Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Macmillan
St. Martin's Press
ISBN 978-1-349-00197-2 ISBN 978-1-349-00195-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00195-8
© R. H. J. Sellin 1969.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1969 978-0-333-02822-3
Published by
MACMILLAN AND CO LTD
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Preface
Preface
1 Uniform flow 1
References 136
Index 145
1 Uniform Flow
v = Cv'(ms) (1.1)
Eq. (1.1) is known today as the Chezy formula although the form
in which he originally proposed it is somewhat different2. Many
attempts have been made to evaluate Chezy's C which, it was soon
realised, is not a constant (neither is it a pure number) since it has
the dimensions LiT-1, or y(acceleration).
The best values for Chezy's Care given by a formula published in
1869 by two Swiss engineers Ganguillet and Kutter in which Cis
expressed in terms of the bed slope s, the hydraulic mean depth m
and a coefficient of roughness n. In S.I. units this formula is
Range of values
Description of channel
Minimum Normal Maximum
* Values given are for straight channels. For non-straight channels these
values should be increased by up to 30 per cent, depending upon degree of
meandering present.
(1.5)
or
dv I dm
-
v 2 m
dQ A~
-dP = -1C-
2 p~·
s*
(p; + 3J)%
r
Q = ACy(ms) = bdoCy(doS)
do = af(__iE_)
\j b sC2 2
(1.6)
do= (nq)~
si (1.8)
1 ( bdo )~
Q = ~(bdo) b + 2do ys (1.9)
Uniform Flow 11
which can best be solved by either trial and error or by graphical
methods.
For the more common case of a non-rectangular cross-section the
Manning formula, for example, can be
written in the form
Q 1 Q
-=-Ami or-= K,
vis n vis
the conveyance. In order to determine
the normal depth, compute values of K
for a suitable range of d, the maximum
depth in the cross section, and plot a
graph of conveyance against depth of
flow as in Fig. 1.3. Then to obtain the
K=ls - K
normal depth for the specified values of Fra. 1.3 Graph of the Con-
Q and s read off the depth corres ond- veyance K plotted ~gainst
' Q P depth of flow to.determme the
ing to a value of K equal to - on the normal depth m a channel.
curve. vis
vo.z
X=- (1.10)
V0·8
Uniform Flow 15
in which vo·2 is the velocity l/5th of the depth, and vo.s that 4/5th of
the depth, below the water surface. Hence x will always have a value
greater than unity. From this standpoint it can be proved that
(x- l)d~
n=-'----- (1.11)
5·57(x + 0·95)
in which for an actual channel d is the mean depth. The value of
Eq. (1.11) for enabling n to be determined objectively would be
considerable but it appears that its validity has not yet been suffi-
ciently established.
.) f·;,;:Y..
z
-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-;-:-:-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·::-::.~·y··
l-b~
FIG. 1.10 Hydraulic efficiency of trapezoidal channel cross-
section.
dP _ -h 2h _ 2zh _ h0
dz - + v(z2 + l) . 2z - y(z2 + 1) '
(e) (f)
I Ail
From the Manning formula Q = Av = -n . ---.
P•
si
(As)
To obtain the maximum discharge put !; = d p2
0. Hence-- =0
dO
Differentiating with respect to 0:
5A4 dA AS dP
p2 . dO - 2 p3 . dO =0
Simplifying this gives
dA dP
5P- -2A- =0
dO dO
Substituting for A and P
Q= ! D~
n 10·08
(e _ sin 2()) ( 1 _ sin 2())* 81
2 2() ( 1.1 4)
When the water surface reaches the top of the pipe the depth d = D
and() = TT. Substituting these values in Eq. (1.14) gives the discharge
QF of the pipe when running full.
TTD~s* D~s*
QF =ln10·08 = 3·2ln (1.1 5)
from which it can be seen that QF = 2Q1F. This result must follow
as in both cases m = ~ and the ratio of their respective flow areas
is 2: 1. The ratios of the discharge for full, maximum and half-full
conditions is then 1: 1·08 :0·5.
By considering the variation of m with depth of flow it can be
shown in a similar way that the maximum velocity occurs when
d = 0·81D and, as noted above, the velocity at pipe full condition is
equal to that for flow at half depth:
1 D*s*
VF = -. - - = VtF (1.18)
n 2·52
Uniform Flow 21
and when d = 0·81D
1 D 1s1
Vmax =-. -- = 1·14vp
n 2·21
(1.19)
In Fig. 1.13 values of _g_ and .!:.. are plotted against the relative
Qp VF
depth d. It can be seen from this figure that for depths in excess of
D
0·81D there will be two possible depths (normal depths) for each
discharge up to the maximum, while_ a:similar situation will occur for
mean velocity values above a depth of 0·5D. It has been found
experimentally that the value of n is not constant for a circular pipe
running part-full and that consequently
the maximum discharge (equal to 1·03Qp l·O
approximately) occurs at d = 0·97 D ~ t
while the maximum velocity (1·05vp)
occurs at d = 0·94D. 0·51-----71~----K---'-
The above discussion applies to any
closed conduit in which the width of the
free surface reduces gradually as the roof 1·0
is approached. The positions and mag- ViV;'
nitudes of the maxima will depend upon FIG. 1.13 Flow character-
the shape of the cross-section, but, istics for a circular section
theoretically at least, these will always flowing part full.
occur at depths below the maximum.
Cross-sections with flat horizontal roofs, such as rectangular
conduits and the U-shaped section shown in Fig. l.ll(d), will show
sharp discontinuities in their velocity and discharge relationships at
maximum depth. The instability that this introduces makes it
unsatisfactory to operate such cross-sections in this region.
E=__g:_+d (2.3)
2gA 2
Gradually Varied Flow 25
If the cross-section is rectangular, the kinetic energy term in Eq. (2.2)
may be written in terms of ~ in which q, the discharge per unit
(2.4)
Eq. (2.2) shows that the specific energy is the sum of two parts:
the one being the kinetic energy of the water and the other its depth.
Hence, if the value ofE is fixed, the resulting flow rnay occur in various
ways. On the one hand the depth could be low
and the velocity high, while on the other the -·-f·-·-!;-·-
12
depth high and the velocity low. It should be
I .,.
v g
noted that the depth can never be greater than I
E as v2 will always be a positive quantity. The Ej f
above variation of d and v is dependent on the f
discharge q, equal to the product vd, being . .,....... . . .. . ... . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . :.:.:.:. . . . . . . . . .:.:
the same at all sections (principle of continuity). FIG. 2.2 The specific
Since the datum for specific energy is the energy of the flow in
channel bottom, the specific energy of a particu- a channel.
lar discharge may vary from one point to
another along the channel if the elevation of the bottom is not
constant. Changes in the specific energy from this source then will
not necessarily be accompanied by changes in the total energy of the
flow. The two quantities are, of course, related at any section as
follows
H=E+z (2.5)
Both Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) must be modified in the case of steeply
sloping channels to take into account the weight component of the
flow normal to the channel bottom. Such modifications are only
necessary when the bottom slope exceeds l in 10 and at such a slope
the flow will become unsteady and possibly entrain air. Under these
conditions the gradually varied flow analysis will not normally be
valid.
For a channel in which the velocity distribution is strongly non-
uniform the energy coefficient a. (see section 1.5) must be used to
26 Flow in Channels
modify the kinetic energy term in Eq. (2.2). The specific energy is
then
(2.6)
Emin. ~
Subcritical
flow range
because the velocity v is less than the critical velocity Ve. Similarly
at depths less than de the velocity is greater than ve and the flow is
termed supercritical. Subcritical flow is sometimes referred to as
streaming or tranquil (see Bakhmeteff12) while supercritical flow has
been referred to as shooting or rapid. These alternative terms, which
were originally based on the appearance of the flow, have now
generally gone out of use in favour of sub- and super-critical. It is
most important to remember that the "critical" terms refer to the
velocity of the flow and not the depth.
Fig. 2.4 shows that for a particular channel different discharges
(expressed on a unit width basis) lead to a family of specific energy
* The Froude number, F = vfv'(gd) is a dimensionless group of variables
which has a special significance to all fluid problems involving a free surface. It
will be found to equal unity at the critical depth by differentiating Eq. (2.4) and
dE
putting dd = 0.
28 Flow in Channels
curves. The minimum point (critical depth) on each curve lies on a
straight line called the locus of critical points. This line makes an
angle with the £-axis of tan-1 f. The area lying above the line is the
subcritical flow range and the area below it the supercritical flow
range. Any pair of alternate depths for a discharge q will always lie
one in each flow range.
dj /
dl ··-----------------.-',
d3 ------------------
,' '
dz ···----------+-- :
,~' : : Crilicol
:::t·i-- :
de - - - - ,....~.. - - - , -. - - ,-
d~-#{~: :_:_)~-/= ::
' 0
bed to changes in the specific energy of the flow. Fig. 2.5 shows a
longitudinal section through a short length of channel in which two
changes of bed elevation occur. The accompanying specific energy
curve is constructed for a discharge per unit width q which the
channel carries. Since the total energy is the same at all three sections
Eq. (2.5) can be developed as follows
(2.7)
hence the change in specific energy between sections (1) and (2) is
(E2 - El) = (Zl - Z2) (2.8)
and between sections (2) and (3)
(2.9)
Gradually Varied Flow 29
The horizontal axis (d = 0) of the specific energy graph is drawn
at the bed level in section (1) and so the values on the d-axis corre-
spond with actual depths at this section only. In order to transfer
depths directly at the other sections it would be necessary to shift
the origin of the axes to coincide with the changed level of the bed.
