HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory system is the system which brings about inspiration, expiration,

exchange of gases in lungs and transport of gases between the lungs and tissues. The
human respiratory system consists of a pair of nostrils, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchiolesan d alveoli (air sacs) forming the lungs.

The nostrils lead into nasal cavity, which opens into the upper part of the pharynx
called nasopharynx. It continues into larynx or voice box or adam’s apple that connects
the pharynx to the trachea. The opening of larynx; glottis is guardred by a leaf like
epiglottis. The trachea or wind pipe is connected to the larynx at the posterior and is 11
cm long. It is guarded by 16-20 C-shaped incomplete ring of hyaline cartilages which
prevent it from collapsing. The trachea divides into two bronchi at the lower end. The
right bronchus is wider. The bronchi are divided at the posterior into bronchioles which
enter into the lungs. The respiratory tract from the nose to the bronchioles is lined by
ciliated epithelium. The bronchioles divide into many alveolar ducts each of which
terminates in an alveolus or air chamber, the two lungs contain about 300 million alveoli.
The lungs of man is spongy. The two lungs are enclosed in a double layered membrane,
the pleura. The right lung is divided into 3 lobes and the left lung into two lobes. Inside
the lungs the bronchioles divide into alveolar ducts, which finally open into alveoli or
which is called air spaces. The lungs occupy most of the chest cavity. This cavity is lined
with a serous membrane, the pleura.

There is a small amount of serous fluid between the lungs and the pleura. The
fluid lessens the friction between the membrane and the lung. Internally, the cavity of the
lung has very small, microscopic air spaces, the alveoli. Each alveolus is lined by a layer
of flattened polygonal squamous cells. The human lungs contain about 700 million
alveoli, with a total surface area available 100 times that of the body. This makes a large
surface area available to the lungs so that sufficient oxygen taken up by haemoglobin of
the blood and CO2 is given off.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION
The main purpose of respiration is to provide oxygen to the tissues and to remove
CO2 from them. The entire process is accomplished in three steps :
·0 Breathing or pulmonary ventilation.
·1 Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
·2 Transport of gases in blood.
Breathing and Pulmonary Ventilation :
Breathing is a mechanical process and is completed in two phases, inspiration and
expiration. In inspiration the ribs are elevated and the diaphragm contracted and flattened,
the chest cavity is enlarged. This increase in the volume of the chest cavity and lungs
causes the air pressure in the lungs to fall below the atmospheric pressure and air passes
through the air passage ways to the lungs to equalize the pressure. In inspiration,
expansion of the thorax, aided by descent of the diaphragm, decreases into thoracic
pressure from 4 to 10 mm Hg, and air pushes into the lungs. Thus, in inspiration the lungs
are extending passively in response to the various mechanisms that result in an increase
in thoracic volume.
In expiration the ribs and diaphragm return to their original position so the
volume of chest cavity decreases. The distended elastic lungs then contract and the air is
forced out. Changes in the intrapleural pressure also responsible for air entering and
leaving the lungs.In expiration, the size of the thorax is decreased, the intrathoracic
pressure is raised to-2mm Hg. and air is forced out of the lungs.
e

