25

High Energy Beams and

Related Welding and Cutting
Process Principles

Introduction Chapter Objectives

This chapter introduces some of the more nonconventional After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
welding and cutting processes. The various processes are
25-1 Explain the use of high energy-density beam
evaluated based upon their distinguishing features. Two processes.
of the most obvious distinguishing features are the heat
25-2 Describe the water jet cutting process.
source and how the molten pool is shielded from the at-
mosphere. This text has covered many of the arc welding 25-3 Describe the friction welding processes.
processes that use the electric arc for a heat source and 25-4 Explain explosion welding.
internal or external gas shielding. None of the processes
covered in this chapter utilize the arc for a heat source.
They use some very unique sources of energy for welding
and cutting. The molten pool can be shielded by normal
welding shielding gases or perhaps evacuating the atmo-
sphere in a vacuum chamber.
As a professional in the welding industry (welder, weld-
ing technician, welding engineer, and so on), it is impor-
tant that you understand the various processes that may be
encountered. Correct process selection will have a major
impact on manufacturing costs. Most of these processes
are applied in mechanized or automatic modes. They re-
quire extremely accurate joint geometry and positioning.
In many cases the welds are autogenous, and so additional
filler metal is not required. They may or may not require
any shielding gas, so much of the normal consumables
required for other welding processes are not necessary.
Equipment for the various welding and cutting processes

816
can run from a few hundred dollars to millions High-Energy-Density Beam
of dollars. Making the right choices in process Welding Direction

and equipment can mean the difference in being Welded Bead

competitive in a world market or out of business. Vapor Cavity
This chapter is a survey of various processes, and
you are encouraged to investigate these processes
in more detail based upon your needs. Addi- Cross
tional sources of information are available from 0.1 to Molten Section
500 mm Metal
the American Welding Society and through the (0.004 to
of Bead
Joint
Internet. 19.68 in.) Face

High Energy Beam Processes

High energy beams are concentrated heat
sources that have been measured as high as
65,000,000 watts per square inch. Compare this Root Surface
to holding your hand a safe distance above a
100-watt lightbulb to feel the heat. Then multi-
ply this by 650,000 to get an idea of the amount Fig. 25-2  Cross section of a keyhole weld.  Adapted from American Welding
of energy that is being released. Compare the Society, Welding Handbook, Volume 3, Welding Processes Part 2
weld made with the GTAW process as compared
to the electron beam weld in Fig. 25-1.
All the normal type of joints, such as butt, corner, lap, accompanied by very rapid cooling rates. This may be
edge, and T, can be welded with the high energy beam advantageous on some alloys, but on others where it may
processes. These are typically done with groove welds. be detrimental, preheat must be used to slow the cooling
Fillet welds are difficult and generally not attempted with rate.
high energy beam processes. When groove welds are Certain types of alloy and thickness are more readily
made, they are usually CJP-type welds made using the welded than others. Table 25-1 (p. 818) covers the capa-
keyhole technique, Fig. 25-2. bilities of various welding processes.
These processes generally produce a very narrow weld
with very deep penetration characteristics. These type of Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
welds must be applied to tightly fitting joints with toler- As with all high energy-density beam processes, e­lectronic
ance in the 0.0001-inch range. The heat-affected zones beam welding (EBW) is used for high precision and high
in keyhole welding are normally very narrow and are production applications. Electron beam welding is accom-
plished by the use of a concentrated steam of high velocity
electrons that is formed into a beam. This beam provides
a source of intense local heating. Equipment consists of
the following:
•• Vacuum chamber
•• Controls
•• Electron beam gun
•• Three-phase power source
•• Optical viewing system
•• Tracking device
•• Work-handling equipment
A B Electron beam welding is shown in Fig. 25-3, page 819.
Much like the picture tube in your TV set, electrons are
Fig. 25-1  Comparison of electron beam weld on the left dispersed from the electrically excited, negatively charged
(A) and the gas tungsten arc weld on the right (B) in 1⁄2-inch thick type
2219 aluminum alloy plate.  © American Welding Society. Welding cathode. The electron beam is partially shaped by the bias
Handbook, Vol. 3, Welding Processes Part 2, 9th ed, Chapter 13 cup grid. The electrons are very small, but they are mov-
Page 465, Fig 13.16 A, B ing at 30 to 70 percent of the speed of light, so they carry

