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RESEARCH PAPERS
Abstract: Concrete remains the most widely used man made construction material due to its versatility. The ready
mix concrete can be pumped easily to different heights. Superplasticizers have become essential ingredients for
pumping of concrete. Superplasticizers are sensitive to interaction effects among aluminates, sulfates, and alkali ions
present in the solution phase at the beginning of the hydration of cements. Some superplasticizers may show higher
fluidizing effect on some types of cements than other types of cements. Further the problems like bleeding,
segregation, retardation, acceleration of concrete and reduction in compressive strength of concrete will arise due to
incompatibility of super plasticizers with cements. In the present days, usage of blended Portland Pozzolana
Cements (fly ash based) (PPC) has been increased considerably due to less heat of hydration, improved workability,
durability and greater resistance to the attack of aggressive waters than ordinary Portland cements. The main aim of
this study is to know the compatibility of „Modified Ligno Naphthalene Melamine Sulphonate based (blended) super
plasticizer‟ with the normal grades of cement. Three different brands of OPC A, B and C are used separately in
concretes along with a Modified Ligno Naphthalene Melamine Sulphonate based (blended) super plasticizer to
achieve high workability in the fresh state. Compressive strength tests at 3 days, 7 days and 28 days ages with
normal (conventional) curing and predicting 28 days compressive strength by resorting to accelerated curing and
tests for setting times of concrete (for initial and final setting times of concrete by penetrometer) were conducted.
The dosage of superplasticizer (percentage weight of cement) and the setting behavior were varied with brand of
cement though the cement type, the chemical admixture were same inspite of no change in water cement ratio and
initial slump. It was observed that the dosage of super plasticizer beyond certain limits, led to reduction in
compressive strength and delay in setting times of concrete. Hence, a strong case is made for studying the
compatibility between the superplasticizer and cement before selecting a suitable superplasticizer, especially when
high workability, slump retention and early strength are required.
Keywords: Pumpable concrete, Slump retention, Setting time, Super plasticizers and Compatibility.
Dhir and Yap (1983) described the first stage of a wide- display raid slump loss (say 150 mm to 20 mm) in few
ranging investigation into superplasticized high minutes), unacceptable bleeding, reaches the
workability concrete. A ranking order of the segregation limit retards setting properties to
superplasticizers used was obtained, together with unacceptable limit or give problem to demould i.e.,
proposals on the flow and segregation behaviour in edges breaking off or fail to gain acceptable initial and
response to variations in cement content and sand 28 days strength. Agarwal et al., (2000) have studied the
grading. Aitcin et al., (1994) discussed the nature of incompatibility between cement and chemical
superplasticizers, how they work and why they do not admixtures. They reported that the specifications calling
work occasionally when added to the fresh concrete. for the use of admixtures in concrete often results in
strange occurrences, i.e., rapid set, retardation,
They reported that the introduction of superplasticisers
accelerated stiffening etc.
in concrete involves a new chemical component in a
complex hydraulic binder system that already contains They presented the observations of a study on the effect
several added chemicals. Collepardi (1998) stated that of different superplasticizers with respect to the setting
the placing characteristics of concrete can be enhanced behaviour and compressive strength behaviour and
by using plasticizing and superplasticizing admixtures compressive strength. Mageea and Alexander (2001)
without any change in the water cement ratio with proposed a simple test method capable of assessing the
respect to the plain mixture. Ramachandran et al., relative effectiveness of plasticising chemical
(1998) stated that all chemical and mineral admixtures admixtures. Using a hydrometer, the test measures the
when incorporated into concrete affect its properties in relative ability of different admixtures to disperse the
fresh state. The superplasticisers are no exception; on individual particles of Portland cement/ silica fume
the contrary, their effect is much more dramatic, and the binder combinations. Nkinamubanzi and Aitcin. (2004)
properties of fresh concrete affected include bleeding, studied the robustness of combinations of cements and
segregation, setting time, slump and air content. The superplasticizers. Tests done with various cements and
type of Portland cement and superplasticizers used play different families of superplasticizers showed that
a significant role in slump and air retention of fresh although a combination of cement a superplasticizer
concrete. Hanehara and Yamada (1998) studied the could be compatible, it is not necessarily robust.
interaction between cement and the chemical admixture Sometimes a little variation in the dosage of the
types, lignin sulfonate, naphthalene sulfonate, melamine admixture could lead to detrimental side effects, such as
sulfonate, amino sulfonate, and polycarboxylate, segregation, excessive set retardation, or excess air
together with the working factors and mechanisms, and content in the concrete. Papayianni et al (2004)
discussed from the view point of cement hydration. conducted tests to measure workability, slump loss, air
They described the mechanism of the interaction content, as well as strength development to reach a
problem between commercially available types of conclusion about superplasticizers performance with the
cement and admixtures. They suggested that when new use of two kinds of aggregate: one natural (river) and
admixtures are developed, an interaction problem must one crushed limestone. Apart from this, it seems that the
be anticipated and addressed. Jiang et al (1999) studied quantity of fines in a mixture influences the
the effect of soluble alkalis on cement and performance of superplasticizers. Janardhana et al.
superplasticizer compatibility. (2004) have reported on the effect of the combination of
superplasticiser and retarder on the setting times of OPC
The impact that soluble alkalis have on the
concrete.
compatibility of cement and polynaphthalene sulfonate
superplasticizer during the first few minutes of 2. Experimental Program:
hydration has been studied. Rixom and Jiang et al
Three different brands of Ordinary Portland cements
(2000) used the mini-slump and slump tests and found
(53grade) of three different brands, fine aggregates
that three low-alkali Portland cement were incompatible (river sand), coarse aggregate (10mm, 20mm crushed
with a PNS superplasticizer in terms of fluidity loss in stone aggregates), Fly Ash and 'Modified lingo
cement pastes and concretes having low W/C ratios
Naphthalene Malamine Sulphonate' based
(0.30 to 0.35). Abel and Hover (2000) introduced a
Superplasticizer were chosen for compatibility study.
simple test for monitoring setting behaviour of concrete
The cement in the concrete was replaced by an
in the field. In the proposed test, a penetrometer probe
equivalent amount as that of factory blended Portland
was fabricated with a contact area approximately equal pozzolona cements (PPC). The results obtained from the
to the contract area under an adult sized work boot. concrete using site-blended are compared with that of
Setting is monitored by measuring the pressure required
concrete made using factory manufactured Portland
to embed the probe into the concrete surface to a depth
pozzolona cements, as reported by Laxmi Narasaiah
of 6 mm. Aitcin et al., (2001) identified incompatibility
(2010). Properties of superplasticisers used in the
between cement and superplasticizers The combination
present study and that used by Laxmi Narasaiah (2010)
are shown in the Tables 1 and 2 respectively. Properties Table2: Properties of super plasticizer (supplied by the
of cements used in the present study and that used by manufacturer) for factory blended samples C1, C2 and
Laxmi Narasaiah (2010) are shown in the Table 3. C3 brand cements.
Table1: Properties of superplasticizer (supplied by the S.
Property Value
manufacturer) for A, B and C brand cements. No
S. 1 Specific gravity (kg/liter.) 1.19 to 1.23
Property Value
No 2 Chloride content Nil
1 Specific gravity (kg/liter.) 1.16 3 Air entrainment Less than 1%
2 Chloride content Nil 4 Recommended dosage 0.5-2.0%
3 Air entrainment Less than 1% 5 PH value Not mentioned
4 Recommended dosage 0.6-1.5%
5 PH value 8.0 approx
Ordinary Portland Cement and Site blended Portland The trial mixes with adding super plasticizer (SP) are
Pozzolana Cement respectively. The objective of this is prepared for M25 and M40 grade concretes with
to know the initial slump of the mixes. The initial slump Ordinary Portland Cement and Site blended Portland
of all the trial mixes without addition of super Pozzolana Cement respectively. The objective of this is
plasticizer is zero for concrete made with both Ordinary to ascertain the required dosage of super plasticizer for
Portland Cement and Site blended Portland Pozzolana obtaining the required range of initial slump 150 to
Cement. 160 mm of the mixes and slump retention 50 to 75 mm
with elapsed time of one hour. The required dosage of
SP is shown in the Table 6.
