Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Note: This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of

the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education. This article has
not been copy edited and appears in its accepted form
following original submission and subsequent peer review.

©2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Running Head: TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD CULTURAL PLURALISM

Luis Columna

State University of New York at Cortland - Physical Education

Park Center, Room E-227 P.O. Box 2000, Cortland, New York 13045

United States

John T. Foley

State University of New York at Cortland - Physical Education

Cortland, New York

United States

Rebecca K. Lytle

California State University, Chico - Kinesiology

Chico, California

United States
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Physical Education Teachers’ and Teacher Candidates' Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to analyze both male and female physical education teacher

attitudes toward cultural pluralism and diversity. Participants (N = 433) were adapted physical

education specialists, physical education generalists, and teacher candidates. The research

method was a descriptive cross-sectional survey (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990). Data were collected

using a modified version of the Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment survey (Stanley,

1992). Mann-Whitney U tests showed no significant differences in attitude scores between

teachers and teacher candidates. However, women's attitude scores were significantly higher than

men’s. Further Friedman’s ANOVA test showed statistical differences on the survey's constructs

for gender and professional status. Post hoc analysis indicated that the groups scored

significantly higher on the construct, Value Cultural Pluralism than Implement Cultural

Pluralism. This means teachers generally valued cultural diversity, but struggled to implement

culturally responsive pedagogy. In conclusion, physical educators may need better preparation to

ensure cultural competence.

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

The culture of the United States (US) is constantly changing. As people immigrate from

many countries they bring with them aspects of their own culture, values, and language. It is

expected that the U.S. population will continue to rise and (Table 1) become increasingly

racially and ethnically diverse (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). Today, ethnic minority groups are

about one-third of the U.S. population and it is estimated that they will make up 54% of the

total population by the year 2050 (Reference). In addition, students of colors, are expected

to make up 46% of the nation’s population by the year 2020 (Culp, Chepyator-Thomson, & Hsu,

2009; Stanley, 1995). The projected population of Hispanics alone will reach 98 million by the

year 2050. Hispanic residents’ numbers are increasing across the US, especially in the states

of Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas (Table 2). This increase will represent

about one-fourth of the total U.S. population and more than three times the current number (U.S.

Census, 2009).

By 2023, more than half of the nation's children will be ethnic minorities. National data

also reveal that students in K-12 grades, identified as having limited English proficiency, have

increased by 650,000 over the past three years and recent data put the total number at about 5

million (U.S. Department of Education, 2008). The National Center for Educational Statistics

Report (NCES) pointed out that,

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

In 2005, Black, Hispanic, and American Indian/Alaska Native students were more likely

to be eligible for the free and reduced price lunch program than were their White and

Asian/Pacific Islander peers. Black and Hispanic students were also the most likely to

attend high-poverty schools (as gauged by program eligibility), while Asian/Pacific

Islander students were the most likely to attend low-poverty schools (KewalRamani,

Gilbertson, Fox, & Provasnik, 2007, p. iv).

Diversity is broadly understood to mean much more than a person's race, ethnicity, or

skin color, incorporating such attributes such as age, gender, ability/disability, culture,

country of origin, native language, religion, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation

(Cunningham, 2007; DeSensi, 1995). In specific terms, diversity refers to the presence of

differences among members of a social unit that lead to perception of such differences and that

impact outcomes (Cunningham, 2007, p. 6). In a physical education class this means

differences among students and perceptions of such differences that can impact learning

outcomes. The focus of this paper was cultural pluralism and diversity with particular attention

given to ethnicity. Coakley (2008) defines culture as “the ways of life people create in a

particular group or society” (p. 5) and ethnicity as, "the cultural heritage of a particular group of

people" (p. 284). Ethnicity includes cultural traditions and languages, family ancestry, and the

historical background and practices of people (e.g., African American, Asian American, Italian

American, and Mexican American).

In our nation's schools, there are increasing enrollments of under-represented ethnic

students, in particular students of color such as African American/Black and Hispanic (Table 1).

