Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By
Melissa Adams
Knox College
The label “New Woman,” formulated by Ouida in 1894, describes a political ideology of
radical feminism as much as it refers to the actual supporters of the 19th century’s gender
revolution (Ardis10). Side stepping the issue of race, New Woman advocates focused on gender
and class struggles. They were upper, middle, and lower class white women and gender radicals of
both sexes. Developed in the last two decades of the 19th century, New Woman politics challenged
the strict Victorian social order by advocating “free love,” female employment, economic
independence, and the destruction of class distinctions. In particular, the ideology rejected the
middle class emphasis on marriage, motherhood, male “protection,” and female sexual
“passionlessness.” Broader than the women’s suffrage movement, the New Woman movement
The Victorian doctrine of separate spheres encapsulates much of the New Woman’s
frustration. This postulate holds that men’s and women’s lives are distinct and divided. Men live
in the public sphere of politics and labor while women live in the domestic sphere of household and
familial responsibilities. The New Woman sought to destroy this philosophy while envisioning the
appears radical only because it had not been previously met. Yet, this was not the opinion of most
of her contemporaries. Critics took the opportunity to turn the economically and sexually
independent New Woman into a myth. Due to the small number of women actually carrying out
this political view, the New Woman was easily marginalized as a fictional character from the world
of literature. A reviewer of the Athenaeum argues that “the New Woman is a product oftener met
with in the novels of the day than in ordinary life, where fortunately, she remains so rare as to be
seldom seen in the flesh at all” (Ardis 12-13). These same critics went on to parody the New
Woman as a social deviant and/or lesbian, thus, permitting the conservative Victorian population to
dismiss her and her political agenda. With the stereotype at hand, any author attempting to treat
the New Woman seriously was subject to ridicule and stigmatization. Attacks on the New
Woman’s actual existence and on her moral character demonstrate the critics’ desperate attempt to
limit the demand for gender revolution to the (nonliterary) public sphere, of course, off limits to
women. By silencing feminist power from writing, these critics destroyed the New Woman’s most
event that would transform and complete them. It was this finality, this expectation of submission,
that provoked the New Woman to reject marriage as an institution little better than slavery. In
many ways, Kate Chopin (1850-1904), a noted author of Southern local color stories, agrees. In
“The Story of an Hour,” Mrs. Mallard receives the news of her husband’s unexpected death at first
with outbursts of grief; yet within minutes she realizes the unexpected gift of freedom widowhood
will bring. She thinks, “There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence
with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-
creature” (Chopin 214-15). With her husband gone, Mrs. Mallard will live her life for herself:
“Her fancy was running riot along those days ahead of her. Spring days, and summer days, and all
sorts of days that would be her own. She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was
only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long” (215). This passage,
perhaps Chopin’s strongest anti-marriage statement, clearly demonstrates her belief that marriage
In contrast, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825-1911), a Northern black orator and
writer for the abolition movement, praises a suitable match where interests align and love reigns.
In Iola Leroy, Harper ends Iola’s story in blissful matrimony. Devoted to the black community, to
“bettering the race,” and to one another, Iola and Dr. Latimer are Harper’s ideal couple. Marriage,
then, is not the problem for Harper. In “The Two Offers,” Harper shows her readers that
irresponsible choices result in unhappiness. Laura, an indulgent young woman, has had two offers
of marriage and can not decide which to accept. Her sensible friend Janette advises that she reject
both if she does not love either enough to have a preference. She says, “I think a woman who is
undecided between two offers, has not love enough for either to make a choice; and in that very
hesitation, indecision, she has reason to pause and seriously reflect, lest her marriage instead of
being an affinity of souls or union of hearts, should be a mere matter of bargain and sale, or an
affair of convenience and selfish interest” (Harper 106). Laura ignores this advice and goes on to
marry a miserable drunkard and die an early death from lack of love. Harper’s message is clear:
marriage is a weighty decision not to be taken lightly. Harper gives Janette a radical stance: she
encourages her friend not to marry. Still, marriage itself is never called into question. For Harper,
it is simply a matter of making the right choice, one in which love is key.
Historically, we must remember the differences in these two author’s perspectives. Iola
Leroy was published in 1892, not even thirty years since the Emancipation Proclamation freed
American slaves allowing them for the first time to be legally married. Thirty years is hardly time
enough for African Americans to consider marriage an oppressive institution. At the publishing of
The Awakening in 1899, it had been approximately one hundred years since Mary Wollstonecraft
spoke out for upper and middle class white women in her groundbreaking feminist text,
Vindication of the Rights of Women. The chasm between these women’s experiences and
establish the power dynamic between the sexes as it exists within the woman’s specific culture, her
family, and her relationship with her spouse. In Chopin’s The Awakening, the reader learns that in
19th century white America, men held authority over their wives and children; husbands were the
undisputed sovereigns of their homes. With the public endorsement of the doctrine of separate
spheres and the strong male presence of their own fathers throughout childhood, most women
accepted and even expected this despotism. In a conversation with her married friend, Adelle, Edna
remembers the childish desire to escape her father’s strict Protestant influence. She says, “Likely
as not it was Sunday…and I was running away from prayers, from the Presbyterian service, read
in the a spirit of gloom by my father that chills me yet to think of” (Chopin 60). In a later visit to
New Orleans, Edna’s father is described as a military man who enjoys strong drinks, racing horses,
and dictating to others. When Edna refuses to attend her sister’s wedding, the Colonel tells her
husband, Leonce, “You are too lenient, too lenient by far…Authority, coercion are what is needed.
