chem.,
73, 363 (1927); Nicolaides,N., and Roth•nan, S., Studies in the che•nical cron-
positionof hmnanhair fat, J. Invest. Dermatol.,19, 389 (1952); Washburn,S. L.,
and Liese, G.J., The cholesterolcontent of hu•nan sebmn,J. Lab. Clin. Med., 41,
199 (1953). All in Rothman,S., Physiologyand Biochemistry o[ the Skin, Univer-
sity of Chicago Press,Chicago, II1., 1954.
(25) Nicolaides,N., Chemicalcompositionof hmnan hair fat, y. Invest. Dermatol., 21,
9 (1953).
(26) Bean,R. B., Hair and eye colorin old Virginians,Am. J. Phys.Anthropol.,20, 171
(1935).
(27) Trotter, M., Classification
of hair color,Ibid., 25, 237 (1939).
(28) Steggerda, M., Changein hair colorwith age,f. Heredity,402 (1941).
(29) Garn,S. M., Humanhair: Its composition,
anatomyand distribution,
Ph.D. thesis,
Harvard University, April, 1948.
(30) Gardner,B. B., and MacAdmn,D. L., Colori•netric
analysisof hair color,Am. ].
Phys.Anthropol., 19, 187 (1934).
(31) Flesch,P., and Roth•nan,S., Isolationof an iron pigmentfrownhmnanred hair,
J. Invest. Dermatol., 6, 257 (1945).
(32) Flesch,P., Esoda,E. J., andKatz, S., The iron pigmentof red hair and feathers,
Ibid., 47, 595 (1966).
(33) Den Beste,M., A new reflectometer,
in preparation.