The diaphragm is the main muscle of inspiration. If the diaphragm descends 10

mm, it will increase the thoracic cavity volume by 250 ml. Passive expiration results
when it relaxes. The contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm is controlled by the
phrenic nerves arising in the neck from the 3rd, 4th and 5th cervical nerves and passing
down through the thorax to the diaphragm.
Besides diaphragm, the external intercostals are the muscles mainly responsible
for the elevation of the ribs in inspiration. They are inserted between two neighboring
ribs, sloping forward and downward and their relaxation brings about passive expiration.
The internal intercostals form a deeper layer of muscle between the ribs with the fibers
running in the opposite direction, from above downward and backward. On contraction,
these muscle depress the ribs aiding in expiration during very deep breathing or which is
known as active expiration.
·3 Eupnea – Normal respiration
·4 Hypernea – Increase in respiratory rate and depth.
·5 Dyspnea – Irregularities of respiration.
·6 Apnea – Cessation of respiration
The normal rate of respiration in the adult is 14 breaths/minute, but in children it
may be up to 30/minute. In exercise it is further increased. Each inspiration admits about
350 ml of new air to mix with the 2500 ml of old air present in the lungs. The quantity of
new air that enters the lungs per minute is known as the minute volume, which in the
average adult is about 4900 ml (350 × 14). During exercise, the rate of breathing
increases due to the increased demand for oxygen. The demand of extra oxygen is
fulfilled by the expansion of rib cage.
·7 Tidal Volume : (TV) The volume of air inspired and expired by the lungs during
normal effortless breathing, is called tidal volume. (TV is about 500 ml of air)
·8 Inspiratory Reserve volume (IRV) : The extra volume of air that can be inspired
beyond the normal tidal volume is called inspiratory reserve volume. (1RV, is
about 2500 - 3000 ml of air)
 ·9 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) : The extra volume of air that can be expired
beyond the normal tidal volume is called expiratory reserve volume (ERV, is
about 1000 ml of air).
·10 Residual Volume (RV) : The volume of air that remains in the lungs even after
maximum forceful expiration is called residual volume (RV is about 1500 ml of
air)
·11 Pulmonary Capacities : When any two or more of the above mentioned
pulmonary volumes are considered together, such combinations are called
pulmonary capacities.
·12 Inspiratory Capacity : is the total amount of air a person can inspire by maximum
distension of his lung. It is equal to tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume.
It is about 3500 ml of air.
·13 Functional residual capacity (RV + ERV) : is the amount of air that remains in
lungs after normal expiration. It is about 2500 ml of air.
·14 Vital capacity (IRV + TV + ERV) is the maximum amount of air which can be
expelled forcefully from lungs after first filling with a maximum deep inspiration.
It is about 4600 ml.
Exchange of gases
In both external as well as internal respiration, exchange of respiratory gases
occurs. In external respiration, there is exchange of CO 2 of blood and O2 of air or water
while in internal respiration, there is exchange of O2 of blood and CO2 of the body cells.
These gas exchanges are physical process and depends upon the principle of diffusion.
The kinetic motion of the molecules provides the energy required for this diffusion of
gaseous molecule itself. Diffusion of any molecule takes place from high to low
concentration.
The process of diffusion is directly proportional to the pressure of a used by the
gas alone. The pressure exerted by an individual gas is called partial pressure. It is is
represented as PO2, PCO2, PN2 for oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen respectively.
Partial Pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by the gas individually. Which is
calculated as follows :
Partial pressure of gas = Total pressure of the mixture of gases
Percentage of a gas in the mixture
The partial pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its concentration in the
mixture. Total pressure of the air at the sea level = 760 mm Hg. The inspired air
ultimately reaches the alveoli of the lung which in turn receives the blood supply of the
pulmonary circulation. At this place, the oxygen of the inspired air is taken in by the
blood, and carbon dioxide is released into the alveoli for expiration. For efficient gaseous
exchange, the organ must have the following characteristics :
 ·15 It should have a large surface area
·16 It must be highly vascular, thin, moist, direct or indirect contact with source of
oxygen (air or water), permeable to the respiratory gases (O2 & CO2).
The respiratory membrane has a limit of gaseous exchange between alveoli and
pulmonary blood. It is called diffusing capacity and is defined as the volume of gas, that
diffuse through the membrane per minute for a pressure difference of 1mm Hg. At a
particular pressure difference, the diffusion of carbon dioxide is 20 times faster than
oxygen, and that of oxygen is two times faster that nitrogen. Due to the existing pressure
difference of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli & the blood capillary,
oxygen diffuses from alveolar air to the capillary blood, whereas carbon dioxide diffuses
from capillary blood to the alveolar air.

