India’s challenges in Solid waste management

Waste management rules in India are based on the principles of "sustainable development",
"precaution" and "polluter pays". These principles mandate municipalities and commercial
establishments to act in an environmentally accountable and responsible manner—restoring
balance, if their actions disrupt it. The increase in waste generation as a by-product of
economic development has led to various subordinate legislations for regulating the manner
of disposal and dealing with generated waste are made under the umbrella law of
Environment Protection Act, 1986 (EPA). Specific forms of waste are the subject matter of
separate rules and require separate compliances, mostly in the nature of authorisations,
maintenance of records and adequate disposal mechanisms.

With rapid urbanisation, the country is facing massive waste management challenge. Over
377 million urban people live in 7,935 towns and cities and generate 62 million tonnes of
municipal solid waste per annum. Only 43 million tonnes (MT) of the waste is collected, 11.9
MT is treated and 31 MT is dumped in landfill sites. Solid Waste Management (SWM) is one
among the basic essential services provided by municipal authorities in the country to keep
urban centres clean. However, almost all municipal authorities deposit solid waste at a
dumpyard within or outside the city haphazardly. Experts believe that India is following a
flawed system of waste disposal and management.

The key to efficient waste management is to ensure proper segregation of waste at source and
to ensure that the waste goes through different streams of recycling and resource recovery.
Then reduced final residue is then deposited scientifically in sanitary landfills. Sanitary
landfills are the ultimate means of disposal for unutilised municipal solid waste from waste
processing facilities and other types of inorganic waste that cannot be reused or recycled.
Major limitation of this method is the costly transportation of MSW to far away landfill sites.

A report by IIT Kanpur (2006) found the potential of recovering at least 15 per cent or 15,000
MT of waste generated every day in the country. This, the report said, could also provide
employment opportunities to about 500,000 rag-pickers. The report added that despite
immense potential in big cities in this area, participation from non-profits or community is
limited.

In some urban centres, people working in the informal sector collect solid waste for each
doorstep to get a collection fee and derive additional income from sale of recyclables. The
informal recycling industry plays a major role in waste management. It also ensures that less
waste reaches landfills.

Iswar Ahluwalia, in an article, points out that more than three-fourth of solid waste
management budget is allotted to collection and transportation, leaving leaves very little for
processing or resource recovery and disposal.

There has been technological advancement for processing, treatment and disposal of solid
waste. Energy-from-waste is a crucial element of SWM because it reduces the volume of
waste from disposal also helps in converting the waste into renewable energy and organic
manure. Ideally, it falls in the flow chart after segregation, collection, recycling and before
getting to the land fill. But many waste to energy plants in India are not operating to their full
potential.

Installation of waste-to-compost and bio-methanation plants would reduce the load of landfill
sites. The biodegradable component of India’s solid waste is currently estimated at a little
over 50 per cent. Bio-methanation is a solution for processing biodegradable waste which is
also remains underexploited. It is believed that if we segregate biodegradable waste from the
rest, it could reduce the challenges by half. E-waste components contain toxic materials and
are non-biodegradable which present both occupational and environmental health threats
including toxic smoke from recycling processes and leaching from e-waste in landfill into
local water tables.

The concept of common waste treatment facility (ENVIS Newsletter, December 2010) is
being widely promoted and accepted as it uses waste as a resource by either using it as a co-
fuel or co-raw material in manufacturing processes. This has led to rise of Public Private
Partnership (PPP) models in waste management which has open doors for doing business in
waste management.

Bio-medical waste (management and handling) rules, 1998 prescribe that there should be a
Common Biomedical Waste Treatment Facility (CBWTF) at every 150 kms in the country.
CBWTFs have been set up and are functioning in cities and towns. However, establishment of
functional CBWTF throughout the country must be ensured. Integrated common hazardous
waste management facilities combine secured landfill facility, solidification/stabilisation and
incineration to treat hazardous wastes generated by various industrial units. They contribute
about 97.8 per cent of total landfill waste and 88 per cent of total incinerable hazardous waste
generated in the country, as per an environment ministry report.

The way forward

Around 100 cities are set to be developed as smart cities. Civic bodies have to redraw long
term vision in solid waste management and rework their strategies as per changing lifestyles.
They should reinvent garbage management in cities so that we can process waste and not
landfill it (with adequate provisioning in processing and recycling).To do this, households and
institutions must segregate their waste at source so that it could be managed as a resource.
The Centre aims to do away with landfill sites in 20 major cities. There is no spare land for
dumping garbage, the existing ones are in a critical state. It is reported that almost 80 per cent
of the waste at Delhi landfill sites could be recycled provided civic bodies start allowing
ragpickers to segregate waste at source and recycle it. Compost pits should be constructed in
every locality to process organic waste. Community participation has a direct bearing on
efficient waste management. Recovery of e-waste is abysmally low, we need to encourage
recycling of e-waste on a very large scale level so that problem of e-waste disposal is
contained.
To anyone tuned into Davos last month, Indian leaders presented an impressive picture of a
country open for business. “If you want wealth with wellness, come to India”, was the
message. For those closer to the ground, however, the quality of life in India’s towns and
cities seems distinctly suspect.