Table6: Dosage of Super plasticizer
cements”. Construction and Building Materials, [17] Jayasree C.; Ravindra Gettu (2008), “Site study of
V.14, pp.253-259. the flow behavior of super plasticized cement
[2] Bouzoubaa .N; M.H.Zhang M.H.; and Malhotra paste”, Materials and Structures, V41, pp.1581-
V.M. (2000) “Laboratory produced high volume fly 1593.
ash blended cements Compressive strength and [18] Janardhana M., Seshagiri Rao M.V., Prashanth
resistance to the chloride-ion penetration of Kumar. R and Chakravarthy P.S. (2004), “Effect of
concrete” Cement and Concrete Research, V.30, combination of admixtures on the setting times of
pp.1037-1046. concrete”, Proceedings of ICFRC, International
[3] IS 1199 (1959), Methods of Sampling and Analysis Conference on Fiber composites, High Performance
of Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Concretes and Smart Materials, 8-10 January 2004,
Delhi, India. Chennai, pp.767-775.
[4] IS 516 (1959), Methods of Tests for strength of [19] Kumar Mehta .P. Paulo J.M. Monteiro.;
Concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, CONCRETE Microstructure, Properties and
India. Materials (2008).
[5] IS 8142 (1976), Methods for Test for determining [20] Magee B.J.; Alexander M.G. (2000) “Simple test
setting time of Concrete by Penetration Resistance, method to assess the relative effectiveness of
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. plasticizing chemical admixture”, Cement and
[6] IS 10262 (1982), Recommended guidelines for Concrete Research, V.30, pp.303-307.
Concrete Mix design, Bureau of Indian Standards, [21] Portland - Cement Concrete Rheology and
New Delhi, India. workability: Final report, US Department of
[7] IS 9103 (1999), Concrete Admixtures- Transportation, publication no FHwA-RD-00.025,
Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards, New 2001, pp.1700.
Delhi, India. [22] Ramachandran V.S., “Concrete Admixtures Hand
[8] IS 456 (2000), Plain and Reinforced Concrete, book: properties, science and technology”, (Edition
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. 2), Noyes publications, 1995, pp.1112.
[9] IS 4926 (2003), Ready mixed Concrete-Code of [23] Ramachandran V.S., Malhotra V.M., Jolicoeur C.,
practice, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, and Spiratos N., “Super plasticizers: properties and
India. application in concrete”, Materials Technology
[10] IS 2386(Part-I) (1963), Methods for test for Laboratory, CANMET, Ottawa, Canada, 1998,
aggregates for concrete, Bureau of Indian pp.401.
Standards, New Delhi, India. [24] Shunsuke Hanehara; Kazuo Yamada (1999)
[11] IS 2386(Part-III) (1963), Methods for test for “Interaction between cement and chemical
aggregates for concrete, Bureau of Indian admixture from the point of cement hydration,
Standards, New Delhi, India. . absorption behavior of admixture, and paste
[12] IS 2386(Part-IV) (1963), Methods for test for rheology”, Cement and Concrete Research, V.29,
aggregates for concrete, Bureau of Indian pp.1159-1165.
Standards, New Delhi, India. [25] Shetty M.S., “Concrete technology: Theory and
[13] IS 383 (1970), Specification for Coarse and Fine Practice”, (First Revised Edition, S. Chand &
aggregates from natural sources for concrete, Company Ltd, New Delhi, 2005, pp.624.
Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, India. [26] Shivasundaram.V, Carette.G.G and Malhotra.V.M.
[14] IS 9013 (1978), Method of making, curing and 1990. Long term strength development of high
determining compressive strength of accelerated volume fly ash concrete. Cement and Concrete
cured concrete test specimens, Bureau of Indian Composites.
Standards, New Delhi, India. [27] U.Laxmi Narasaiah (2010) thesis on “Compatibility
[15] IS 10086 (1982), Moulds for tests of cement and of Sulphonated Modified Melamine Formaldehyde
concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi, Condensates and Naphthalene based (Blended)
India. Super plasticizer with Portland Pozzolana
[16] IS 1489(Part-I)- (1991), Specifications for Portland Cements”.
Pozzzolona cement fly ash based, Bureau of Indian
Standards, New Delhi, India.
Abstract : Portland Cement is reported to be a highly intensive energy material next only to Aluminium and steel,
Incontrast Geopolymer concrete do not have any Portland cement can be considered as low Embodied energy which
utilize the Industrial waste for producing the binding system in concrete. Therefore, GPCs gaining popularity in the
world of concrete as eco - friendly material of construction. In the present Experimental investigation the class-F Fly
ash which is rich in silica and Alumina activated by highly alkaline liquids to produce the binder system which binds
the aggregates in concrete was used. The parameters such as activated liquid to fly ash ratio by mass, curing
temperature, curing time, sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide were maintained constant based on the past literature.
Sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide were used as alkaline activators. The results show that the workability of
Geopolymer concrete increases but compressive strength decreases with increase in water to Geopolymer solids
ratio.
Keywords: Geopolymers; class-F fly ash; Alkaline activators; Strength, Water/Geopolymer solids ratio.
alumino-silicate oxides with alkali polysilicates yielding on workability and strength, hence six water to
polymeric Si–O–Al bonds. geopolymer solids ratios 0.16, 0.25, 0.28, 0.31, 0.35 &
0.40 are considered changing the quantities of water for
2. Materials and Mixture Proportions:
fixed Geopolymer solids (Sum of mass of fly ash, mass
2.1. Materials Used: of NaoH solids and Mass of sodium silicate soilds) i.e
Experimental work is designed to study the effect of 390.57 Kg/m3.Table 5 shows the materials required for
water to geopolymer solids ratio on workability and different water to geopolymer solids ratio by changing
compressive strength of geopolymer concrete for the quantiy of water.
constant solution to fly ash ratio of 0.50. In the present Table1: Chemical composition of flyash (%mass)
experimental work class-F i.e low calcium fly ash
obtained from coal based thermal power plant at Oxides Percentage
Ramagundam, Andhrapradesh used as a source material. SiO2 60.54
The chemical composition of fly ash shall confirm to Al203 26.20
requirements as per IS: 3812:2003. The manufacture of Fe2O3 5.87
geopolymer concrete is carried out using the usual CaO 1.91
concrete technology methods. The role and influence of MgO 0.38
aggregates are considered to be same as in the Portland K2O+Na2O 1.02
cement concrete. The mass of combined aggregates may SO3 0.23
be taken to be between 75% and 80% of the mass of the Loss on ignition 2.0
Geopolymer concrete. Sodium-based activators were Table2: Properties of Aggregates
chosen because they were cheaper than Potassium-based
activators. The sodium hydroxide was used, in flake or Fine Coarse
Property
pellet form. It is recommended that the alkaline liquid is Aggregate Aggregate
prepared by mixing both the solutions together at least Specific gravity
24 hours prior to use. The mass of NaOH solids in a 2.78
Water 2.63
solution varied depending on the concentration of the 0.50%
absorption 1%
solution expressed in terms of Molarity, M. Usually the 7.21
Fineness 2.40
concentration of sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) 1675
modulus 1570
liquid measured in terms of Molarity (M), in the range Crushed
Bulk density River
of 8 to 16 M. For the present work the concentration is granite
Kg/m3 sand
limited to 8M concentration. The mass of water is the stone
Source
major component in both the alkaline solutions.
2.2 Specimen preparation:
The primary difference between geopolymer concrete
and Portland cement concrete is the binder. The silicon The sodium hydroxide flakes were dissolved in tap
and aluminium oxides in the low –calcium fly ash reacts water to make a solution with a desired concentration at
with the alkaline liquid to form the geopolymer paste least one day prior to use. The fly ash and the
that binds the loose coarse and fine aggregates and other aggregates were first mixed together in a 80 litre pan
unreacted materials to form the geopolymer concrete. mixer for about three minutes. The sodium hydroxide
As in the case of Portland cement concrete the coarse and the sodium silicate solutions were mixed together
and fine aggregates occupy about 75% to 80% of the and then added to the dry materials and mixed for about
mass of Geopolymer concrete. This component of four minutes then the extra water was added to the mix.