The vertical line on the graph corresponding to E = E1 = H - z1
shows that the flow can occur at section (1) at either depth d1 or d~,
the former being subcritical and the latter supercritical. The
corresponding depths d2 and d; at section (2) can be obtained from
the intercepts with a second vertical line E = E2. Since in this
example z2 is greater than z1, Eq. (2.8) gives a negative value to the
difference term (E2 - E1) enabling the point E2 to be located on the
E-axis. The alternate depths at section (3) can be found in a similar
manner.
From Fig. 2.5 it can be seen that when subcritical (deep) flow
passes on to a raised portion of the channel bed the water surface
falls but that when the initial flow is supercritical {shallow) the
water surface rises. In either case the situation is reversed when the
channel bed drops. Under all conditions the vertical distance
between the water surface and the total energy line represents the
kinetic energy head at that section. In this figure the flow conditions
at the two transitions are only represented for the sake of continuity
and no particular significance should be placed on the smooth water
surface curves in regions of apparently strongly curvilinear flow. In
reality the horizontal scale could be expanded sufficiently to allow
the design of suitable channel transitions without seriously in-
validating the intial assumption of insignificant channel friction
energy losses.
dE Q2 ( 2) dA
dd = 2g - A3 dd +l
dE
When dd = 0, d = de and the other variables will have values
corresponding to critical flow. Hence
Q2 1 dA
- --=1
g . A~ dd
~A
From Fig. 2.6 ~A = b . ~d therefore ~d =b and at the limit
dA
dd = b. The general equation for critical flow then becomes
Q2bc = 1 (2.10)
gA~
Vc = J(g~c) (2.11)
q
and Ve =- = {l(gq) = y(gde) (2.15)
de
~ v~ ~ + de = 3 -~
hence de=- =2.- but Ee
g 2g
= -2g 2g
therefore de= iEe (2.16)
At critical flow the depth is equal to twice the kinetic energy head and
therefore two-thirds of the critical specific energy Ee.
d
(E-d)= 2
or d= fE= de
32
vJ:) E~
Flow in Channels
gdcn 2
Sc = - . - (2.18)
m•c
Gradually Varied Flow 33
If the channel is wide in relation to its critical depth me ~ de and
gn2
Sc = df (2.19)
c
It should be noted that the use of the Chezy formula v = Cy'(mi) is
unsatisfactory in this instance, as the power ! given to the hydraulic
mean depth in this relationship would result in the critical slope for
a wide channel being independent of the discharge and depending
only on the value of the Chezy C, which is not the case. However,
this consequence of using the Chezy formula suggests that the value
given to sc by the Manning formula should be used with caution as
it is so strongly dependent on the empirical factor n and so little on
the critical depth de.
..
The channel shown in profile in Fig. 2.8 carries a discharge Q and
at the point under consideration has a cross-sectional area A and
surface breadth b. The limitations implied
in the term gradually-varied are explained
in section 2.1.1 and in addition the slope
-·- l
Tolol energyHorizon1ol
~
vZ/2g ¢ lin e •
s of the channel bed is assumed small so Wo1er surface
Horizontal do1um
2.1.3) will be introduced into the appropriate
form. FIG. 2.8 Gradually-
The total energy head H and the bed varied flow profile.
elevation z are measured positive above a
horizontal datum. By convention, the slope i of the total energy
line is considered positive, sloping downwards in the direction of
flow, and consequently i = sin() = - c;:: where xis measured along
34 Flow in Channels
the channel bed in the downstream direction. A similar sign con-
vention applies to the bed slope s = sin () = - :!:· Now, differ-
entiating Eq. (2.1) with respect to x:
dH = dz
dx dx
+ dd + ~
dx dx 2g
(v2) (2.20)
and, substituting the slope of the total energy line and channel bed,
s - i = dd + dd ~
dx dx. dd 2g
(v2) (2.21)
dd s- i
(2.23)
dx = 1 _ Q2b
gAa
This equation is known as the general equation of gradually varied
flow. In a channel of rectangular cross-section A= b. d and
Q = q . b giving:
dd s- i
(2.24)
dx= 1 _!f:...
gd3
The basic assumption for this analysis, discussed in section 2.1.1,
allows the results obtained for uniform flow to be applied locally
to gradually-varied flow. If this is the case a suitable empirical
Gradually Varied Flow 35
formula (section 1.3) can be used to evaluate i the slope of the
total energy line. If the Chezy formula is used
and
v2
dd s- C2,;;
dx = q2 (2.25)
l--
gd3
in which m is the hydraulic mean depth of the cross-section and C
the Chezy constant. If the Manning formula is used
dd
(1)- = s The limiting case when the velocity is zero. There
dx will be no flow in the channel and the water surface
will be horizontal. Whilst its occurrence does not
constitute open channel flow it forms a limit which
the flow often approaches asymptotically. It can
also occur as a transitory value at lower depths.
36 Flow in Channels
dd
(2)- = +ve Depth increasing downstream. In channels of mild
dx slope in which d > do the resulting profile is
Bockwoler curve
-----~~~~~~~~
-.;.;.;.;.:.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.;.:·: ·:.:·:·::;.;,~.:-.;:.;:;;:.;~;.::.;.:.;.; .;.;.;.;.; .;.
;.;.;.;.;.;. ';.;.;.;.;.;.;.:.;.;.;.;,,;.;.;.:.;.;
dd
(4)- = -ve Depth decreasing downstream. When the channel
dx slope is mild the resulting profile is called a draw-
down curve. It occurs at a free overfall as in Fig.
2.10 or where the channel is approaching a point
at which the slope increases.
dd
(5)- =
dx
±oo Water surface vertical. The equation yields this
value when Q2bfgA 3 = 1 which from Eq. (2.10)
occurs at the critical depth. Hence, except when
the channel slope is critical the water surface must
be vertical at the critical depth. This implies that
when the water surface has to pass from above the
Gradually Varied Flow 37
critical depth to below, or vice versa, it does so
rapidly. This result is borne out in reality, thus
invalidating the basic assumption of gradually-
varied flow. Although the detailed shapes of the
surface profiles in this region close to critical
depth are not therefore predicted accurately by the
varied flow equation, their forms approximate fairly
closely to the theoretical profiles in many cases.
When the surface profile has to pass from d < de to
d > de a hydraulic jump is formed. This represents
the extreme case of the breakdown of the varied
flow equation as there is a sudden and turbulent
increase of depth
N.O.L
accompanied by
concentrated -~~-
energy losses. The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
hydraulic jump Fro. 2.11 Hydraulic jump.
represented in
Fig. 2.11 will be considered in detail in section 3.3.
A decrease of depth through the critical depth is
known as a hydraulic drop. Such a hydraulic drop
terminates the drawdown curve shown in Fig. 2.10
and although the water surface is not vertical at
that point it is very steeply inclined relative to
normal channel slopes and the drop occupies a
relatively short length of channel. The energy loss
in a hydraulic drop is small and of the same order
as that in uniform supercritical flow.
~~~~ental =~=,...---J7ll...2H~Ho~:i'='zo"'n'-'-'to,!!.l_
~-
:.:...:::::-.......:· ..;.;.-..-.;.;.-.-.;.:-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·X :-:-.-: ..... .
_,
M _ J! we1r·
f:
s=O ~-
Mt
~<o"l..--
Mild ~""'-~-~- u:ll.. ..
--~---·-- ~
Steep
slope
------
-'tOL -..-~----_,
________c_o.~,
,:;::::==t,== ~
- · s_ ·· . - -Lake-
--
--~!~- ~·~~-NOt_ '·"
-- ~ ------"-= ~uoo -~- -- •• C.Ol
-~~ -~
-__-»~"-·--- ·········' ....... Sluice :._-.:_
Adverse
slope
==-==='~
1:.--- -~
FIG.
~~
2.12 Classification of gradually-varied flow surface profiles.
...\~ s.::: 0 ..
(S) Steep slope (s > sc). These flow conditions are found on spill-
ways and chutes. The profiles are fairly short and all
asymptotic downstream (velocity of flow exceeds gravity
wave propagation velocity). The S1 profile is normally
found downstream from a jump and with it forms the
counterpart to the M1 profile in mild channels. The Sz
profile is the continuation of a hydraulic drop formed
when the channel steepens or when the flow leaves a
reservoir. The Sa profile is formed below a sluice gate or
below the junction with a steeper channel.
X= J(]~!£)s A2m~
dd (2.27)
r
channel under consideration. These reaches
bz need to be short enough to reduce, within
-+- t...,.·=,=-.---.----"-._- -',.a"O""x permissible limits, the error in approximating
0 0/ energy line .
the actual water surface slope through the
£z reach, to the slope corresponding to the
average of the hydraulic properties within the
reach. The control section from which the
computation commences is fully explained in
section 3.1 but in the present context it is
sufficient to know that the computation
commences at the downstream limit of the
FrG. 2.14 The direct surface profile when the bed slope is mild
step method. and at the upstream limit when the bed
slope is steep.
Of the great number of step methods available, the direct step
method described below is perhaps the most simple, although
applicable only to prismatic channels. Fig. 2.14 illustrates a short
channel reach of length ~x. The water surface is omitted from this
figure and the vertical distance at any point between the channel bed
and the total energy line (both sloping) is equal to the specific energy
of the flow:
v2
E=d+-
2g
assuming uniform velocity distribution within a cross-section. The
Gradually Varied Flow 43
vertical distances at either end of this reach between the horizontal
lines a1a2 and b1b2 can be equated:
E1 + s6.x = £2 + i6.x (2.30)
in which s and i are the average slopes over this reach of the channel
bed and total energy line respectively. The slope s is considered
small enough for the horizontal distance a1a2 to be equated with 6.x
although x is more correctly measured along the sloping channel bed.