Here is one important aspect of this: India generates over 150,000 tonnes of municipal solid
waste (MSW) per day, with Mumbai being the world’s fifth most wasteful city. Yet, only
83% of waste is collected and less than 30% is treated. According to the World Bank, India’s
daily waste generation will reach 377,000 tonnes by 2025. Blame urbanization and
industrialization, but the consequences of India’s megacities producing tonnes of waste are
tangible and troubling.

India’s waste predicament presents numerous social and environmental challenges for urban
local bodies (ULBs), whose prerogative covers MSW management. Most noticeably, urban
waste has significant effects on our health. There is then the invisible plight of the thousands
of informal ragpickers who sustain their livelihoods by collecting, sorting, and trading waste.
By some estimates, ragpickers save almost 14% of the municipal budget annually. We have
also failed our duty as trustees of natural wealth. Take, for instance, the apocalyptic scenes at
the Ghazipur landfill site in Delhi, where waste burning is a major contributor to the air
pollution crisis.

A noteworthy first step from the Narendra Modi government was propelling sanitation to the
top of the policy agenda under the flagship Swachh Bharat Abhiyan programme. The Clean
India Dashboard tracks programme achievements, 24x7. Out of 82,607 wards, 51,734 now
have 100% door-to-door waste collection, up from 33,278 in November 2015. Almost 88.4
megawatts (MW) of energy is generated from waste-to-energy (WTE) projects. Nevertheless,
the disproportionate focus of the programme on toilet construction and eliminating open
defecation deflects attention from colossal failures in waste management systems.

For policy prescriptions, we should look East rather than West for a change. South Korea has
one of the world’s most sophisticated waste management systems, and has been hugely
successful in decoupling the link between economic growth and waste generation. Its small
size notwithstanding—a country of 51 million people, generating around 53,000 tonnes of
MSW per day—it has a daily per capita MSW generation that is two to five times larger than
that of India. Despite rapid industrialization over the past half century, it is the only
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development country that has reduced MSW by
40% while its nominal GDP (gross domestic product) has seen a five-fold increase.

Indeed, the unique economic and social development trajectories of individual countries
mandate different approaches to waste management. Until the 1980s, Korea, like most other
developing countries, focused on improving efficiency of waste management through
incineration and landfills. This was considered relatively easier than public campaigns to
“Reduce and Recycle”. However, by the late 1980s, in the face of accelerating waste
generation, South Korea implemented a volume-based waste fee system—a paradigm shift
focused on controlling waste generation and achieving maximum rates of recycling while
raising additional resources to finance waste management.

It has since seen a drastic reduction in MSW generation: from 30.6 million MT in 1990 to
19.3 million MT in 2016. It is now the country with the second-highest recycling rate in the
world (60%) after Germany. It is one of the few countries to separate and recycle food waste.
Meanwhile, landfill and incineration rates have decreased dramatically from 94% in 1990 to
38% in 2016.

“Reduce and Recycle”, however, has not been the only focus of the government. Landfill
recovery projects such as the Nanjido recovery project carried out by the Seoul metropolitan
government in 1999, have successfully transformed hazardous waste sites into sustainable
ecological attractions. Today, the Nanjido site welcomes 10 million visitors a year, and saves
about $600,000 a year by providing landfill gas to be used as boiler fuel. Other municipalities
are following suit: the world’s largest landfill, Sudokwon landfill in Incheon, is currently
being converted into “Dream Park”, a leisure and environmental education centre.

A complementary policy focus has been to harness energy from WTE plants. South Korea
released “Measures For Waste Resource And Biomass Energy” in 2008, which provided
budgetary and technical support to local governments to expand WTE facilities. The world’s
first landfill-powered hydrogen plant was built in South Korea in 2011, and currently over
60% of new and renewable energy is produced from waste—a contrast to India where wind
and solar constitute major renewable energy sources.

A comprehensive yet creative policy mix for effective waste management in South Korea
would not have been possible without political will and strong public demand for cleaner,
healthier living environments. As India’s own economy grows faster and further, the country
will face an insurmountable waste crisis, unless the government puts a high priority on waste
management. We must demand our right to live in a clean and healthy natural environment.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Background
On a recent environmental mission to the central region of the Visayas in the Philippines, via
the German organization “Senior Experten Service” (SES), I had the opportunity to visit the
islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental and Siquijor. During the one-month exploratory
mission, I witnessed the damaging effect of large open solid waste dumps on the environment
and human health. The non-segregated biodegradable and non-biodegradable municipal solid
waste was dumped there over the years, exposing surrounding communities and people
working at the site to bad and toxic smells.

The “open dump” approach is the primitive stage of landfill development and remains the
predominant waste disposal option in most developing countries. It is the oldest form of waste
treatment. A default strategy for municipal solid waste management, open dumps involve
indiscriminate disposal of waste and limited measures to control operations.

