BACKWARD WHIRL INVESTIGATIONS IN ISOTROPIC AND ANISOTROPIC

SYSTEMS WITH GYROSCOPIC EFFECTS

Sun Ung Lee, Chris Leontopoulos, and Colin Besant

Computer-Aided Systems Engineering ~CASE), Department of Mechanical Engineering
Impenal College of Science, Technology and Medicine
London, UK, SW7 2BX

R ratio of W4o to W3o, i.e. w 40 I w 30

ABSTRACT u modal vector
Uc complex modal vector
In the dynamics of rotors, the Campbell diagram is a very
powerful tool for presenting the natural frequencies and finding Um unbalance moment
critical speeds of rotating machinery. However, a conventional v adjoint vector
Vc complex adjoint vector
Campbell diagram can not explain exactly why there is no
Xi i-direction translational displacements
backward critical speed in isotropic systems but there is in
anisotropic systems. This paper reviews the existing methodologies xi modulus of xi
used to solve the eigenvalue problem and discusses the advantages z complex translational displacement
and limitations that they have in describing the rotordynamics a. modulus of 'I'
behaviour. It also attempts to provide a relation between the t5 Kronecker delta
strength of the mode and the degree of anisotropy, using a A. eigenvalue
combination of real and complex modal analysis. !fli i-direction rotational displacements
fiJi modulus of !fl;
If/ complex rotational displacement
Q angular velocity
NOMENCLATURE gi i-direction critical speed
Wi natural frequency of i-direction displacement
d component of the modal normalized modal vector
bi modal norm ww natural frequency of i-direction displacement at zero
operating speed
E Young's modulus
Fi i-direction external force
G generalised gyroscopic matrix
Gc generalised complex gyroscopic matrix 1. INTRODUCTION
G.; component of G
The whirl orbits due to unbalance force of a rotor which
H angular momentum of the disc
I second polar moment of inertia about I or 2 axis has a shaft with non central disc, consist of elliptical orbits of
the shaft centre about a line extending from one bearing centre
J" diametric moment of inertia
to the other; in special cases this is a circle or a straight line.
JP polar moment of inertia
When the direction of the whirl motion is the same as the spin
J, ratio of JP to .!,1, i.e. JP I J"
direction of the shaft, the whirl is referred to as forward whirl.
K generalised stiffness matrix
However, when they are opposite, the whirl motion is referred
Kc generalised complex stiffness matrix
to as backward whirl. Generally, the causes of backward whirl
K.; component of K
is anisotropy in the bearing [ 1].
k.; force influence coefficients (stiffness)
In the absence of gyroscopic effects, backward whirl
m disc mass
due to rotor support anisotropy has been noted by many
M generalised mass matrix
authors [1-5]. If the gyroscopic effects are included, the
Me generalised complex mass matrix
natural frequencies become dependent on rotor speed and each
Mi i-direction external moment
natural frequency splits into two natural frequencies instead of
Mij component of M
p generalised displacement vector one at static conditions. It can be seen that there exist
q generalised complex displacement vector decreasing natural frequency lines of backward mode with
respect to the operating speed in a conventional Campbell
r modulus of z