Geopolymer concrete mixtures can be designed using After mixing, the slump of the fresh geopolymer
the tools currently available for Portland cement concrete was determined in accordance with slump test
concrete. The compressive strength and workability of [27]. After determination of slump, the fresh concrete
geopolymer concrete are influenced by the proportions was cast into the mould. The specimens were
and properties of the constituent materials that make the compacted with three layers placing and tamping using
geopolymer paste. a rod. This was followed by an additional vibration of
10 seconds using a vibrating table.
2.2. Mixture Proportions:
The mix proportions for Geopolymer concretes were
selected based on the trial mixes carried out by the
author in the laboratory [21] [22]. The details of
properties of materials (table 1to 4) and the mix
proportions for GPC (shown in table .5). As the study
was limited to effect of water to geopolymer solids ratio
Table3: Properties of Sodium silicate solution Table4: Properties of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Property Value
Property Value
Specific gravity 1.6
Molar mass (gr/mol) 122.06 Molar mass
Na2O ( by mass) 14.70% 40 gr/mol
Appearance
SiO2 ( by mass) 29.40% White solid
Density
Weight of solids (by mass) 44.1% 2.1gr/cc
Melting point
Water ( by mass) 55.90% 3180C
Boiling point
Weight ratio (SiO2 to Na2O) 2.00 13900C
Amount of heat liberated
Molar ratio 2.06 266 cal/gr
hen dissolved in water
Table5: Details of Mixtures for Different Water to Geopolymer solids (GPS) ratio
Coarse Fine Extra
Fly ash NaOH Na2SiO3 Water/ Total Quantity of
aggregate aggregate Water added
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) GPS ratio water (Kg/m3)
(Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.16 --- 99.43
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.25 --- 99.43
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.28 10.00 109.43
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.31 22.00 121.43
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.35 37.27 136.70
327 1248 672 54.33 108.67 0.40 56.79 156.22
2.3. Curing Regime: The Total mass of water is the sum of water contained
Usually three curing regimes namely Heat curing, in sodium silicate solution, mass of water present in
Steam curing and Ambient curing are adopted for NaOH solution and the mass of extra water if any
added.
making Geopolymer concrete specimens. In the present
study heat curing was selected and the specimens were The water in the Geopolymer concrete mix does not
wrapped with thin vinyl sheet to avoid loss of water due take part in the chemical reaction [18].On contrary, in
to evaporation. All the specimens were then transferred Ordinary Portland cement concrete, water in the mix
to an oven set at a temperature of 60°C and stored for 24 chemically reacts with the cement to produce a paste
hours. After curing, the specimens were allowed to cool that binds the aggregates. The chemical reaction that
in air, demoulded and kept in open until the day of occurs in Geopolymers produces water that is
testing. eventually expelled from the binder. It has been
observed that the additional water content in the
2.4. Workability and Compressive strength tests:
geopolymer concrete mix affected the properties of
The workability tests i.e slump test and compaction concrete in fresh state as well as in hardened state.
factor tests have been performed [27] and the results are
shown in table.N0.6. The compressive strength test was Table No. 6: Results of workability and Compressive
performed under 200Tonnes capacity compression strength
testing machine by applying the load at uniform rate. Mix ID Workability Compressive strength (MPa)
and the sodium silicate solutions were mixed together
and then added to the dry materials and mixed for about Slump(mm) C.F @3days @7days @28days
four minutes then the extra water was added to the in GPS-0.16 ---- ---- --- --- ---
the mix. The mass of geopolymer solids is the sum of
the mass of flyash, mass of NaOH solids present in the GPS-0.25 --- 0.76 37.2 40.5 42.4
solution and Mass of solids in sodium silicate solution
GPS-0.28 50 0.89 29.4 32.5 34.2
3.0 Results and Discussions:
GPS-0.31 100 0.92 26.6 28.8 30.4
3.1 Workability of Geopolymer Concrete Mix:
GPS-0.35 175 0.95 21.2 24.6 27.8
Water to geopolymer solids ratio by mass is very
important in the design of Geopolymer concrete mix GPS-0.40 212 0.98 16.5 18.2 21.2
[5] Sun W, Zhang YS, Lin W, Liu ZY (2004). In situ The characterization of source materials in fly ash-
monitoring of the hydration process of K-PS based geopolymers. Mater Lett 2003; 57:1272–80.
geopolymer cement with ESEM. Cement and [16] Silva PD, Crenstil KS, Sirivivatnanon V. Kinetics
Concrete Research.Vol.34, pp.935–40. of geopolymerization: role of Al2O3 and SiO2.
[6] Wang H, Li H, Yan F (2005). Synthesis and Cem Concr Res 2007; 37:512–8.
Mechanical properties of metakaolinite based [17] Temuujin J, van Riessen A, Williams R. Influence
geopolymer. Coll Surf A: Physicochemical Eng of calcium compounds on the mechanical
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synthesized aluminosilicate glasses. Part II. [19] Yang KH, Song JK, Ashour AF, Lee ET. Properties
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vol.31: pp.80–5. Workability and strength of lignite bottom ash
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Moreno N, Izquierdo M, Environmental, physical [21] Kolli Ramujee, Potharaju M, Development of mix
and structural characterization of geopolymer design for low calcium based geopolymer concrete
matrixes synthesized from coal (co-combustion fly in ordinary, standard & highstrength grades, Indian
ashes. J Hazard Mater 2008; 154:175–83. concrete institute Journal, vol 14, issue no 2, 29-34.
[10] Duxson P, Provis JL, Luckey GC, Mallicoat SW, [22] Kolli Ramujee, Potharaju M, Development of Low
Kriven WM, van Deventer JSJ understanding the calcium fly ash based Geopolymer concrete,
relationship between geopolymer composition, International Journal of Engineering and
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acid attack. Cem Concr Res 2005; 35:658–70. Essex, England, 2000.
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sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions. Cem concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Concr Res 2005; 35:1233–46. [25] IS: 383-1970, “Specification for coarse and fine
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geopolymer composites exposed to Elevated Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
temperatures. Cem Concr Compos 2008; 30: 986– [26] IS: 4031 – 1988, “Method for physical tests for
91. hydrated cement”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
[14] Criado M, Fernandez Jimenez A, de la Torre A, New Delhi.
Aranda MAG, Palomo A. An XRD study of the [27] IS: 516-1959 (Reaffirmed 1999) edition 1.2 (1991-
effect of SiO2/ Na2O ratio on the alkali activation of 07), “Method of test for strength of Concrete”,
fly ash. Cem Concr Res 2007; 37:671–9. Amendment No.2, Reprint 1993, Bureau of Indian
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Abstract: In this paper, a study is made on the behavior of ultra-high strength self-compacting fiber reinforced
concrete by using pozzolanic materials, mineral and chemical admixtures. In today’s world, there is a huge demand
for infrastructure in less space and with high altitudes. For such heavy structures, the space between the reinforcing
bars is very less. To overcome these problems high strength self-compacting fiber reinforced concrete (HSSCFRC)
is developed. The HSSCFRC is developed from the combination of self-compacting concrete (SCC) and steel fiber.
To pump concrete for higher altitudes and compact itself SCC properties are used. To build heavy structures in less
space high strength is required. So the M80 to M100 grade of concrete are developed. To obtain high strength the
water –powder ratio is drastically reduced and the chemicals admixtures are used. The finer filler particles also
increase strength like quartz powder. Since the quartz is inert material it does not react with other materials but due
amorphous silica present in quartz react with waste material in concrete (calcium hydroxide) to form gel. The gel
formed holds the aggregate and therefore good bond is formed. In this paper the HSSCFRC is developed by using
quartz powder as partial pozzolanic material and quartz sand as fine aggregate. This paper revealed that quartz sand
and quartz gives more strength. The fibers used increases the tensile nature of the concrete. The test result for
acceptance characteristics for self-compacting concrete such as slump flow, V-funnel, and L-box are performed. The
strength characteristics like compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength are examined for 7days,
28 days and 90 days.
Keywords: UHPSCFRC, pozzolanic admixture, super plasticizer, viscosity modifying admixtures, quartz powder.