As towns grow and produce more waste, and with insufficient and/or inefficient solid waste
collection systems, the environmental impact from open dumps becomes increasingly
intolerable. In many developing countries such dumps are still the primary method of waste
disposal as it is the cheapest and the most convenient. Yet such type of waste disposal can
degrade water, soil and air quality, and can thereby affect human health and causing
ecological harm.

Leachates and landfill gases

Solid waste dumps create new types of waste or pollution. As garbage decomposes, moisture
and rainwater produce a toxic liquid known as leachates. Water passes through the solid waste
dump and extracts dissolved and suspended matter from it, and then slowly migrate down in
the form of leachate to contaminate the groundwater.
Once the contaminant reaches the environment, it is acted on by chemical reactions and
processes that tend to cause it to move within that medium or to move it to another medium.
Chemicals may migrate from the site either by evaporation and then dispersed by winds, and
in the form of leachates that can reach groundwater. Usually groundwater is the main source
of drinking water for the population. If contaminated, less fresh water is available for the
communities. Without remedial measures, open dump sites act as a continuing source of
pollution as illustrated in the picture below:
Landfills also generate gas that is composed of a mixture of hundreds of different gases.
Aerobic and anaerobic bacterial decomposition, volatilization, and chemical reactions are
responsible for the formation of landfill gas. The major and typical gas composition found in
a mature landfill is the following:

Gases % (dry volume)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Methane 45-60
Carbon dioxide 40-60
Nitrogen 2.0-5.0
Oxygen 0.1-1.0
Sulfides, disulfides, mercaptans 0.0-1.0
Ammonia 0.1-1.0
Hydrogen 0.0-0.2
Carbon monoxide 0.0-0.2
Trace constituents (volatile organic compounds) 0.01-0.06

Carbon dioxide and methane are the most potent greenhouse gases responsible for global
warming and climate change.

Odors and health symptoms

People in communities living near or working at landfills are often concerned about odors.
They wonder whether these odors are a source of undesirable health effects, such as
headaches and nausea. At low-level concentrations, as in the case of landfills, it is unclear
whether it is the chemical odors that trigger a response. However, the continued exposure to
landfill odors may result in chronic diseases. They develop slowly over a long period of time.
The symptoms of chronic poisoning occur at low level of contaminants and are usually not
apparent over a long period of time. For example, workers in the asbestos and coal mines, or
people who drink and smoke a lot, develop chronic illnesses, such a respiratory and cardio-
vascular diseases, and different types of cancer. The same diseases can develop from landfill
long-term gas exposure.
Potential landfill gases are sulfides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These
gases can migrate to surrounding communities. Among sulfides, hydrogen sulfide, dimethyl
sulfide and mercaptans are the three most common sulfides responsible for landfill odors.
These gases produce a strong rotten-egg smell, even at very low concentrations. The human
olfactory system is extremely sensitive to hydrogen sulfide and can smell such gas at a
concentration as low as 5 part per billion (ppb).

Ammonia is another odorous landfill gas that is produced by the decomposition of organic
matter. Ammonia is common in the environment and is an important chemical for maintaining
plant and animal life. People are exposed daily to low levels of ammonia coming from the
natural breakdown of manure and dead plants. Humans are much less sensitive to the odor of
ammonia than they are to sulfide odors. The olfactory threshold for ammonia is between
28,000 and 50,000 ppb. Hydrocarbons or VOCs, may also cause odors, but they are usually
emitted at very low concentration and may not pose severe odors problem and health effects.

Upgrading open landfills

An operated or semi-controlled dump is often the first stage in a country’s efforts to upgrade
landfills. Controlled dumps operate with some form of inspection and recording of incoming
wastes and practice extensive compaction of waste. Operated dumps, however, implement
only limited measures to mitigate other environmental impacts. In developing countries, most
operated dumps still practice unmanaged contaminant release and do not take into account
environmental cautionary measures such as leachate and landfill gas management. This is
especially relevant where leachate is produced and is unconstrained by permeable underlying
rock or fissured geology. This issue may be less critical in semi-arid and arid climates, where
dumps do not generate leachate in measurable quantities.
The conversion of open or operated dumps to engineered landfills or sanitary landfills is an
essential step to avoid continuous air and water pollution and future costs from present
mismanagement.

Sanitary landfill
Sanitary Landfills are solid waste dumping sites where waste is isolated from the environment
to prevent air pollution and contamination of land and groundwater.
 The Figure below
illustrates such type of landfill:

Basic conditions should be met before a site can be regarded as a sanitary landfill:

1. If a site cannot be isolated on land, additional lining materials should be brought to the
site to reduce leakage of leachate from the base of the site and help reduce damage to
the ecosystem.
2. If a liner - soil or synthetic - is provided without a system of leachate collection, all
leachate will eventually reach the surrounding environment. Leachate collection and
treatment must be stressed as a basic requirement.
3. A groundwater monitoring system is necessary to prevent contamination of drinking
water.
4. A methane recovering well to use the gas as household fuel or to use it to generate
electricity.
5. A permanent control waste management: training of staff should be based at the
 landfill to supervise the handling of incoming waste, that is, waste location,
segregation of it, covering and the regular maintenance.