1692
diagram. Critical speeds due to unbalance are defined when the Substitutions
rotational operating speed coincides with a natural frequency.
However, using the conventional Campbell diagram, it has not z(t) = re 1'" ,1/f(t) = ae 1"'' (2.3)
been possible to provide definite answers to the · following
questions: why is the backward whirl not excited by unbalance ,where rand a are magnitudes of z and 1/f respectively, with
force in an isotropic rotor system? Although the unbalance force real part of r and a lead to equations,
line ( l xQ) intersects the backward natural frequency lines, the
backward whirl is not excited in isotropic rotor systems. Why do
these intersection points become the critical speeds in anisotropic
systems but not in isotropic systems?
Any clear explanation for the above questions has not been
found directly in the literature. However, Dimentmerg [6], Childs
Therefore the characteristic equation is
[7] and Lalane [8] show that there is no backward critical speed
due to unbalance in isotropic systems, by solving the equations of
motion directly (unbalance response analysis) rather than using the mJdo/- mJPQ o/- (mk33 + Jdk 22 '\pi (2.5)
Campbell diagram.
A new idea using complex modal analysis, where the + J pn k22m + kzzk33- ki3 =o
displacement vector in the equation of motion is complex, has been
introduced in [8,9]. Using this idea and examining the eigenvectors
As an example in isotropic systems, a pump rotor of
of modes, this paper attempts to explain the backward excitation
lOOOmm diameter, 200mrn length, and apparent density of
conditions in isotopic and anisotropic systems. 3750 kg/m 3 carried by a slender steel shaft of diameter 80mm
with length of 1=0.60m, a=0.3m, b=0.5m and
E=2.11 x 10 11 N/m 2 is considered for demonstration purposes
(See schematic in Figure l ). The resulting Campbell diagram
2. CONVENTIONAL CAMPBELL DIAGRAM using (2.5) and the above data is shown in Figure 2. There are
The model of this paper with a single non-central disc has four natural frequencies which are dependent on the shaft
the following properties. speed. w 1 and lD2 represent the backward and forward natural
• Massless, flexible shaft with circular cross- frequencies for displacement and W:3 and w4 represent
section or varying diameter along its axis backward and forward natural frequencies for inclination of
the disc respectively. Unbalance force is normally
• Stiff thin circular disc with mass m and
synchronous to rotor whirl in forward direction and therefore
polar and diametral moments of inertia JP
resonance is expected to occur when operating speed is equal
and Jd respectively. (Jp> Jd)
to the natural frequency (lxn line in Figure 2). The unbalance
• Damping is negligible. force line intersects the natural frequency lines at the points A,
B, and C. It must be noted that due to the assumption that the
The equations of motion of free vibration will first be considered. rotor is short, (the ratio of polar to diametral moment of inertia
The disc can move in the radial direction and, as well as rotating is larger than 1) the unbalance force line does not meet the w4
around its axis, can tum about a random radial axis. The natural frequency line.
displacement and rotation should take place in the space
determined by axes l and 2 (see Figure l).

180r.===============~--------------~
160 --·--·---- -ro,
N 14o --·OJ,
···-···· txn
!. 120
8 l~------------~-
>-
0
c
Q)
100
__ ... -------\
"0' 80 --

~ 60 ~~-n-cli-na-li-on_"_,lLod_•_o_fd_is_c__--::;c~..: : : :- - - · :_·"·"__
"·····"_j····
~ Jo .••••. •••••••

ro;;-(=00-1~-)- •<.:.:::~:~:~ .....-·· EiTransfationaln ~ode of d sc

40
CO ------
z 20 ......... A ................. ....... L ... _
... -········

Figure I. Displacements, rotations, forces, and moments of Operating speed n (rpm)

the model rotor

The equations of motion using Newton's 2"d Law are shown Figure 2. Conventional Campbell diagram for an
from (A. I) to (A.5) in the Appendix. Introducing the complex isotropic rotor for l=0.8m, a=0.3m, b=0 . 5m
variables (2.1 ),

Z = X1 + jX 2 (2.1) It has long been known that there is no backward critical

'II= rp4 - jrp3 speed for isotropic systems [6-8]. Thus only point B is
interpreted as critical point and A and C should be ignored. It
equations of motion is obtained as follows might be argued that backward natural frequency lines in the
41h quadrant are reflected to the 1"1 quadrant artificially for
mi + k 22 z- k23 11f =0 (2.2)
convenience by multiplying with minus sign, for example ·WJ
and ·WJ as shown in Figure 2. Thus, there exists no
1 if/- jJ /:>. rf/- k23z + k33'1' =0
1693
intersection between the backward frequency and the unbalance
force lines since the unbalance force line is located in the I" (3.7)
quadrant and the backward natural frequency line is originally in
the 4'h quadrant. However, this explanation faces another difficulty
if anisotropic systems are considered, because for anisotropic where R=l for isotropic systems. Using R the characteristic
systems unbalance response analysis shows that there are equation (3.5) becomes
backward critical speeds in fact [6-8]; in which case, all of the
three points A, B, and C must be interpreted as critical points. In
order to give clear answers to these questions, real formulation is
investigated first, and complex formulation is investigated further Resonance is expected to occur when operating speed n is
in the following sections. equal to natural frequency

OJ=fl (3.9)