High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles   Chapter 25  817
 Table 25-1 Capabilities of the Commonly Used Joining Processes

Processes1
S G F G
M S M C T P E E O D F E L I D
A A A A A A S G R F F F R B B T F R I D R F
Material Thickness2 W W W W W W W W W W W W W W W B B B B B B B S
Aluminum and S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Carbon S ⚫3 ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
steel I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Cast iron I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Copper and S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫4 ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Low alloy S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
steel I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Magnesium S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
and alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫
Nickel and S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Refractory S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫
T
Stainless S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
steel I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
Titanium and S ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
alloys I ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
M ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫
T ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫ ⚫

1
SMAW = shielded metal arc welding; SAW = submerged arc welding; GMAW = gas metal arc welding; FCAW = flux cored arc welding; GTAW = gas tungsten arc welding;
PAW = plasma arc welding; ESW = electroslag welding; EGW = electrogas welding; RW = resistance welding; FW = flash welding; OFW = oxyfuel gas welding; DFW =
diffusion welding; FRW = friction welding; EBW = electron beam welding; LBW = laser beam welding; TB = torch brazing; FB = furnace brazing; RB = resistance brazing;
IB = induction brazing; DB = dip brazing; IRB = infrared brazing; DB = diffusion brazing; and S = soldering.
2
S = sheet (up to 1⁄8 in., 3 mm); I = intermediate [1⁄8 to 1⁄4 in. (3 to 6 mm)]; M = medium [1⁄4 to 3⁄4 in. (6 mm to 19 mm)]; T = thick [3⁄4 in. (19 mm) and up].
3
Commercial process.
4
Copper requires molybdenum-coated tips.
Adapted from Welding Handbook, 9/e.

818  Chapter 25 High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles
 Emitter
(Cathode)

Grid
(Bias Cup) – +
–
Beam
Acceleration
Anode Voltage
+

Electron Beam

Magnetic
Focusing
Lens

Magnetic
Deflection
Coil

Deflection
Capability

Focus Range

Workpiece

Fig. 25-4  Beam deflection capability of an ­electron beam

column as shown by a “bow tie” pattern on a ­workpiece. 
© American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Vol. 2,
page 675, fig 21.2
Fig. 25-3  Schematic representation of electron beam ­welding. 
Source: From Welding Handbook, 9/e.

utilizes a pressure of 2 × 10 −1 torr. The process can also

a tremendous amount of energy. The beam is further
shaped by the positive anode and magnetic focusing lens.
The beam can be focused onto a very small spot approxi-
mately 0.04 inch in diameter.
The electrons bombarding the metal causes a rapid
buildup of heat. A vapor hole is produced that is sur-
rounded by molten metal that will form the weld. The
joint geometry must be very accurate. It must be precisely
positioned, and travel speed must be very accurate for full
penetration to take place. Review Fig.  25-2. The beam
can also be defocused and used for vaporization purposes
as well as for refining the surfaces of various materials.
Figure 25-4 is an example of an electron beam being
deflected.
Electron beam welding is done in three variations
based on the degree of vacuum used. A high vacuum
(EBW-HV) is referred to as a hard vacuum and utilizes
a pressure of 1 × 10 −3 torr. (A torr is the accepted in-
dustry term for a pressure of 1 millimeter of mercury.
The standard atmospheric pressure can be expressed as
760 torr or 760 mmHg.) A medium vacuum (EBW-MV)
be done in a nonvacuum condition, which is known as
EBW-NV, so the pressure would be 760 torr, Fig. 25-5,
p. 820.
Electron beam welding has many unique capabilities,
Fig. 25-6, p. 821. The following advantages should be
considered:
•• EBW directly converts electric energy into beam
energy, so the process is very efficient.
•• The depth-to-width ratios for one-pass welding on
thick sections is high.
•• Heat input is very low.
•• There is a narrow heat-affected zone.
•• There is minimal distortion.
•• The vacuum mode results in high purity welds.
•• The beam can be projected over distances in a vacuum
(space is a vacuum).
•• There are rapid travel speeds.
•• The beam can be magnetically deflected to produce
various weld shapes.
•• The beam has a long focal length, so it can tolerate a
broad range of work distances.