The goal of waste management

The goal of waste management is to dispose of solid waste safely and effectively and to
reduce the amount of waste generated. Waste is a sign of inefficiency, so reducing or
preventing it makes economic sense. Waste treatment has a cost, the less waste is generated
by industries and households, the less costs of disposal.

A successful solid waste management policy supports a resource-conserving hierarchy. The

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has ranked the most environmentally
sound strategies for municipal solid waste: (1) Source reduction is the most preferred method,
followed by (2) reuse, (3) recycling, (4) composting, (5) incineration, and finally (6) landfills.
It can be summarized in the figure below:

There are different approaches that industries and consumers can take to achieve source
reduction or waste minimization.

Source reduction involves:

1. Improving manufacturing processes,

2. Minimizing packaging,
3. Purchasing “green product,”
4. Composting household organic matters,
5. Reuse items whenever possible.

Waste that needs to be managed:

 1. Recovering items for recycling and reuse,
2. Recovering material for composting,

Waste disposal involves:

1. Incineration of waste to energy,

2. Waste disposal in landfill.

Classification of waste

For management purposes, solid waste is classified into different categories depending on
their sources:

1) Household waste or municipal waste.

2) Industrial waste as hazardous waste,
3) Biomedical waste or hospital waste as infectious waste.

Basically there is biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste. Biodegradable refers to

any organic waste that is easily biodegraded by bacteria, either in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions (with or without oxygen). The chemical industry deals also with hazardous waste
that has even a more toxic effect on the environment and human health.

All this waste can be classified in four different broad categories: (1) Organic waste (kitchen
waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits, etc.); (2) toxic waste (old medicines, paints,
chemicals, bulbs, spray cans, fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, etc.); (3) recyclable
or reuse waste (paper, glass, metals, plastics, electronics, etc.); and (4) hospital solid waste.
Among all types of solid waste, packaging represents about 50% by volume.

Incineration waste to energy

When waste that cannot be recycled or reused, it can be safely incinerated, with landfill
disposal only used as a last resort. Both these methods need close monitoring of air emission
and possible groundwater contamination because of their potential for causing severe
environmental damage.

Incineration reduces the stress on landfills, but they create other environmental side-effects.
The ashes must be disposed of, either at a landfill, or if they are toxic, at a hazardous waste
facility. The waste to energy process is illustrated below: Incinerating waste generates heat,
which then transformed water into steam that will turn turbines to generate electricity.

Burning waste also produces air contaminants that must be treated with expensive air
pollution control equipment to avoid contributing to acid rain, ozone depletion and air
pollution.

The construction of an incineration facility not only involves proper treatment of the resulting
combustion gases, but also requires adequate air emission legislation. This concerns
contaminants such as: VOCs, SO2, NOx (NO+NO2), HCl, HF, methane, dioxins, heavy
metals and dust. In Europe the standard limits of these contaminants are very severe in order
to mitigate their impact on the environment. If this legislation is not severe enough or
incomplete, air pollution continues.

Resources recovery policy

Without a sound and reinforced waste recovery policy, reducing solid waste at the source will
not work. Here the government and local authorities have a major role to play in
implementing such policy. The policy must integrate appropriate resource-recovery practices
in order to minimize the amount of solid waste that requires disposal, and that increases the
use of reused and recycled materials.

The goal of the policy must be the following:

1. Incorporate solid waste reduction by resource recovery into waste management activities of
industries, citizens and governments.
2. Integrate a waste management hierarchy as follows:
 Reduce the amount of solid waste created,
 Reuse, recycle and compost,
 Recover landfill gases,
 Incinerate or dispose of in sanitary landfill.

3. Facilitate the use of recycled material and encourage the development of such markets.
4. Give technical and financial assistance for alternative waste treatment technologies, and
promote legislation consistent with resource-recovery policy
.
European solid municipal waste treatment methods
The picture below illustrates the different municipal waste treatment methods used in Europe.

Source: Eurostat, 2009

The chart is divided into: recycling, composting, incineration, and landfill disposal. If we look
at the two charts concerning the methods used in Poland and Germany, we realize that the
former has the least inefficient solid waste management method, that is, most of the solid
waste goes to landfills, with little recycling and no incineration. On the other hand, we have
Germany, with the most efficient treatment methods, that is, recycling is the most important,
followed by incineration, then composting and finally very little going to landfills. The latter
meaning that what goes into the landfill, is ultimate waste, that cannot be recycled, reused,
composted or incinerated. Efficient solid waste management also means reduction of
greenhouse gases.
Various Sources of Solid Waste

Everyday, tonnes of solid waste is disposed off at various landfill sites. This waste comes
from homes, offices, industries and various other agricultural related activities. These landfill
sites produce foul smell if waste is not stored and treated properly. It can pollute the
surrounding air and can seriously affect the health of humans, wildlife and our environment.
The following are major sources of solid waste:

Residential

Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid waste.
Garbage from these places include food wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard,
metals, yard wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky household items like electronics,
tires, batteries, old mattresses and used oil. Most homes have garbage bins where they can
throw away their solid wastes in and later the bin is emptied by a garbage collecting firm or
person for treatment.

