Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
any student of religion of Sampou for the fact that it is the first Christian
system of beliefs and practices based on the Old Testament and the
Christianity hold that Jesus is the Son of God and is the second person of
the Trinity through whom humans may attain redemption from sin
1
(Collins 2003). The religion, Christianity, has widely spread to every part
of the world, and this spread has gone into the fabric of the traditions and
and women both foreign and local who sacrificed their time, money and
everything for the propagation of the gospel of our Lord Christ. “The
history of the Anglican Church, that being the Mater Ecclesia (“Mother
state the fact that the Anglicans were the first to enter Izonland with the
gospel to cause people to serve the Almighty God. They also brought
education along with the word of God to the people of the area.
Bayelsa State.
2
1.2 Statement of Problem
advancing age when people are less concerned about the past but mostly
the present and the future, it is imperative to leave a legacy of the past as
it has been stated that a people who has no knowledge of their past are
like those suffering from collective amnesia. Thus, history of the past is
important because he, who controls the past, controls the future. Thus, it
daunting and maiden task due to the paucity of information which has
many persons are losing their history. This concern is one of the issues
and impact of this church in the community have made this study
3
4. How has the church impacted Sampou community?
These questions will guide the study under which its roles and functions
Sampou. The importance of this study is hinged on the fact that the
4
significance in the community society or nation. This is
today.
the people's culture. This was not the case during the pre-Christian era.
and the Izonnation for the maintenance, preservation and continuity of the
values, norms, and beliefs of the people will not totally fade away or be
to study when this historical fact and event were introduced into the
Sampou community.
Lastly, the importance and impact of the church in any society will be
5
loss of most of the Ijaw traditions and customs (culture) that were much
knowledge in this area for students and researchers who may have
This will also help to emphasize the need to encourage and revive the
respect and regard for the Anglican Church that is waning in its influence
as a result of somuch religious and other factors that have occurred over
the years.
implies that a major source of information for this research will be from
journals, books, and the Internet. Oral interviews and questionnaire were
6
1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study
Church in Sampou as the focal point of the study. Thus, the scope will
also be limited to the Sampou community and the St. Peter’s Anglican
Of course lack of funds and time frame is bound to equally hinder the
7
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Introduction
This chapter is a review of the literature related to the study. The review
is focused on the key concepts of this study. There is some written on the
particularly by historians and social scientist that have researched into the
general history of the sub-region. Apart from that, other scholars have
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the
Word was God. The God of Christianity is a supreme being, his word is
the ultimate truth, and his power is omnipotent. Its followers worship him
word meaning ‘The anointed’ the Greek term for which was ‘Christ’-
waited by the Jews. Paul, a Greek Speaking Roman citizen, was a major
the Greek Septuagint, Christo was used to translate the Hebrew (Masiah,
equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such
Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah of the
(http:/ien.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity).
9
The Term Christian
Nazareth. The term “Christian” derives from the Koine Greek word Chris
officials to the West African coast. Several churches were built to serve
abolish the slave trade, significant missionary activity was renewed only
in the 1840s and was confined for some time to the area between Lagos
10
and Ibadan. The first missions there were opened by the Church of
Catholic missionaries were particularly active among the Igbo, the CMS
liberated Yoruba slave, had been educated in Sierra Leone and in Britain,
where he was ordained before returning to his homeland with the first
grown too lax during Crowther's episcopate but especially because of the
11
Nevertheless, the acceptance of Christianity by large numbers of
political and strategic factors, the psychological and cultural factors. In all
these, the cultural factors were most closely related to this discourse.
12
evangelical arm of the Church of England (Anglican Communion) made
its inroad to many parts, using Sierra Leon as a base and outreach station.
The arrow-head that spearheaded the work of the CMS in this region was
inhuman slave trade in the west coast of Africa. Crowther was captured
sent to Sierra Leone. This opened a new chapter in the life of Crowther.
from being very religious was also dedicated, committed and vibrant in
his evangelical mission. He became the first African Bishop to pastor the
region of the Niger Delta. It was the CMS of England under the aegis of
Bishop Samuel Crowther that the first Christian mission was established
in Bonny in 1865 in the Niger Delta. It is necessary to note that the first
Christian mission established its first station at Akassa but faded away
Twon-Brass station. On September 29, 1867 the Bishop and his son,
Dandeson were traveling in a boat from Ida after their deliverance from
13
the hand of chief Abokkho and met King Josiah Constantine Ockiya,
have appealed to the Bishop in these words “God-man the tory way you
town. The Bishop accepted and set in motion the plan to return and met
Ockiya and his chiefs at Twon where he concluded agreement with them.