High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles   Chapter 25  819
 energy source is a refinement of this process.
The first beam was produced in 1960 using a
ruby crystal rod.
The laser is a very helpful tool. It has vari-
ous uses, such as the high speed bar-code read-
Electron Gun ers at checkout counters or a laser light show at
a music concert or other attraction. Presenters
Alignment Coil use small pocket lasers for enhancing their pre-
sentations. On construction sites lasers are used
Optics for measuring distances or to aid in the align-
Focus Coil
Workpiece
ment of such things as drop ceilings. Lasers
Deflection Coil can be used for marking material (scribing)
or for the sealing of nonmetallic materials. In
Chamber
automation use, they can direct a robotic weld-
Workpiece
ing arm along a weld joint (the laser beam is
used for tracking). Medical and military uses
1 × 10–3 1 × 10–2 1 × 10–1 25 760 mmHg of lasers are in the news daily, from no-blood
Partical-Vac Quick-Vac surgery to laser-guided smart bombs. Lasers
High Vacuum Medium Vacuum Nonvacuum are very versatile and can be used to process
metal, wood, plastics, and composites. For
Fig. 25-5  The basic modes of electron beam welding, with corresponding the welding industry lasers are used for weld-
vacuum scale.  Source: From Welding Handbook, 9/e. ing, cutting, and drilling operations. These
are the three applications that will be covered
in this section. Lasers can be easily adapted
to computer control for doing complex contour work.
•• Dissimilar metals can be welded. Figure 25-7 shows an industrial application for laser
•• High thermal conductive metals like copper can be beam welding.
welded.
Limitations of the process are as follows:
For video of EBW free-form fabrication of a
•• Capital cost of equipment is very high. titanium part, please visit www.mhhe.com/welding.
•• Joint preparation is very extensive.
•• Rapid solidification can cause cracking.
•• For high and medium vacuums, chamber size is a The laser is a very concentrated beam of light. It is co-
limitation. herent light in that the light waves are synchronized and
•• A long time is required to draw a vacuum. travel parallel to each other. It is also monochromatic,
•• Partial penetration may have root voids and porosity. meaning that the light has one frequency, one color.
•• The beam can be magnetically deflected, so ­material Figure 25-8 shows an example of this light’s ability to stay
must be nonmagnetic or demagnetized. in a tight column, unlike most other light.
•• No-vacuum welding requires the part to be very close Because the laser beam can be used for welding, cut-
to the bottom of the electron beam gun column. ting, and drilling, these will be covered together. A laser
•• Radiation shielding must be used, and X-rays are light is produced when intense light or electric current
produced. excites certain materials. The two different laser types
•• Ventilation is required to remove ozone and other are covered in Table 25-2. Lasers can be operated con-
noxious gases with the nonvacuum mode. tinuously or pulsed. The ruby or Nd-glass laser can
only pulse at low frequencies (1–50 pulses per second),
while the Nd-YAG or CO2 laser can pulse at rates up to
Laser Beam Welding and Cutting 2,000 per second. Pulsing reduces the heat buildup in
Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimu- the laser equipment and is effective for piercing and
lated emission of radiation. You may recall using a mag- drilling applications.
nifying glass to concentrate the rays from the sun on Since the laser’s light is used to heat the surface it is
a single spot in order to char or burn paper. The laser being focused on, it is considered a noncontact process.