1.6. Fibers:
1.6.1. Hooked end steel fibers:
Table3: Physical Properties of Quartz powder Length 30mm, dia 0.5mm.
Abstract: Today concrete is the most popular construction material because of naturally available ingredients and
its most affordability to built to desired shape. The most important aspect in usage of concrete is the development of
desired strength which crucially depends on hydration of cement mortar. Due to depletion of ground water table the
availability of water is posing several problems to construction activities. Also in the areas where the water is
chemically not in the range of ph value specified for usage in concrete, the unit cost of concrete increases adversely.
Studies are made using Light weight aggregate, Super Absorbent Polymers (SAP), Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG 400)
for internal curing of concrete. Light weight aggregate can negatively impact strength and can lead to variability in
performance. The additional cost incurred in using polyethelene glycol can be reduced by usage of fly ash as partial
replacement for cement in order to reduce the unit cost. Also it was observed that the fly ash reduces heat of
hydration and increases the resistance of concrete to adverse exposure conditions. In the present study the optimum
partial replacement of fly ash for M 20 and M40 grades were studied using polyethylene glycol at 0.5% and 1%
dosages. The fly ash replacement levels were chosen from 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. It is observed that though
higher compressive strengths at 28 days attained at replacement level of 10% but the strengths observed at
replacement level of 20%( i.e. 10.9% higher than target mean strength for M20 concrete at 1.00% PEG dosage and
4.66% higher than target mean strength for M40 concrete at 0.5% PEG dosage) can be considered in view of
economy and durability of concrete in the long run. At the same replacement level the split tensile strength was
observed to be 7.05% lesser than conventional concrete for M20 grade at 1.00 % PEG dosage and 2.95% lower than
conventional concrete for M40 grade at 0.5% PEG dosage. The modulus of rupture for M20 & M40 concrete was
3.10% & 2.55% lower than conventional concrete at 1.00% & 0.5% PEG dosages respectively.
Keywords: Self Curing Concrete, PEG 400, Optimum replacement of Fly Ash, Fly ash concrete, Internal curing.
Internal curing (IC) makes the water intended for replacement of cement using fly ash for self-curing
hydration is fully utilised either by providing concrete using Polyethylene Glycol (PEG 400).
internal water reservoirs or by keeping the vapour
2. Experimental programme:
pressure low thereby reducing evaporation.
Increases mortar strength, early age strength The experimental program was designed to investigate
sufficient to withstand strain that can cause cracking the strength of self-curing concrete by adding poly
(12 to 72 hours) and eliminates largely autogenous ethylene glycol PEG400 @ 0.0%, 0.5%, 1.00% for M40
shrinkage. grade and 0.00%, 0.5%, 1.00%for M20 grade plain
Reduces permeability, Protects reinforcing steel concretes. The water cement ratios used were 0.38 and
hence provides greater durability. 0.52. Prof Jayeshkumar Pitroda et al. [10] studied for
Lower turnaround time, lower maintenance, and M30, M40, M50 concretes and the water cement ratio
improved rheology. required to be employed to attain same 28 days strength
with different fly ash replacement levels. For M 40
1.4. Potential materials for IC: Concrete the water cement ratio arrived was 0.34 with
The following materials can provide internal water 28 days strength slightly less than target mean strength
reservoirs: (47.85 Mpa<48.25Mpa) for 35% replacement level. It
Lightweight Aggregate (natural and synthetic, was taken as guidance in this study and 0.33 was chosen
expanded shale), as water cement ratio. For M20 concrete it was chosen
LWS Sand (Water absorption =17 %) as 0.5. The specimens were casted without self-curing
agent and with self-curing agent at 0.5% and 1.00% to
LWA 19mm Coarse (Water absorption = 20%)
make a comparative study. The fly ash replacement was
Super-absorbent Polymers (SAP) (60-300 mm size)
varied between 10% to 40% for partial replacement of
SRA (Shrinkage Reducing Admixture) (propylene
cement. The optimum replacement for cement by fly
glycol type i.e. polyethylene-glycol)
ash was studied and the constituents of the mixes
Wood powder executed were shown below. (It was found that 1% of
1.5. Poly ethylene glycol: PEG 400 by weight was optimum for M20 grade while
0.5% was optimum for M40 grade (M.V. Jagannadha
Polyethylene glycol is a condensation polymer of Kumar et al.) [9]).
ethylene oxide and water with the general formula
H(OCH2CH2)nOH, where n is the average number of 3. Materials:
repeating oxyethylene groups typically from 4 to about The different materials used in this project were
180. The abbreviation (PEG) is termed in combination Cement, Fine aggregate, Coarse aggregate, Poly
with a numeric suffix which indicates the average ethylene glycol-400, Fly ash type F, Super plasticizer
molecular weights. One common feature of PEG (CONPLAST SP-430)
appears to be the water-soluble nature. Polyethylene
glycol is non-toxic, odourless, neutral, lubricating, non- 3.1. Properties of Polyethylene Glycol:
volatile and non-irritating and is used in a variety of Properties of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG 400) are shown
pharmaceuticals. Continuous evaporation of moisture in Table 1.
takes place from an exposed surface due to the
difference in chemical potentials (free energy) between Table1: Properties of Polyethylene Glycol-400
the vapour and liquid phases. The polymers added in the Trade name POLYMEG-400PH
mix mainly form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
Synonyms Macrogol-400 ; PEG-400
and reduce the chemical potential of the molecules
Chemical formula HO ( CH2CH2O )nH
which in turn reduces the vapour pressure, thus reducing
Chemical Polymer of Ethylene oxide
the rate of evaporation from the surface.
Form Liquid
1.6. Need and objective of the present study: Colour Colourless
Odour Characteristic
The usage of shrinkage reducing admixtures such as Boiling point °C >250
Polyethylene glycol increases the unit cost of concrete. Flash point °C > 245
The usage of fly ash as partial replacement for cement Specific gravity@20°C 1.13
helps in reducing this unit cost. Also it was observed Viscosity @ 98.9°C,cst 6.9 -8.0
that the fly ash reduces heat of hydration and increases pH ( 5% aq.sol) 4.5 –7.5
the resistance of concrete to adverse exposure soluble in water and insoluble
Solubility
conditions. Hence to economise the unit cost the present in aliphatic hydrocarbon
study aims at determining the optimum partial Ignition temperature °C ~ 380
a significant extent under self cured conditions or the curing with PEG dosage of 1.00% and upto 2.82% for
process of self curing due to formation of bonding with plain concrete for M40 grade in self curing with PEG
Hydrogen and reducing vapour pressure of water dosage of 0.5%. In case of fly ash replaced concrete
thereby reducing evaporation was not taking place with the increase in fly ash the split tensile strength was
because of certain other chemical constituents present in decreased in self cured concrete when compared to
the fly ash. It shows that PEG is not much effective at normally cured concrete. The decrease in split tensile
higher replacement levels of fly ash. strength of self cured concrete with fly ash replacement
level of 20% for PEG dosage of 1.00% for M20
Though higher strengths were noticed at 10% fly ash
concrete was 7.05%, where as for M40 concrete the
replacement for both M20 & M40 self cured concretes
decrease in stregth noticed was 2.95% at PEG dosage of
the strength obtained at 20% replacement level can be
0.50%. (Figure 3.)
considered as the strength obtained at 0.5% PEG dosage
was 4.66% higher than the target mean strength for M 4.4. Modulus of Rupture:
40 Concrete and in case of M20 grade concrete at
The results of the Modulusof rupture at 28 days are
1.00% PEG dosage the strength obtained was 10.9 %
presented in graphical form in Figure 4. The Modulus of
higher than target mean strength. The difference for
rupture was found to increase upto 5.10% for plain
low PEG dosage for M40 concrete could be that
concrete for M20 grade in self curing with PEG dosage
quantity of PEG added more than 0.5% would not be
of 1.00% and upto 2.97% for plain concrete for M40
effective for increase in strength and contributes to
grade in self curing with PEG dosage of 0.5%. In case
higher water cement ratio resulting in lower strength.
of fly ash replaced concrete with the increase in fly ash
Hence Fly ash replacement level of 20% for self cured
the Modulus of rupture was decreased in self cured
concrete can be considered in view of economy and
concrete when compared to normally cured concrete.
durability in the long run.