Industrial

Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors of solid waste. They include light
and heavy manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants,
power and chemical plants. These industries produce solid waste in form of housekeeping
wastes, food wastes, packaging wastes, ashes, construction and demolition materials, special
wastes, medical wastes as well as other hazardous wastes.

Commercial

Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today. Commercial
buildings and facilities in this case refer to hotels, markets, restaurants, go downs, stores and
office buildings. Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics, food
wastes, metals, paper, glass, wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous
wastes.
Institutional

The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other
government centers also produce solid waste. Some of the common solid wastes obtained
from these places include glass, rubber waste, plastics, food wastes, wood, paper, metals,
cardboard materials, electronics as well as various hazardous wastes.

Construction and Demolition Areas

Construction sites and demolition sites also contribute to the solid waste problem.
Construction sites include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair sites,
building renovation sites and building demolition sites. Some of the solid wastes produced in
these places include steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics, rubber, copper wires, dirt and
glass.

Municipal services

The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most countries today.
Some of the solid waste brought about by the municipal services include, street cleaning,
wastes from parks and beaches, wastewater treatment plants, landscaping wastes and wastes
from recreational areas including sludge.

Treatment Plants and Sites

Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste. They include refineries,
power plants, processing plants, mineral extraction plants and chemicals plants. Among the
wastes produced by these plants include, industrial process wastes, unwanted specification
products, plastics, metal parts just to mention but a few.

Agriculture

Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes. Among
the wastes they produce include agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and
other hazardous materials.
Biomedical

This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing firms. In
hospitals there are different types of solid wastes produced. Some of these solid wastes
include syringes, bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food wastes and chemicals.
All these require proper disposal or else they will cause a huge problem to the environment
and the people in these facilities.

Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management

Due to improper waste disposal systems particularly by municipal waste management teams,
wastes heap up and become a problem. People clean their homes and places of work and litter
their surroundings which affects the environment and the community.

This type of dumping of waste materials forces biodegradable materials to rot and decompose
under improper, unhygienic and uncontrolled conditions. After a few days of decomposition,
a foul smell is produced and it becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease
causing insects as well as infectious organisms. On top of that, it also spoils the aesthetic
value of the area.

Solid wastes from industries are a source of toxic metals, hazardous wastes, and chemicals.
When released to the environment, the solid wastes can cause biological and
physicochemical problems to the environment and may affect or alter the productivity of
the soils in that particular area.

Toxic materials and chemicals may seep into the soil and pollute the ground water.
During the process of collecting solid waste, the hazardous wastes usually mix with ordinary
garbage and other flammable wastes making the disposal process even harder and risky.

When hazardous wastes like pesticides, batteries containing lead, mercury or zinc, cleaning
solvents, radioactive materials, e-waste and plastics are mixed up with paper and other scraps
are burned they produce dioxins and gasses. These toxic gases have a potential of causing
various diseases including cancer.
Methods of Solid Waste Management

There are different methods of solid waste management. The following are some of the
recognized methods:

Sanitary Landfill

This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Garbage is basically spread
out in thin layers, compressed and covered with soil or plastic foam. Modern landfills are
designed in such a way that the bottom of the landfill is covered with an impervious liner
which is usually made of several layers of thick plastic and sand. This liner protects the
ground water from being contaminated because of leaching or percolation. When the landfill
is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay, top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

Incineration

This method involves burning of solid wastes at high temperatures until the wastes are turned
into ashes. Incinerators are made in such a way that they do not give off extreme amounts of
heat when burning solid wastes. This method of solid waste management can be done by
individuals, municipalities and even institutions. The good thing about this method is the fact
that it reduces the volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of the original volume.

Recovery and Recycling

Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but discarded items for next
use. Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before they are recycled. The
process aims at reducing energy loss, consumption of new material and reduction of landfills.

Composting

Due to lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to decompose
in a medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste materials are used in
composting. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is formed from the compost and
can be used for agricultural purposes.
Pyrolysis

This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically decomposed
by heat without presence of oxygen. This usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures
of up to 430 degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gasses, solid residue and
small quantities of liquid.

In summary, proper solid waste management is an integral part of environmental conservation

that should be observed by individuals and companies globally. This will keep the
environment clean and reduce health and settlement problems.

Early waste disposal

In ancient cities, wastes were thrown onto unpaved streets and roadways, where they were left
to accumulate. It was not until 320 bce in Athens that the first known law forbidding this
practice was established. At that time a system for waste removal began to evolve in Greece
and in the Greek-dominated cities of the eastern Mediterranean. In ancient Rome, property
owners were responsible for cleaning the streets fronting their property. But organized waste
collection was associated only with state-sponsored events such as parades. Disposal methods
were very crude, involving open pits located just outside the city walls. As populations
increased, efforts were made to transport waste farther out from the cities.