This creates a critical need to better understand diverse populations (DeSensi, 1995; Gay &

Howard, 2000). Despite the increase of ethnic minority students, most teachers in the public
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

school system are White Americans (U.S. Department of Education, 2009). If aggressive

recruitment of ethnic minority teachers and professionals in higher education is not pursued, the

task of educating students of color will be mainly in the hands of White teachers, leaving few

role models for such students (Burden, Hodge, O'Bryant, & Harrison, 2004). In addition to

recruiting teachers of color, it is imperative that teacher preparation programs continue to

integrate a multicultural approach into their professional preparation of teachers. All teachers

need to possess the skills to respect, consistently demonstrate, and value what individuals from

different cultures bring to the educational system – this is defined as “cultural competence”

(Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989; Thompson-Robinson, et al., 2006).

Culturally responsive pedagogy is the ability to accept others’ beliefs and values (Cagle,

2006) and integrate appropriate practices into educational settings. Teachers who implement this

pedagogy use the “cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of references, and performance

styles” of culturally, ethnically, linguistically, and economically diverse students “to make

learning encounters more relevant to and effective for them” (Gay, 2000, p. 29). In contrast to a

culturally responsive pedagogical approach, physical education teachers (i.e., certified teachers at

schools) and teacher candidates often focus their instruction on what they feel comfortable with

and ignore the different preferences of physical activity from varying ethnic and culturally

diverse groups (Burden, et al., 2004). That is, they will typically teach sports-oriented activities

from their personal histories and those activities most commonly played in the US. The lack of

exposure to diversity in teachers’ personal histories can create significant challenges when these

same teachers are faced with cultures different from their own, in their new teaching positions

(Gay & Howard, 2000; Irwin, 1999). If teacher candidates are not exposed to diversity training

early in their teacher preparation programs, they may maintain or develop stereotypes about
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

students they view as different (Irwin, 1999) . For this reason, educators have called for infusing

multiculturalism content with an emphasis on implementing culturally response pedagogies into

the curriculums of physical education teacher education (PETE) programs (Burden, et al., 2004;

Hodge, 2008).

Multiculturalism is an approach that proposes that group differences should not only be

acknowledge and considered, but also celebrated (Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004). When

multicultural concepts are applied to school settings it is known as multicultural education.

Multicultural education is defined as a way of teaching that describes an educational experience

and system inclusive of a variety of participating cultures (Birkel, 2000; Chepyator-Thompson,

You, & Russell, 2000; Payne & Welsh, 2000) . It encompasses cultural pluralism as well as

cultural diversity. The lives of all students and their diverse backgrounds are impacted by their

physical education experiences. Therefore, the professionals who serve diverse populations must

possess the skills to modify the curriculum to better meet the needs of their students. For this to

be accomplished, teachers need to understand and value diversity.

One way to prepare teachers to be responsive to diversity through multicultural

education approach is inculcating in them cultural competency. Cultural competence is

described as a set of congruent behaviors and attitudes, that come together in a system, agency,

or among professionals that enable them to work effectively in cross–cultural situations (Cross,

et al., 1989; Ford, 2003). Culturally competent teachers recognize the importance of the

integration of a multicultural approach to curriculum and instruction in what and how

they implement their curriculum. In addition, they model cultural competence through

their interactions and behaviors, demonstrating respect for each individual and valuing

social justice. Culturally competent teachers become aware of their own biases and values
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

regarding diversity. This valuing of diversity requires more than just tolerance: it requires

reverence and appreciation for differences (DeSensi, 1995). By integrating a multicultural

approach into education, educators send the message that students from diverse cultures

are important and welcome members of the educational community. For this reason,

teacher education programs must prepare teacher candidates to work effectively with

students from diverse backgrounds using such curricular approaches as inclusive and

culturally responsive pedagogies (Torrey & Ashy, 1997).

At present there is a lack of research on the attitudes of physical education professionals;

that is, adapted physical education (APE) specialists, physical education (PE) generalists (Sparks

& Verner, 1995), and physical education teacher candidates (specialists and generalists) toward

multiculturalism (Stanley, 1995, 1997). To that void, the purpose of this study was to analyze

physical education teachers' and teacher candidates' attitudes toward cultural pluralism and

diversity.

Teacher Education Programs

Physical education teacher candidates often experience frustration when trying to identify

ways to communicate and meet the needs of students with different cultures, ethnicities,

languages, and socioeconomic status (Burden, et al., 2004; Columna, Senne, & Lytle, 2009;

Stanley, 1995). The National Council for Accreditation for Teacher Education (NCATE) has

identified six standards for best practice in teacher preparation programs. These NCATE

standards identify the knowledge, skills, and professional dispositions expected of educational

professionals. NCATE Standard 4 states the following:

Diversity, expects that the unit designs, implements, and evaluates curriculum and

experiences for candidates to acquire and apply knowledge, skills, and dispositions
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

necessary to help all students learn. It includes the expectation that candidates have the

opportunity to interact with candidates, faculty, and P-12 students from diverse groups

(NCATE, 2009).