Put your foot down good and hard; the only way to manage a wife.” (125). In turn, Leonce thinks,
“The Colonel was perhaps unaware that he had coerced his own wife into her grave” (125).
Though the reader finds no clear evidence of exactly how the Colonel “coerced” his wife to death,
it can be inferred that he must have dominated her until she no longer had a will of her own. Even
in rebellion, Edna cannot escape her father’s patriarchal influence. Her decision to marry Leonce
Pontellier is only augmented by her father’s “violent opposition” to her marriage with a Catholic.
This early rebellion foreshadows Edna’s later behavior in reaction to her husband’s singular
authority. After an evening at the club, Leonce returns home late and informs his sleeping wife that
their son has a high fever that requires attention. Edna knows her children are healthy, yet Leonce
“reproached his wife with her inattention, her habitual neglect of the children. If it was not a
mother’s place to look after the children, whose on earth was it? He himself had his hands full with
his brokerage business. He could not be in two places at once; making a living for his family on
the street, and staying at home to see that no harm befell them” (48). Such a speech confirms the
reader’s suspicions: Edna has married a gender-conservative, insensitive man. Born into a male
dominated culture, raised by a patriarchal father, and married to an authoritative husband, Edna
In Iola Leroy, Harper presents the reader with an idealistic interpretation of the power
dynamic within Iola’s specifically African American culture, family, and marriage relationship.
Achieving an autonomous and unified family within the confines of slavery was nearly impossible.
Fathers were often missing, unidentified, or the white “masters.” Mothers, then, became the
cohesive forces holding black families together. Sold or separated from their mothers during
slavery, many African Americans began to search for their missing mothers after the Civil War.
This drive to relocate the mother, thus reuniting the separated slave family, pulls Iola, Harry, and
their uncle, Robert, together in a quest for the mothers they have lost. When Robert finds his
mother, Iola gains a grandmother and the family begins to pull together. When Iola finds her
mother, the female line, from grandmother to granddaughter, is once again connected and the story
can progress. Harper argues that without a strong matricentric tie to the past, Iola and her family
can have no future. Unlike Edna, Iola has no strong male presence to maintain patriarchy. She
goes on to find a husband who is worthy, honest, respectful, understanding, who encourages her
desire to help her race. Instead of denying her the right to self-expression, Dr. Latimer joins Iola in
a partnership to better the black community. He says, “ I think, Miss Leroy, that the world’s work,
if shared, is better done than when it is performed alone. Don’t you think your life-work will be
better done if someone shares it with you?” (Harper 242). For Frank and Iola, marriage is not a
static conclusion, but rather, the beginning of a partnership dedicated to serving others. It is no
surprise that Dr. Latimer is a trusting, egalitarian husband. Black men, Frank among them, were
forced to recognize the physical, emotional, and intellectual strength of black women; women who
had worked side by side with them in the fields, who had survived the endless indignities of slavery,
and who continued to fight racism after the Civil War. In a literal sense, the doctrine of separate
spheres could not apply to black women because of the unique cultural experience of American
slavery. Thus, women’s cultural attitudes, family experiences, and marital relationships
significantly influence their capacity for self-realization and equality within marriage.
While the length of time these two couples have been married is an important consideration
in establishing the power dynamic of the marriage, it is perhaps more valid to demonstrate the
variance in each couple’s goals. The Awakening begins several years into marriage, when Edna
and Leonce have grown accustomed to one another and to their roles as husband and wife. At the
end of Iola Leroy, Iola and Frank are still flushed with newlywed pleasure. Iola’s brother Harry
says, “I don’t believe that there is a subject I could name him, from spinning a top to circumventing
the globe, that he wouldn’t somehow try to bring Iola in. And I don’t believe you could talk ten
minutes to Iola on any subject, from dressing a doll to the latest discovery in science, that she
wouldn’t manage to lug in Frank” (Harper 277). Compare this infatuation with Edna and Leonce’s
relationship: “Looking at [her hands] reminded her of her rings, which she had given to her
husband before leaving for the beach. She silently reached out to him, and he, understanding, took
the rings from his vest pocket and dropped them into her open palm” (Chopin 45). The differences
in communication style and content serve as indicators of the progression of the marriage
relationship while also marking the uniqueness of each couple’s goals. For Frank and Iola,
communication and consideration function as the basis of their relatively equal partnership. The
above quote from The Awakening illustrates the significance of ownership and control in Edna and
Leonce’s relationship. Leonce is master and Edna’s rings symbolize his claim over her.
Consequently, differing goals prove more influential to the power dynamic of these two couples
Harper promotes Iola’s marriage to Dr. Latimer, not, as many critics claim, to convey a
conventional romance plot, but rather to promote the necessity of equality for a felicitous marital
relationship. Claudia Tate points to the allegorical nature of the novel, claiming that Iola’s happy
marriage is symbolic of the success and prosperity of the black community. Upon closer
examination, the reader understands that marriage is not the conclusion for Iola; marriage will not
complete her. This partnership is only the beginning of a life dedicated to serving others. Iola’s
plans for the future do not end here, nor do the aspirations of the black community. Frank and Iola
have a freedom not to be found within white marriage. With the relative newness of the
Emancipation Proclamation, many black couples have had little time to develop strict gender roles
within a “legal” marriage. The power dynamic between black men and women, especially between
former slaves, was not comparable to that between white men and women. Black women worked
in the fields alongside men, proving their strength and independence on a daily basis. When Iola’s
husband encourages her to find some way to help her race, he is acknowledging Iola’s capabilities.