The chiefs contribute £200 being one third of the amount required for the
project. A site was provided at the river bank and cleared, and the second
station in the Niger Delta and first in the central Niger Delta was
established at Twon Brass on the 25th of August 1868. The school was on
adjunct of the church was established on the same day. Seventy persons
attended the opening service and seventeen students were enrolled at the
school J.R Dewing and S.B. prided, the resident at Akassa came to Twon-
Johnson served the Brass mission for about sixteen years and died on the
14th of April 1884, and was buried in the mission yard at Twon-
Brass(Eke-Spiff, 1990).
The church was thus planted at Twon-Brass initially; the church building
was constructed with bamboo pole and thatch roof. Later a wooden
14
structure was erected, covered with galvanized sheets. The building was
house was also erected, part of which served as classroom for the pupils.
enlarged chapel was dedicated and the same “Saint Barnabas” was
imported a prefabricated iron church from England which was fitted and
dedicated on the 10th of October, 1886. This mission at its inception was
confined to Twon, but was extended to Nembe and its environs, which
were for a long time noted as the most successful mission in the Niger
Delta.
In 1879 shortly before his death king Ockiya destroyed his traditional
images, sent away his numerous wives but one and was baptized as
1895, at about the time of the raid on the Royal Niger Company depot at
follow: “some years ago the Christians have now gone back to fetishism,
among these king Koko, the reason for this being that they had lost faith
in the white man’s God, who had allowed them to be oppressed and their
15
without just cause or reason (quoted in Isichei 1983).
society sipped to Okpoam where a church was founded and in 1921 got to
spread to the other towns and villages on cape Formosa Island and Akassa
(Ama-Ogbari 2014).
As Christianity spread to Nembe speaking areas, the Ogbia and Ijaw areas
carried the word of God along with them. These traders built places of
traders invited their Ogbia and Ijaw customers to join these worships,
Christianity in these areas was not in doubt. The spontaneous spread and
acceptance of the Christian religion in the Ogbia area was fantastic and
Okoroba, Idema, Opumatubu and later the towns in Kolo creek and
16
Anyama in 1911. Much later Christianity also penetrated to places such
In the Ijaw area of the lower central Delta, Christianity started gaining
ground around from 1912 when Rev. S.S Williams, the pastor in charge of
Sambo and others to constantly visit this area for evangelism. As a result
of the rapid increase in the churches and the enthusiasm exhibited by the
remained until it was merged with the upper Central Niger-Delta Ijaw
C.M.S to form a district of its own. The headquarters was sited at Kaiama
and Rev. G.I. Amangala became its first superintendent. The Rev. H
17
Kaiama is a principal town in Northern Izon, a springboard of
Christianity in the area. Kaiama received the gospel in 1892; and since
then, she has continued to be the mater ecclesia in the Northern Izon axis
refused to return even when his father the King died in 1900.
up the Creeks and rivers to spread Christianity and open schools. Fetepigi
Amaran turned down the appeal but he helped them make a sketch,
indicating creeks, towns and villages along the routes they should follow
Sierra Leonean) and Reeks. Other CMS missionaries that later joined
18
their boat with Christian and primary educational books andstarted their
journey up the creeks and rivers through the help of the sketch drawn.
They called at almost all towns and villages indicated along the routes as
indicated on the sketch and introduced their mission, but they were
rejected. The natives told them that they were not interested and that if it
they could have received them. At each town and village they called, the
reply was the same until they reached Kaiama.At Kaiama, the natives
with pleasure, received them and order their luggage to be carried into his
palace.
rearing its heads in the minds of all the people of Kaiama about the
arrival of the missionaries invited all the elders to his palace and
addressed the elders briefly on their mission and served them with
biscuits, milk, corned beef, sardine etc. They also served all the children,
who were equally curious and were watching from outside the palace.