The NCATE Standards demand that teacher preparation programs address the importance

of including all students. Despite NCATE recommendations for teacher training programs to

provide opportunities for teacher candidates to interact with diverse peers, faculty, and students,

many universities are challenged to meet this mandate (Burden, et al., 2004; Gay & Howard,

2000). Some of the challenges in meeting the NCATE standard on diversity include; a lack of

teacher candidates preparation in implementing culturally responsive pedagogy; a lack of early

field experiences in culturally diverse settings; budgetary concerns coupled with a lack of

administrative support for materials and in-service to increase faculty knowledge, skills, and

competence; and a lack of awareness on the part of teacher educators on how to infuse cultural

competence into coursework (Banks, 1987). Consequently, many teacher candidates learn to

work primarily with White-middle class students (Burden, et al., 2004; Irwin, 1999); in-turn,

perpetuating an uninformed point of view. Furthermore, practicing teachers, particularly in

urban schools, often do not share the same economic or residential history as the students they

teach (Gay & Howard, 2000). For these reasons, it is imperative that teacher candidates are

prepared to provide culturally responsive pedagogies. Teachers educating America's youth for

the new millennium must possess values that appreciate all students and are characterized by

culturally-pluralistic knowledge, preparation, and commitment.

Both teachers and teacher candidates need to develop positive attitudes and pedagogies

that allow them to create encouraging environments in which every student feels included. In

order to create a positive environment, teachers need to be aware of their own culture, as well as
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

have a desire to interact and communicate effectively with students of various cultures. In

addition, they need to understand how cultural background affects beliefs and behaviors (Sparks

& Butt, 1996; Stanley, 1995, 1997; Torrey & Ashy, 1997).

Stanley (1997) examined physical education teacher candidates’ attitudes toward cultural

diversity and pluralism strategies to include students from diverse cultures into their programs.

Stanley found that even though teacher candidates value diversity, they encountered difficulties

with the implementation of strategies to meet the needs of diverse learners. On the other hand,

Sparks and Verner (1995) asserted that professionals in higher education are constantly trying to

identify ways in which they can better prepare their students to work with diverse populations.

They compared the effect of four multicultural education courses on the personal knowledge,

attitudes, and experiences among physical education teacher candidates. The four courses were:

(a) a discipline-specific classroom course only for PE majors, (b) an integrated classroom course

taken by all majors, (c) a discipline-specific field experience in K-12 public schools, and (d) an

integrated field experience conducted in an urban setting (course taken by any major). Sparks

and Verner found that students who were enrolled in the discipline-specific classroom with no

interaction with individuals from diverse cultures were the least tolerant to multicultural issues.

On the contrary, those students that were in the field experience group identified more positive

attitudes. These findings support the notion of including a multicultural emphasis and field

experience within physical education professional training in order to better prepare teachers to

support the individual differences of all students (Sparks & Verner, 1995).

Research on the knowledge, attitudes, and experiences toward multiculturalism of

teachers’ attitudes has been conducted in the field of physical education. Sparks and Butt (1996)

surveyed physical education teachers (n = 348) and found that teachers had high knowledge and
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

positive attitudes toward multicultural education. However, most of the teachers lacked

multicultural experiences with families of different backgrounds and in different school

environments. The results also demonstrated that level of education and years of experience may

influence teachers’ attitudes toward multiculturalism. Consequently, these teachers may have not

only a better attitude toward students from different cultures, but they may have a wider

repertoire of activities they can use to integrate students from diverse backgrounds into their

programs.