The decrease in Modulus of rupture of self cured
4.3. Split tensile strength: concrete with fly ash replacement level of 20% for PEG
dosage of 1.00% for M20 concrete was 3.10%, where
The results of the split tensile strength at 7 days are
as for M40 concrete the decrease in stregth noticed was
presented in graphical form in Figure 3.
2.55% at PEG dosage of 0.50%.
Abstract: This study concentrated on the durability evaluation of the concrete cylinder specimens strengthened with
GFRP and CFRP laminates. Two types of durability exposure tests were carried out. First, the specimens were
exposed to natural outdoor weather. Second, the specimens were immersed in tap water. The parameters varied in
this investigation were wrapping materials (which include glass and carbon fibre reinforced polymers), orientation
of fibres (along the length and circumference of the specimens) and exposure conditions (natural outdoor weather
and tap water immersion). The experimental result shows that the specimens wrapped with carbon fibre reinforced
polymers have higher compressive strength than the specimens wrapped with glass fibre reinforced polymers. A
significant increasing trend of compressive strength from 1 to 3 months for both the exposure conditions (natural
outdoor weather and tap water immersion) was noted. This was attributed mainly to the post curing effects.
Keywords: CFRP, GFRP, epoxy, compressive strength.
CFRP GFRP
Properties
Unidirectional Unidirectional Bidirectional
Weight of
200 920 750
fibre (g/m2)
Fibre
thickness 0.3 0.90 0.6
(mm)
Fig1: FRP wrapped concrete cylinders exposed to
natural outdoor weather
attributed to the post curing effects of concrete and The water immersed FRP wrapped concrete
epoxy polymer. The variation of the average cylinders for 1 to 3 months also revealed increase in
compressive strength after conditioning to water compressive strength. This was also attributed to
exposure is illustrated in Fig. 8. the post curing effects of concrete and epoxy
The percentage increase in average compressive polymer.
strength of FRP confined concrete cylinders
6. Acknowledgements:
immersed in water from 1 to 3 months were 2.758
and 5.761 % when compared with unexposed FRP The authors wish to thank Fosroc Chemicals (India) Pvt.
confined concrete cylinders. Ltd., for supply of fibre composites and epoxy used in
this work.
7. Reference:
[1] Triantafillou, T. C., and Antonopoulos, C.P. (2000).
“Design of concrete split tensile members
strengthened in shear with FRP.” Journal of
Composites for Construction, 04(04), 198-205.
[2] Nishizaki, I., and Meiarashi, S. (2001). “Long-
Term Deterioration of GFRP in Water and Moist
Environment.” Journal of Composites for
Construction, 06(01), 21-27.
[3] Lamanna, A. J., Bank, L.C., and Scott, D. W.
(2004). “Split tensile strengthening of reinforced
concrete Specimens by mechanically attaching
fibre-reinforced polymer strips.” Journal of
Fig8: Average compressive strength of concrete Composites for Construction, 08(03), 203-210.
cylinders after conditioning to water immersion [4] Sen, R., and Mullins, G. (2007). “Application of
5. Conclusions: FRP composites for underwater piles repair.”
Journal of Composites, 38, 751-758.
The present study used 90 concrete cylinders, wrapped [5] Bousselham, A., and Chaallal, O. (2008).
with unidirectional and bidirectional FRPs. Based on the “Mechanisms of shear resistance of concrete
experimental results, the following Conclusions are Specimens strengthened in shear with externally
made. bonded FRP.” Journal of Composites for
Orientation of the fibres along the circumference of Construction, 12(05), 499-512.
the specimens has higher compressive strength than [6] Sangeetha, P., and Sumathi, R. (2010). “Behaviour
the orientation of the fibres along the length of the of glass fibre wrapped concrete columns under
specimens for both CFRP and GFRP wrapping. uniaxial compression.” International Journal of
Specimens wrapped with carbon fibre reinforced Advanced Engineering Technology, 01(01), 74-83.
polymers have higher compressive strength than the [7] El-Hacha, R., Green, M. F., and Wight, G. R.
specimens wrapped with glass fibre reinforced (2010). “Effect of severe environmental exposures
polymers. on CFRP wrapped concrete columns.” Journal of
A significant increasing trend of compressive Composites for Construction, 14(01), 83-93.
strength for natural outdoor weather condition from [8] Rao, P. S., Husain, M. M., and Ravishankar, D. V.
1 to 3 months was noted. This was attributed (2012). “An investigation on strength degradation
mainly to the post curing effects of concrete and of GFRP laminates under environmental impact.”
epoxy polymer. International Journal of Composite Materials,
02(04), 48-52.
Abstract: Recycle coarse aggregate (RCA) is the main components of old concrete and for many reasons there is a
need to re-use them. It is better to re-use the waste aggregates as recycled aggregates in structural concrete, instead
disposed as waste material. This in turn causes environmental related problems. Geo-polymer concrete is concrete
which does not utilize Portland cement. The discovery of geo-polymers is a breakthrough which provides a cleaner
and environmentally-friendly alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). In the manufacture of geo-polymer
concrete, fly ash and alkaline solutions such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium silicate (Na 2OSiO2) and
potassium hydroxide (KOH) are used to make the binder necessary to manufacture the concrete. The experimental
work is carried out on fly ash based geo-polymer concrete using five different replacement ratios of recycled coarse
aggregate to natural coarse aggregate viz., 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. To determine mechanical properties of
recycled coarse aggregate based geo-polymer concrete, two different moralities 12M, 16M of sodium hydroxide
with constant alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio of 0.5 were selected. Total of 30 cubes of 150mm x 150mmx 150mm
and 20 RCC beams 150 mm x 230 mm x 1500 mm specimens were caste and tested at age of 28days under ambient
curing condition. The test results gives cube compressive strength ranging from 36 MPa to 27 MPa, 45 MPa to 36
MPa for 12M,16M respectively. Similarly, range of moment carrying capacity of the RCC beams were obtained is
27 kNm to 24 kNm, 31 kNm to 28 kNm respectively for different replacement ratios of recycled coarse aggregate as
stated above.
Key Words: Fly ash, Geo-polymer concrete, Recycled coarse aggregate, Alkaline liquid, ambient curing,
mechanical properties.
breakthrough which provides a cleaner and using the Vicatneedle. Djwantoro, et al[7]Higher
environmentally - friendlier concrete alternative to concentration(in terms of molar) of sodium hydroxide
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), in this study the solution results in a higher compressive strength of geo
flexural behavior of reinforced geopolymer concrete polymer concrete. the addition of high range water
using recycled coarse aggregate is studied which is reducing admixture, up to approximately 2% of fly ash
consideredas an alternative to the RCC structural by mass, improved the workability of fresh geopolymer
members, with varying proportions of RCA 0%, 25%, concrete with very little effect on compressive strength
50%, 75% and 100% using 12 and 16M alkaline of geopolymer concrete. Hardjito, et al[8] concluded
solution. Cast specimens were cured and tested for 28 that it was favourable to mix the sodium hydroxide and
days curing under ambient curing condition. sodium silicate solution at least one day prior to adding
it to the dry materials. Gourley, et al[9] have reported
3. Aims and objectives
the details of geopolymer precast concrete products on a
To evaluate characteristic compressive strength commercial scale. The products included sewer pipes,
offly ash based geopolymer concrete by replacing railway sleepers, and wall panels. Reinforced
natural coarse aggregate with varying proportions geopolymer concrete sewer pipes with diameters in the
of recycled coarse aggregate. range from 375 mm to 1800 mm have been
To study the flexural behavior of reinforced manufactured using the facilities currently available to
Geopolimer concrete beams. make similar pipes using Portland cement concrete.