Rearranging Eq. (2.30) gives an expression for the length 6.x between
the sections 1 and 2.
6.x = £2 - E1 = ~ (2.31)
(s- i) (s- i)
in which 6.£ is the change of specific energy over the length 6.x. In
the case of a prismatic channel the bed slope s will remain constant
throughout but the total energy line will change its slope from one
point to another so long as the flow is non-uniform. The average
value of i can be computed using the Manning formula based on
average channel properties over the reach concerned.
. Q2n2
l=--. (2.32)
A 2m"
The detailed application of the direct step method based on Eq. (2.31)
can be shown best by considering an example:
Example of Backwater Profile Computation (in British units). A
straight prismatic irrigation channel has a trapezoidal cross-section
(Fig. 2.15) with bottom width b' =20ft and equal side slopes of
2 horizontal to 1 vertical. The surface of the channel is smooth
concrete having a Manning's n value of 0·014 and the channel bed
slope s = 0·0002. At a certain point regulation works produce a
depth of 6 ft in the channel when the discharge is 350 cusec. Deter-
mine the resulting water surface profile and find its total length if the
limit is defined when the depth equals (do + 0·05) ft. It is convenient
to proceed as follows:
(I) Determine do and de.
(2) Classify the profile type.
(3) Divide change of depth between d1 (6ft) and (do + 0·05) into
convenient steps.
44 Flow in Channels
(4) Tabulate hydraulic properties of channel at each section.
(5) Compute mean m and i values between adjacent sections.
(6) Compute Llx values between adjacent sections.
(7) Sum Llx values to obtain distance of each section from regula-
tion works and total length of profile.
Steps (4) to (7) inclusive can conveniently form one table. Deter-
mination of normal and critical depths will require trial-and-error
computations which can also be arranged conveniently in tabular
form. Before this procedure is started it is necessary to express the
hydraulic properties of the cross-section (Fig. 2.15) in terms of the
single variable d.
Surface width, b = 20 + 4d
Area, A = d(20 + 2d)
"'Wetted
f
....._I b
1~ ~ perimeter, p = 20 + 2y'5d
l-b~l
= 20 + 4·47d
Hydraulic A
FIG. 2.15 Channel cross-section. m=-
mean depth, p
m=----
d(20 + 2d)
(20 + 4·47d)
Q2(20 + 4d)
g[d(20 + 2d)]3 = f(d) = 1
In order to obtain an approximate value of de assume flow in
a rectangular cross-section 25 ft wide:
350
q = 25 = 14·0 cusec/ft
b A f(d)
Q2b
d 2d 4d (20 + 4d) (20 + 2d) d(20 + 2d) [d(20 +2d)]3
gAa
Now -qn
- - d ··'
1·49s1 - 0
qn )~ ( 14 x 0·014 )~ "
do = ( 1·49s1 = 14·9v(0·0002) = 9"42" = 3"85 ft.
TABLE 2.2
A p m f'(d)
A
d 2d 20 + 2d d(20 + 2d) 4·41d 20 + 4·41d p m2 mi Ami
3·8 7·6 27·6 104·9 17·0 37·0 2·83 8·01 2·00 210
3·9 7·8 27·8 108·4 17·4 37·4 2·90 8·41 2·03 220
4·0 8·0 28·0 112·0 17·9 37·9 2·96 8·76 2·06 231
4·05 8·1 28·1 113-8 18·1 38·1 2·99 8·94 2·08 236
4·10 8·2 28·2 115·6 18·3 38·3 3·02 9·12 2·09 241
(2) Since do > de the channel slope is mild and as the profile
depths will lie between 6 ft and do (i.e. all greater than do)
the profile will be of the M1 type.
(3) Profile depth limits: 6·00-4·10 ft. Take depth increments of
0·2 ft giving dvalues of: 6·0, 5·8, 5·6, 5·4, 5·2, 5·0, 4·8, 4·6, 4·4
4·2, 4·1 ft.
A v E p m i s-i ~X X
Q v2 v2 A Q2n2* ~E
d 2d 20 + 2d d(20 + 2d) - d - 4-47d 20 + 4·47d - m m~ A ,4'2
A 2g
+ 2g p 2·21,f2mt (s = 0·0002) ~E (s- i) L~X
6·0 12·0 32·0 192 1·82 0·051 6·051 26·8 46·8 4·10 0
4·05 6·45 188 35300 0·000048 0·000152 0·194 1280 - -
5·8 ll·6 31·6 183 1·91 0·057 5·857 25·9 45·9 3·99 1280
3·94 6·22 179 32000 55 145 0·195 1340 - -
5·6 11·2 31·2 175 2·00 0·062 5-662 25·0 45·0 3·89 2620
3·83 5·99 171 29200 62 138 0·193 1400 - -
5·4 10·8 30·8 166 2·11 0·069 5-469 24·1 44-1 3·76 4020
3-71 5·74 162 26200 73 127 0·193 1520 - -
5·2 10·4 30·4 158 2·21 0·076 5·276 23·2 43·2 3·66 5540
3-60 5·52 154 23700 83 117 O·l9l 1630 - -
5·0 10·0 30·0 150 2·33 0·085 5·085 22·4 42·4 3·54 7170
3-48 5·28 146 21300 97 103 0·190 1840 - -
4·8 9-6 29-6 142 2-47 0·095 4·895 21·5 41·5 3-42 9010
3·36 5·03 138 19000 0·000ll4 0·000086 0·189 2200 - -
4·6 9·2 29·2 134 2·61 0·106 4·706 20·6 40·6 3·30 11210
3·25 4-81 131 17200 132 68 0·188 2770 - -
4·4 8·8 28·8 127 2·76 0·118 4·518 19·7 39·7 3-20 13980
3·14 4·60 123 15100 157 43 0·184 4280 - -
4·2 8-4 28·4 ll9 2·94 0·134 4·334 18·8 38·8 3·07 18260
3·05 4·42 118 13800 179 21 0·092 4380 - -
4·1 8·2 28·2 ll6 3·02 0·142 4·242 18·3 38·3 3·03 22640
(2) Flow through critical depth. This forms a control section when
the depth is decreasing only, as for example, where flow enters a steep
channel from a reservoir or the slope of a channel changes from
mild to steep (see section 3.2.1). Under these circumstances the
surface profile will pass through the critical depth at or near the
channel transition and the relationship d~ = q2fg (Eq. 2.14) will
49
50 Flow in Channels
hold in a wide channel. A free overfall (Fig. 2.10) also comes in this
category.
(3) Change of bed slope. When the channel slope changes, but
critical flow is not produced, a control section is nevertheless norm-
ally formed. If the slopes before and after the change are both mild
Subcriticol
flow
Supercri tical
flow
~ _:~_:::~::- .... -~ ..SQ·!-~ ..
m
-:·:·:-~:·:·:·3:·:·:·:·~
:·:·:·:3
:·~:·:·~~'-":·:~: :~::-: :-:-:~·:·: : :·::·.~
:-;.;.;:.;.:;:.;.::;·::;;·:i!"':.
;.;.;.•""
· :·:·:-
·:·:·,·\-:·:·:-
·:·x·:·:;·~
(b) Tronsilionol
(c) Direcl
(1) Undular jump (Fig. 3.3a). The flow expands smoothly and then
oscillates so that the jump has the form of a smooth initial wave
followed by a train of waves of decreasing amplitude. Little turbu-
lence is induced by such a jump and the energy loss is therefore small.
An undular jump is formed when the F value lies between 1·0 and
1·7. When F = 1·0 (the limiting case) no jump occurs and the flow
is critical (d1 = d2 = de).
(2) Transitional jump. For Froude numbers between 1·7 and 2·5
( 1·8 < ~: < 3·0) the hydraulic jump changes progressively. The
increased rate of energy dissipation (section 3.3) results ih (he first
few wave crests "breaking" and isolated reverse rollers form on the
upstream facing slope of these waves (see Fig. 3.3b) just below the
crest. Under certain conditions it is the second wave that is the first
to break as the F value is increased, followed by the leading wave.
Once one of the waves has broken any waves formerly downstream
of it are lost in general surface agitation.
(3) Direct jump. This form (Fig. 3.3c) of the hydraulic jump occurs
when F > 2·5 and is characterised by severe turbulence and high
54 Flow in Channels
associated energy losses. The jump now consists of a single mono-
clinal wave covered by an intensely turbulent reverse roller normally
showing as "white water" due to air entrainment at other than
laboratory scale. The nature of the reverse roller and its function in
the hydraulic jump is described well by Rouse19 in the following
passage:
"Those who have observed carefully the behaviour of the
roller through the glass walls of an experimental flume will
recall vividly enough the fact that the roller is not the idealized,
Reverse
roller
t
(3.1)
* For a given velocity distribution the value of fJ will always be less than the
corresponding value of IX: 1·0 < {J < IX (see section 1.5 and reference 8).