Tabb and Joonkoo (2005) analyzed the attitudes and knowledge of physical education

teachers (n = 91) about including Mexican American students in their classes. The results

indicated that teachers have positive attitudes and moderate knowledge levels about traditional

Mexican culture. The authors concluded that those teachers who spoke Spanish or those with

more years of experience demonstrated more positive attitudes toward working with Mexican

American students. On the other hand, those teachers who lacked the ability to communicate in

their students’ native language faced barriers to integrating them into their classes. It is important

to note that it may be difficult for teachers to communicate with students and their families who

come from different cultural backgrounds or speak different languages. To address such

challenges, it is recommended that teachers acquire the necessary skills so they can modify their

curriculum such that all students feel valued (Columna, et al., 2009). Implementing culturally

responsive pedagogy is such an approach. Physical educators who implement culturally

responsive pedagogies empower students by helping them to develop intellectually, socially,

emotionally, and politically using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes

(Hodge, 2010).
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

For years, scholars have advocated for PETE programs to better prepare culturally

competent teachers (Burden, et al., 2004; S. R. Hodge, 2010; Timken, 2005; Torrey & Ashy,

1997). Still today, more research is needed with physical education teachers (generalists and

specialists) and teacher candidates to examine their appreciation and value of cultural pluralism;

their preparedness to implement cultural pluralistic pedagogies (e.g., inclusive and culturally

responsive pedagogies); and their comfort level with cultural diversity. Simply stated with the

increasingly larger and more diverse population of students in physical education programs,

determining, analyzing, and theorizing on the attitudes of physical education teachers and teacher

candidates is critical to the preparation of future teachers and the professional development of

current teachers. This study sought to analyzed physical education teachers' and teacher

candidates' attitudes toward cultural pluralism and diversity.

Conceptual Framework

This study is situated in the framework of multicultural education which establishes that

teachers should have an understanding of the individual needs of each student, and develop

positive attitudes toward diversity. Accordingly, these positive attitudes can be reflected in their

classrooms (Stanley, 1995). Furthermore, Chepyator-Thomson (1994) pointed out that when a

multicultural education focus is implemented in schools, teachers first need to be aware of their

own values in order to have an understanding of, and appreciation for to diverse cultures. This

personal understanding assists educators in implementing culturally responsive pedagogy

practices. Chepyator-Thomson (1994) summarizes the multicultural education framework by

saying:

Integration of multicultural concepts within a physical education program is more than an

introduction of different cultural games; it is the acquisition of informed social attitudes

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

through the creation of a knowledge base that conveys the desirability and value of

diversity. For multicultural instructions units that foster well-informed, non-prejudicial

attitudes to be developed and promoted in teaching practices, teachers at all levels must

gain an understanding and appreciation of diversity (p. 32).

The need for further examination of teachers’ attitudes and ideas regarding culturally

responsive pedagogy led to the following research questions:

1. Do physical education teachers (specialists/generalists) appreciate cultural pluralism?

2. Do physical education teacher candidates appreciate cultural pluralism?

3. Do physical education teachers (specialists/generalists) value cultural pluralism?

4. Do physical education teacher candidates value cultural pluralism?

5. How comfortable are physical education teachers (specialists/generalists) with cultural

diversity?

6. How comfortable are physical education teacher candidates with cultural diversity?

7. Are physical education teachers (specialists/generalists) willing to implement cultural

pluralism into their classes?

8. Are physical education teacher candidates willing to implement cultural pluralism into

their classes?

Method

Research Design

The research method was a descriptive cross sectional survey (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).

This methodology allowed the researchers to access a large sampling of physical education

teachers (specialists and generalists) and teacher candidates attending conferences and/or
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

matriculating through physical education teacher education programs. Prior to the selection of

participants, permission was obtained from the lead author’s university institutional review board.

Participants

A convenience sample (N = 433) of, teacher candidates (males = 90, females =74), and

in-service teachers (males = 132, females = 137) that consisted of adapted physical education

specialists (n = 30), physical education generalists (n = 172), those who report dual roles as both

(n = 23), and those who did not report their teaching assignment (n = 44). Over 90 percent of the

participants in this study who completed the survey were from California and New York. The

remaining participants were form Alaska, Maryland, Texas, and Washington.

Measures

A modification of the Pluralism and Diversity Attitude Assessment (PADAA) survey

originally developed by Stanley (1996) was used for data collection. The statements were

modified to reflect attitudes of the roles of APE and general PE teachers, as well as physical

education teacher candidates. This instrument has been previously modified to assess attitudes of

teacher candidates in physical education (Stanley, 1997) and for other fields, such as Family and

Consumer Science (Adams, Sewell, & Hall, 2004). The questionnaire consisted of 19 items

representing four subscales: (a) Appreciate Cultural Pluralism, (b) Value Cultural Pluralism, (c)