From (3.8) and (3.9), the critical speeds ilbecome

3. REAL FORMULATION
In order to simplify calculations for a clear analytical
backward critical speed
solution for critical speeds, displacement and rotation are
uncoupled. This means that k23 and k14 in (A.5) are zero. The forward critical speed
bearings may now be considered as anisotropically flexible and
this means that the rotor model is expanded to anisotropic systems.
Thus, the equations of motion (A.5) change into OJ 3 ~(1 + R 2)- ~m;0 (1 + R 2) 2 - 4(1- J} )R 2m;0
nc-
3 -
mi\ + k 11 x 1 = 0 2(1- J})

mi2 + k22x2 = 0 (3.1) m3~(1 + R2) + ~m;o (1 + R2)2 - 4(1- J; )R2 m34o
Jip3 +Jpfl ¢4 + k33(/J3 = 0
nc =
4
2(1-J,2 )
J/p4 -Jpfl ¢3 +k44rp4 =0

From the first two equations of (3 .1 ), we can achieve the natural
frequencies cv 1 and cv 2 , which are independent ·on the operating
speed Q, for displacements x 1 and x:!.
(3.2)
Because displacement and rotation are uncoupled, only the latter
pair of (3. 1) which is affected by gyroscopic effect will now be
considered. It follows:
(3.3)
where qJ 3=(/)3e"'1, (/)4=([> 4e"'1 and (/'>3, (/'> 4 are magnitude of qJ 3 and
For Q=O, rotational natural frequencies are
(3.4)
(3. 10)
As the rotor becomes isotropic, R approaches I and
when R= I, the critical speeds of backward (il 3) and forward
(il4 ) in (3.10) become
nc =~ nc =~ (·:fl~O) (3 .11)
3 ~l+J,, 4 ~1-J,
In order to give visual understanding, Figure 3 shows the
natural frequencies for isotropic systems (R=l) using the
previous model data and Figure 4 for anisotropic systems with
R=l.6. Due to the real formulation in the real domain, the
natural frequencies occur in pairs and have opposite sign as
shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4 (see equation (3.6)). F and B
qJ 4. in the figure denote forward and backward mode respectively.
F. 1 and 8. 1 are complex conjugate modes (mirror images ofF
and B). It can be seen in Figure 4 that the natural frequency
lines do not start at the same point at zero operating speed.
Figure 4 shows that il3 is a backward critical speed.

Using the real variables, (/)3. qJ 4 and (3.4), the characteristic

equation can be formulated with Jr=J/Jd as follows 160

120
(3.5)
N' 80
~
8
The four solutions of this equation are 40
1J'
<::
<I>
"
tT
~ -40

~ ·80
(3.6)
z"
r- ]'
1 -m -120

± H(w~ + w:. + J. '"') ,;.,~ -160

1000 2000 3000 4000

Operating speed O(rpm)
If R is defined as a ratio of cv 40 to cv 3o, it can be used to
indicate the degree of anisotropy Figure 3. Campbell diagram for an isotropic rotor using real
formulation
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 "Inclination" rrode r:1 disc only>Mth R=1.6 '1ndination" rrode r:l disc only
~rr==========.~==~~~~~~~,
-F-----8_ 1 -----lsctrqlic
100 B · F_1 .1 -Arisctrqlic
········-1•0 10"'
1~ L---------~~--
(J)
N'
;s 00
8
ro,··---- - -----";: . . . 0~.:·
..---------·
__·: ________________ _
40
15'
c:: 0
"'
:::1
r::T
~
-40
~49.
~ -00
:::1
1ii -m_.,
z -1~ ···--------- ... ____ _
-100

-~
0 1000 ~ 3000 4000 1000 ~ 3000 4000
Operating speed Q(rpm) Operating speed Q(rpm)

Figure 4. Campbell diagram for an anisotropic rotor using real

formulation (R=l.6) Figure 5. Unbalance response for an isotropic and
anisotropic rotor

Unbalance response analysis

The excitation of the critical speeds can also be investigated 4. COMPLEX FORMULATION
by processing the unbalance response functions [6-8]. If unbalance The complex formulation for isotropic systems is now
force using unbalance moment Urn is considered, the latter pair of investigated further. It provides simple results only for
the equations of motion (3 .I) is changed into isotropic systems while, in the case of anisotropic systems, the
size of problems is not changed. In the latter case, the
2
Jdip3+JPQ <P4+k 33 ({J 3 =UmD cos.at (3.12) characteristic equations of the system are the same as those of
2 isotropic systems. Therefore, the complex formulation has no
Jdip4-JpQ ¢J 3 +k44 ({J 4 =UmD sin.at
advantage in anisotropic systems [12].
Using the complex variables of (2.1 ), the latter two
For the general case, when the rotor is anisotropic (k33 # 44 ), equations of (3 .I) for isotropic systems only become
unbalance response functions of (3.12) are:
(4.1)