Both old and young in the town were impressed. Acquaintance, as could
19
and old and started teaching them the scriptures and alternatively, taught
When the missionaries saw that the impact of their mission was well felt
immediately went into action by consulting his elders and gave land to
them owned by the Amaran Family on the South, and on the North,
owned by the Ereweri Family. It is the very space of land St. Mark’s
building with mud walls without delay was put up. Normal school classes
during week days and church activities on Sundays were held in the same
Odi, Opokuma North and South, Sampou (the focus of this research) and
other townsand villages for the interest of their mission. From Kaiama,
they also went to Patani and established a base there too. Eventually,
Kaiama became the Headquarters of the upper Ijaw mission while Patani
20
served as the Headquarters overseeing the Isoko District (Ama-ogbari,
2014). From there, the gospel was taken to most of the remaining Ijaw
communities in the Niger Delta area. This was how Christianity spread in
Missionary Society (CMS) finally left after laboring against all odds and
were built by the CMS for the accommodation. When they left, Mark
Lele who was then an Agent was posted to Kaiama. He was very diligent
Amaran as an ordained Priest fell ill and eventually died in July, 1927. On
the orders of Catechist Mark Lele (later Revd.), Fetepigi Amaran was
Education
21
and understanding of Christianity, missionaries worked to translate
However to read the newly translated Bible, people needed to learn how
missionaries went, they opened schools. At first, the main focus of these
believed that the ability to read the Bible was of vital importance in the
conversion process.
full primary and secondary schooling. While these schools were available
spend money on education for their subjects. They laid the foundation for
education in all the communities the church had set up a mission. It was
less than 100 years ago that the government started involving itself in
Health Work
and sometimes remote areas. Most of the original hospitals in the area
22
were established by the Christian missions and the doctors were
spreading the gospel through helping the sick and those with different
maladies.
Superstitious Beliefs
land, there have been huge changes in the amount of superstitious beliefs
disease and human fate as subject to the whims of various gods. There
sexual abuse and violence were rampant. Africa today, (particularly the
freedom are all improving. Of course, the picture is not all rosy. Africa
23
has clearly not completely taken hold in Africa.Of course, it has not done
contribution to our laws, our economics, our politics, our arts, our
calendars, our holidays, and our moral and cultural priorities (practices)
that historian J.M Roberts writes in Triumph of the West, ‘We could none
ago had not believed that they had known a great teacher, seen him
crucified, dead, and buried and then rise again’ (from the book what’s so
(Ijaw) are anthropocentric in the sense that all the religious practices
invariably point to one objective, namely, human life and its preservation.
Prayers and sacrifices offered to the gods and the ancestors all have one
was not until the advent of Christianity and its interaction with the native
human beings, irrespective of race or ethnic origin, are seen and accepted
as members of this extended family, that is, as children of God and hence
members of one family. In other words, man is now given his value
24
simply because he is man, and is not discriminated against because he
hails from a different area. Some aspects of African culture have been
longer destroyed, that their mothers are no longer tabooed and ostracized,
sacrifices have been dropped, and that the frequent local community
feuds and bloody clashes have been immensely reduced or, in some
for husbands and love for wives, assures social security, and checks
church, has added more expenses on the already expensive marriage the
25
Ijaw people have (Canon E.I 1982).
are still a common practice that is not frowned at. Marriage ceremonies
a wife is taken away from her parents. Basically there are three
of marriage where fathers have full claim over their children. Dowries
are paid and rich men are determined in the dark days by the number of
of slave trade and do not feel disposed to give their daughters by this
married under this system are not returned to their parents’ homes, which
is avoided by most parents. In the past, before women that are married
26
guns and carrying of the girl on shoulder bridges where performed. These
husband and the female to the wife and her people. Dowries from
form of marriage which is becoming obsolete and fast dying out in Izon
land.
3. Kala-Ikiya: Kala-ikiya which has now taken a simple from, Ikiya could
sterling) are paid. All issues from this system of marriage belong to the
wife and her people; yet young men of the present age prefer this form of
marriage and contract it more than any other form, as children of the
present age are not inclined to leave their father’s land for their mother’s.