Thus, Iola and Lucille find male support for their interest in the public realm, while Edna stands on
a pedestal out of reach of her desires. Race and class are often inseparable in the work of Chopin
and Harper, especially when comparing Iola and Edna. Though both start out as privileged white
females, Iola’s circumstances change dramatically. Once labeled a “Negro,” she becomes less
than human when auctioned off by her white uncle. Even after the war, Iola remains a second-class
citizen despite her middle class aspirations. For Edna, the pedestal of upper class white
womanhood is simply unfulfilling. She seeks a wider avenue of sensuality and sexuality which was
at this time usually available only to women of different ethnic or class backgrounds. Women of
Edna’s class succumbed to the limitations of society’s demand for moral and sexual virtue.
Through close examination the reader finds that race, class, cultural norms, and family background
each author’s work. Chopin writes with the description of a realist, portraying her characters’
inner psychological and emotional landscape in an open, unapologetic manner. Peter Seyersted, a
leading Chopin expert and biographer, argues that The Awakening goes further in its “truthful
treatment of material,” (206) especially the treatment of sexuality, than the works of Dreiser,
Crane, Norris, and other American Realists of the time. Harper writes in a utopian vein, detailing
her vision of racial and gender equality by conveying a character’s actions and words. Here, what
a character says or does is more important than what he thinks or feels. The reader may begin to
question whether the variance seen in Chopin and Harper’s views on marriage, sexuality,
motherhood, and economic independence is related to stylistic concerns rather than race and class.
To draw out the point, the reader should examine the views of Frank Latimer and Leonce Pontellier
in connection with their wives involvement in the public sphere. Harper’s character, Frank,
Why not…write a good, strong book which would be helpful to [the black
community]?…Miss Leroy, you have a large and rich experience; you possess a
vivid imagination and glowing fancy. Write, out of the fullness of your heart, a
book to inspire men and women with a deeper sense of justice and humanity.
(Harper 262).
Again, the reader notices the emphasis on action and word; Harper’s style evokes a desire for
social change. Compare this supportive statement to Leonce’s reaction to Edna’s decision to move
When Mr. Pontellier learned of his wife’s intention to abandon her home and take up her
remonstrance…He was not dreaming of scandal…He was simply thinking of his financial
situation with his usual promptness and handled it with his well-known business tact and
Frank encourages Iola, demonstrating faith in her innate abilities, Leonce describes Edna as
“whimsical” and “rash.” Chopin presents Mr. Pontellier at his best and worst, while Harper makes
Dr. Latimer a saint with no possible faults. Though these male characters reflect their authors’
stylistic achievements, they also illuminate race and class considerations. In the example above,
Leonce is concerned with the threat of rumors of financial misfortune (which a move to a smaller
house might warrant) thus, harming his business investments. These are the concerns of an upper
class white businessman. On the other hand, Dr. Latimer’s reputation would only be enhanced in
the black community if his future wife authored a book, or became a philanthropist or Sunday-
school teacher. His standing is not based on appearances, but on his service to the community. In
The Awakening and Iola Leroy, discussion of marriage reflects not only the authors’ beliefs on the
subject but also their writing style and understanding of race and class.
Marriage brings the expectation of sexuality, a topic that fascinated both Chopin and
Harper. The taboos, secrets, and sexual restrictions of the Victorian period are well known to our
modern sex-filled society. What the reader does not expect are Victorian women breaking the code
of silence surrounding sex. Many New Woman supporters advocated free love, that is, sex outside
of marriage. Others fought to end the sexual double standard that permitted men the sexual
freedom to patronize prostitutes, keep mistresses, and sexually assault black women. Both Chopin
and Harper were outspoken on the subject of sexuality, and though their techniques and opinions
In her book, Women on the Color Line, Anna Elfenbein describes how Chopin uses
existing stereotypes about the sexual promiscuity of women of color to explore topics off-limits to
“chaste” white women. Chopin’s stories, she explains, exploit an iconographic convention that
assimilates the presumed sexual ardency of the black woman to the sexuality of the white woman
by juxtaposing them. Thus, although Chopin makes free with the racist assumptions prevalent in
her day to depict realistically those women already stigmatized by imputations of hypersexuality,
she creates women characters on both sides of the chasm of color who are motivated by romantic
dreams but react in similar ways to sexual urges. Stressing the similarity of her women characters,
Chopin exploits the blurred racial categories of the milieu she describes (Elfenbein 119-20).
In her most sexually overt story, “The Storm,” Chopin creates an explosive scene of
adulterous passion between Calixta and Alcee, characters from a previous story “The ‘Cadian
Ball.” In the earlier story, Chopin describes Calixta as a lower-middle class “Spanish vixen” with
brown skin and “hair that kinked worse than a mulatto’s” and a voice “with cadences in it that
must have been taught by Satan, for there was no one else to teach her tricks on that ‘Cadian
prairie” (Chopin 179). The narrator explains, “Calixta’s slender foot had never touched Cuban
soil; but her mother’s had, and the Spanish was in her blood all the same. For that reason the
prairie people forgave her much that they would not have overlooked in their own daughters or
sisters” (179). Alcee Labelliere is a prosperous upper-class white plantation owner with a
reputation for being a lady’s man. Before marrying their respective spouses, Calixta and Alcee had
a history of flirtation and kissing. When a storm leaves Calixta alone in the house and Alcee stops
by to take shelter, the situation revives their old attraction and leads to a steamy sexual encounter.