Implement Cultural Pluralism, and (d) Uncomfortable with Cultural Diversity. Participants were

asked to respond to each statement on a 6-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (strongly

disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Stanley (1996) computed reliability indices by conducting tests of internal consistency

and test-retest analysis. The instrument had an alpha reliability coeficient of .91. The test-retest

reliability coeficient was .84. For this current study, the authors conducted a test-retest
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

reliability procedure for the instrument and the resulting coeficients for the subscales ranged

from .56 to .78 with an overall reliability coeficient of .69. In addition to checking for the

reliability of the instrument, the validity of the instrument was verified. First, content validity

was verified by a panel of experts consisting of higher education professionals and adapted and

general physical education teachers. To check for construct validity a principal component

analysis with four factor solution was employed. A review of the scree plot indicates a four

factor solution, this is also supported by choosing a solution with Eigen values of one or above

(Field, 2005). These results are consistent with Stanley (1996) who also found a four factor

solution.

Sampling and data collection

For recruitment purposes, the lead investigators spoke directly with potential study

participants. Specifically, the lead researchers distributed surveys to teachers at state conferences

and regional universities in the states of California, Maryland, New York, and Texas. Surveys

were collected from teacher candidates via contact with university coordinators of APE and

PETE programs. Faculty invited students to fill out the survey at the end of one of the teacher

preparation classes. They were informed that their participation was completely voluntary and

that their surveys were anonymous. This process was completed during two subsequent

semesters. The same classes in the PETE and APE programs were used each semester so as not

to obtain duplicate surveys from a single student. Surveys were then mailed to the primary

researcher.

In all, there were 464 returned surveys. Because some surveys had incomplete responses to

various items, a decision was made to eliminate 31 of these surveys from data analysis. This

resulted in a total of 433 usable surveys from practicing physical education (generalists and
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

specialists combined) teachers (n = 164) and teacher candidates (n = 269). Participants were

assured that their participation in this study was completely voluntary. They were not obligated to

complete the questionnaire immediately on-site, but rather they could send their survey by U.S.

postal mail to the lead researcher. The surveys were number coded for data analysis purposes.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS version 16.02 for Windows (Field, 2005). The

instruments’ 19 questions represent four subscales. Three of the PADAA subscales: Appreciate

Cultural Pluralism, (b) Value Cultural Pluralism, and (c) Implement Cultural Pluralism each

had a maximum value of 30, the fourth subscale: Uncomfortable with Cultural Diversity had a

maximum value of 24. In order to make all four PADAA subscales of the same value, scores on

the subscale, Uncomfortable with Cultural Diversity were multiplied by 1.25 to make it

comparable to the other three subscales. The initial screening of the four-subscales revealed the

data were asymmetrical, for this reason non-parametric analyses were used. Binary variables

were created for the two comparison groups of interest. Gender was coded as a 0 or 1 for the

female and male respectively. Teaching status was coded 0 for teacher candidates and 1 for

practicing teachers. Practicing teachers self designated their status as general (n = 169) or

adapted physical educators (n = 59). Analysis revealed no significant differences between the

two groups on the four constructs; therefore, the groups were collapsed into practicing teachers.

To determine if there was a significant difference between each of the grouping variables,

gender and career status (in-service teacher and teacher candidate), a series of Mann-Whitney

Tests were employed. To adjust for multiple analysis the alpha level was set at p = .01. Effect

sizes were calculated using the Z score over the root of the observations, (Field, 2005).

To determine if there was a significant difference within each of the subgroups on the subscales,
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

a series of Friedman’s ANOVA were employed, followed by post hoc analyses using a Wilcox

signed-rank test with an alpha level set at p = .01 to adjust for multiple analysis.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences between practicing teachers and teacher

candidates’ scores on the four-subscales (Appreciate, Value, or Implement Cultural Pluralism,

and Uncomfortable with Cultural Diversity); however, on all 4-subscales there were significant

differences by gender. On average, females (M = 28.06) had higher value subscale scores than

males (M = 27.22), U = 17950.5, p < .001, r = -.15. Also females (M = 28.66) had higher

subscale scores on appreciation than males (M = 28.28), U = 18979.5, p < .001, r = -.12. On the

comfort subscale, females (M = 26.67) were more comfortable with students from culturally

diverse backgrounds than males (M = 25.51), U = 18425, p < .001, r = -.13. Additionally,

females (M = 25.45) expressed less difficulty in implementation than males (M = 24.39), U =

18948, p < .001, r = -.12 (Table 3).