Rapidly Varied Flow 57
Bakhmeteff22 suggested that since the two sides of this equation are
similar and, Q being a constant, are a function of depth only, they
represent different but numerically equal values of a function f(d),
now known as the specific force of a channel flow. Hence for any
discharge Q:
+ Az
Q2
f(d) = - (3.3)
gA
The specific force function may usefully be plotted as a graph
against depth of flow and, when considering conditions at a hydraulic
--y---
~ +Az
gA
jump, it is also of value to plot the specific energy curve on the same
axes (Fig. 3.7). It will be seen from this figure that the specific force
function, like the specific energy, has a minimum value at the
critical depth. Any vertical line drawn on this graph, corresponding
to a real value of (;~ + Az). cuts the specific force curve at two
points, one (d1) corresponding to a depth less than the critical and
the other (d2) to one greater than the critical.
On momentum considerations a stable hydraulic jump may exist
between two such points which are known as conjugate depths. The
specific energies E1 and £2 corresponding to these conjugate depths
58 Flow in Channels
can be obtained from the d1 and d2 intercepts with the specific energy
curve as shown in Fig. 3.7. The difference 11E between the two is
therefore the specific energy loss attributable to the hydraulic jump.
It should be noted that E1 (supercritical flow) will always be greater
than £2, resulting in a negative energy increment 11E, since energy can
only be dissipated in a hydraulic jump and never added.
As the height of the jump decreases ( ~: approaches unity) the
energy loss 11E approaches zero which is in agreement with the
physical conditions observable in such a jump (see section 3.2.2).
When a hydraulic jump occurs in a wide channel it is possible to
represent the flow conditions by a two-dimensional analysis without
significant error. Rewriting Eq. (3.1) in this form gives
-w (d22 - dl)
2
2
2
(1 1)
= -w q2 - - -
dl d2
(3.4)
(3.5)
Energy loss. The specific energy loss l:iE can be evaluated from
Eq. (2.4) for a wide channel, substituting for the discharge q from
Eq. (3.5), to give
(3.8)
jump lies within the limits 5 < ~< 6·5 in which L is the length of
the jump.
forms the other limit of the jump (Ma in this illustration) has been
computed the jump is located by selecting the point on that profile
where the depth is the same as the required conjugate depth.
(B) Normal depth not present. A jump joining two varied flow
profiles is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. The two flow profiles are first
computed and drawn to scale over their full lengths. A line de is then
drawn representing the corresponding conjugate depths to the
upstream M 3 profile. If the length of the jump, as discussed in
section 3.3.2, is insignificant by comparison with the horizontal
Rapidly Varied Flow 61
dimensions of the surface profiles involved the jump will occur at
the section where the conjugate depth curve cuts the downstream
M2 surface curve. However, in the example illustrated in Fig. 3.9,
the length of the jump is considered to be significant and is represen-
ted to scale by some length x. The exact location of the jump must
now be found by trial-and-error. A vertical line aa', representing
the upstream limit of the jump, is drawn cutting the conjugate depth
Control
sect1on
2 2
This can be equated to the rate of change of fluid momentum in this
reach
(3.9)
Rapidly Varied Flow 63
Assuming no energy loss, the specific energy before and after the
jump may be equated from Eq. (2.4),
q2 q2
dl + 2gdr = d2 + 2gdi = £1,2
from which
(3.10)
T
IicJ :
iJfl. I I
£ 12 Specific energy'
E=d + £
- 2¢2
Specific force:
~+9...2
2 gd
Eq. (3.9) can be rearranged in the specific force form similar to Eq.
(3.2),
--
. . . -- _!l_L,_
!------------~- ___ f --
-c--
dtd.dz -- I
I
1
I
I
-.----..../ ...... l
-
d F' ~2
Flow
t' -~·-- ·· - - .
·:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.·;::;::::::::::.-::.·:::.-.-.
de
~-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:-:·c:·:·:"(:·:·:·..:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·
- l ~ 1- 1- .d £ ---1 -
-
Flow "'-Blocks "' Spec1flc
energy
Spec1fic
force
and sizes are normally constructed on the bed of the channel at the
required position. It will be seen from the specific force diagram in
Fig. 3.13 that the downstream depth d2 corresponding to the inter-
cept b on the curve is less than the depth d~, at c, which would exist
if the jump had formed unaided; the horizontal component of the
scale distance be being equal to the magnitude of the force term
F'jw. It can also be appreciated from the specific energy curve in
this figure that the energy head t!.E dissipated in the jump is increased
by the presence of the blocks, a result that is in agreement with the
general principles of fluid mechanics.
Finally, in this section it is necessary to consider the methods
available for solving problems involving flow past submerged
obstacles. The principal variables are the upstream and downstream
depths and the force per unit width exerted on the stream by the
obstacle. The discharge will be assumed constant and known. If
Rapidly Varied Flow 67
the specific force (d2 + gd
2
q2 )-from Eq. 3.3-is left in its original
form ( w~
2 + ;~) as derived from the momentum equation, this
term will now have the dimensions of a force per unit width and can
be considered as the "force" of the stream F. Considering the case
of a submerged pipeline suspended above the bed of a channel
shown in Fig. 3.14, the "forces" controlling the flow can now be
equated thus
(3.13)
in which F1 and F2 are the "force" of the stream at the two sections
indicated.
F, Pipe
-I
p-0 F;
-
wd;
(d)2
F = t - +-
de
(de)
d
(3.15)
(3.16)
68 Flow in Channels
from which F' can be evaluated directly if d1 and d2 are known. If,
however, the unknown quantity is one or other of the depths, the
expression to be solved takes the form of a cubic equation including
the known depth, the critical depth and the force F' among its
constant terms. This can most conveniently be solved graphically
by plotting values of (Ffwd~) against the depth d as in Fig. 3.14.
First the critical depth can be computed from the discharge q and,
assuming for the present that it is the downstream depth d2 that is
unknown, the next step is to evaluate
, 'r---
Plan view ;vena con!rac!a" (F1jwd~) from Eq. (3.15). This value
is now plotted on the graph as the
t
b,- bz point a. It is only necessary to com-
I ,------ t
t I pute and plot the relevant portion
FIG. 3.15 Flow in a sharply of the depth-"force" relationship
convergent channel. which in this case will have its upper
limit at a and its lower limit some-
what above the critical flow point. From the known force F'
the distance (F'fwd~) can be set off on the "force" axis locating the
downstream point b on the curve. This operation can be expressed
algebraically by the relationship:
F2 F1 F'
(3.17)
wd; = wd; - wd;
The position of the downstream point b on the curve corresponding
to the vertical (F2/wd~) will give the required value of the down-
stream depth d2.
If it is the downstream depth that is known and the upstream that
is required, the procedure is identical and the construction of the
relevant steps on the "force" diagram reversed.
~I
-------.--- 1
bz
I
~-
Plan view
-ll --
-·-·- ·-·-·-·-·-··L ___ _
::-----~f~-f--
ll"F<~----- !:X..
:.·,;,·;;,•;,·•.·:.·.·.·:.·.·.-;:;;;:::::;:::.·::.·.·;.·::.·.·.·::::.·:,1::.·:::.·••·::: 0
I I
1·5
I
Elevolion
(3.18)
I
Weak
downstreorr
waves
Pion view
Eleva tion
* For example, The Tenessee Valley Authority, set up in 1933 in the U.S.A.
See Hoyt and Langbein. 33
t The Water Resources Act 1963 of Great Britain gives much wider powers
and responsibilities for reconstituted River Boards than formerly.
Control and Measurement of Open Channel Flow 75
of amenity and preservation before these aspects of their rivers can
match others of more direct economic benefit.
Development of a river requires control of the following variables:
(1) Discharge
(2) Water level (stage)
(3) Biological and chemical quality
(4) Sediment load
The present book does not deal with quality control, which is the
more particular responsibility of the Public Health and Sanitation
Engineer, while the whole subject of sediment transport is reviewed
in Chapter 5. The control of stage and discharge involves the
engineer in both regulation and measurement. Frequently these two
operations, the one as important as the other, are carried out simul-
taneously by the same hydraulic structure. In the ensuing sections
of this chapter, hydraulic structures will be considered under channel
regulation or flow measurement on the basis of their principal rather
than their sole function.
the sides and bed of the channel are normally formed. The extent
to which sediment transport takes place in any particular channel
varies greatly and the whole matter is dealt with in Chapter 5. In
canalised channels the possibility of excessive deposition of sediment
upstream of the weirs must be considered.
Where economic and other conditions are favourable it is possible
to develop a river for both navigation and hydro-electric power
generation in a single scheme. The weirs will now incorporate
power generating stations as well as navigation locks. This system
has been exploited successfully in Europe on both large and small
scales in recent years.
---
Time
Flood storage
Do;;,- ·-····
FIG. 4.3 Multi-purpose reservoir storage classification.
Turbines discharge
-?,.~'
-~--------
<!>,.. inlo river
-P'
"~/'--
tomng- - - - - - ~ I
(a) Power house remote from barrage
(1) Vertical lift gates. This type of gate is a plane rectangular steel
or cast iron structure and its method of operation is shown in Fig.
4.5. It is commonly used to close the
vents in barrages, being raised and
lowered from above by a movable
gantry that traversed the top of the
barrage on rails to serve all the gates.
The frictional resistance to moving
• _ Rollers against the gate, due to the transmission of
;• abutments
the hydrostatic pressure force to the
I
: >-Discharge
abutments, can be reduced by the use
of roller wheels as shown in Fig. 4.5.