1
(3.13) With !JFae'"' , the characteristic equation is reformulated as

(4.2)

For m=Q, the critical speed becomes

where qJ 3=</>3cos OJt, qJ 4=</>4 sin OJt. Resonance occurs when the
OJ
denominators of(3.13) are zero. If Dis the same as in (3.10), the
denominators of (3.13) become zero.
n: = ~ (·: n ~ O) (4.3)
-vi-J,
When the rotor is isotropic (k33 =k44 =k), unbalance response
functions of (3 .12) are This is a consistent result with that of unbalance response
analysis (Figure 5) and means that there is no backward
(3.14) critical speed, (see Figure 6).

·---------1•0
However, in this isotropic case, the denominator of (3.14) is zero
100 -F
only when D=il4 (see (3.11 )). Hence it can be confirmed that B
there is no backward critical speed for isotropic systems even
though the corresponding critical speed has been calculated in
(3.11 ). This shows that real formulation fails to explain why the
backward whirl is not excited in isotropic systems. Figure 5 shows
the maximum amplitude (1<1>31 if I.P3I>I.P41 or I.P41 if I.P3I<I<P4I) of the
response for isotropic and anisotropic systems with an unbalance
moment of Um=0.1 kg.

~ 3000 4000
Operating speed Q(rpm)

Figure 6. Campbell diagram for an isotropic rotor using

complex formulation
1695
5. COMPARISON BETWEEN REAL AND COMPLEX and the corresponding modal and the adjoint vectors, u and v,
FORMULATION can be obtained from [9,10]
It is obvious form the above analyses, that the only way to
compare the two methods is by using an isotropic system. (2? M +JoG+ K)u = 0, v'(A-2 M +JoG+ K) = 0' (6.3)
For isotropic systems, the characteristic equation (3.8) using
real formulation can further be expressed with two polynomials where symbol - and ' mean conjugate and transpose of a
vector respectively. The modal and adjoint vectors can be
(5.1) biorthonormalized. The concept of the biorthonormalization
has been introduced and described by Lancaster and Lee in
their references [9-11].
Note that the characteristic equation (4.2) using complex
formulation, is in fact the second polynomial of the equation ( 5.I).
Therefore, it can be recognised that there are two sets of
(X,+ A-; )V;k M u~ + v;*G u~ = o;; i, k = B, F

eigenvalues for isotropic systems obtained from real formulation .-t A-; v;* M u~- v;k K u~ = A-~o:; r,s=±I,±2,... ,±N
while only one set is obtained from complex formulation. This (6.4)
result can be also confirmed comparing Figure 3 and Figure 6.
Table I summarises the differences between real and complex where the Kronecker delta is defined as
formulation.
Because the same systems have been used, consistent results ik _
Ors -
{1 when i = kand r = s (6.5)
should be achieved irrespective of real or complex formulation. 0 otherwise
However, depending on the use of real or complex formulation, the
contradictory observation (the number of eigenvalues) is obtained. and modal and the adjoint vectors are defined as
Thus, by introducing the complex modal analysis in comparison

u~ = {:'};
with a real modal analysis, it will be shown in later sections that if
(6.6)
the system anisotropy becomes null (R= I), half of the natural
modes of the system disappear. 2 r

Here, the superscripts B and F refer to the backward and

forward modes. The modes associated with positive and
Real formulation Complex formulation negative integer subscripts form complex conjugate pairs.
Modal norm b/ is a complex quantity which is determined
shows that backward shows that backward
Isotropic using the biorthonormality condition (6.4).
whirl can be excited whirl is not excited
systems
=:>Wrong =>Correct
By introducing q, which is a Nx I generalised complex
shows that backward shows that backward displacement vector, the equation of motion for an isotropic
Anisotropic rotor can be reformulated as:
whirl can be excited whirl can be excited
systems
=>Correct =>Correct
MJ.i + GJI + Kcq = 0, where q = x 1 + jx 2 (6. 7)
One set (F, B) in
Two sets isotropic systems where generalised complex mass, gyroscopic, and stiffness
Eigenvalues matrices, Me. Gc and Kc are constructed only for isotropic
(F, B, F.}, 8_ 1)
Two sets (F, B, F. I> 8. 1)
systems (see (A.6) in the Appendix). Similarly to (6.2), a 2N
in anisotropic systems
order characteristic equation can be obtained.
Only complex formulation always gives correct
Conclusion (6.8)
results