Without judgment, Chopin alleviates the shock of this sexual encounter by reminding her readers of
Calixta’s lower-middle class origins and her Spanish blood. Compare Calixta “sewing furiously at
the sewing machine” (281) to Madame LeBrun from The Awakening who hires a young black girl
to run the sewing machine: “The Creole woman does not take any chances which may be avoided
of imperiling her health” (66). Chopin reminds the reader of Calixta’s class when she gives her a
Southern dialect while Alcee speaks in grammatically perfect English. Finally, the reader
remembers Calixta’s Spanish origin in the subtle comment about her vivacity and the hair that
“kinked more stubbornly than ever” (282). Her overflowing sexuality then, is linked to her race
and class. Calixta cannot marry Alcee, though they are well suited for one another, because of her
background. Instead, she must marry the bumbling Bobinot, a man of her own class, who
significantly, is never referred to by his last name. The lack of a surname indicates that Bobinot is
not a prosperous landowner. He cannot compete with the Labelliere name, nor can he offer Calixta
the picture. Besides being virtuous and hard to get, Clarisse is of the same social class and
ethnicity as Alcee. She would provide Alcee with the respectable marriage his station requires. At
the end of “The Storm,” the reader sees that though Chopin has allowed Calixta to experience
adulterous sexual fulfillment, Clarisse maintains the frigidity expected of an upper class white
woman. The narrator explains her sexual distance in the following passage: “And the first free
breath since her marriage seemed to restore the pleasant liberty of her maiden days. Devoted as
she was to her husband, their intimate conjugal life was something which she was more than
willing to forego for a while” (Chopin 286). Though Chopin attempts to tackle the controversial
topic of women’s sexual fulfillment, she confines her investigation to stereotypes of promiscuity
In The Awakening, Chopin finally creates a white woman character with the remorseless
sexuality previously limited to women of color. Edna’s transformation from virtuous to sensuous
can be best illustrated by a close examination of her relationship with Mariequita. A passenger on
the ferry taking Edna and Robert to Grand Isle, Mariequita is described as “ a young barefooted
Spanish girl, with a …round, sly, piquant face and pretty black eyes…her feet were broad and
course. She did not strive to hide them. Edna looked at her feet, and noticed the sand and slime
between her brown toes” (Chopin 80). Mariequita represents a free and easy sexuality. Self-
confident, flirtatious, and unashamed of her body, she becomes the unconscious model on which
Edna moulds her awakening sexuality. At Grand Isle, Edna revels in the autoerotic quality of her
own body. Later, she learns sexual fulfillment in her affair with Alcee. In the final scene before
she swims to her death, “she cast the unpleasant, pricking garments from her, and for the first time
in her life she stood naked in the open air…How strange and awful it seemed to stand naked under
the sky! How delicious!” (175). Toes in the sand, naked to the world, Edna’s transformation is
complete.
In “Desiree’s Baby,” Chopin draws strong parallels between the relative powerlessness of
white women and black women under the oppressive hand of white male authority (Peel 226).
Early feminists often compared the white female experience of marriage to slavery. Though
dramatic, this metaphor proved compelling for Chopin. Whether white or black, Desiree’s options
are unsatisfactory. Elfenbein reminds the reader that as a white woman, Desiree could easily be
divorced for infidelity, yet has no power to divorce her husband on these charges. If proven black,
she and her child could be relegated to the status of a slave. Still worse, “If Armand is black,
Desiree may be vindicated by the discovery that she is not responsible for the racial characteristics
of their child, but she will be forever stigmatized socially by the fact that she has been possessed by
a black man and has borne his son” (127). The relationship between Desiree and La Blanche
underscores Chopin’s understanding of a shared oppression between these two women: Armand
In her article, “Semiotic Subversion in ‘Desiree’s Baby,’” Ellen Peel points to the subtle
doubling of these characters’ names. The name Desiree “merely reflects others’ ‘desires’” (Peel
225). Symbolically, Desiree has been stamped with the desires of others, leaving her blank to her
own identity and interests. La Blanche literally means “white,” referring to the whiteness of her
skin, but “blanche can also mean ‘pure’ or ‘blank,’ recalling Desiree’s blankness” (Peel 226).
Another parallel appears when Desiree finally notices her child’s biracial heritage as she
subconsciously compares La Blanche’s son to her own. Ironically, Chopin alludes to a sexual
union between Armand and La Blanche, indicating that La Blanche’s son was fathered by Armand.
Not only do their sons share a father; these two women share one lover. Their sexual positions are
identical, yet the respectability of whiteness keeps Desiree from understanding her connection to La
Blanche. Armand himself acknowledges the similarity of their positions when Desiree demands
that her skin is whiter than Armand’s and he retorts, “As white as La Blanche’s” (Chopin 193).