The gate hoists, in gates with machined
•Sealing sill face seals, are so arranged that at first
movement the seal is broken and the
FIG. 4.5 Vertical lift gate
fitted with rollers.
load transferred to the rollers. Hy-
draulic cylinders may be used instead
of mechanical hoists depending upon economic and maintenance
factors. Where a barrage contains a sufficient number of vents it is
Control and Measurement of Open Channel Flow 83
frequently possible, and indeed more satisfactory, to operate the
individual gates either fully open or closed. Under partial opening,
such gates are frequently set in vibration in the vertical direction
due to instability of the flow past the lower edge.
(3) Rolling gate. This gate is in the form of a steel cylinder spanning
between spillway crest piers in which are mounted inclined toothed
racks, as shown in Fig. 4.7. The gate is
To winch
hoisted by rolling it up these racks in
which teeth arranged around the peri-
phery of the ends of the gate engage. On
account of the potentially great strength
of a cylindrical structure (with suitable
internal bracing) rolling gates can be
used economically over greater spans
than other end-fixing gates. Frequently
a longitudinal steel skirt is attached to a
Seal suitable point on the periphery so that it
FIG. 4.7 Rolling gate. forms a seal with the fixed spillway crest
when the gate is in the lowered position.
(4) Drum gate. This gate is in the form of a watertight steel plate
structure which is hinged to the spillway crest in such a way that
84 Flow in Channels
when it is in the lowered position it occupies a recess in the concrete
structure giving an uninterrupted spillway profile (Fig. 4.8). If
water is now admitted into this recess the gate lifts due to its buoy-
ancy and effectively raises the spillway crest. Drum gates vary
considerably in their design but all utilise water pressure in their
operation. They therefore have certain advantages over other kinds
of gates, principally in needing no spillway superstructure involving
winches and cables.
Other types of gates are used from time to time. Some of these are
automatic in so far as they open when the upstream water surface
'
Control valves
v~l2g
I
I v2!2g .--
..
1 • __ ..... p
/~-
/ --
I /
I
Rearranging Eq. (4.2) and substituting into it from the above yields
the following relationships connecting Cn, Cc, y and d1.
Cn = q - Cc (4.3)
yy(2gdl) y(l + Ccy/dl)
86 Flow in Channels
Rouse 4 4 states that values of Cc are essentially constant for this
type of sluice (close to 0·61).
In some circumstances a sluice opening or vent may be controlled
by more than one vertical lift gate. These may be arranged so that
the discharge can either pass under the lower one as in Fig. 4.9,
between the lower and the upper, or over
=-;:-.:;.:;:=-t· . . . ..... !i>.tat head the upper, which then takes the form of a
1 -·-·-·-·- sharp-edged weir (see section 4.3.1). Under
t ~) such varying conditions the value of the
dl1 (/ ..... \-~ coefficient of discharge will alter con-
.,."' d3 siderably as will also the pressure distri-
YT ~ j bution on the gates. Except in the simplest
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .-.-.·.-.·.-.-.-. .-.-.-.-.-.-.-:-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-:-:-.-:-.-:-.-.-. .-.. :. . . . . . ·. . case, an accurate solution to these unknown
FIG. 4.10 Flow at a quantities may sometimes only be obtained
drowned sluice. after conducting a hydraulic model in-
vestigation.
A sluice discharging in any of these ways will constitute a control
section and when underflow occurs, more particularly the down-
stream flow, if undrowned, will be supercritical. Unless the down-
stream channel is steep (see Chapter 2) a hydraulic jump will form in
the equilibrium position, a function
Free discharge
of channel depths and discharge. If
the normal depth of the downstream
channel is greater than the conju-
gate depth of the flow at the "vena
contracta", the hydraulic jump will
not find equilibrium conditions in
the channel and will move upstream
until stopped by the gate and in so
0
doing "drown" the sluice. The
d,
velocity through the sluice will now y
be a function of the difference in FIG. 4.11 Values of the discharge
level between the upstream and coefficient CD for flow through
downstream water surfaces but Eq. a sluice (after Henry45).
(4.2) may still be used if the value
of Cn is made to include this effect. Fig. 4.10 shows drowned flow
under a sluice and from this figure the downstream depth of sub-
mergence is defined as dafy. Graphical values of Cn are given in
Fig. 4.11 in which Cn is plotted against the upstream depth ratio
d1fy. A family of curves corresponding to different values of the
Control and Measurement of Open Channel Flow 87
downstream depth ratio give values of Cn for the case of drowned
flow. A discussion of the limitation of these results is given by
Ippen. 46
,. . .,
The form of notch illustrated
2mm
in Fig. 4.12, to which condition
---1 ~" Edge surfoce" of nolch
Sharp---... 1 (2) above specifically applies, is
squore ·=···=·· - Champfered termed a rectangular notch (or
.....-, .."
h ~
- 1--- "
d1
:: ~
--~---- -
I
'
I;
I
Hydraulic jump :
. ..-..:·::::·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·: ·.:·.:·:·:·:·::.·:·::·.-:·:.::·:·.: :· ... ·.:·:···:·:·:·:·::·:·:•·:·:·::·:·::.;:.;.;-:-:-::-:-::-::-:::;.;.:·:::-::·:
·.::
variable.
On the whole it is less satisfactory to operate a throated flume in
a drowned condition because the term (d1 - d2) usually represents
a small difference whilst including the cumulative percentage error
resulting from two physical measurements. In addition, the flow in
the throat tends to be unsteady, leading to fluctuations in the position
of the section of minimum depth. However, the above relationship
(Eq. 4.14) will be found useful if the situation cannot be avoided.
Throated flumes designed specifically for channels of trapezoidal
cross-section are the subject of a report by Ackers and Harrisonso,
whilst two special flume designs deserve mention. The Crump weir 51
is a weir of triangular section having an upstream facing slope of I
in 2 and a downstream one of I in 5 and is receiving increasing
attention in the U.K., while the Parshall flume5 2 consisting of a
throated flume with a complex bottom form has been in use in the
U.S.A. for many years.
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, consideration is given to the relationship which
exists between the flow in a channel and its boundaries. This
relationship is only static, and therefore of no interest here, when the
channel boundaries are non-erodible under all conditions of flow
(concrete lined channels and canals) and when in addition, no
water-borne sediment is introduced into the channel. In natural
rivers and unlined canals the channel boundary is always erodible to
a greater or lesser extent and sediment is carried into the channel
both from the bed upstream and from the surrounding land. The
flow in such a channel is always adjusting itself to the presence of
this movable material whose behaviour in tum depends upon the
action of the flowing water upon it. The whole will therefore form a
single, highly complex, flow phenomenon: part fluid, part solid, in a
channel of variable geometry.
Because flow in erodible channels is so complex, the theoretical
models used to help understanding of the fundamental mechanics of
the process are still inadequate. There is a large gap between the
river engineer's needs and the tools available to him.
Any particular river will always attempt to adjust its conditions
(plan, slopes, depths, rate of sediment movement) in order to reach
a state of equilibrium or balance of forces. However, the state of
equilibrium of a river depends in tum upon the discharge, slope and
other significant factors and it follows that any river which is not
artificially controlled will always be in a state of change seeking, but
seldom finding, equilibrium. The time scale of river changes varies
considerably, depending upon many factors. Whilst one river may
98
Flow in Erodible Material 99
show a major change of course after the recession of a single flood,
another may undergo channel movements which can only be detected
by comparing different maps of the relevant region covering a time
span of fifty or a hundred years.
The complexity of this subject has resulted in the past in its being
treated separately from rigid-boundary channel flow. It is the
author's intention in the present chapter to outline the subject and
to give references to significant sources on specific points.
FIG. 5.1 Section through sand ripple or dune formed under water.
111,000
1p = dm3/4
(5.2)
it Water surface
that is its most important character-
istic. Consequently the fine sediment
fractions whose settling velocities are
..0
0
\ ...--- Fine silt small in comparison with the magnitude
\
\
of the turbulence are found almost
uniformly distributed throughout the
'\ depth of flow as is shown by the distri-
', / Fine sand bution curve for fine silt in Fig. 5.2.
d
S = 16 (3so-sa + 5so-2a)(vo-sa + vo-2a) (5.4)
(5.5)
106 Flow in Channels
in which S is the suspended sediment load passing the station
(total mass/sec),
C the constant varying considerably from one river to
another and from one station to another,
Q the river discharge,
and x the exponent, normally between 2·0 and 2·3 but falling
in value at a particular station during periods of extreme
flood.
(5.7)
in S.I. units, except that dm is the median size of the sediment in mm.
The breadth equation is wholly empirical in origin, having no obvious
physical basis, and in S.I. units is
B = 4·83Qt (5.8)
(1) Channel banks are always formed from the smallest sediment
fraction present. Banks formed from silt and clay particles
will be clearly defined while those consisting principally of
sand or gravel will be poorly defined.
(2) Channel width in a natural channel is largely determined by
the discharge at bank-full stage.
Flow in Erodible Material 109
(3) The relative width (with respect to depth) of a regime channel
increases with the dominant discharge. It also increases with
the mean sediment size and quantity present.
(4) The slope of a stream decreases as the discharge increases and
as the bed load particle size and quantity decrease.
(5) The slope of a stream is so dependent on its regime conditions
of load and discharge that if the stream is dammed the bed
level upstream will be raised by deposition until the regime
slope is re-established.
(6) Sediment load is determined not only by bed shear stress and
grain size but also by the form of the bed.
(7) The hydraulic roughness of the bed is affected both by the
grain size and by the bed form, which in tum is affected by the
discharge, slope, etc.
(8) Even ungraded streams behave so nearly as do graded streams
that only extreme conditions of non-equilibrium can be
detected by quantitative measurements over short periods.