A within group analysis was conducted to examine if differences existed between

subscales (Table 4). The analysis by gender showed that females had a significantly different

response to the 4-subscales X2 (3) = 298.3, p < .001, this was also true for males X2 (3) = 331.2, p

< .001. Post hoc analysis revealed statistically significant differences between each subscale for

both females and males. The within group analysis for teacher candidates revealed significantly

different responses to each of the four subscales X2 (3) = 415.2, p < .001, this pattern was also

seen in scores for practicing teachers X2 (3) = 216, p < .001 (Table 4).

The purpose of this study was to analyze physical education (generalists and specialists)

teachers' and teacher candidates' attitudes toward cultural pluralism and diversity. Based on the

values presented in Figure 2, the study's results indicate that teachers, and teacher candidates
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

highly value diversity but males (practicing teachers and teacher candidates) seem to struggle in

finding ways to implement strategies to integrate students from culturally diverse backgrounds.

Discussion

Practicing physical education teachers’ and teacher candidates' attitudes on issues of

diversity have been studied in physical education for over 15 years (Chepyator-Thompson, et al.,

2000; Irwin, 1999; Sparks & Butt, 1996; Stanley, 1997; Tabb & Joonkoo, 2005). The results of

the current study support the findings of previous research in that practicing physical education

teacher and teacher candidates tend to value cultural diversity.

According to Cagle (2006), to become culturally competent, teachers need to understand

personal values, demonstrate knowledge and understanding of other’s culture, accept and respect

another’s diversity, and then consciously provide appropriate inclusive interventions. In order to

create inclusive interventions teacher candidates and in-service teachers need to engage in a

process in which they reflect on their personal assumptions toward diverse learners and

recognize the individual differences of their students (Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Sparks & Butt,

1996; Stanley, 1995). Teachers must put aside their own bias and recognize where they stand in

terms of multicultural concepts in order to better serve diverse populations. Once personal values

and beliefs are recognized, teachers can then understand the unique and diverse backgrounds of

their students. This process assists teachers in knowing more about themselves, their

personal relationships, and allows them to eliminate their prejudice. It seems that

participants in this study were aware of their own bias and valued diversity, but may not have

felt skilled in the intervention process. The following discussion presents the findings related to

gender differences and teacher comfort level with implementing culturally responsive pedagogy.
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

While there were no significant differences between teacher candidates and in-service

teachers, there was a significant difference between genders. The results of this study illustrate

that gender has an impact on teacher candidates and in-service teachers’ attitudes toward

diversity. Even though the participating teacher candidates attended the same APE or PETE

programs, the women held more positive attitudes and had a higher level of comfort when

interacting with students of diverse backgrounds than their male counterparts. This was also true

for in-service teachers. Chepyator-Thompson et al. (2000) reported similar findings among

in-service teachers. A possible explanation for this finding may be based on the fact that

females in the US historically have faced oppression from a male dominated society, particularly

in the area of education. Females continue to receive less attention, encouragement, and praise

than male students and teachers are often promoting sexism by giving differential feedback and

expectations (Sue & Sue, 2003). Hence, females may be more empathetic to the discrimination

of diverse groups. However, while both males and females felt that diversity was important and

should be valued in the classroom, both groups were not comfortable with what and how to

implement culturally responsive pedagogy methods.

Diverse populations in the US continue to grow, yet most physical education teachers are

White, middle-class women (Burden, et al., 2004; Torrey & Ashy, 1997). The extant literature

highlights factors that may be seen as barriers by physical education teachers (Chepyator-

Thompson, et al., 2000; Irwin, 1999; Sparks & Butt, 1996; Sparks & Verner, 1995; Tabb &

Joonkoo, 2005) and teacher candidates (Stanley, 1997) when trying to effectively teach children

from different cultures. Sparks and Butt (1996) asserted that physical education teachers often

struggle to integrate what they learn about diversity within PETE programs into their actual daily
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

practice. Further Sparks and Butt assert that this may be due to the fact that most teachers have

had limited exposure to diverse groups of students.