TRANSPORT OF GASES IN BLOOD :

Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen from the respiratory organ to the
different tissues, and carbon dioxide from tissue to the respiratory organ.
Transport of Oxygen :
 The solubility of O2 in water is rather low, but this shortcoming is overcome by
the fact that the O2 is bound to carrier substances in the blood. In human blood, the O 2
carrier respiratory pigment is haemoglobin which is a conjugated protein made up of
haem, a prosthetic group containing iron, and globin the protein portion. The maximum
amount of O2 which the normal human blood can absorb is 20 ml per 100 ml of blood.
When O2 passes from the lung alveoli into the lung capillaries, it diffuses into the blood
and unite with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Hb4 + 4O2 <===> Hb4O8 or Hb4 (O2)4 (oxyhaemoglobin)
Under the normal conditions the arterial blood which has been exposed to the
alveoli of the lungs is not quite completely oxygenated. With an O 2 tension of 100 mm of
Hg, it is usually 98% saturated and therefore, contains 19.6 ml of O 2 (combined to
haemoglobin) per 100 ml of blood. In addition to this there is about 0.2 to 0.3 ml of O 2
which is dissolved in the plasma. The arterial blood and the alveoli have the same O 2
pressure (100 mm of Hg). But the cells and the tissues of the body the O 2 tension is
considerably low (1 to 40 mm of Hg). The O 2 is accordingly liberated from the
oxyhaemoglobin and diffuses out from the blood through the thin capillary walls into the
cells. This is made possible by the important fact that the combination between O 2 and
haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin is a reversible one. The
liberation of O2 from the blood to the tissue is just as important as its rapid absorption by
the blood during its passage through the lungs.
Hb4 ----> 4Hb + 4O2
Oxyhaemoglobin Reduced haemoglobin
The reduced haemoglobin is further transported via blood to the lungs and the
cycle is repeated while the O2 that has diffused into the cells is utilized in the oxidation of
carbohydrates, resulting in the release of CO2 and energy.
Oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve
At high O2 pressure, the haemoglobin combines with O2 to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Each iron atom can bind one O2 molecule, and when all sites are occupied, the
haemoglobin cannot take on anymore, since it is fully loaded or saturated. At low O 2
pressure, O2 dissociate from its binding, and the haemoglobin will eventually give up all
its O2. At any given O2 concentration there is a definite proportion between the amount of
haemoglobin and oxyhaemoglobin. In this way the actual relationship between the partial
pressure of O2 and the degree of saturation of the haemoglobin with O 2 is shown by the
remarkable oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve.
Note : Increased CO2 concentration shifts the curve to the right.
·17 The curve shows that the haemoglobin is almost completely oxygenated
(saturated) with O2, at the O2 partial pressure of about 100 mm Hg.
·18 At higher O2 pressure, no more O2 is taken up by the haemoglobin.
·19 At lower O2 pressure, O2 is given off and at 30 mm Hg, O 2 pressure, half the
haemoglobin is present as oxyhaemoglobin.
·20 As the O2 pressure decreases further, more oxygen is given off, and all is given up
when the O2 pressure reaches zero.
Thus, the degree of haemoglobin saturation is lowered with the fall in the partial
pressure of O2. In the passage of blood through the tissue where the O 2 tension is low,
rapid dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin occurs, yielding a comparatively large quantity of
O2 to the surrounding tissues and cells where it is most needed.
lungs (PO2 = 100 mm Hg)
Hb + O2→ HbO2( Oxyhaemoglobin)
Tissues (PO2 = 30 to 40 mm Hg )
 HbO2→ Hb + O2
During Exercise : There is a fall in tissue PO2, an increase in PCO2 and an increase in pH,
local temperature and 2,3- diphosploglycerate concentration. All these factors promote
the release of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin (shifting the oxygen-haemoglobin
dissociation curve to the right) and thus increasing the efficiency of oxygen delivery to
the active tissues.
Factors Affecting Oxygen Dissociation Curve of haemoglobin