After the fall of Rome, waste collection and municipal sanitation began a decline that lasted
throughout the Middle Ages. Near the end of the 14th century, scavengers were given the task
of carting waste to dumps outside city walls. But this was not the case in smaller towns,
where most people still threw waste into the streets. It was not until 1714 that every city in
England was required to have an official scavenger. Toward the end of the 18th century in
America, municipal collection of garbage was begun in Boston, New York City, and
Philadelphia. Waste disposal methods were still very crude, however. Garbage collected in
Philadelphia, for example, was simply dumped into the Delaware River downstream from the
city.

Developments in waste management

A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of the
19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and sturdier
vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in solid-waste
treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first refuse incinerator
in England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of major American cities
were incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest cities were still using
primitive disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the
development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By
mid-century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of
solid waste were causing problems of pollution and jeopardizing public health. As a result,
sanitary landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to reduce the
reliance on waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two categories,
hazardous and nonhazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their disposal.
Landfills were designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public health and
the environment. New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy from the
waste and were provided with extensive air pollution control devices to satisfy stringent
standards of air quality. Modern solid-waste management plants in most developed countries
now emphasize the practice of recycling and waste reduction at the source rather than
incineration and land disposal.

Solid-waste characteristics

Composition and properties

The sources of solid waste include residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial
activities. Certain types of wastes that cause immediate danger to exposed individuals or
environments are classified as hazardous; these are discussed in the article hazardous-waste
management. All nonhazardous solid waste from a community that requires collection and
transport to a processing or disposal site is called refuse or municipal solid waste (MSW).
Refuse includes garbage and rubbish. Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste; rubbish is
mostly dry material such as glass, paper, cloth, or wood. Garbage is highly putrescible or
decomposable, whereas rubbish is not. Trash is rubbish that includes bulky items such as old
refrigerators, couches, or large tree stumps. Trash requires special collection and handling.
Construction and demolition (C&D) waste (or debris) is a significant component of total solid
waste quantities (about 20 percent in the United States), although it is not considered to be
part of the MSW stream. However, because C&D waste is inert and nonhazardous, it is
usually disposed of in municipal sanitary landfills (see below).

Another type of solid waste, perhaps the fastest-growing component in many developed
countries, is electronic waste, or e-waste, which includes discarded computer equipment,
televisions, telephones, and a variety of other electronic devices. In 2006 e-waste made up 5
percent of the total solid waste stream, and the United Nations Environment Programme
estimated that developed countries would triple their output of e-waste by 2010. Concern over
this type of waste is escalating. Lead, mercury, and cadmium are among the materials of
concern in electronic devices, and governmental policies may be required to regulate their
recycling and disposal.

Solid-waste characteristics vary considerably among communities and nations. American

refuse is usually lighter, for example, than European or Japanese refuse. In the United States
paper and paperboard products make up close to 40 percent of the total weight of MSW; food
waste accounts for less than 10 percent. The rest is a mixture of yard trimmings, wood, glass,
metal, plastic, leather, cloth, and other miscellaneous materials. In a loose or uncompacted
state, MSW of this type weighs approximately 120 kg per cubic metre (200 pounds per cubic
yard). These figures vary with geographic location, economic conditions, season of the year,
and many other factors. Waste characteristics from each community must be studied carefully
before any treatment or disposal facility is designed and built.

Generation and storage

Rates of solid-waste generation vary widely. In the United States, for example, municipal
refuse is generated at an average rate of approximately 2 kg (4.4 pounds) per person per day.
Japan generates roughly half this amount, yet in Canada the rate is 3 kg (almost 7 pounds) per
person per day. In some developing countries (e.g., India) the average rate can be lower than
0.5 kg (1 pound) per person per day. These data include refuse from commercial, institutional,
and industrial as well as residential sources. The actual rates of refuse generation must be
carefully determined when a community plans a solid-waste management project.
Most communities require household refuse to be stored in durable, easily cleaned containers
with tight-fitting covers in order to minimize rodent or insect infestation and offensive odours.
Galvanized metal or plastic containers of about 115-litre (30-gallon) capacity are commonly
used, although some communities employ larger containers that can be mechanically lifted
and emptied into collection trucks. Plastic bags are frequently used as liners or as disposable
containers for curbside collection. Where large quantities of refuse are generated—such as at
shopping centres, hotels, or apartment buildings—dumpsters may be used for temporary
storage until the waste is collected. Some office and commercial buildings use on-site
compactors to reduce the waste volume.

Solid-waste collection

Collecting and transporting

Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and
environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-
quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to
the task, but sometimes it is more economical for private companies to do the work under
contract to the municipality or for private collectors to be paid by individual home owners. A
driver and one or two loaders serve each collection vehicle. These are typically trucks of the
enclosed, compacting type, with capacities up to 30 cubic metres (40 cubic yards). Loading
can be done from the front, rear, or side. Compaction reduces the volume of refuse in the
truck to less than half of its loose volume.

The task of selecting an optimal collection route is a complex problem, especially for large
and densely populated cities. An optimal route is one that results in the most efficient use of
labour and equipment, and selecting such a route requires the application of computer
analyses that account for all the many design variables in a large and complex network.
Variables include frequency of collection, haulage distance, type of service, and climate.
Collection of refuse in rural areas can present a special problem, since the population
densities are low, leading to high unit costs.