As the findings would indicate, physical education teachers as well as teacher candidates

feel that they are not capable of providing appropriate inclusive and culturally responsive

environments to accommodate diverse populations. PETE programs (including APE programs)

have the responsibility of not only providing content knowledge to their majors, but also

providing them with real-life experiences whereby they are exposed to diverse cultures (Burden,

et al., 2004; Irwin, 1999; Kyles & Olafson, 2008; Sparks & Verner, 1995). By the time

teacher candidates obtain their teaching certificates and land their first job, they may not have

developed all the necessary skills to meet the needs of learners from many different cultures, but

they will more likely feel more comfortable if they have had previous experiences with diverse

populations. Especially, with students who speak a language other than English.

Most practicing teachers and teacher candidates lack proficiency in speaking a second

language. Teachers may have knowledge of a particular culture (e.g., common traditions, music

preferences), but meeting the needs of students who speak a language different than their own

may be a challenge (Tabb & Joonkoo, 2005).

Teacher education programs need to provide future teachers the essential skills to work

with diverse groups (Cagle, 2006; Kyles & Olafson, 2008). This can be accomplished by

integrating multicultural education into PETE programs. Multicultural education is not a new

approach in educational settings. It involves the process of promoting an understanding and

appreciation of the cultural differences within a society that is pluralistic (Banks, 1993).

Professionals in the field of higher education are constantly finding ways to better prepare future

professionals to work with diverse learners (Irwin, 1999; Torrey & Ashy, 1997). Physical
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

education teacher training on multicultural content needs to be targeted specifically to situations

that general and adapted physical education teachers may encounter while working with diverse

students in their gyms. Practicing teachers and teacher candidates need to be able to transform

knowledge into practice (Sparks & Butt, 1996). For example, when teaching in a school where

the student body is predominantly Hispanic, teachers should be able to integrate as part of their

lesson Spanish/words and phrases within their classes. Moreover, when sending documents to

the parent(s), if the parent(s) is/are native Spanish speaker(s), teachers need to find ways (e.g., a

translator within the school district) to send these documents in their native language (Columna,

et al., 2009).

Overall, participants in the current study demonstrated positive attitudes toward

diversity; however, they were apprehensive when trying to implement culturally responsive

pedagogy practices into their programs. Similar findings were reported by Stanley (1995), and

Sparks and Butt (1996). The findings of the current study are alarming in that almost 15 years

after Stanley and Sparks and Butt first published their work on this topic, education

professionals are still challenged by the same issues. While some progress has been made in

requiring coursework related to culturally diversity in teacher training programs, this content is

not always infused in PETE curriculum but rather a separate course lacking specific

examples and ideas for the physical education teacher. Research findings show that

teachers are still struggling to find ways to implement culturally responsive pedagogy into their

physical education classes to meet the needs of diverse learners.

Conclusions, Recommendations, and Future Research

Total integration is not an easy task. Teachers first need to acknowledge diversity and

their own role as change agents toward social justice, before they can later demonstrate value
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

towards diversity (DeSensi, 1995). DeSensi explained that teachers face different stages from

denial of, defense against, and minimization of difference, to finally acceptance of differences in

their behavior and values.

There is a need to continue the infusion of diversity content into PETE programs

(Burden, et al., 2004). In addition to providing content knowledge, students need to be exposed

to diverse populations. This will better prepare future teachers to work with diverse groups. This

can be accomplished by providing a variety of field based experiences to students in which they

have the opportunity to work with diverse groups beyond students with disabilities. Torey and

Ashy (1997) asserted that to be effective in this diverse society physical education teachers need

to focus on five dimensions: attitudes, learning, climate, curriculum, and family involvement.

Infusing diversity content into the curriculum seems not to be enough. PETE programs need to

provide students with the content and skills necessary to create positive environments and

promote family involvement for those of diverse backgrounds. Additionally, APE and PETE

programs need to prepare future teachers to embrace an open-door policy in which families of

diverse students feel welcomed. Teachers need to be sensitive to diversity and develop effective

communication skills that enable intercultural communication (Columna, et al., 2009). By

demonstrating sensitivity to multicultural issues, teachers may serve as models for their students

in accepting, respecting, and celebrating diversity (Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004).

Future research is needed to identify what appropriate inclusion of diverse populations

looks like, followed with research on strategies for increasing competence in the implementation

of culturally-responsive pedagogy. Finally, it is interesting to note that females demonstrated a

more positive attitude toward diversity, similar to previous research which illustrated that

females typically were more supportive of including students with disabilities (Block & Rizzo,
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

1995; Rizzo & Wright, 1988). However, another research study conducted by Hodge and

Jansma (1999) related to including students with disabilities, found no gender differences

were the variable “experience” was held constant using ANCOVA procedures. Perhaps

further research may examine the attitudinal or behavioral differences between men and women

in physical education settings that lead to variations in attitudes toward acceptance of

minorities and people with disabilities.