820  Chapter 25 High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles
 There is no physical contact
of equipment with the part
Flashlight
other than the beam being
focused on it. The mate-
rial being worked does not Laser
have to be a conductor like Pointer

the base metal in all the arc

Fig. 25-6  Electron beam welding a gear in medium vacuum. 
© American Welding Society. Welding Processes, Vol. 2 of Welding
Handbook, 8th ed., Fig 21.5, p.678
Fig. 25-8  Laser pointer-
welding processes. flashlight beam comparison.
Laser welding is a melt-
ing and burning process. The heat from a 10-kilowatt
rated laser can weld ½-inch thick material at 60 inches
per minute. A 6-kilowatt unit can weld thin material
(0.008 inch thick) at 3,000 inches per minute, which is
a very fast travel speed. Units are commercially avail-
able with power levels up to 25 kilowatts and can do
full penetration single-pass welds up to 1¼ inches thick.
For cutting, ½ inch is generally considered the limit be-
cause other processes are faster than laser on thicknesses
greater than ½  inch. A laser can cut materials up to
2 inches thick if speed is not a concern. Drilling can be
done up to 1 inch in depth and diameters in a range from
0.0001 to 0.060  inch. Holes smaller than 0.020 inch use
the laser to best potential. Material thickness to be pro-
cessed and travel speed is determined by:
•• Part geometry
•• Reflectivity of the materials surface
•• Heat conductivity
•• Vaporization point of the alloy being used
•• Type of alloy
•• Surface tension of the molten material
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)  Laser beam welding (LBW)
is generally done with an inert shielding gas to shield
the weld pool. Since this is a heat source, it can be used
without filler metal (autogenous) or with filler metal.
Figure 25-2 shows the keyhole method of laser welding.
Because of the highly concentrated heat source and fast
travel speed, little distortion is created.

Table 25-2  Laser Types and Uses

Type Laser Material Uses
Solid state Ruby rod, neodymium- Mostly used for
doped (Nd), drilling
Yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG)
Neodymium-glass (Nd-glass)
Fig. 25-7  Cross-section of a laser beam weld joining a boss to a Gas Carbon dioxide (CO2) Mostly used for
ring. A 2.5-kilowatt CO2 laser produced a travel speed of 60 in./min. Nitrogen cutting and
Penetration was 0.187 inch.  © American Welding Society. Welding Helium or mixtures of these welding
Handbook, 8th ed., Vol 2, page 733, fig 22.21

High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles   Chapter 25  821

For video of laser welding in an auto plant, please
visit www.mhhe.com/welding.
Laser Beam Cutting (LBC)  Laser beam cutting (LBC)
is very common. This is accomplished by reducing the
spot size of the beam from 0.011 to 0.004 inch, turning
the laser beam into a sharp cutting tool. It can be used
to cut expensive alloys or traditional metals like stainless
steel and copper. It can cut nonmetals like plastic, wood,
The surface of the material must be free of scale, coatings,
dirt, and any impurities. On steel it should be cleaned,
pickled, and oil-free. The mill scale on hot-rolled steel
creates problems. Cold-rolled steel has a much better sur-
face condition for laser cutting. The cutting parameter
will be greatly affected by the surface finish, tolerances,
HAZ requirements, and flatness.
Input Optical Beam

or cloth. Cut width or kerf can be very small at 0.010 inch.