Refuse collection usually occurs at least once per week because of the rapid decomposition of
food waste. The amount of garbage in the refuse of an individual home can be reduced by
garbage grinders, or garbage disposals. Ground garbage puts an extra load on sewerage
systems, but this can usually be accommodated. Many communities now conduct source
separation and recycling programs, in which homeowners and businesses separate recyclable
materials from garbage and place them in separate containers for collection. In addition, some
communities have drop-off centres where residents can bring recyclables.

Transfer stations

If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or
more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse
from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger vehicle, such as a tractor-trailer unit.
Open-top trailers are designed to carry about 76 cubic metres (100 cubic yards) of
uncompacted waste to a regional processing or disposal location. Closed compactor-type
trailers are also available, but they must be equipped with ejector mechanisms. In a direct
discharge type of station, several collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle. In
a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first emptied into a storage pit or onto a platform,
and then machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into the transport vehicle. Large
transfer stations can handle more than 500 tons of refuse per day.

Solid-waste treatment and disposal

Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and
weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and
makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy,
for recycling or reuse.

Incineration

Furnace operation

Burning is a very effective method of reducing the volume and weight of solid waste. In
modern incinerators the waste is burned inside a properly designed furnace under very
carefully controlled conditions. The combustible portion of the waste combines with oxygen,
releasing mostly carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. Incineration can reduce the volume
of uncompacted waste by more than 90 percent, leaving an inert residue of ash, glass, metal,
and other solid materials called bottom ash. The gaseous by-products of incomplete
combustion, along with finely divided particulate material called fly ash, are carried along in
the incinerator airstream. Fly ash includes cinders, dust, and soot. In order to remove fly ash
and gaseous by-products before they are exhausted into the atmosphere, modern incinerators
must be equipped with extensive emission control devices. Such devices include fabric
baghouse filters, acid gas scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators. (See also air pollution
control.) Bottom ash and fly ash are usually combined and disposed of in a landfill. If the ash
is found to contain toxic metals, it must be managed as a hazardous waste.

Municipal solid-waste incinerators are designed to receive and burn a continuous supply of
refuse. A deep refuse storage pit, or tipping area, provides enough space for about one day of
waste storage. The refuse is lifted from the pit by a crane equipped with a bucket or grapple
device. It is then deposited into a hopper and chute above the furnace and released onto a
charging grate or stoker. The grate shakes and moves waste through the furnace, allowing air
to circulate around the burning material. Modern incinerators are usually built with a
rectangular furnace, although rotary kiln furnaces and vertical circular furnaces are available.
Furnaces are constructed of refractory bricks that can withstand the high combustion
temperatures.

Combustion in a furnace occurs in two stages: primary and secondary. In primary

combustion, moisture is driven off, and the waste is ignited and volatilized. In secondary
combustion, the remaining unburned gases and particulates are oxidized, eliminating odours
and reducing the amount of fly ash in the exhaust. When the refuse is very moist, auxiliary
gas or fuel oil is sometimes burned to start the primary combustion.

In order to provide enough oxygen for both primary and secondary combustion, air must be
thoroughly mixed with the burning refuse. Air is supplied from openings beneath the grates or
is admitted to the area above. The relative amounts of this underfire air and overfire air must
be determined by the plant operator to achieve good combustion efficiency. A continuous
flow of air can be maintained by a natural draft in a tall chimney or by mechanical forced-
draft fans.

Energy recovery

The energy value of refuse can be as much as one-third that of coal, depending on the paper
content, and the heat given off during incineration can be recovered by the use of a refractory-
lined furnace coupled to a boiler. Boilers convert the heat of combustion into steam or hot
water, thus allowing the energy content of the refuse to be recycled. Incinerators that recycle
heat energy in this way are called waste-to-energy plants. Instead of a separate furnace and
boiler, a water-tube wall furnace may also be used for energy recovery. Such a furnace is
lined with vertical steel tubes spaced closely enough to form continuous sections of wall. The
walls are insulated on the outside in order to reduce heat loss. Water circulating through the
tubes absorbs heat to produce steam, and it also helps to control combustion temperatures
without the need for excessive air, thus lowering air pollution control costs.

Waste-to-energy plants operate as either mass burn or refuse-derived fuel systems. A mass
burn system uses all the refuse, without prior treatment or preparation. A refuse-derived fuel
system separates combustible wastes from noncombustibles such as glass and metal before
burning. If a turbine is installed at the plant, both steam and electricity can be produced in a
process called cogeneration.

Waste-to-energy systems are more expensive to build and operate than plain incinerators
because of the need for special equipment and controls, highly skilled technical personnel,
and auxiliary fuel systems. On the other hand, the sale of generated steam or electricity offsets
much of the extra cost, and recovery of heat energy from refuse is a viable solid-waste
management option from both an engineering and an economic point of view. About 80
percent of municipal refuse incinerators in the United States are waste-to-energy facilities.