With the buffer of whiteness removed, Desiree’s sexuality is unsanctioned; she has lost the respect
and protection of white femininity. Clearly, Chopin is pointing out the powerlessness of female
sexuality, black or white. When one human being has control over and access to another’s body,
pleasure, and reproductive capacity, life becomes limited and dependent. While “The Storm” tells
the story of a minority woman’s capacity for sexual pleasure, “Desiree’s Baby” speaks of the
universal oppression of women. Unfortunately, Chopin’s women characters never outgrow the
individualism that prevents them from uniting against the stereotypes, limitations on passion, and
oppression that confine their freedom and self-realization. Chopin’s treatment of sexuality, though
Confronting and negating stereotypes about black female sexuality becomes a primary
goal in Harper’s novel, Iola Leroy. Upon discovery that she is biracial and will be sold into
slavery, Iola, like Chopin’s Desiree, loses all the virtue and sexual protection she had as a white
female. Still, Harper contrives to allow Iola to maintain her virginity despite the attempts of
several white masters to initiate sexual contact. Though unrealistic, Harper intends for Iola’s intact
virginity to be a sign of empowerment. Still, the relationship between strength and virtue is
complex. Virginity was something to be protected and treasured. That Iola managed this feat
alone in the face of such temptation and hardship, is, for Harper, a sign of Iola’s strength and
excellent moral character. Ironically, at the same time that she is praised as a “reg’lar spitfire,”
she is spoken of as powerless “to protect herself from the highest insults that lawless brutality
could inflict upon innocent and defenseless womanhood” (Harper 39). Her virginity is inherently a
sign of vulnerability, a signal for chivalrous men to take action. Tom Anderson, a fellow slave at
the Anderson plantation, appeals to the Commander of his Northern post to protect Iola and set her
free: “The next day Tom had the satisfaction of knowing that Iola Leroy had been taken as a
trembling dove from the gory vulture’s nest and given a place of security” (Harper 39). Harper is
caught in her own web. Iola may be strong enough to defend herself, yet she must be delicate and
In several instances, Iola refuses sexual advances or marriage proposals by referring to her
highly spiritual ideals or her devotion to her race. In Frank Latimer, Iola finds a dedicated black
man with similar intellectual, spiritual, and race-related pursuits. In the scene where Dr. Latimer
proposes, the reader, instead of finding romance and passion, hears only of the couple’s dedication
to their race: “His words were more than a tender strain wooing her to love and happiness, they
were a clarion call to a life of high and holy worth” (271). Against the myth of black female
hypersexuality, Iola loses nearly all sensuality, a sacrifice her lofty spirit does not seem to miss. In
trying to disprove stereotypes, Harper commits a double wrong by conforming to white male
sexual standards. First, she plays into the oppressor’s hand by accepting his sexual standards.
Second, she denies black women the right to acknowledge the assault and abuse from white men,
the right to claim their desire and passion, and the right to express that desire outside of white male
standards. Perhaps it is too much to ask Harper and other black women of the time to risk
personal safety by defying white rule to reclaim their sexuality. We must give credit to Harper’s
In her poem, “A Double Standard,” Harper disapproves of the sexual double standard that
condemns a woman as “fallen,” yet allows a man to walk away from sexual sin. Though it
promotes a radical revision of sexual standards, Harper’s poem buys into the white middle class
belief that previous sexual experience is negative, a belief that would have been impractical and
unrealistic for the thousands of black women who had been raped, abused, and coerced into
unwanted sexual contact. Clearly, these women lived outside of white America’s sexual standards.
The difficulty of living in a culture that ignored, misinterpreted, and erased one’s specific historical
perspective must have been enormous. For Harper, the choice of alliances would have been
precarious. To continue receiving the support of wealthy white patrons, her writing must be
accessible to a white audience, yet her work was centered around “uplifting” black communities.
For many black Americans, the logical solution to this dilemma was to try to “fit in” with
normative white middle class attitudes. Thus, the black “uplift” movement touted assimilation and
conservatism, while the New Woman sought ways to break free from the rules and restraints of the
American middle class. Both Chopin and Harper spoke out against negative views of female
sexuality, but by conforming to preexisting stereotypes or sexual standards, both authors limited
their arguments.
Before the advent of birth control, marriage and sexuality brought with it the possibility of
pregnancy and motherhood. For mainstream Victorian society, motherhood was a woman’s
crowning glory. It was believed that a lifetime of love and devotion to one’s children should be
enough to fulfill any woman. Once again, the New Woman disagreed. She questioned why women
were expected to give up their future goals and dreams to become mothers, why motherhood was
compulsory to success as an adult woman. These questions are familiar to readers of Chopin’s
The Awakening. For Edna, motherhood felt unnatural and burdensome; thoughts of the children
came only sporadically. Marriage and motherhood held her back from a discovery of her true self,
the self she was expected to sacrifice to the needs of others upon marriage. Edna explains to her
married friend Adelle, “ that she would never sacrifice herself for her children, or anyone. ‘I would
give up the unessential; I would give up my money, I would give up my life for my children; but I
wouldn’t give myself” (Chopin 97). Later, as Edna makes her final suicidal swim, she thinks of
her husband and children: “they need not have thought they could possess her body and soul”
(176).
In Harper’s essay, “Enlightened Motherhood,” she calls on black mothers to teach their
children to become good, strong citizens. She says, “The work of the mothers of our race is
grandly constructive. It is for us to build above the wreck and ruin of the past more stately temples
of thought and action…We need mothers who are capable of being character builders, patient,
loving, strong, and true, whose homes will be an uplifting power in the race” (Harper 292). Here,
motherhood is a virtue, a much-needed skill in the effort to make the world a better place. This
very faith in the progress of the race (and the world) gives black women a hope and goal that Edna
and others like her did not have. After the horrors of slavery, progress seemed inevitable for
African Americans. Still for Chopin and other white women, progress was harder to envision.