The behaviour of natural streams in determining their route or
plan will be discussed in the following section.
-------Lm
gently sloping wide alluvial plain before entering the sea. It is in this
region that downcutting of the bed is reduced and a greater pro-
portion of the stream energy is directed towards eroding the banks.
When such a channel becomes significantly tortuous it is referred to
as meandering.
110 Flow in Channels
Important laboratory studies of the meandering process were
carried out by Friedkin66 who demonstrated that small scale labora-
tory streams show the same strong tendency to meander as do rivers.
Under such ideal conditions a meandering stream course consists of
alternate left-hand and right-hand bends of sine wave form (Fig.
5.3), the point of inflection being used normally to define the junction
between consecutive bends. Centrifugal action in the bends results
in a distortion of the velocity distribution in the cross-section so
that the point of maximum velocity moves close to the outer or
concave bank. Thus erosion of the
concave river bank is active and results
in the development or lengthening of
the bend perpendicular to and away
from the general axis of the river. This
process does not proceed indefinitely
as a limit is reached to the width of
the meander Wm (see Fig. 5.3), at which
(o) "(b) short channels termed chutes are de-
FIG. 5.4 Development of a veloped across the inner bank sediment
cut-off and an ox-bow lake. deposits, at high flows. These chutes
form because the resistance to flow
along such paths is less than that around the outside of the bend. At
low flows the stream normally returns to the main channel. Chute
development not only reduces erosion in the vicinity of the bend
extremity but also concentrates erosive activity on a region further
downstream on the concave bank where the chute flow impinges.
This ultimately results in the general movement of the full developed
meander system in the axial downstream direction.
When the bank material of a meandering river is of a cohesive
nature (i.e. contains silt or clay) the resulting bends approximate in
plan to a segment of a circle whilst rivers meandering through
uncohesive sandy material develop bends of the sine form char-
acteristic of laboratory test conditions. Because of random varia-
tions in the erodibility of alluvial plain deposits river banks offer a
variable resistance to the erosive mechanism of meandering which is
responsible for the complex and irregular form of most natural
meander patterns. One consequence of variable erodibility is the
formation of cut-offs as illustrated in Fig. 5.4. An area of harder
sediment arrests the normal seaward movement of one limb of a
meander bend and the adjacent upstream limb then closes up on it
Flow in Erodible Material 111
until the separating strip of land is broken through. Normally flow
starts across this neck of land during flood conditions and, because
of the steep slope resulting from the much shortened course, a new
channel is quickly eroded. The old meander loop will now be
particularly susceptible to deposition and will soon be isolated under
normal flows to form an ox-bow lake. These lakes slowly silt up
due to the combined action of vegetation and the regular inflow of
suspended sediment from the river during floods.
Although river meanders have been extensively studied and
measured all over the world their basic mechanics is still only
partially understood. At first empirical formulae were proposed,
relating certain dominant physical characteristics. The Inglis
meander formulae were developed from measurements of Indian
rivers and give the meander length and breadth, as defined in Fig.
5.3, in terms of the maximum probable discharge, Qmax·
Lm = CL(Qmax)t (5.9)
Wm = Cw(Qmax)t (5.10)
In S.l. units the constant CL ranges in value between 33 and 76 with
a representative "average" value of 50, while the constant Cw is of
the order of magnitude of iCL but varies widely for different types
of rivers. The "maximum probable discharge" corresponds to that
discharge which has a probable recurrence interval of 100 years,
called the 100-year flood.
The measurement of meander wavelength and other characteristics
depends, in this and similar work, on the manner in which a bend is
delimited, for example by the point of inflection method mentioned
above. Such methods, however, prove difficult to apply satisfactorily
to all but the simplest meander patterns. Recently this analysis has
been made on a power spectrum basis which recognises that a
particular river course may contain superimposed meander systems
of different wavelength. Speight6 7 describes such an analysis and
produces meander spectra characteristic of different types of river
channel.
Erosion and deposition of sediment at river bends result in the
excavation of a deep channel close to the concave outer bank and in
the construction of shallows extending out from the inner bank due
to deposition in that region (see Fig. 5.5). Most of the sediment
eroded from the other bank at a bend is deposited initially at the
next point of inflection downstream where a crossing bar is developed.
112 Flow in Channels
From there some of the material will pass to the inside bank deposits
at the next bend.
Erosion at the outside bank of a bend is found to be most active
in the recession period following a peak discharge when the point of
maximum velocity in the cross-section is at its closest to the concave
bank. The channel near this bank is deepened during flood dis-
charges and the crossing bars also reach their maximum develop-
ment then. During intervening periods of low flow the crossing bars
are lowered by erosion and the deep channels at the bends are
~ '-
~;~~5~:~-~~ -·
Section at x---x
(to enlarged scale)
FIG. 5.5 River bend showing areas of deposition and erosion and
characteristic cross-section.
partially refilled. In river channels that are relatively deep and nar-
row in cross-section, centrifugal action at the bends sets up a secon-
dary circulation resulting in spiral flow (see section 1.5); the
streamlines near the free surface moving outwards while those near
the bed move towards the inner bank. By this mechanism a propor-
tion of the material eroded at a bend probably gets deposited on the
inner bank shoal of the same bend after travelling diagonally across
the bed of the river. In wide shallow streams it seems probable that
this secondary circulation is not established to a significant degree.
Representative
Velocity (In It/sec), after variation of
ageing, for canals carrying: permissible velocity
with depth of water
water
clear water carrying
Channel water carrying non-colloidal Depth Depth
Material no colloidal silt, sand I It lOft
detritus clay gravel or
rock fragments
velocity method has now largely been replaced by the tractive force
method. The tractive force method can be used satisfactorily on its
own design canals in non-cohesive soil which scour but do not silt.
The canal section is designed so that the fluid shear stress on the bed
reaches its critical value (on the threshold of bed movement) at at
least one point around the wetted perimeter. If there is no restriction
on the shape of the cross-section for other reasons, a "maximum
efficiency" design criterion can be adopted (see section 1.7.1). In
116 Flow in Channels
terms of sediment behaviour alone this condition will be satisfied
when all points on the wetted perimeter reach the critical shear
stress at the design conditions. Such a section has a cosine form,
shown in Fig. 5.6, expressed by the equation
7TX
d=dpCOS- (5.11)
B
. . . B TTdp
m whrch the half-wrdth 2 = 2 tan cp
Cloy
it has been found that a reservoir, whatever its function, will have to
be either replaced or supplemented by the time 50% of its storage
capacity has been lost in this way.
Fig. 5.7 shows in diagrammatic form the manner in which sedi-
ment deposits build up in a reservoir. The coarser material forming
the bed load in the river is deposited very close to the inlet point in
the form of a delta. When the reservoir water level is variable these
deposits will continually be eroding and reforming to give a multiple
delta system as indicated in the figure. The fine sediment load in the
river will be deposited over a much wider area of the reservoir
because of the action of density currents. These are formed by
denser silty water flowing down the slope of the reservoir bottom
underneath the clear water and result in the deepest areas of the
reservoir (close to the dam) being slowly filled with deposits of clay.
The rate at which a reservoir fills with sediment will depend
primarily on the rate of supply from the inflowing rivers. This can
Flow in Erodible Material 119
be determined by direct sediment load measurement in the rivers
although regrading of the upstream channel following the construc-
tion of the reservoir may well change the transport rates for an
appreciable length of time. In addition, the rate of sedimentation
will also depend upon the trap efficiency E of the reservoir, defined as
the percentage of incoming sediment that remains within the reser-
voir, the complimentary quantity corresponding to (100-E)% being
normally passed out of the reservoir through the discharge gates or
over the spillway in suspension.
The volume of reservoir storage lost per year V8 is given by the
equation
Vs = EQs (5.12)
(6.1)
in which the symbols used are defined in Fig. 6.1. If the height of
::"
n Padd le
..c
"
"""
""
""
,,"~ :
u
.·:·.·::::::·:·_.:::.:-::;.·,·.·:·:.·::::.·:::·::·:·:::-:::-:.:-:·:.·.·:·:·::·::·::·.-:·:·:·:·:·:·::-::·:·:·:-:-..:·:-::·:::<·:::·:·:::·:·:·:·:·::::::·:·.·:·:·:·:.·:.:::::.·.·.-::::••••·:::.·••.••...•••.. :.:.
I. I
v1.::ll
-
------;-t----=;;,;;~,.----_;_~----~
·I
Wave !rant after time .::11
Vw
Q2 d2
I -
V2 --o;--- +
d1 _
t v,
(6.4)
In a time interval !lt the wave front advances a distance vwllt which
must be greater than the corresponding distance travelled by any of
the water particles, since Vw must be greater than both v1 and v2.
If the channel is initially empty there will be an exception to this
rule and Vw will be equal to v2. The dynamic equation of the uni-
formly progressive wave, of which this forms one case, is discussed
in detail by Chow73 and its development enables the profile of the
wave front to be determined. Because of its importance in relation
124 Flow in Channels
to flood wave movement in rivers, this wave form will be discussed
further from the point of view of the river hydrograph in section 6.2.