Vijai. K, et al [10] the experiments were conducted on
4. Scope of present investigation work
fly ash based geopolymer concrete by varying the types
The experimental work is to conduct short-term tests on of curing namely ambient curing and hot curing.
the effect of recycled coarse aggregate on fly ash based Khairulniza Ahmad Anuar, [11] Malaysian is one of the
geopolymer concrete using five different proportions develop countries that need to face environmental
0%, 25%, 50%,75% and 100% of recycled coarse pollution. Have many ways to reduce environmental
aggregate replacing natural coarse aggregate with two pollution that causes by production of Portland cement
different molar of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions and cause by the increasing of waste
which are 12M, 16M. In this experimental work only material. Geopolymer concrete incorporating with
one source of dry fly ash was considered from a local recycle concrete aggregate (RCA) is one of the method.
power station nearby Ramagundam thermal power
station. Analytical methods available for Portland 6. Experimental Programme
cement concrete were used to predict the test results. 6.1 Materials of Geopolymer Concrete
5. Literature review Fly ash particles are typically spherical, finer than
Mehta P.K[1]"If we can replace just half the new Portland cement and lime, ranging in diameter from less
than 1micron to not more than 150 microns. The types
concrete that will be needed over the next 10 years with
geopolymers, it would be a reduction of almost a billion and relative amount of incombustible matter in the coal
tonnes of extra CO2 each year at a time of global determines the chemical composition of the fly ash
demand for reducing emissions". Hendriks, et al[2]the presented. Fly ash used in this study was dry fly ash
reason large amounts of CO2 are released during the procured from the Ramagundam thermal project. One
manufacturing of cement is due in part to the immense batch of fly ash was obtained during the period of this
heat that is required.. Huntzinger, et al[3] uses life-cycle study. The sample of the batch was sent to Indian
analysis (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts Institute of Chemical Technology at Taranakaand the
and therefore the „global warming factor‟ of the chemical composition of fly ash has been found out, and
manufacture of Portland cement and three other the chemical analysis report of the fly ash is given in
technologies.”Davidovits, [4] Davidovits first proposed Table1.
that concrete could be made with a hydraulic binder, 6.2 Fine Aggregate. Locally available natural sand was
where in which the silicon and aluminium from the used specific gravity, fineness modulus and water
inclusive fly ash would react with an alkaline liquid.. absorption were found to be 2.65, 3.59 and 0.1%
Palomo, et al [5] concluded that the type of alkaline respectively. Sand was confirming to zone III as per IS
liquid plays an important role in the polymerisation 383:1970.
process. Reactions occur at a high rate when the alkaline
6.3 Natural Coarse Aggregate (NCA)
liquid contains soluble silicate, either sodium or
potassium silicate, compared to the use of only alkaline In the present study, locally available coarse aggregates
hydroxides. Cheng, et al[6] reported the only of maximum size 20mm, 10 mm course aggregate were
information available to date on the quantitative used specific gravity, fineness modulus and water
measure of the setting time of geopolymer material absorption were found to be 2.65, 7.07 and 0.25%
respectively. The test results for different properties on solids in a solution varied depending on the
coarse aggregate are presented in Table 2. concentration of the solution expressed in terms of
molar, M. For instance, NaOH solution with a
6.4 Recycled Coarse Aggregate (RCA)
concentration of 8M consisted of 8x40 = 320 grams of
In the present study, Recycled coarse aggregates of NaOH solids (in flake form) per liter of the solution,
maximum size 20mm, 10mm course aggregate were where 40 is the molecular weight of NaOH. The mass of
used specific gravity, fineness modulus and water NaOH solids was measured as 262 grams per kg of
absorption were found to be 2.84, 7.5 and 0.83% NaOH solution of 8M concentration. Similarly, the
respectively. The test results for different properties on mass of NaOH solids per kg of the solution for other
Recycled coarse aggregate are presented. Recycled concentrations were measured as, 12M: 361 grams and
aggregates are aggregates derived from the processing 16M: 444 grams. Note that the mass of NaOH solids
of materials previously used in a product and/or in was only a fraction of the mass of the NaOH solution,
construction. Examples include recycled concrete from and water is the major component.
construction and demolition waste material (C&D),
reclaimed aggregate from tested cubes and cylinders 6.7 Sodium Silicate
from concrete lab. A commercially available sodium silicate was obtained
from a local chemical supplier. The grade of material
6.5 Alkaline Liquid
used was with a SiO2/Na2O ratio of 2.0.the solution
The alkaline solutions for all mixes produced during the was in the form of a heavy syrup. The sample of the
project work were prepared by combining the sodium batch was sent for testing at Indian Institute of Chemical
hydroxide solution to sodium silicate gradually. This Technology at Taranaka and the chemical composition
mixture was then stirred moderately for a few minutes of sodium silicate has been found out, and the chemical
and then sealed in the buckets with lids until addition to analysis report of the sodium silicate is given in Table 3.
the concrete mix. This process took place immediately
prior to beginning production of the concrete; the ratio 6.8 Reinforcing Bars
of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide was kept In this only two sizes i.e., 8mm and 12mm of high yield
consistent at 2.5 upon recommendation from Hardjito stress deformed steel bars of Fe 415 were used as the
and Rangan (2005). The mixing process is presented in longitudinal and transverse reinforcement as per IS 456
figures 1-3. – 2000 considering M30 grade of concrete for balanced
section are presented in Table 4.Mix proportions of the
concrete are presented in appendix.
Table5: Slump Values for 12M and16Mgeopolymer Compressive strength of the concrete is the key property
concrete samples. of concrete .Compressive strength of concrete is taken
as a basis for evaluating various other properties of the
12M Slump (mm) 16M Slump (mm) concrete and is presented in Table 7.Thus, cube
12M-1 55 16M-1 47 compressive strength of concrete mixes was determined
at 28days age is carried out to verify target strength
12M-2 51 16M-2 42 .average results of compressive strength test for 2
12M-3 47 16M-3 40 molarities of concrete 12M and 16M i.e., for different
proportions of NCA and RCA keeping the chemical
12M-4 33 16M-4 36 ratio constant at 0.5.The compressive strength for 12M-
12M-5 28 16M-5 21 1(0% - RCA) mix was been cured around 400 to 450 C
for 28 days in ambient curing condition was 36 MPa
Table6: Compaction Factor Values for 12M which was considered 100% replacement of RCA 12M-
and16Mgeopolymer concrete samples. 2 the reduction in the strength was 10 %, for 12M the
reduction in the strength was 14 %, for 12M-4 the
Compaction Compaction reduction in the strength 18 % and for 12M-5 the
12M 16M
factor factor reduction in the strength was 26 %.The compressive
12M-1 0.90 16M-1 0.91 strength for 16M-1 mix after cured at 400 to 450 C for
12M-2 0.89 16M-2 0.90 28 days in ambient curing condition was 46 MPa which
12M-3 0.87 16M-3 0.88 was considered 100% and compare to different
12M-4 0.85 16M-4 0.86 proportions RCA for 16M-2 the reduction in the
12M-5 0.84 16M-5 0.84 strength was 5 %, for 16M-3 the reduction in the
strength was10 %, for 16M-4 the reduction in the
7. Test results and discussions strength was 16 % and for 16M-5the reduction in the
strength was 20 %. Ready to test the beams are
7.1 Workability
presented in figure 4.
The workability of geopolymer concrete depends upon
the fly ash and the molar concentration of the alkaline 7.4 Crack Patterns and Failure Mode
liquid solution.From the previous literature it is found As expected, flexure crack initiated in the pure bending
that an additional upto 20%extra water can be added zone. As the load increased, existing cracks propagated
apart from design procedure. The addition of super and new cracks developed along the span. In the case of
plasticizer with extra water was due to low workability beams of balanced section some of the flexural cracks in
as recycled coarse aggregate has high water absorption the shear span turned into inclined cracks due to the
capacity. In 12M an additional4 liter of water including effect of shear force. The width and the spacing of
one liter super plasticizer and in 16M an additional of 7 cracks varied along the span. In all the crack patterns
liters of waterincluding one liter super plasticizer were observed for reinforced geopolymer concrete beams
added for workability apart from mix design. The values were similar to those reported in the literature for
of workability are given in Table 5 and 6. reinforced Portland cement concrete beams. The cracks
at the mid-span open widely near failure near peak load,
7.2 Compaction Factor Test
the beams deflected significantly, thus indicating that
The compaction factor test values of concrete for 12M the tensile steel must have yielded at failure. The final
& 16M with different proportions of RCA replacing failure of the beams occurred when the concrete is in the
NCA has decreased as the rate of replacement of NCA compression zone, crushed, accompanied by buckling of
with RCA increased. the compressive steel bars. Ultimate load and flexural
7.3 Compressive Strength of Geopolymer Concrete failures are presented in Table 8-10.
A maximum of 7% reduction in 12M and 10% [6] Cheng, T. W. and J. P. Chiu (2003). "Fire-resistant
reduction in 16M for ultimate load is obtained for Geopolymer Produced by Granulated Blast Furnace
100% RCA beams compared Natural Coarse Slag." Minerals Engineering 16(3): 205-210.
