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Euler’s teacher, Johann Bernoulli, defined it in terms very similar to Euler’s. But it
was Euler who introduced the modern notation f (x) for a function and used it for all kinds
of functions-explicit and implicit, continuous and discontinuous, and functions of several
independent variables. Euler also made free use of the expansion of functions in infinite
series and products - often with a carefree attitude that would not be tolerated today.
Complex-valued functions We call a function f : Ω → C, where Ω is a subset of C, a
complex-valued function. There are three functions associated with f :
f +f f −f
f (z) := f (z), Re(f ) = , Im(f ) = .
2 2i
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[Example] If a complex-valued function f has power series, f can be written as
∞
X
f (z) = aij z i z j .
i,j=0
z+z 2
2
z−z
∂∆ = z
+ − 1 = 0 = {z | zz − 1 = 0} = {z | |z| = 1}.
2 2i
[Example] We can use the definition to verify a limit by the same way in real analysis.
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Notice, by the definition, that a is not necessary in Ω.
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For example, let us prove:
lim (5z − 4) = 6.
z→2
Proof: For any ǫ > 0, we want to find a number δ > 0 such that whenever 0 < |z − 2| < δ,
we should have
|(5z − 4) − 6| < ǫ. (35)
Since |(5z − 4) − 6)| = |5z − 10| = 5|z − 2| ≤ 5δ, we can take δ so that 5δ < ǫ, i.e., we can
take δ := 5ǫ , such that (35) is true.
f is called bounded on Ω if ∃M > 0 such that
|f (z)| ≤ M, ∀z ∈ Ω.
which implies
|f (z)| ≤ 1 + |f (a)|, ∀z ∈ ∆(a, δa ).
=⇒ We have an open covering {∆(a, δa )}a∈A of A.
∵ A is compact,
∴ ∃ a finite subcovering of A, say,
=⇒ ∀z ∈ A,
|f (z)| ≤ max1≤j≤n 1 + |f (aj )| .
In fact, ∀z ∈ A =⇒ z ∈ ∆(aj , δj ) for some j so that |f (z)| ≤ 1 + |f (aj )|. This proves the
boundedness.
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Since we cannot compare big or less for complex numbers, we cannot talk about the “maximum” for
the complex-valued f (z) but it makes sense for the real-valued function |f (z)|.
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Since |f | can attain its maximum value on each disk ∆(aj , δj ), |f | can attain its maximum
value on A.
(ii) The proof is similar to the proof of Theorem 5.1.
Sequences of Complex Valued Functions Let A ⊂ C and {fn (z)}∞ n=1 be a sequence of
complex-valued functions defined on a set A ⊂ C. We say that {fn } is convergent if ∀z ∈ A,
limn→∞ fn (z) exists. In this case, we denote f (z) = limn→∞ fn (z), or f = lim fn , or fn → f .
We say that {fn } uniformaly converges to a function f (z) on A if ∀ǫ > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N such that
|fn (z) − f (z)| < ǫ, ∀n ≥ n0 , ∀z ∈ A.
unif
In this case, we denote fn −−→ f on A.
unif
Theorem 9.2 (i) (Cauchy criterion) fn −−→ f on A if and only if ∀ǫ > 0, ∃n0 ∈ N such
that
|fm (z) − fn (z)| < ǫ, ∀m, n ≥ n0 , ∀z ∈ A.
unif
(ii) If fn are continuous and fn −−→ f on A, then f is continuous on A.
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Take ǫ := 1, for any 0 < δ < 1, we take x = 2δ , y = δ. Then |x − y| = δ
2
< δ, but
2 1 1
|f (x) − f (y)| = − = > ǫ.
δ δ δ
Therefore, the function is not uniformly continuous on (0, 1).
Ascoli-Arzela Theorem It is known (see Theorem 9.1) that any bounded sequence of
real (or complex) numbers has a convergent subsequence. In the theory of functions, one
may ask a similar question: For a sequence of bounded continuous functions, is there any
uniformly convergent subsequence (so that its limit function is also continuous) ?
This is not true in general (see the example in (36)). However, by adding appropriate
conditions, this can be true.
We skip its proof of the Ascoli-Arzela theorem which is standard in real analysis.
Notice the set A in Ascoli-Arzela theorem is required to be compact (e.g. [a, b] × [c, d]).
If A is an open set, we still can have similar result but we hvae to modify the condition (the
proof is a simple consequence of the Ascoli-Arzela theorem).
Let D ⊂ C be an open subset, and {fn } defined on D. We say that {fn } converges
uniformly on compact subsets on D if for any compact subset A ⊂⊂ D, the restriction {fn }
converges uniformly.
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countable or uncountable
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Theorem 9.4 (i) If fn are continuous on an open subset D ⊂ C, and {fn }∞ n=1 converges
uniformly on compact subsets of D, then f := limn fn is continous on D.
(ii) {fn }∞
n=1 converges uniformly on compact subsets of D if and only if ∀a ∈ D, ∃r > 0
such that {fn }∞
n=1 converges uniformly on ∆(a; r) ⊂ D.
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