Table I. Comparison between real and complex formulation for the

and the corresponding complex modal and the adjoint vectors,
eigenvalue solutions
Ucand Vc, can be derived from

(A- 2 Mc+2Gc+Kc)uc=0, 2
v:(2 Mc+2Gc+Kc)=O'
(6.9)
6. REAL AND COMPLEX MODAL ANALYSIS
The modal vectors and the adjoint may be biorthonormalized
In this section, the real modal analysis will be summarised in order to satisfy
according to [9-11] in order to be used in a later section. (See
details in [9-11]) Generally, the equation of motion of a rotor can (X,+ 2~)V:: Me u!, + v;;Gc u!, = o;; i, k = B, F
be written as
.-t 2; v;: Me u~, - v;; Kc u!, = .-to:; r,s=±I,±2,... ,±N
(6.10)
Mp+GjJ+Kp = 0 (6.1)
By introducing the relations compatible with the
using p= {x 1', x 2 '}' where x 1 and x 2 are Nx I displacement vectors biorthonormality conditions (6.4) and (6.1 0), we can achieve
and p is generalised 2Nx I displacement vector. the following relations between complex and real vectors.
where M, G, and K are generalised mass, gyroscopic and stiffness (See details in [9-11])
matrices respectively. Substituting x 1=X1i 1 and x 2=X2e" 1, the
characteristic equation of the rotor, a 4N order polynomial, is
obtained

(6.2)
1696
 (6.11)
where i=B, F

Figure 7 summarises the procedure to achieve a relation

between the real and complex vectors.

r
(7.4)
f System

Real Modal \--J'_~ -~---~· Complex Modal As the system anisotropy becomes weak, the values of d
Analysis ;-~l Analysis approach -1 as shown in Figure 8 and therefore modal vector
u;c1 becomes non-zero while u;c-l becomes zero. These results

Real modal and Complex modal

adjoint vectors:
eq. (6.3)
Biorthonomalisation
eq. (6.4) & (6. 10)
Relation between real and complex
[ modal & adjoint vectors: eq. (6. 11)
Figure 7. The procedure to achieve a relation between the real and
complex vectors
reveal that the modal contributions corresponding to ,(1 (F_ 1
and adjoint vectors: and 8_ 1 in Figure 3 and Figure 4) become smaller as the
eq. (6.9)
system anisotropy becomes weaker and eventually, if the
system is isotropic, these contributions disappear and uic-l is
\ zero. In other words, if the system anisotropy is small, the
strength of the mode corresponding to l_ 1 is much smaller than
that corresponding to)/~> which is dominant within the system
response. Therefore, although the unbalance force line I xQ in
Figure 3 intersects the backward natural frequency line B_t.
the point of intersection nc3 can not be a critical speed and the
backward whirl is not excited since the strength of the mode
corresponding to this 8_ 1 is zero. However, for an anisotropic
case the strength of the mode is not zero and therefore this
point becomes a critical speed and backward whirl is excited.

7. ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS USING THE REAL

AND COMPLEX MODAL ANALYSIS
Using (6.2) to find the eigenvalues and (6.3) to find modal
and adjoint vectors and normalising the vectors with respect to the
u 1 directional component (see equation (6.6)), the modal and the
adjoint vectors corresponding to the rotor model can be found as
- .
follows:
"c.

v'1' == b'·{ 1 .} where i == B, F

"'
.c
~ -3
ja' (7.1) '0
0
::;:
u'-t. == { _ ja;
I }
• v~~ == b;{- JG1. ;}
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
where the backward and forward modal frequencies, co 8 <0 and Anisotropy R
coF>O, are
Figure 8. Mode shape factor with respect to anisotropy
(J)
B
==-
m; (1 + R)- ~m;0 (1 + R)
0
2
- 4(1- R; )R m~0
2