In her introduction to A Brighter Coming Day, Frances Smith Foster raises important
questions in connection with Harper’s origins. She notes that nearly all biographies mention that
Harper was born September 24, 1825, yet no where is there a record of her parents’ names (Foster
5). Scholars agree that her mother died early, leaving Harper an orphan at the age of three. This
early loss left her in the care and tutelage of her aunt, Henrietta, and her uncle, Reverend William
Watkins, founder of the Watkins Academy. Harper attended the academy until the age of thirteen,
[Harper’s] mother is not identified. However, given the prominence of the Watkins family
in Baltimore at that time, it is intriguing that biographers do not identify or speculate about
the identity of her father. This may be a conscious attempt to avoid any…challenge[s] by
white bourgeois audiences, because it is quite possible that Frances Watkins [Harper], like
Not surprisingly, Harper’s own experience as an orphan helped her write about a people without
roots. In Iola Leroy, the period just after the Civil War was specifically focused on reunifying
families and forming attachments within the black community. For Iola and her uncle, finding a
mother was central to this healing process. The mother, then, becomes a way to connect with the
past and, in the process, connect with others. The widespread loss of ties to family, community,
and history actually functions to unite a drifting and disoriented people in a common experience.
Ironically, just as Harper was creating a bond between her fictional characters and their past, she
failed to leave an accurate record of her own origins and childhood. Historically, biographers
know little of Harper outside of her writing and letters. Today, no one knows the names of her
parents, yet she spoke of their absence in her lifetime: “Have I yearned for a mother’s love? The
grave was my robber. Before three years had scattered their blight around my path, death had won
my mother from me. Would the strong arm of a brother have been welcome? I was my mother’s
only child” (Still 784). Harper’s uncertain origins may also help explain the confusion in her
choice to support white middle-class standards, what some would call assimilation politics. For
instance, the unrealistic sexual standards of white America championed in “A Double Standard”
can be compared to the highly moral tone of “Vashti.” Here, Harper suggests that retaining
feminine virtue is more important than agreeing with the authority figure. Thus, at the same time
that she is defending white sexual standards, she rebels against the absolute power of the ruling
(white) class. The shortsightedness of Harper’s attack is ultimately weakened by the inability to
writing. She grew up surrounded by strong, successful, and independent females. According to
Chopin’s biographer, Emily Toth, the author’s father died in a train accident when she was only
five. The loss of this domineering and patriarchal figure enabled Chopin’s mother to gain access to
an independence and freedom for which few married women could have hoped. After her father’s
death, Chopin’s grandmother, also a widow, moved into the house. She told her young
granddaughter stories of their women ancestors surviving and thriving in the rugged west. In fact,
Chopin’s great-grandmother was the first woman to divorce her husband in the state of Missouri.
strength while schooled at the Academy of the Sacred Heart. It was through the examples of the
nuns that she learned of women’s capacity for spiritual and intellectual fervor. Although her
childhood was filled with powerful women, most of Chopin’s women characters are weak and
trapped by the oppressive forces around them. One might conclude that her personal experience
with women’s independence made her especially sensitive to the oppression of other women.
Knowing that women can and do survive without male “protection” undoubtedly changed her
vision of Victorian gender constructs and enabled her to record the injustice she saw in her fictional
writing.
Despite her own female centered background, Chopin creates no strong mother daughter
relationships in The Awakening. In fact, the only mention of a mother and daughter interacting
takes place at a recital on Grand Isle: “ A little girl performed a skirt dance in the center of the
floor. The mother played her accompaniments and at the same time watched her daughter with
greedy admiration and nervous apprehension. She need have had no apprehension. The child was
mistress of the situation” (Chopin 69). In this short description, the reader finds that mothers
instruct their daughters on the proper behavior, attire, and posture with which to construct an
outward image pleasing to the audience of onlookers. This early performance is merely a fantastic
training session in the elaborate process of becoming an enticing Victorian woman. The daughter’s
success will be measured in her ability to capture a desirable husband, and this achievement will be
a representation of the mother’s skillful instruction. Underlying the concern with outward
relationship with one’s husband. Edna’s frustration with the responsibilities of marriage and
motherhood is, in part, a reflection of her own mother’s early death. She has had little preparation
for filling her role as wife and mother. The narrator concludes, “It would have been a difficult
matter for Mr. Pontellier to define to his own satisfaction or any one else’s wherein his wife failed
in her duty toward their children. It was something he felt rather than perceived …In short, Mrs.
Pontellier was not a mother-woman” (51). Edna has had even less encouragement to discover her
own wishes and desires or attempt to understand her own identity, and yet “Mrs. Pontellier was
beginning to realize her position in the universe as a human being, and to recognize her relations as
an individual to the world within and about her” (57). Edna’s disconnection from mother-daughter
relationships also works to enforce her sense of isolation in a patriarchal world. The narrator
comments that Edna “ was not a woman given to confidences, a characteristic hitherto contrary to
her nature. Even as a child she had lived her own small life all within herself” (57). With no
intimate childhood girlfriends, Edna has learned to undervalue female friendships and,
consequently, to fill up her youth with romantic fantasies of older men. Her fascination with the
male sex and her romantic tendencies foreshadow Edna’s dissatisfaction with the everyday realities
of marriage, eventually leading her to adultery. Her lack of female connection also prevents Edna
from finding a realistic role model in her search for self-realization. Clearly, Edna is neither a
“mother-woman,” nor a celibate intellectual and artist like Mademoiselle Reisz. When Adelle asks
Robert to stop flirting with Edna, she remarks, “Let Mrs. Pontellier alone…She is not one of us;
she is not like us. She might make the unfortunate blunder of taking you seriously” (64). Adelle
understands that Edna is not a Creole either. She is an outsider looking in, desperately seeking her
own identity.