Aggregate Beams (NCAB). [7] Djwantroe, Hardjito E S. E. Wallah, B. V. Rangan
The deflection results revealed 28% reduction in “Fly ash-based geopolymer concrete: study of
12M and 24% reduction in 16M for 100% RCA slender reinforced Columns” Springer Science
compared to NCAB. Business Media, LLC 2006, J Mater Sci (2007)
The curvature of specimens with 100% RCA 42:3124–3130.
reduced by 25% in 12M and 24% in 16M compared [8] Hardjito, D. and B. V. Rangan. (2005)
to NCAB. “Development and properties of low‐calcium fly
ash‐based geopolymer concrete.” Research Report
Reference GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of
[1] Mehta, P. K. (2001), “Reducing the Environmental Technology.
Impact of Conctete”, ACI Concrete International. [9] Gourley, J. T., & Johnson, G. B. (2005).
[2] Hendriks et al. (2003) “methods of reducing “Developments in Geopolymer Precast Concrete”.
greenhouse gas emission”. Paper presented at the International Workshop on
[3] Huntzinger, N Thomas D. Eatmon (2009) “A life- Geopolymersand Geopolymer Concrete, Perth,
cycle assessment of Portland cement Australia.
manufacturing: comparing the traditional process [10] Vijar. K, R. Kumutha and B.G.Vishnuram (2010)
with alternative technologies”. “Properties of glass fibers reinforced geopolymer
[4] Davidovits, J. (1999). “Chemistry of Geopolymer concrete components” asian journal.
Systems, Teminology.” Geopolymer ‟99 [11] Khairulniza Ahmad Anuar (2011) “Strength
International Conference, France. charecteristics of geopolymer concrete containing
[5] Palomo, A., M. W. Grutzeck, M.T. Blanco (1999). recycled coarse aggregate” International Journal of
"Alkali-Activated Fly Ashes, A Cement for the Civil & Environmental Engineering IJCEE-IJENS
Future." Cement and Concrete Research 29(8): Vol: 11 No: 01 01/2011; 11.
1323-1329.
APPENDIX
Mix Design process
1. Mix design process is illustrated for the concrete mix designed for the trial mix with Chemical ratio 0.5 and
molarity of 12
1. Assume normal density of the concrete 2400 kg/m3
2. Take mass of combined aggregate (72%) of mass concrete 1728 kg/m3
3. Mass of fly ash and alkaline liquid (2400-1728) 672 kg
4. Take Alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio 0.50
Molarity of NaOH 12
5. Mass of fly ash 672/(1+0.50) 448 kg
6. Mass of alkaline liquid (552-424.6) 224 kg
7. Taking ratio of Sodium silicate (Na2O SiO2) to NaOH as 2.5
Mass of NaOH 224/ (1+2.5) 64 kg
Mass of sodium silicate (224-64) 160 kg
Water in the sodium silicate is 55.90%therefore (160X0.559) 89.4 kg
Solids in sodium silicate (160-89.4) 70.6 kg
Solids in NaOH 36.1% (64X36.1) 23.10 kg
Water in the NaOH solution is (64-23.10) 30 kg
Total mass of water (89.4+40.90) 130.3 kg
Mass of geopolymer solids (448+70.6+23.10) 541.7 kg
2. Mix design process is illustrated for the concrete mix designed for the trial mix with Chemical ratio 0.5 and
molarity of 16
1. Assume normal density of the concrete 2400 kg/m3
2. Take mass of combined aggregate (72%) of mass concrete 1728 kg/m3
3. Mass of fly ash and alkaline liquid (2400-1728) 672 kg
4. Take Alkaline liquid to fly ash ratio 0.50
Molarity of NaOH 16
Abstract: This work studies the potential of using Pond ash from Raichur Thermal Power Station, Raichur Dist.
Karnataka, as a replacement for sand in masonry mortar. Keeping in view of sand becoming scarce and pond ash
accumulation posing environment problem, a study on finding an alternative material to replace sand with pond ash
is carried out. This not only solves the ash disposal problem but also gives an alternative building material to sand.
In the present work sand is replaced by pond ash in mortar ratio of 1:6. Material properties, mortar properties were
investigated.
Keywords: (Times New Roman – 10 Font-Bold-Italic): Pond ash, Shear Strength, Mortar.
production of Concrete, Portland Pozzolana Cement, present work is collected from RTPS by digging 3ft
Mortar, fly ash bricks and building blocks. depth and then samples are collected.
2. Objectives of the present study:
Utilization of pond ash for construction in large
quantities will be one of the steps in reducing
environmental impact on surroundings of power plant.
In order to use pond ash as a raw material in
construction industry, several attempts are made. One
among them is to develop a masonry mortar by
replacing sand completely with pond ash in cement
mortar. Pond ash is mixed with cement and sand in 1:6
proportion fresh and hardened properties of pond ash
mortar is tested as per IS standards.
3. Materials used in experimental investigation:
A Part of ash falls down at the bottom of the boiler and
is known as bottom ash. Being a coarse ash, it is an 3.1 Cement
excellent substitute of soil for geotechnical applications Ordinary Portland cement of 43 grade conforming to IS
such as filling or reclamation of low lying areas, 8112:1989 is used in the study. The standard
construction of dykes, road and fly over embankments consistency obtained was 31%. The initial and final
etc. The un-utilised Fly ash and bottom ash are mixed setting time was 57min and 410minutes respectively.
together with water to form slurry and taken to lagoons Specific gravity of cement was found to be 3.137.
known as ash ponds for deposition. The ash deposited in
the ash pond is known as pond ash. The ash deposited 3.2 Sand
within about 100 meters of ash slurry discharge point in River sand was used to prepare control specimens. Sand
the pond is coarser ash as compared to the ash deposited was tested for grain size analysis, fineness modulus and
within about 100 mtrs. of water overflow discharge they were zoned. The experimental results showed that
point in the ash pond. The ash deposited in between the sand belonged to Zone II. The range of fineness
these two areas is of medium particle size. Further, modulus was between 2.19 to 2.78. Specific gravity of
during the process of settling of ash in the pond, natural sand was found to be 2.6.
segregation process takes places. Coarser ash settles
3.3 Pond Ash
down first and the final particle in the top layer. With
the general practice intermittent filling of ash ponds, This is the proposed alternate material for sand. As we
repetitive layers of about 1 meter thickness get replace sand with pond ash we study the characteristics
developed with segregated particles. It is used as filling of pond ash is expected to be near to that of the
material in embankment and road construction. characteristics of sand. Therefore we compare the
results of pond ash to the code of reference of Sand.
RTPS generates about 1.5 million tonnes of fly ash
Specific Gravity of Pond Ash is found to be 2.14
annually which causes environmental problems. 20% of
the ash produced is wet bottom ash which is let into the 3.3.1 Grain Size Analysis:
ash bund. Though considered safer than fly-ash, bottom Table1: Grain Size Analysis of Pond ash
ash has also been found to contain heavy metals which
can be dangerous to public health. The fly-ash which IS
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
gets generated during the burning of coal disperses into sieves
% passing % passing % passing
the air and hence pollutes the atmosphere. This gets Sizes
deposited on the surrounding land, thereby making the 4.75mm 91.8 93.8 92.4
land infertile. The fly-ash may also cause breathing 2.36mm 86.4 88.8 88.6
problems for humans. RTPS has taken steps to ensure
1.18mm 79.1 81.8 79.1
that fly-ash gets precipitated out of the air by using
electrostatic elements in the furnaces, but about 2% of 600mic 73 78.2 75
fly-ash gets into the atmosphere. The bottom ash is 300mic 13.6 54 51.3
disposed of by converting it into a wet slurry and 150mic 2.5 26 24.3
dumping it into vacant tracts of land of about 908 acres
of land located in North side of the plant. This area is Pan ∑F= 2.536 ∑F= 1.5 ∑F= 1.91
known as ash-ponds. The ash pond is almost 50% filled We see that the Pond ash sample tested has an even
up with pond ash to a depth of 15ft. Pond ash for distribution of grains. The Sample belongs to Zone III.