Following four factors influence the dissociation curve.
·21 H+ concentration
·22 Carbon dioxide tension
·23 Temperature
·24 Erythrocyte concentration of 2,3 diphosphoglycerate (DPG). Increase in these
factors bring right word shift of the curve thereby decreasing the affinity of
haemoglobin for oxygen.
TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbondioxide is evolved in the body as a result of various metabolic activities of
the cells & diffuses into blood. The total amount of CO 2 in the various blood is about 60
ml per 100 ml blood, and the arterial blood contains about 50 ml total CO 2 per 100 ml.
Thus, a relatively small amount of CO2 is given off in the lungs. Carbon dioxide that
diffuses into the blood is transported in the following three ways :
(i) Transport of CO2 in physical solution :
As CO2 enters the blood from the tissues, it combines with water of the plasma to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3). Thus, about 7% of CO2 is carried in solution in the plasma as
carbonic acid.
CO2+ H2O <===> H2CO3 <===> HCO-3 + H+
These ions then combine with the buffers of the blood.
(ii) Transport of CO2 as carbamino compounds :
About 20 to 25% of CO2 is transported as carbamino compounds. In the red blood cells it
combines directly. With the amino groups (–NH2) of the haemoglobin to form the So-
called carbaminohaemoglobin.
CO2 + Hb.NH2 <===> Hb.NH.COOH (carbaminohaemoglobin)
(iii) Transport of CO2 as bicarbonates :
The rest, or about 70% of the total CO 2 is carried in the form of bicarbonates in
both the plasma and red blood cells. As CO 2 enters the blood cells from the tissues, it
combine with water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), which dissociates to hydrogen ions
(H+) and bicarbonat ions (HCO–3). The latter diffuse into the plasma and with sodium or
potassium ions is the plasma form sodium or potassium bicarbonate.
Carbonic (Zn - containing enzyme)
<======================>
anhydrage
CO2+ H2O <====> H+ + HCO-3
Hydrogen Ion Bicarbonate ions
Na+ + HCO−3 <====> Na. HCO3 (sodium bicarbonate)
K+ + HCO-3 <====> KHCO3 (Potassium bicarbonate)
A small amount of bicarbonate ions is transported in the RBC. Whereas most of them
diffuse into the plasma to be carried by it. The majority of bicarbonate ions (HCO -3)
formed within the erythrocytes diffuse out into the plasma along a concentration gradient.
Hydrogen ions combine with haemoglobin to form the haemoglobinic acid (H.Hb)
Carbonic anlydrase
CO2+ H2O <============> H2CO3
H2CO3 <====> H+ + HCO-3
KHbO2 <====> KHb + O2
Haemoglobinic acid
H+ + HCO-3 + KHb <============> H.Hb + KHCO3
Regulation of Respiration :
The respiratory rhythm is controlled by the nervous system. The rate of
respiration can be enhanced as per demand of the body during strenuous physical
exercises. A number of groups of neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata
control bilaterally in the medulla oblongata control the respiration. These are called
respiratory centres. Three groups of respiratory centres have been identified namely :
dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group and pneumotaxic centre.
·25 The dorsal respiratory group is present in the dorsal portion of medulla oblongata.
The signals from these neurons generate the basic respiratory rhythm. The
nervous signals released from this group is transmitted to the diaphragm, which is
the primary inspiratory muscle.
·26 The ventral respiratory group of neurons are located anterolateral to the dorsal
 respiratory group. During normal respiration, this remains inactive and even does
not play any role in the basic respiratory drive, the respiratory signal of this group
contributes to fulfil the demand by regulating both inspiration and expiration.
·27 The pneumotaxic centre is located dorsally in the upper pons. It transmits signals
to the inspiratory area. Primarily, it controls the switch off point of inspiration.
When this signal is strong, the inspiration lasts only for 0.5 seconds or more,
resulting into complete filling of lungs. The strong signal causes increased rate of
breathing because inspiration, as well as expiration, is shortened.
The concentration of CO2 and H+ cause increased strength of inspiratory, as well as
expiratory signal. However, oxygen has no such direct effect.