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, more women left their homes to seek
employment. In response, conservatives once again used the doctrine of separate spheres to remind
women of their place in the home. New Woman supporters encouraged women to seek higher
education and to pursue their own careers. Although faced with prejudice at school, on the job, and
in the amount of pay received, they believed that a career or outside interest gave women
opportunities for self-realization that marriage and motherhood could not. In The Awakening,
Chopin’s character Edna aspires to be an artist. Art brings her “satisfaction of a kind which no
other employment afforded her” (Chopin 55). The creative act, the ability to see the end product of
her skill and imagination, provides Edna with a sense of meaning. The label of artist gives
direction to her listless energies. Without the opportunity to define herself through work, Edna
feels dissatisfied. In Iola Leroy, our heroine seeks employment at a department store, not because
she needs the money, but because “I have a theory that every woman ought to know how to earn
her own living.” The choices available for Edna and Iola demonstrate the differences in their race
and class. Art is intensely introspective and requires not only time, but also a great amount of
money. Edna’s desire to become an artist suits her introspective nature, and is simultaneously,
being one of the few occupations available for a respectable woman of her class. Iola’s choice to
work at a department store is rather daring: in those days, counter work was reserved for white
women. The public confrontations and descriptions of overt racism give Iola the strength and
determination she needs to help her people in the transition from slavery to freedom.
Though each character’s choice of work proves beneficial in some way, race and class
limitations impact the connection and meaning these characters draw from their work. For Iola, the
problem is more than just a desire to work; she must also face the racism of her white employers
and coworkers. When her coworkers discover her ethnicity, she is immediately ostracized and
quickly resigns. Iola’s opportunity to define herself through her work is limited by her coworkers’
definition of who should work in a department store (obviously, not minority women). Yet, by
barring Iola because of her race, these white female coworkers are playing into the system of white
male power. The same oppressor that forces black women into menial domestic work prevents
white women from obtaining high paying careers or moving into traditionally male-dominated
fields. Edna must also face others’ definitions and limitations for female artists. When Leonce
chastises Edna for putting her painting ahead of her family obligations, he says, “It seems to me the
utmost folly for a woman at the head of a household, and the mother of children, to spend in an
atelier days which would be better employed contriving for the comfort of her family…in God’s
name paint! but don’t let the family go to the devil” (Chopin 108). A closer examination proves
that both Chopin and Harper recognize the limitations Edna and Iola face in their quest for
meaningful employment.
In each case, Chopin and Harper agree that an outside occupation or talent can provide
women with the chance to find meaning in life or to attain some sort of self-realization. Why is it
that when it comes to economic independence, there is unanimous support? For Chopin, writing
provided the meaning she sought in life. It also opened her eyes to the sexism within the worlds of
art and literature. Harper, too, felt a sense of accomplishment at being able to support herself
through her lectures and writing. In her essay, “Colored Women of America,” she proudly
The women as a class are quite equal to the men in energy and executive ability…In the
field the women receive the same wages as the men, and are often preferred…In different
departments of business, colored women have not only been enabled to keep the wolf from
the door, but also to acquire property…[and in some cases, be] the mainstay of the family”
(Harper 271-72).
Despite race or class, women gained a sense of pride in their accomplishments and in their inherent
skills through working. In a world where women were told to be self-sacrificing, work provided a
Interestingly, both Chopin and Harper use the presence of the “other” to convey a heroine’s
oppression to the reader and at times to the heroine herself. The “other” also functions to connect
the multiple forms of oppression through race, class, and gender in the reader’s mind. In The
Awakening, Edna has several encounters with women of different class and ethnic backgrounds. In
one of the most direct encounters with the “other,” Edna must face the forces that keep her in
check. Feeling the weight of her marriage bond, Edna symbolically attempts to break the ties that
hold her to Leonce: “and taking off her wedding ring, flung it upon the carpet…she stamped her
heel upon it…but her small boot heel did not make an indenture, not a mark upon the little
glittering circlet” (Chopin 103). Hearing the commotion, the maid enters the room, cleans up the
remnants of Edna’s tantrum, and returns her ring. With this small action, the maid reminds Edna
of her place as Mrs. Pontellier, a respectable and well-behaved upper class white woman. Literary
critic, Anna Elfenbein argues, “Caring for Edna as she cares for the other possessions in Leonce
Pontellier’s household, the maid extends the reach of Leonce’s power by reenacting his [earlier]
gesture with Edna's wedding ring. Edna’s response to the maid signals once more her blind
resignation to the relationships that perpetuate her husband’s power over her” (151). This scene
proves compelling because the tensions surrounding and between these two very different women is
rooted not only in class distinctions, but also in their connection to Leonce Pontellier. One wonders
if the maid realizes Edna’s frustration and isolation and conversely, if Edna sees the maid’s
oppression.
Though Edna’s vision may be obstructed, Chopin’s narrator oversteps these limitations to
comment on the women of color enabling Edna and her friends to continue her privileged existence.