Although bride price now varies from family to family, according to the
27
marriages. Then the man may add any money on top. However, in case of
most natives may not afford the cost of the Christian wedding which is
Burial Practices
The Ijaw practice is to bury an elderly person soon after death with
preliminary ceremonies; after a year or more the second burial takes place
second burial which helps the spirit of the departed individual to join and
rest happily with the ancestors in the land of the ancestral bliss. Without it
the spirit of the living of the departed hovers about in the air and may
harm its kindred living members. But once the second burial is
performed, the spirit of the departed assumes his place in the land of
ancestral ecstasy where he can plead affectively with the gods for the
28
discarded all due to the teaching of Christian values by the church in the
been crystal clear. Ignorance and superstition have been put to flight after
29
CHAPTER THREE
Bayelsa State of Nigeria. Sampou is situated between the Nun River and
Okodia clan down the Tailor Creek and on the west by Kalama
located between latitude 5.2 north of the Equator and longitude 6.05 east
of the prime meridian at the upper apex of the Niger Delta branch of the
Nun River, a tributary of River Niger which flows through the Sagbama
Professor Ebiegberi J. Alagoa in his book " The Land and People of
Bayelsa State Central Niger Delta 1999" asserts that Bayelsa State is
located in the heart of the Niger Delta and described it as Central Niger
30
Delta.
3. 2 Vegetation
enriched with the three layers equatorial forest strata and blessed with a
variety of trees species. The upper stratum is occupied mostly by very tall
trees such as African green, Mahogany, Obeche, while the middle stratum
is usually occupied by trees that are f average height like the oil and
raphia palms while the third and lower stratum is covered with shrubs
such as Alligator pepper and young plants yet to attain maturity. The
upper layer usually forms a natural canopy by the joining of the crowns
of the huge trees enabling the forest floor to be cool and less dense
E n g l i s h n a m e Scientific name L o c a l n a m e
A f r i c a n G r e e n Cyclicodicu gabunensis E g i n e y e n
M a h o g a n y Khaya ivorensis K u r u
O b e c h e Triplochiton scleroxylon A k p o w e i
O i l P a l m t r e e Elasesis guinesis L o o - t e i n
S i l k c o t t o n Ceiba pentandra I s i s a g h a
A f a r a Macrophyla ciliatra I w o n o
R a p h i a p a l m Raphia vinifera I t o b o
G r e e n o f P a r a d i s e Afriamomoum melegueta Alligator pepper
B u s h M a n g o Irvingia gabonensia O g b o i n
Source (Tamuno, 2007).
31
Many of the trees, plants and grasses are of vital economic and medicinal
value. The forest is also home to a lot wild animals and game which are
regularly hunted by local hunters through traps and other means and are
urbanization has brought about a great depletion of the forest through the
felling of trees for planks and timber, clearing of the land for farming and
construction of houses have all reduced the rich vegetation which had
Sampou is situated on a relatively flat plain. Its average height above sea
`level is less than 15m and in most places, it is less than 10m above sea
level (Oyegun, 1999). This is the major reason why the land experiences
the annual flooding from April to November. The soil in the area is
mostly clayey, through loamy and sandy soils and is very fertile
flooding.
climate and two major seasons: the rainy season (which is about seven
break or "little dry season" which occurs between late July and early
32
September. Meteorological records reveals that the temperature is mostly
in the region of 30°C +/_ 3. Relative Humidity (RH) varies between 65%
community since Okoro the founder was a hunter. A lot of games are
The crops grown in the area are plantain, yam, cassava, banana, cocoyam,
sweet potatoes, maize, and sugarcane, pepper and swamp rice. However,
the advent of Western education and the introduction of both public and
that cuts across all sectors in the society; Teaching, banking, the Armed
Cultural contact has contributed a lot to this in two major ways. First, the
33
people in turn learn from these strangers. It is on this basis, the
Bayelsa State; the Isoko, and Urhobos from Delta State, Anams and
Afikpo from Cross Rivers State, Igbos from the Eastern States, Hausas-
Fulanis from the Northern States. There are also settlers from other
African countries such as Mali, Ghana, etc. Also, the people of Sampou
(Biri-koso-otu) are the immediate advisers to the King. The Chiefs are
referred to as His Royal Majesty (HRM). His office and stool is situated
34
for the management of community development issues. The youth body
Residents of Bayelsa State (Ijaw) spin fascinating tales about under water
festivals, and masquerades that bring fantastic aquatic being of life. Their
art and rituals reflects the Niger Delta’s fascinating history as well as its
visitors to the region. Images of spirit wearing top hats and wielding
weapons recalls a time when clan war gods conferred titles on proud
and plastic doll-recall the recall’s long involvement with foreign and
domestic trade.
vital art forms, as well as a rich artistic heritage. The following account
focuses on the arts of the central Ijaw and their immediate western Ijaw
35
an Eastern Ijaw group in neighbouring Rivers State. The arts of other
Alagoa 1999).