(a)
_ ~"Stationary surge"
(6.6)
Unsteady Flow in Open Channels 125
This equation refers to a surge wave travelling downstream in a
wide rectangular channel. Fig. 6.3(b) shows what the observer sees
when he is travelling in the downstream direction at the wave velocity
Vw and the surge now appears
stationary and similar in all respects
to a hydraulic jump. The shallow
flow is now seen to be approaching ~ - v,
>:-:-.-.-.-:-:-.-:-.-:-;-:-:-:-:-:-:-·-:-::::.·.-.·:.-.-.::::::::.·.·::.·:::.·::.-:-.-:-.-:-:-:-:-;-:-:-:-.-;-:-;-:.-.·.·
the surge with velocity c (given by (a) Steep - fronted surge
Eq. 6.6) and the deep flow re-
treating from the surge with velocity
(vw- v2). - v,
The form of a surge will, as in . . . . -..-.-.-.·.·.-.-.-. .-.-.-.-.·.-.- -:-:-.-.-:-:-. . :-:-.-.-.-:-.-:-. . _._._._._._._._._._._._.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
the case of the hydraulic jump, (b) Undular surge
depend upon the ratio of these two FIG. 6.4 Alternative forms
depths. The two alternatives are of surge.
shown in Fig. 6.4, the steep-fronted
surge being associated with a large depth ratio and the smooth
profiled undular surge with a depth ratio close to unity. The intense
turbulence generated in the steep-fronted surge is able to absorb a
proportionately high energy load.
Surges can advance either upstream or downstream depending
upon how they have originated and their passage can produce either
1__.,----
Vw
~ v:-
-
- ~-
•
v, 2
..
;.·.-,·.·.::::.· ·.·.·.·.:.::::.·.· ........ .
(a ) Positi e surge advancing upstream {bi"'·P~sit;~e 'su.rge ~d ~ancing do~~stream
r - - VK
Rainfall!
DISCharge
(ou1flow 1
from·
colchmenr)
Time
Rainfall
lnfir: :, lt: : :tHl, , , ~ =, , , .l
(I) ' (2) I (3)
Discharge
Fro. 6.7 Streamflow synthesis from rainfall record using the unit
hydrograph method.
h + I2 01 + 02 (S2 - S1)
-2-= 2 + !!..t (6.8)
130 Flow in Channels
In solving the above equation over a finite time interval, the condi-
tions in the reach at time t1 will be known (h,01 and S1) as well as
the inflow h at the close of the interval, since the inflow hydro graph
must be known initially or previously determined. There will
remain two unknown quantities 02 and S2. These can be related in
general terms by the expression
Reach___; (6.9)
. . ......... ~ . . . . :.t,g.
but this relationship cannot be written in ex-
Discharges designated:-
plicit form when referring to river channels
It and Ot at lime It for the following reasons.
12 and 0 2 at time 12
The stage-discharge relationship for a
12-lt = Jl
channel is only uniquely defined when the
FIG. 6.9 Definition of flow is uniform, because the discharge in an
flood routing variables open channel is proportional to the t power
for a river reach. of the slope of the water surface (assumed
parallel with the total energy line for slow
flows). It is quite clear from what has been stated in sections 6.1 and
6.2 that the water surface slope will be much greater during the rising
stage than during the falling stage as a flood wave passes. The type
Slog~ I
I
1~0 I
1 (decline) 1
I
I
~eo
Outflow t
-
Storage
FIG. 6.11 Storage-outflow relationships (for different values of
inflow).
drawn and the line (~~- 0). The computational procedure used
/
0 = CLH 312 /
Head H t !; +0
above
spillway
crest
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
time It t2 It 12 11+12
2St _ Ot 2S2 + O
t::.t 2 Ht H2 02
interval t::.t
tst 0 t::.t
for( 2: : + 02) in (7) and this is used in the graph with the appro-
priate curve to give a value of H2. At the same time the outflow
value 02 can be obtained from the outflow curve at head H2. It is
now possible to proceed with the (n + I)th step using the value of
H2 above to give the current H1 value and so on until the maximum
value of 02 and its timing have been obtained. From Fig. 6.14 it
can be seen that the interval between the occurrence of the maxima
Di:.chorge
I
0
in the inflow and outflow hydrographs is termed the lag time while
the reduction in their magnitudes is called the attenuation.
When considering flood routing through small reservoirs it may
be necessary to take account of the storage under the backwater
curve (wedge storage) produced by the inflow in addition to the
horizontal surface (prism) storage. It may also be necessary, under
these conditions, to allow for the storage potential in the channel of
the inflowing river below the level of the maximum water surface
elevation in the reservoir (see Gilcrest7B).
A reservoir that discharges through other forms of control
structure will have different outflow-head relationships and these
must be determined before the computations begin. Two or more
different types may be in use at the same time which will result in a
multi-term 0 - H relationship but this may still be plotted as a
single curve corresponding to the one shown in Fig. 6.13 in which
a broad-crested weir spillway is assumed.
References
Chapter 1
1. CHow, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), p. 93 footnote 1.
2. RousE, H. and INcE, S.: History of Hydraulics, Iowa Institute of
Hydraulic Research (1957), p. 119.
3. MANNING, R.: "On the flow of water in open channels and pipes,"
Trans. of l.C.E. Ireland, 20, (1891), pp. 161-207.
4. MORGAN, E. E.: Stream and Channel Flow, Chapman and Hall Ltd.
(1938) (see tables, p. 113).
5. AcKERS, P.: "Resistance of fluids flowing in channels and pipes,"
Hydraulics Research Paper No. l, H.M.S.O. (1958). Also: "Charts
for the Hydraulic design of channels and pipes," Hydraulics Research
Paper No. 2, H.M.S.O. (1963).
6. GIBSON, A. H.: "On the depression of the filament of maximum
velocity in a stream flowing through an open channel," Proc.
Royal Society, Series A, 82, (1909), pp. 149-159.
7. RousE, H.: Fluid mechanics for hydraulic engineers. Engineering
Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1938),
pp. 266-268.
8. CHOW, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
New York (1959), pp. 27-28.
9. PRANDTL, L. and TIETJENS, 0. G.: Applied Hydro- and Aeromechanics,
Engineering Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1934), Chapter 4.
10. DELLEUR, J. W.: "The boundary layer development in open channels,"
Proc. A.S.C.E. Eng. Mech. Div., 83, January (1957).
11. BoYER, M. C.: "Estimating the Manning coefficient from an average
bed roughness in open channels," Trans. Am. Geophysical Union, 35,
No. 6, December (1954), pp. 957-961.
Chapter 2
12. BAKHMETEFF, B. A.: Hydraulics of Open Channels, Engineering
Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1932),
p. 59.
136
References 137
13. BAKHMETEFF, B. A.: Hydraulics of Open Channels, p. 70.
14. MoRRis, H. M.: Applied Hydraulics in Engineering, Ronald Press,
(1963), pp. 120-124.
15. CHow, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), p. 253.
16. WooDWARD, S. M. and PosEY, C. J.: Hydraulics of Steady Flow in
Open Channels, John Wiley, New York (1941), pp. 94--109.
17. KING, H. W. and BRATER, E. F.: Handbook of Hydraulics, McGraw-
Hill Book Co., New York, 5th Edition (1963), pp. 8-48 to 8-66.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HENDERSON, F. M.: Open Channel Flow, Collier Macmillan, London
(1966), Chapter 5.
Chapter 3
18. RousE, H.: Fluid Mechanics for Hydraulic Engineers, Engineering
Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1938),
pp. 324--325.
19. RousE, H.: Discussion (p. 651) on paper by Bakhmeteff and Matzke:
reference 23.
20. KING, H. W. and BRATER, E. F.: Handbook of Hydraulics, 5th
edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1963), pp. 8-35, 8-36.
21. The Standing Wave or Hydraulic Jump, Govt. of India Central Board
of Water and Power, Publication No. 7, Simla India 2nd edition,
(1950).
22. BAKHMETEFF, B. A.: Hydraulics of Open Channels, Engineering
Societies Monographs, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1932),
p. 234.
23. BAKHMETEFF, B. A. and MATZKE, A. E.: "The hydraulic jump in
terms of dynamic similarity," Trans. A.S.C.E. 101, (1936), pp.
631-647.
24. BAKHMETEFF, B. A. and MATZKE, A. E.: "The hydraulic jump in
sloped channels," Trans. A.S.M.E. 60, (1938), p. 111.
25. CHow, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), p. 396.
26. FORMICA, G.: ("Preliminary test on head losses in channels due to
cross-sectional changes"), L' Energia Elettica, Milano, 32, 7, pp.
554--568, July (1955). (See Chow: reference 27-section 17-4.)
27. CHOW, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), p. 465.
28. IPPEN, A. T.: "Channel transitions and controls," Chapter 8 in
Engineering Hydraulics (Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley (1950),
pp. 496-538.
29. d'AuBUISSON de VOISINS: Traite d'hydraulique, Paris (1840).
30. YARNELL, D. L.: "Bridge piers as channel obstructions," U.S. Dept.
of Agric. Tech. Bull. No. 442, November (1934).
138 Flow in Channels
31. lPPEN, A. T. and DAWSON, J. H.: "Design of channel contractions,"
Trans. A.S.C.E. Symposium Paper, 116, (1951), pp. 326-346.
32. BLAISDELL, F. W.: "Flow through diverging open channels at
supercritical velocities," Report SCS-TP-16 U.S. Soil Conservation
Service (1949).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
For full bibliography on the hydraulic jump see CHow: reference 25
(end of Chapter 15).
Chapter 4
33. HoYT, W. G. and LANGBEIN, W. B.: Floods, Princeton University
Press (1955), pp. 241-249.
34. RAo, V. S.: "The role of forests in flood control," Soil and Water
Conservation, India 3, 4, July (1955), p. 163.