Perhaps Chopin’s most satiric commentary on the mistreatment of the “other” comes in the scene
when Edna visits the LeBruns in New Orleans. As she waits at the gate, Edna overhears Victor
arguing with the maid about who should open the gate. Later he explains that, “the black woman’s
offensive conduct was all due to imperfect training, as he was not there to take her in hand,”
(Chopin 111). By continually casting him in a bad light, the narrator reproves Victor and his
mistreatment of the servants. The narrator’s subtle observations and wry commentary on the plight
of the “other” illuminate Chopin’s awareness of the oppression surrounding her. Elfenbein
comments: “Striving for individual transcendence, Edna discovers the bounds of her prison,
coterminous with those confining other women. But because her thinking, including a negative
view of her own sex, is grounded in convention, her solitary insights are unfocused” (143).
Although Edna is not always aware of her privileged existence, the narrator’s subtle irony reveals
time in the form of Mariequita. Filled with Victor’s stories and exaggerations of Edna’s party,
Mariequita’s vision of this upper class white woman has been skewed: “She contemplated with the
greatest interest this woman who gave the most sumptuous dinners in America, and who had all the
men in New Orleans at her feet” (Chopin 174). The young Spanish woman, who had been
chatting comfortably with Victor, is immediately restored to her lower rank upon Edna’s
unexpected arrival. Victor says, “You may go to my room to brush up and rest yourself.
Mariequita will show you” and again, “‘Run and find Philomel’s mother,’ Victor instructed the girl.
‘I’ll go the kitchen and see what to do. By Gimminy! Women have no consideration! She might
have sent me word.” Here, Edna’s upper class insensitivity makes her unable to consider the
trouble she has caused for these “others.” While Edna is swimming out to her death, Mariequita
and Victor will be hurriedly arranging suitable accommodations for her. Elfenbein sums up
dark woman [Edna] needs to provide a plausible story of her accidental drowning.
Mariequita will provide that story, for she believes in the mythic Edna [of] Victor’s
construct…[her] belief in the mythic Edna reconfirms the potency and prevalence of the
romantic illusions that divide women from each other. A final contrast to Edna, who
detaches herself from story-making and story hearing by committing suicide, Mariequita
Here, Chopin forces a direct encounter between the privileged and the other in a moment of crisis.
By simply commenting on Mariequita’s role in Edna’s final moments, Chopin directs our attention
In Chopin’s short story, “La Belle Zoraide,” Manna-Loulou tells her mistress, Madame
Delisle, a bedtime story of desperate lovers and madness. Set in the antebellum era, Manna-
Loulou’s story is about La Belle Zoraide, a beautiful slave, who falls in love with an inappropriate
man. When Zoraide gives birth, her mistress sells the father and tells Zoraide that her infant is
dead. Misery piles higher as Zoraide goes insane and becomes a useless slave. What strikes the
reader about this story is Manna-Loulou’s creative power. When Madame Delisle asks Manna-
Loulou for a true story, she turns over her own reality for the interpretations from the “other.”
Delisle’s own passivity as a Southern “lady” listener escaping her reality through the stories of
“others” is incredible. Yet, Madame Delisle fails to “see the connection between Zoraide’s escape
into madness and her own escape into a world of fantasy” (Elfenbein 134). Chopin brilliantly
weaves together the lives of these characters and illustrates the interdependence race and class have
While Chopin’s characters often miss the relevance of the “other” in their need to retreat
from the reality of their own lives, Harper’s characters--on the receiving end of racism and
sexism--generally seem to grasp the perspective of the “other,” in this case, the white majority, with
ease. When Iola speaks to her uncle about working at a department store, he speaks from the white
storeowner ’s perspective: “When [the owner] advertises for help he means white women…He
doesn’t expect any colored girl to apply” (Harper 205). Still, understanding that racism exists does
not prevent the Leroy family and their friends from trying to improve society and defy white
prejudices. Living with the multiple layers of oppression everyday, Harper’s characters relate to
the presence of the “other” by disproving white stereotypes and demonstrating their own
worthiness. Iola’s uncle, Robert, is an excellent example of Harper’s ability to navigate through
the omnipresent, yet, often missing, white presence. Harper opens the novel with Robert as the
information connection between the slaves and news of the war. Highly educated for a black slave,
Robert secretly reads the newspapers and spreads word of the fight for freedom. When he runs
away to join the Union army, Robert quickly becomes an officer of the black regiment. Again, he
is a link between the upper echelon of white command and the black soldiers fighting for every
slave’s freedom. Though many black characters are portrayed with a dialect, Robert speaks
perfect English. After the war, Robert reunites the Leroy family and moves North to start his own
successful hardware store. Despite Northern prejudices, Robert is a financial and social success.
He is able to provide for his new family and enter the new black intelligentsia. The reader finds
that Harper sets Robert as a model of success to enrich the hopes of her black audience, yet like
Chopin’s Manna-Loulou, she also uses him as a bridge between black and white culture.
For the modern reader, Chopin and Harper offer a glimpse at the past through a specific
gender, race, and class view. We learn of women fighting to change limitations on their freedom,
we learn of women breaking free of class and race restrictions, we learn of women fighting
stereotypes and creating new forms of self-expression. We also see how gender, race, and class
assumptions bound these two authors into certain limited ways of thinking and expressing
themselves. Comparing Chopin and Harper to the gender radical New Woman also provides the
modern reader with a deeper comprehension of the varying critiques of contemporary Victorian
political and social values. Radically ahead of their time, Chopin and Harper continue to offer us a
modern examination of the multiple layers of oppression in nineteenth century American culture.
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