Very small heat-affected zones (HAZs) are produced. D Lens
Assist Gas Input
Speed drops off dramatically when material approaches Recast Layer
1
⁄2 inch, where other cutting processes become more ef- Focused
Optical Beam
ficient and cost effective. As thickness goes up, blowouts
may occur. Blowouts are unwanted molten metal flying Molten
Material
out of the cut, interrupting the cut path.
When cutting, an assist gas is used. This helps im-
prove combustion and physically blows metal from the
kerf. Table 25-3 shows assist gases, material they are
used on, and various comments. Use of high pressure up
to 160 p.s.i. has been used on titanium to reduce cracks Keyhole

in the recast layer.

Fig. 25-9  Schematic view of laser cutting operation. 
Pulsing the laser power can help overcome thermal Source: From Welding Handbook, 9/e.
problems. Figure 25-9 shows a laser cutting operation.

Table 25-3 Assist Gases Used for Laser Beam Cutting of

Various Materials

Assist Gas Material Comments

Air Aluminum Good result up to 0.060 in. (1.5 mm)

Plastic
Wood
Composites
Alumina All gases react similarly; air is the least
Glass expensive.
Quartz
Argon Titanium Inert assist gas required to produce good
cutting of various materials

Nitrogen Stainless steel

Aluminum Clean, oxide-free edges to 1⁄8 in. (3 mm)
Nickel alloys
Oxygen Carbon steel Good finish, high speed; oxide layer on surface
Stainless steel Heavy oxide on surface
Copper Good surface up to 1⁄8 in. (3 mm)

Adapted from Welding Handbook, 9/e.

822  Chapter 25 High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles
 S H OP TAL K
Laser Welding Safety
When doing laser welding, keep in mind the
six sources of danger.
1. Radiation—visible and invisible
2. Fire from hitting flammables
3. Fumes and mists from vaporized metals
4. Mechanical malfunctions sending the beam
elsewhere
5. Electric shock from the power source
6. Neglecting to use eyewear and skin protection
Laser Beam Drilling (LBD)  Laser beam drilling (LBD)
can be done on very hard materials, like synthetic dia-
monds, tungsten carbide, quartz, glass, and ceramics.
Holes as small as 0.0001 inch can be drilled. LBD is
very fast, but the possibility of blowouts can present
safety concerns. In this case a blowout is the throwing
of molten metal outside the desired hole area. Blowouts
occur when the hole diameter is small in relation to
the thickness of the material being drilled. Continuous
wave lasers have a much higher possibility of blowout
when piercing metal or drilling. The pulse wave laser
is typically used. Lowering gas pressure to a minimum
to allow combustion and checking the focal point can
reduce blowouts. The surface must be clean of any oil
or dirt. Figure 25-10 shows holes a laser beam drilled in
some jet turbine blades.
Chiller
Power Energy
Monitor
Supply
Rear Mirror
Front
Laser Rod and Mirror
Flashlamps
Fig. 25-11  Schematic representation of the elements of an Nd: YAG laser.
Source: From Welding Handbook, 9/e.
High Energy Beams and Related Welding and Cutting Process Principles   Chapter 25  823
Fig. 25-10  Jet engine blades and a rotor component showing
laser drilled holes.  © American Welding Society. Welding Science and
Technology, Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Fig 16.2, p.503
The equipment required for laser beam applications
is shown in Fig. 25-11. This setup is using the solid-
state type neodymium-doped, yttrium-­aluminum-garnet
(YAG) material as a lasing source. The power sup-
ply, which operates at high voltage, supplies power to
the flash lamps. A cryogenic cooler is used to cool the
power supply and the laser rod and flash lamps. The
rear mirror is fully reflective and bounces the coherent
monochromatic beam back through the laser rod to the
partially reflective front mirror. This helps in producing
the coherent-synchronized wave light beam. Once the
beam exits it can be treated as light and can be reflected,
deflected, and focused. An energy monitor is placed in
the beam to measure and compare the beam’s power
level. The beam dump and shutter control the beam.
Various optics are placed in the beam path to expand
Beam Viewing Head
Dump
Safety
Beam Expanding Filter
Telescope
45°
Mirror
Focusing
Lens
Shutter
Workpiece