2(1- R;) (7.2) 8. CONCLUSION

m;0 (1 + R) + ~m;0 (1 + R) 4(1- R; )R m~0
2 2 Real formulation and complex formulation were
-
reviewed and compared in order to explain backward critical
2(1-R~) speeds which the conventional Campbell diagram can not
explain satisfactorily. Only complex formulation can
and the components of the normalised modal vectors, a;, which are sufficiently explain the possibility of backward whirl
now real quantities, and the modal norm, b;, which are now pure excitation: there is no backward critical speed in isotropic
imaginary, become rotor systems but there is in anisotropic rotor systems. This
result is further backed up by unbalance response. It has also
i - j been shown that half of the modes and corresponding modal
b(R)== . . .
2[m'{l+(a') 2 }+a'R}l] contributions tend to disappear as the rotor system becomes
(7.3) isotropic.

Modal shape factor a; indicates the structure of the modeshapes and

plays an important role to determine the strength of the mode. a; is
a function of R since Q/ is a function of R. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Substituting (7.1) into (6.11), the complex modal solutions The authors would like to express gratitude to Prof. Lee
can become for his help and discussion.

1697
REFERENCE (A.4)
[I] Kramer, E., Dynamics of Rotors and Foundations, Springer-
Verlag, p.32, 1993. Therefore the equations of motion changes into

[2] Millsaps, K T., and Vejvoda, C. E, Origin of Split Resonance

and Backward Whirl in a Simple Rotor, Birmingham, UK, + k22xJ - kzJ(/)4 = 0
International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress &
Exhibition, I 0-13, June, 1996. + k22xz + kz3'PJ = 0 (A.5)

[3] Vance, J. M., Rotordynamics of Turbomachinery, John Wiley

Jdip3 +JPQ ifl. +kzJXz +k33(/J3 =0
& Sons, p.l30-131, 1988. J dip4 - J pQ cp3 - k23XJ + k33(/J4 = 0
[4] Rao, J. S., Rotordynamics, Halsted Press, p.l 08-130, 1983.
where k2z, k23 , and k33 are calculated using the rotor geometry.
[5] Dimarogonas, A., Vibration for Engineers, Prentice Hall, p See Table A. Note that the rotor system is isotropic.
550-551, 1996.
[6] Dimentberg, F. M., Flexural Vibrations of Rotating Shafts,
k22 k23 k33
Butterworths, p. 81-85, 1961.
a3 +b3 l(a- b) l
[7] Childs, D., Turbomachinery Rotordynamics, John Wiley & a:f.b 3EI~ 3EI~ 3EJ-
ab
Sons, p 13-23, 1993.
48£/ 12EI
[8] Lalanne, M. and Ferraris, G., Rotordynamics Prediction in a=b=l/2 -- 0 --
!3 l
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, p.22-36, 1990.
Where E is Young's modulus and I is second polar moment of
[9] Lee, C. W., Rotor Dynamics and Control in Complex Modal inertia about I or 2 axis.
Space, Yokohama, 1st International Conference on Motion and
Vibration Control, Sep. 1992. Table A. Stiffness of the rotor model
[I 0] Lee, C. W., A Complex Modal Testing Theory for Rotating
Machinery, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol.
The equation of motion for an isotropic rotor can be
5, No 2, p.ll9-137, 1991.
reformulated as:
[II] Lancaster, P., Lambda Matrices and Vibrating Systems,
Pergamon Press, 1996.
[12] Lee, C.W. and Lee, S. K, An Efficient Complex Modal
Testing Theory for Asymmetric Rotor Systems: Use of
Unidirectional Excitation Method, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 206(3), 1997.

for isotropic rotor

APPENDIX M 11 =M 22 =M 1 M1z = -Mz1 = Mz

The equations of motion using Newton's 2"d Law are (A.6)
G11 =G22 =G 1 G,z = -Gzt = Gz
mxl =IF; K,, =Kzz =Kt K,z = -Kzt = Kz

mXz = LFz (A. I)

ilJ = IMJ =liPJ +JPQ¢4

if.= IM. =1ip4 -JPQ¢3

Using force influence coefficients (stiffness) kij,

mx 1 + k 1 ,x 1 +k 14 rp 4 = 0
mx 2 + kzzXz + kzJ(/)3 = 0 (A.2)
Jip3 +JPQ rP. +k32xz +kJJrpJ =0
J dip4- J PQ rP3 + k 41 X 1 + k 44 rp4 = 0

From symmetry,

(A.3)

and from Maxwell's reciprocal theorem,

1698