The Creator
mother’), and return there after dying. While awaiting a child’s birth,
‘the spirits’), who may later wish to join them on earth. Before leaving
the spirit world, each person seals an agreement with Woyengi that not
only determines the course of their lives, but even specifies the way they
will die.
birth agreement and replace it with a more favourable one. Woyengi lives
so far from off in the sky that no one knows what she looks like, so
shrines like the one at Lobia in Bassan Ibe sometimes represent her with a
36
type of staff and stool combination that can also serve for other spirits.
with purity, wealth, and the spirit world (E.J. Alagoa, 1999).
Most people loose contact with the spirit world and must consult diviners
in order to learn why they are experiencing problems like infertility, ill
‘see’ into the spirit world, may attribute problems to other agents,
including ancestors and witches, but most rituals focus on nature spirits,
most shrines are devoted to them, and virtually all carvings depict them.
The ijo even claim to have acquired masquerades, dances and funerary
reflect differences in the way the Ijaw perceive their respective realms:
both can kill people for trespassing on their territory or resisting their
demands, but water spirits (Bini oru) tend to be playful and beneficent in
comparison to the volatile and malicious bush spirits (Bou oru) who roam
the forest. Water spirits who have assumed human form tend to be
beautifully, fair skinned beings with long flowering hairs, bush spirits
very dark skin and messy hair. The two even specialize in the benefits
37
they offer: people sometimes approach water spirits to ask for children
and money, they consult bush spirits to ask for protection and for help,
items as well as with things that are bright and shining, the conception on
for the Ijaw envision under water towns where articles lost in the rivers
these largely benevolent beings can bestow children and ensure financial
a water spirit, he also has a bush or land aspects, which may explain his
preference for figure carvings, people now describe Adumu as the patron
of traders, but his original role seems have been as patron of fisher man
38
3.7 Origin of Sampou
The origin of Sampou is based on oral traditions due tothe fact that there
oral history, Sampou was established by Okoro who was a hunter from
Olobiri community near Kaiama town some four hundred years ago. He
and his friend and fellow hunter Ambili discovered a sandbank where a
particular white bird called Sami used to migrate from the east to come
and rear their young in their thousands at the present day Sampou site.
Okoro and Ambili used this opportunity to hunt the birds. Overtime, the
and settled opposite Kalama community toward the Northern axis, while
Ambili in turn moved and settled at Oruama and then into Tolu Creek
(which is river bank where the Sami stays). Eventually, it was shortened
Ambili.
39
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Introduction
visited Sampou where they made contact with the indigenes for the
they introduced Christ to the fishermen and their host in the community.
some form of education in 1909, collected some young men and taught
them ABD, some simple English and the Word of God with zeal and great
children.
40
He also directed his converts to prepare for service on Saturday when
they broke firewood, cooked their food and prepare their clothes so that
the Sundays were days of rest, worship and prayers following the tolling
of the bell. Every Sundays ended with a love feast. The church and school
The plan of the present permanent church began building in 1950 and was
such as Chief Yeikorogha Opufoni who was a great carpenter and trader.
influential in the community. The school teachers were also the church
missionaries who supervised the church at Sampou over the years are as
follows:
41
S/N NAME PERIOD
1. Revd. H. Proctor
2. Revd. J. C. R. Wilson
3. Revd. O.W. Garrard
4. M. E. Lele ( Catechist)
5. J. F. O. Ockiya
6. Revd. D. I. Beregha 1936
7. Revd. G. I. Amangala 1936-1953
8. Revd. P. B. Harry 1954-1957
9. Revd. G. I. Amangala 1958
10. Revd. D. I. Beregha 1959-1962
11. Revd. J. O. Buseri 1963
12. Revd. S. I. Opuda 1968
13. Revd. S. W. Harrison 1976
14. Revd. A. G. Beteboye 1977
15. Revd. M. A. Orufa 1985
16. Revd. M. O. Ogoniba 1988
17. Revd. B. I. Ugiri 1989-1991
18. Revd. J.E.O. Amaiyo(later Ven.) 1992-1995
19. Revd. M.C.I. Abigo 1996-1997
20. Revd. L. A. Adou 1998
21. Revd. G. T. Bara Hart 1998-1999
22 Revd. W.G.Inokoba 1999-2001
23. Ven. M.C.I. Abigo 2001-2006
24. Ven. H.O.S. Bayefa 2006-2009
the ministers that are posted to the community can have a place of
42
residence to be comfortable and focused on doing the work successfully.