Composting

Another method of treating municipal solid waste is composting, a biological process in

which the organic portion of refuse is allowed to decompose under carefully controlled
conditions. Microbes metabolize the organic waste material and reduce its volume by as much
as 50 percent. The stabilized product is called compost or humus. It resembles potting soil in
texture and odour and may be used as a soil conditioner or mulch.

Composting offers a method of processing and recycling both garbage and sewage sludge in
one operation. As more stringent environmental rules and siting constraints limit the use of
solid-waste incineration and landfill options, the application of composting is likely to
increase. The steps involved in the process include sorting and separating, size reduction, and
digestion of the refuse.
Sorting and shredding

The decomposable materials in refuse are isolated from glass, metal, and other inorganic
items through sorting and separating operations. These are carried out mechanically, using
differences in such physical characteristics of the refuse as size, density, and magnetic
properties. Shredding or pulverizing reduces the size of the waste articles, resulting in a
uniform mass of material. It is accomplished with hammer mills and rotary shredders.

Digesting and processing

Pulverized waste is ready for composting either by the open windrow method or in an
enclosed mechanical facility. Windrows are long, low mounds of refuse. They are turned or
mixed every few days to provide air for the microbes digesting the organics. Depending on
moisture conditions, it may take five to eight weeks for complete digestion of the waste.
Because of the metabolic action of aerobic bacteria, temperatures in an active compost pile
reach about 65 °C (150 °F), killing pathogenic organisms that may be in the waste material.

Open windrow composting requires relatively large land areas. Enclosed mechanical
composting facilities can reduce land requirements by about 85 percent. Mechanical
composting systems employ one or more closed tanks or digesters equipped with rotating
vanes that mix and aerate the shredded waste. Complete digestion of the waste takes about
one week.

Digested compost must be processed before it can be used as a mulch or soil conditioner.
Processing includes drying, screening, and granulating or pelletizing. These steps improve the
market value of the compost, which is the most serious constraint to the success of
composting as a waste management option. Agricultural demand for digested compost is
usually low because of the high cost of transporting it and because of competition with
inorganic chemical fertilizers.

Sanitary landfill

Land disposal is the most common management strategy for municipal solid waste. Refuse
can be safely deposited in a sanitary landfill, a disposal site that is carefully selected,
designed, constructed, and operated to protect the environment and public health. One of the
most important factors relating to landfilling is that the buried waste never comes in contact
with surface water or groundwater. Engineering design requirements include a minimum
distance between the bottom of the landfill and the seasonally high groundwater table. Most
new landfills are required to have an impermeable liner or barrier at the bottom, as well as a
system of groundwater-monitoring wells. Completed landfill sections must be capped with an
impermeable cover to keep precipitation or surface runoff away from the buried waste.
Bottom and cap liners may be made of flexible plastic membranes, layers of clay soil, or a
combination of both.

Conclusion

In the context that the Visayas region of the Philippines wants to promote tourism, sustainable
solid waste management must be developed. First, existing local environmental legislation
must be reviewed, changed or improved, and reinforced, in the context of the reality on the
ground. An inventory and the development of an analytical database of the existing waste
practices is necessary. It is important to know (1) how much waste is generated, (2) how it is
handled, (3) where it is disposed of, and (4) its impact on the environment and human health.
Without a clear idea of what exists, it is difficult to set objectives and targets on how to
improved the situation. The current practices are not anymore acceptable as it leads to more
water and air pollution. In the long run, pollution has a high cost: long term pollution leads to
increasing human health and environmental damaging costs.

Based on the inventory and proper legislation, the questions to be asked is what type of waste
management method should be adopted on the islands of Cebu, Bohol, Negros Oriental and
Sequijor? It is clear that the open dump practices must be stopped. But replaced with what,
sanitary landfills, incineration waste to energy or simply upgrading current waste disposal
practices? Which one is feasible in the context of the legislation, investment budget,
economics, and the opinion of the surrounding communities, in order to be able to promote a
clean island?

If the final decision is between a sanitary landfill or incineration, the current waste handling
method must first be improved by source reduction, reuse, recycling and composting
practices. Waste segregation is very important in order to minimize the amount of waste that
should be disposed of in landfill or incinerated. The better the segregation, the more waste can
be reuse and recycled. In view that the islands have limited space, the growing cost of land,
and a growing population generating more waste, the construction of sanitary landfills may
not be the best solution.

Another issue to be considered is the rehabilitation of old landfills. What to do with the open
dumps that continue to generate air and water pollution? The best way would be to use the
waste to energy method to rehabilitate the land as quickly as possible. In this context, the
German approach of prioritizing first reuse and recycling, then incineration and composting,
and only landfill disposal as a last resource may seem to be most appropriate.
References:

1. Jean Faullimmel, Environmental mission to Cebu, Philippines, May 2011.

2. Rene Burt Llanto, Head of Depart. of Science and Technology, Cebu.
3. S. Brennan and J. Withgott, “Environment” Pearson, 2004.
4. P.L. Bishop “Pollution Prevention” McGraw-Hill, 2000.
5. Agency for toxic substances and disease Registry.
6. US Environmental Protection Agency.