35. KoELZER, V. A.: "The use of statistics in reservoir operations," J. of
Hyd. Div., A.S.C.E., Paper 1008, 82, HY-3, June (1956).
36. GILCREST, B. R.: "Flood routing," Chapter 10 in Engineering
Hydraulics (Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley, New York (1950).
37. KuiPER, E.: Water Resources Development, Butterworths, London
(1965), pp. 210-221.
38. MEINZER, 0. E. (Editor): Hydrology, Chapter 11, Sections Hand I,
pp. 561-578, Dover Publications, New York (first published, 1942).
39. LINSLEY, R. K., KOHLER, M.A. and PAULHUS, J. L. H.: Hydrology
for Engineers, Chapters 10-13, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
(1958).
40. LINSLEY, R. K. and FRANZINI, J. B.: Water Resources Engineering,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1964), pp. 159-163.
41. CREAGER, W. P., JUSTIN, J. D. and HINDS, J.: Engineering for Dams,
(3 volumes), John Wiley, New York (1947).
42. BROWN, J. G. (Editor): Hydro-electric Engineering Practice (3
volumes), Blackie, London (1958).
43. LELIAVSKY, S.: Irrigation and Hydraulic Design (3 volumes), Chap-
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44. RousE, H.: "Engineering Hydraulics," Chapter 1: Fundamental
Principles of Flow, John Wiley, New York (1950), p. 52.
45. HENRY, H. R.: "Characteristics of sluice gate discharge," M.Sc.
thesis, State Univ. of Iowa (1949). Published as a discussion of
paper by Albertson, M. L., eta/. "Diffusion of submerged jets,"
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46. IPPEN, A. T.: "Channel transitions and controls," Chapter 8 in
Engineering Hydraulics (Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley, New
York (1950), pp. 536-539.
47. B.S. 3680: Methods of Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open Channels,
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References 139
48. WEBBER, N. B.: Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineers, Spon, London
(1965), pp. 216-217.
49. KING, H. W. and BRATER, E. F.: Handbook of Hydraulics, 5th
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1963), section 5-46.
50. AcKERS, P. and HARRISON, A. J. M.: "Critical depth flumes for flow
measurement in open channels," Hydraulics Research Paper No.5,
D.S.I.R., H.M.S.O., London (1963).
51. CRUMP, E. S.: "Moduling of irrigation channels," Punjab Irrigation
Branch, Papers No. 26 and 30A, Lahore, India (1922-1933).
52. CHOW, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), pp. 72-81.
53. MITCHELL, W. D.: "Stage-fall-discharge relationships for steady flow
in prismatic channels," Water Supply Paper No. 1164, U.S.
Geological Survey (1954).
54. B.S. 3680: Methods of Measurement of Liquid Flow in Open Chan-
nels, Part 3: "Velocity area methods," British Standards Institu-
tion, London (1964).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reservoirs and Planning
LEOPOLD, L. B. and MADDOCK, T.: The Flood Control Controversy, The
Ronald Press, New York (1954).
LANGBEIN, W. B.: "Queuing theory and water storage," J. of Hyd. Div.,
A.S.C.E. Paper No. 1811, HY-5, 84, October (1958).
SYMPOSIUM, 1946-47: "Multi-purpose reservoirs," Proc., A.S.C.E. 75,
March (1949). pp. 288-390.
GILCREST, B. R.: "Flood routing," including a bibliography of 34
references (pp. 709-710). Chapter 10 in Engineering Hydraulics,
(Editor: Rouse, H.) John Wiley, New York (1950).
KNAPPEN, T. T., STRATTEN, J. H. and DAVIS, C. V.: "River regulation by
reservoirs," chapter in Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, (Editor:
Davis, C. V.) 2nd Edition. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1952).
pp. 1-21.
MoRRis H. M.: Applied Hydraulics in Engineering, Ronald Press, New
York (1963), pp. 297-313.
Control Structures
LEUAVSKY, S.: Irrigation and Hydraulic Design, Volume 3, pp. 71-149,
Chapman and Hall, London (1955-1960).
BOWMAN, J. S. and BoWMAN J. R.: "Spillway crest gates," Section 8 in
Handbook of Applied Hydraulics, (Editor: Davis, C. V.) 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1952).
HENDERSON, F. M.: "Open channel flow," Chapter 6: Channel Controls,
Collier-Macmillan, London (1966).
140 Flow in Channels
Flow Measurement
TROSKOLANSKI, A. T.: Hydrometry, translated from the Polish, Pergamon
Press, London (1960).
Chapter 5
55. B.S. 1377: Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes,
British Standards Institution, London (1961).
56. BAGNOLD, R. A.: Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, Methuen,
London (1941).
57. DUPUIT, A. J.: see Rouse, H. and Ince, S., History of Hydraulics,
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, State University of Iowa
(1957), pp. 171-172.
58. BLENCH, T.: Regime Behaviour of Canals and Rivers, Butterworths,
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61. EINSTEIN, H. A.: "Formulas for the transportation of bed load,"
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62. GARDE, R. J. and ALBERTSON, M. L.: Discussion of reference 63
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70. CHow, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
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References 141
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BLENCH, T.: Regime Behaviour of Canals and Rivers, Butterworths,
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HENDERSON, F. M.: Chapter 10 in Open Channel Flow, Collier-Mac-
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LELIAVSKY, S.: An Introduction to Fluvial Hydraulics, Constable, London
(1955).
LELIAVSKY, S.: "Design textbooks in civil engineering: 4." River and Canal
Hydraulics, Chapman and Hall, London (1965).
KUIPER, E.: Chapter 4 in Water Resources Development, Butterworths,
London (1965).
BROWN, C. B.: "Sediment transportation," Chapter 12 in Engineering
Hydraulics (Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley, New York (1950).
Chapter 6
73. CHow, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York (1959), pp. 531-537.
74. HoRTON, R. E.: "The interpretation and application of run-off plot
experiments with reference to soil erosion problems," Proc. Soil
Science Soc. of Am., 3, (1938), pp. 340-349.
75. SHERMAN, L. K.: "The unit hydrograph method," Chapter 11E in
Hydrology (Editor: Meinzer, 0. E.), Dover Publications, New
York (first published 1942).
76. KUIPER, E.: Water Resources Development, Butterworths, London
(1965), pp. 94-101.
77. CHOW, V. T.: Open Channel Hydraulics, Chapter 20, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York (1959).
78. GILCREST, B. R.: "Flood routing," Engineering Hydraulics, Chapter 10
(Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley, New York (1949).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HENDERSON, F. M.: Chapters 8 and 9 in Open Channel Flow, Collier-
Macmillan, London (1966).
Sections 6.2-6.4
DE WEIST, R. J. M.: Chapters 2 in Geohydrology, John Wiley, New York
(1965).
GILCREST, B. R.: "Flood routing," Chapter 10 in Engineering Hydraulics
(Editor: Rouse, H.), John Wiley, New York (1949).
list of Notations
A cross-sectional area of flow
A, C, H, M, S classification of surface profiles
b, B width of channel; water surface width of channel
b' channel bed width
c wave celerity (velocity of propagation in still water)
c suffix indicating critical flow conditions
C coefficient
C Chezy coefficient
Cn coefficient of discharge
Cc coefficient of contraction
Cv coefficient of velocity
CL meander length coefficient
Cw meander width coefficient
C.D.L. critical depth line
d depth of flow; maximum depth of flow in a cross-section
d' depth of flow (supercritical)
de critical depth of flow
d1 height of hydraulic jump
dm mean depth in a cross-section
dm mean particle diameter
do normal depth of flow
dp maximum (centre line) depth in a cross-section
D diameter of circular pipe
E specific energy
E trap efficiency of reservoir
F suffix indicating conditions in a conduit flowing full
F Froude number
F, F' hydrostatic pressure force
g accleration due to gravity
gs bed load (weight) per unit volume
h depth of water
h vertical distance
ha drop in water level past bridge piers
he effective head above weir
hr kinetic energy head
h, H head
H total energy
i slope of total energy line
I inflow
K a friction coefficient
K 'Conveyance' of a channel
Ka a discharge coefficient
142
List of Notations 143
L length
L width of weir (across channel)
Lm length of meander
m ratio of flow areas
m hydraulic mean depth
n unspecified integer
n exponent
n Manning roughness coefficient (also Kutter)
N.D.L. normal depth line
o suffix indicating uniform flow conditions
0 outflow
p height of weir crest above channel bed
p pressure
p error value
p.p.m. parts per million
P wetted perimeter
q discharge per unit width
q error value
Q total discharge; dominant discharge
Qmax maximum probable discharge
Q. volumetric rate of sediment inflow (per year)
r error value
R radius
s sediment load in sample (weight/unit volume)
s slope of channel bed
S suspended load (tons/sec.)
S storage
time
v velocity
v mean velocity in cross-section
Vc critical velocity
vw velocity of propagation of wave in moving stream
Vs volume of reservoir storage lost per year to sediment
w specific weight
W weight of water
Wm width of meander
x ratio of velocity values
x distance along channel bed
x horizontal distance from centre line of channel cross-section
x length of hydraulic jump
y vertical distance
z horizontal distance in channel side slope ratio
z vertical distance above datum level
z depth of centroid of channel section below surface
ex energy coefficient
fJ momentum coefficient
144 list of Notations
(} angle; angle of channel side slope
v kinematic viscosity
r/> angle of slope of total energy line
rf> angle of repose of sediment (non-cohesive) under water
'1T constant
1JI 'sediment characteristic' in bed load formula
Index