Appendix A

DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

Figure A-8: Commutation in Generator Armature Coil

Figure A-9: Field Distortion due to Armature Reaction

One method of producing a flux to counteract that due to
armature reaction is to place interpoles between the main field
poles and connect the interpole coils in series with the
armature. The interpole flux thus varies with armature current
and will improve commutation, without brush shifting, over the
load range of the machine.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

Application to 62-100
Interpoles Interpoles are provided and should be connected as follows.
Motors Interpole to have opposite polarity to that of next main pole with
respect to direction of rotation.
Generators Interpole to have some polarity as that of next main pole with
respect to direction of rotation.
Commutator
Adjustment Rotatable brushgear is not provided in the basic 62-100 kit but
is available either as RB185 Rotatable Brushgear, or as part of
MTK181 Motor Test Kit. However, shifting the angular position
of the commutator relative to the armature coils produces the
same effect as a shift in brush position. The following
procedure applies to all the dc machine assemblies:
1. Assemble the armature as in Utility Sheet 62-100,
Chapter 3, Basic Assembly Instruction 1, but do not
tighten the set screw on to the shaft.
2. Rotate the commutator by approximately 20° in the
direction given below (the best angular setting is found
by trial, with the machine on load).
Motors Shift the commutator in the direction of rotation.
Generators Shift the commutator opposite to the direction of rotation.
Brush Shifting If rotatable brushgear is used it should be adjusted as follows:
Motors Shift the brushes opposite to the direction of rotation.
Generators Shift the brushes in the direction of rotation.

SIMPLIFIED MOTOR,
GENERATOR AND
TORQUE EQUATIONS A great deal can be predicted about the behaviour of motors
and generators, especially dc types, by the application of
simplified equations relating the speed, back-emf, field current,
armature current, armature resistance and torque. These
equations are easily understood and use constant factors to
take into account the complex effects of magnetic flux leakage,
copper and iron losses, etc.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

Figure A-10: The Action of the Elementary Generator

Generated emf We saw earlier that the commutator of a dc machine serves to

ensure that the emf appearing between the brushes is
unidirectional, but nevertheless it varies between zero, when
the side of the armature coil is in the geometric neutral plane,
and a maximum when it is opposite a pole. The action of an
elementary generator whose rotor winding is on an iron core is
shown in Figure A-10. The magnetic field is substantially radial
and of more or less constant flux density over the pole face.
The generated emf is thus fairly constant over the pole face
angle but drops sharply as the neutral plane is approached.
These waveforms will be altered by armature reaction, as
already mentioned earlier, but this will be disregarded in what
follows.
Although subject to variation as shown, the emf has an
average value which is governed by:
The total magnetic flux caused by the field current and cut by
the coil in rotating,
The speed of rotation of the coil,
The number of turns in the coil.

62-005 A-13
 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

If the total flux is denoted by 0, E is the generated emf in volts

and N the rotational speed in revolutions per minute, then:
E = K1NΦ
where the constant K1 includes all the unspecified factors such
as flux leakage, number of turns in the coil, length of the coil
sides and unit conversion constants.
Generator Equation If a generator producing an emf E and having armature
resistance Ra is loaded by an external circuit such that an
armature current la flows, then the terminal voltage will be
reduced below E by the resistive voltage drop in the armature.

Figure A-11: Generator

In the unloaded case V = E
In the loaded case V = E - Ιa Ra
This is the Generation Equation and by substitution for E can
also be written as:
V = K1 NΦ - Ιa Ra
Motor Equation When voltage is applied to the armature of a dc motor and the
armature rotates, an emf is generated in the armature coil due
to its motion in the magnetic field, just as in the case of the
generator. Its magnitude is determined by the same expression
but it is referred to as the 'back-emf' because it is always in a
direction such as to oppose the applied voltage. The armature
current which flows is that caused by the difference between
the applied voltage and the back-emf, acting across the
armature resistance.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

V -E
That is, by Ohm’s Law: Ia =
Ra

Figure A-12:: Motor

When voltage is first applied and the rotor is still stationary,

E = 0 because N = 0
V
so that Ia =
Ra
As the rotor accelerates, N and E increase and thus Ιa
decreases.
Rearranging the equation gives us:
V = E + Ιa Ra
or:
V = K1 N Φ + Ιa Ra
This is the Motor Equation

Torque Equation In any machine, whether motor or generator, the torque acting
between the rotor and stator is governed by:
The flux density of the magnetic field,
The current in the armature coils,
The number of turns in the armature coils,
The distance of the armature coil sides from the centre
of rotation,
The length of the coil sides.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

As with generated emf, the torque is not steady but fluctuates

with the position of the armature coils relative to the magnetic
poles. However, it has an average value which can be
expressed as:
T = K2 Ιa Φ
In this torque equation K2 is a constant accounting for flux
leakage, number of turns in the armature coil, armature
geometry, and unit conversion constants.
For a given direction of armature current and a given direction
of the magnetic field the torque direction is fixed. Thus we have
the two cases of motor and generator as in Figures A-13 and
A-14.

Figure 4-13: Motor Figure 4-14: Generator

From this can be seen that the difference between a motor and
a generator is simply that in the motor, the generated torque is
greater than the load torque, causing acceleration of the motor
in the direction of the generated torque. Whereas in the
generator, the drive torque exceeds the generated torque and
the rotor accelerates in the direction of the drive torque.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

SUMMARY Three important equations to remember are:

Generator Equation V = K1 N Φ - Ιa Ra
Motor Equation V = K1 N Φ + Ιa Ra
Torque Equation T = K2 Ιa Φ

If a further assumption is made that the total flux Φ is

proportional to the field current Ιf so that:
Φ = K3 Ιf

The above equations may be expressed as:

Generator V = K1 K3 N Ιf - Ιa Ra
Motor V = K1 K3 N Ιf + Ιa Ra
Torque T = K2 K3 Ιf Ιa

This set of equations is less accurate than the first since at

high field currents, saturation of the core may occur so that a
constant relation between If and Φ is not justified.
However, if sensibly applied in the knowledge of their
limitations they are adequate to explain the basic
characteristics of many types of machine.

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 Appendix A
DISSECTIBLE
MACHINES SYSTEM Basic Electrical Machine Theory

MACHINE APPLICATIONS
Summary of Characteristics with relevant 62-100 Assemblies
62-100
Assignments
Ass 13, 14

Ass 19, 20

Ass 23, 24

Ass 27, 28, 29, 30

Ass 31, 32

Ass 33, 34

Ass 35, 36

Ass 40, 41

Ass 42

Figure A-15: Motor Reference Sheet

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