This is because the last two ministers (Revd. I. L. Elijah and Revd. I.
has had a lot of positive impact on the community which has brought
The advent of St. Peter’s Anglican Church in Sampou gave birth to the
together since the missionary in a bid to teach people the word of God
also had to teach them how to read. This naturally resulted in the
include full primary and secondary schooling. These schools were very
important in the early days since those days; the colonial governments
were not willing to spend money on education for their subjects. They
schools laid the foundation for education in the community and the
name of the school was changed from St. Peter’s Primary School to
43
Okoro Primary School in 1935.
some of its products who have become illustrious sons of the community
and renown persons in the society. Some of such persons include Hon.
individuals attest to the fact that the establishment of the church and
there have been huge changes in the amount of superstitious beliefs held
to whims of local gods. People saw twins as evil and their mothers were
not given due regards but with the establishment of the church and the
sway over the people as Some aspects of African culture have been
44
a puritanical effect. It is due to Christianity that today twin babies are no
longer destroyed, that their mothers are no longer tabooed and ostracized,
sacrifices have been dropped, and that the frequent local community
feuds and bloody clashes have been immensely reduced or, in some
The church since its inception has been encumbered with several
fact that the church is a living organism. It exposes the truth to people.
forms of entertainment which has made some of the church services and
gradually replacing some of the core church services that were the major
45
ii. Multiplication of Churches in the Community
Due to the fact that Christianity has become the predominant religious
beliefs and lifestyle among the indigenes of the community with the
attendances in the St. Peter’s Anglican Church. This is due to the fact that
occasions both within and outside the community throughout the year
whereas some of the other cultural dances are only performed once a year
Another major affecting the church and making it to lose its appeal is
negatively impacted on the church since there are not enough persons
with the requisite commitment to ensure that the church goals and vision
46
is pursued vigorously.
v. Financial limitations
most of the activities the church would have been involved in to sustain
its appeal and interest to the members of the community and the society
in general.
47
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Summary
This research work studied the growth and development of St. Peter’s
the base of the missionaries from where they established churches in the
surrounding towns and villages. The researcher also explained the impact
education and other changes and benefits of that the church brought to the
society.
The researcher also traced the origin of the community and its founder,
the geographical location of the community, its vegetation and relief and
The researcher traced the history and origin of the St. Peter’s Anglican
48
several benefits the church brought to the community. Some of the major
entertainment and poor safety and accident strategies during dances are
5.2 Conclusion
The conclusion drawn from the study so far is the fact that the St. Peter’s
customs and traditions that held sway during the pre-Christian era, yet it
people massively.
5.3 Recommendations
several changes and challenges that have arisen over the years.
49
i. Awareness Programmes
and origin of the church in the community. This will inculcate in the
youth the ability to appreciate the sacrifices of those who paid the price
There is need to have a church museum and library where every historical
the people. This will help future generations and researchers who may
founding fathers who paid the price for the establishment of the church
for the purpose of honouring them and to encourage others and sustain
the work. Some funds can used to provide scholarships and awards to
50
encourage them or others who want to such dance groups.
This is because unlike before, there are several new churches that are
popular and appeals to the current generation and individuals. Thus, there
is need for the development of new patterns and strategies that is more
organized in consonant with the current felt needs of the people. When
the missionaries arrived initially, education was a tool of attraction for the
gospel. Presently, education is not the primary tool, so there is need to use
51
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alagoa E.J. (1999) The Land and People of Bayelsa State: Central Niger Delta.
Onyoma Research Publications, Chioba Port Harcourt
Bickerman (1949) The Christians got their Appellation from “Christus” that
is “The Anointed”, The Messiah.
Canon E.I. (1982) The Niger Mission and Igbo Cultural Life. Daily News P.5
Ezeanya S.N. (1976) The Dignity of Man in the Traditional Religion of Africa
unpublished article, Nsukka.
52
Ockiya O.D. (2008) History of Nembe. Micro Win PCBS Research
Publications, Port-Harcourt
Waibodei Peter Yeri (2008) A History of the Ogboin Clan in Bayelsa State
from Foundation to 2006. Unpublished B. A. Project, university of
Port Harcourt.
53