Acknowledgement

Special thanks to Dr. Lynn Couturier from the Physical Education Department at the State University of

New York at Cortland and Dr. Samuel R. Hodge, The Ohio State University for their assistance in this

article.
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

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 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Table 1

Students by Race/Ethnicity in the US in the School Years 2004-2007

Race/Ethnicity 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 Percent

change from
2004-05 to
2006-07

American 581,481 594,663 589, 783 1.43

Indian/Alaska Native

Asian/Pacific 2,144,741 2,241,809 2,282,149 6.41

Islander

Hispanic 9,148,380 9,641,407 9,950,245 8.77

Black non-Hispanic 8,299,776 8,376,855 8,288,264 -.14

White non-Hispanic 27,785,147 27,755,884 27,394,435 -1.41

From: U.S. Department of Education, Center of Statistics

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Table 2

Top Five States with the Highest Percentage of Hispanic Residents

State Percentage

Arizona 28.5%

California 35.2%

Nevada 23.5%

New Mexico 43.4%

Texas 35.1%

Modified from: Columna, Senne, and Lytle (2009).

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

Figure 1. Mean subscale scores for each group.

 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

1 Table 3

2 Central Tendencies of Subscale Scores by Groups.

Implement Appreciate Comfort Value

Group Mean (SE) Median Mean (SE) Median Mean (SE) Median Mean (SE) Median

Female (N=211) 25.45 (.21) 25.00 28.66 (.17) 29.00 26.67 (.20) 27.50 28.06 (.16) 28.00

Male (N=222) 24.39 (.21) 24.50 28.28 (.13) 29.00 25.51 (.22) 26.25 27.22 (.16) 27.00

Teacher (N=269) 24.84 (.18) 25.00 28.49 (.13) 29.00 26.24 (.18) 26.25 27.78 (.13) 28.00

Teacher Candidate (N = 164) 25.03 (.26) 25.00 28.43 (.18) 29.00 25.80 (.27) 26.25 27.39 (.22) 28.00

3
4 Note: Scale Scoring Ranges 5 to 30
5
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism

1
2 Table 4

3 Post-hoc Comparisons of Within Group Subscale Scores.

Female Male Candidate Teacher

Variable Comparison T r T r T r T r

Value -Implement 535.0* -.54 787.5* -.53 551.5* -.50 782.0* -.55

Appreciate - Implement 872.5* -.52 385.5* -.57 515.5* -.52 766.5* -.56

Comfort - Implement 4873.5* -.28 6638.5* -.23 3846.0+ -.19 7956.0* -.29

Appreciate - Value 2049.5* -.25 2636.5* -.33 1623.5* -.30 3151.0* -.29

Appreciate - Comfort 1303.0* -.46 896.5* -.52 796.5* -.48 1460.5* -.50

Comfort - value 2556.5* -.38 3314.0* -.37 1981.5* -.36 4080.0* -.38

4 +p = .001, *p< .001

9
 Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Cultural Pluralism 32

1 Figure 2. Subscales values based on Adam et al., 2008 interpretation for PADAA subscales.

Score
Subscale Values
Appreciate Cultural Pluralism
Strongly appreciates the ideals of cultural pluralism 25-30
Moderately appreciates the ideals of cultural pluralism 20-24
Not very appreciative of the ideals of cultural pluralism 10-19
Does not appreciate the ideals of cultural pluralism 5-9
Value Cultural Pluralism
Strongly values the ideals of cultural pluralism 25-30
Moderately values the ideals of cultural pluralism 20-24
Does not value the ideals of cultural pluralism very much 10-19
Does not value the ideals of cultural pluralism 5-9
Implement Cultural Pluralism
Would implement the ideals of cultural pluralism 25-30
Might implement the ideals of cultural pluralism 20-24
Would not likely implement the ideals of cultural pluralism 10-19
Would not implement the ideals of cultural pluralism 5-9
Uncomfortable with Cultural Diversity *
Very uncomfortable with diversity 25-30
Moderately uncomfortable with diversity 17-24
Not very uncomfortable with diversity 11-16
Comfortable with diversity 5-10
*Scaled by 1.25 for the original scale and round down to the whole number
2