Abstract: This paper presents the results of a study undertaken to investigate the high strength development of
concrete using Silpozz and Rice Husk Ash (RHA). The total percentage of supplementary cementitious material
substituted in this study was 20%. Six different mixes were used such as conventional concrete with 100% cement,
80% cement with 20% RHA, 80% cement with 20% silpozz, 80% cement with 5% RHA and 15% silpozz, 80%
cement with 10% RHA and 10% silpozz, and 80% cement with 15% RHA and 5% silpozz. The effects of replacing
cement by RHA and silpozz on the compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength were evaluated.
Concrete mixtures containing different percentage of silpozz and RHA were prepared with water to binder ratio of
0.375. New generation polycarboxylate base water reducing admixture i.e. Cera Hyperplast XR-W40 was used in
this study. The test results indicate that using RHA and Silpozz increases the strength rapidly.
Keywords: Rice husk ash (RHA), silpozz, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength.
Odisha. Sand is used as fine aggregate which is passing husk. This husk is used as fuel in the rice mills to
through IS 4.75 mm sieve. The Natural Coarse generate steam for the parboiling process. This husk
aggregate which is passing through IS 20 mm sieve, was contains about 75% organic volatile matter and the
used in the present study 7. It was supplied by the
balance 25% of the weight of this husk is converted into
crusher at Tapanga, near Khurda, Odisha. The
ash during the firing process, is known as RHA. This
properties of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate are
RHA in turn contains around 85%-90% amorphous
presented in the Table 1. The mineral admixture such as
silica. When blended with cement makes it most eco-
silpozz and RHA supplied by N. K. Enterprises, friendly versatile supplementary cementing material to
Singhania House, Jharsuguda, Odisha was used in this concrete. The RHA sample used in the present study is
study to enhance the high strength characteristics of
shown in Figure 2. The chemical composition of silpozz
concrete.
and RHA is presented in Table 2. The physical
Table1. Properties of fine and coarse aggregates properties of silpozz and RHA are presented in Table 3.
Fine Coarse
Characteristics
aggregate aggregate
Abrasion value (%) - 27.02
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1568 1418
Crushing value (%) - 28.70
3.48
Fineness modulus 7.95
(Zone1)
Impact value (%) - 24.00
Specific gravity 2.63 2.84
Water absorption Figure1: Silpozz samples
0.30 0.10
(%)
2.1.1. Silpozz:
Silpozz is a very good super-pozzolan. Silpozz-
microsilica/amorphous silica, with silica content of
above 90% having particle size of 25 microns mostly
silpozz can be used as an admixture in a big way to
make special concrete mixes. There is a growing
demand for fine amorphous silica in the production of
special cement and concrete mixes. Silpozz is a carbon
neutral green product. Silpozz is used in place of silica
silpozz can be used as an admixture in a big way to
make special concrete mixes. There is a growing
demand for fine amorphous silica in the production of Figure2: Rice Husk Ash samples
special cement and concrete mixes. Silpozz is a carbon
neutral green product. Silpozz is used in place of silica 2.1.3. High end super plasticizer
fumes or micro silica at a much lower cost, without In this study CERA HYPERPLAST XR-W40, high end
compromising on the quality aspect. Adding silpozz to super plasticisers are used for the production of high
the concrete mix even in low replacement will strength and high performance concrete. The super
dramatically enhance the workability, strength and plasticiser was supplied by Cera-Chem Private Ltd.,
impermeability of concrete mixes, while making the Superior Construction Chemicals, An ISO 9001: 2008
concrete durable to chemical attacks, abrasion and Certified Company, 6, Park Street, Kilpauk Garden
reinforcement corrosion, increasing the compressive Colony, Chennai-600010, India. The property of super
strength by 10%-20%. The silpozz sample used in the plasticisers is new generation polycarboxylate base
present study is shown in Figure 1. water reducing admixture helps in the production of
2.1.2. Rice husk ash: self-compacting concretes, retains slump for extended
periods of time, aids in cement savings and ensures high
Rice milling generates a byproduct know as husk. This early and ultimate strength. Such type of super
surrounds the paddy grain. During milling of paddy plasticisers is used for concrete containing large
about 78% of weight is received as rice, broken rice and amounts of supplementary cementitious materials such
bran. Rest 22% of the weight of paddy is received as
as FA, GGBS, and SF. Ideal for self-leveling and higher required doses of super plasticiser was added to get a
grade concretes. good workable concrete mix. In this study, total six
Table2. Chemical composition of silpozz and RHA mixes are prepared. M1 indicate concrete mix with w/b
ratio 0.375. S0R0 indicate 0% silpozz and 0% RHA,
Chemical Chemical S0R20 indicate 0% of silpozz and 20% RHA, S5R15
Oxides
composition of composition indicate 5% silpozz and 15% RHA, S10R10 indicate
(%)
silpozz of RHA 10% silpozz and 10% RHA, S15R5 indicate 15%
SiO2 88.18 88.64 silpozz and 5% RHA, and S20R0 indicate 20% silpozz
Al2O3 1.61 1.23 and 0% RHA. The detail mix proportion along with
Fe2O3 0.56 1.19 their identification is designated according to their
Carbon 2.67 2.33 replacement as given in Table 4. The detail mix
CaO 1.59 1.09 proportions are presented in Table 5.
MgO 1.63 1.76 Table3. Physical properties of silpozz and RHA
K2O 1.67 1.98
Others 2.09 1.78 Physical Physical
Moisture 0.79 1.87 Characteristics properties properties
of silpozz of RHA
3. Details of concrete mix: 0.58
Bulk Density 0.23grams/cc
A concrete mixture of M30 was designed as per grams/cc
standard specification IS: 10262-1982 8 to achieve target LOI < 6.0% < 6.0%
mean strength 39.9 MPa. The other five concrete Solid-Non Solid-Non
Physical state
mixtures were made by replacing 20% of cement with Hazardous Hazardous
different combination percentage of silpozz and RHA Appearance Powder Powder
by mass to improve the strength performance of Colour Grey Grey Black
concrete. The w/b selected for this study is 0.375 with Odor Odorless Odorless
Table4. Details of concrete mix proportion along with identification
w/b Super
Concrete mix proportion Mix Identity
ratio Plasticisers (%)
M1 Concrete mix with 100% cement + 0% silpozz + 0% RHA 0.375 - M1S0R0
M1 Concrete mix with 80% cement + 0% silpozz + 20% RHA 0.375 0.30 M1S0R20
M1 Concrete mix with 80% cement + 5% silpozz + 15% RHA 0.375 0.25 M1S5R15
M1 Concrete mix with 80% cement + 10% silpozz + 10%RHA 0.375 0.25 M1S10R10
M1 Concrete mix with 80% cement + 15% silpozz + 5% RHA 0.375 0.20 M1S15R5
M1 Concrete mix with 80% cement + 20% silpozz + 0% RHA 0.375 0.25 M1S20R0
Table5. Details of mix quantity per m3 of concrete
Mix quantity of different constituents per m3 of concrete
Mix
Cement Sand Silpozz RHA Super Water
Identity NCA (kg)
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Plasticiser (kg) (kg)
M1S0R0 511.00 527.00 1209.27 - - 0 191.60
M1S0R20 408.80 527.00 1209.27 0 102.20 1.533 191.60
M1S5R15 408.80 527.00 1209.27 25.55 76.65 1.277 191.60
M1S10R10 408.80 527.00 1209.27 51.10 51.10 1.277 191.60
M1S15R5 408.80 527.00 1209.27 76.65 25.55 1.022 191.60
M1S20R0 408.80 527.00 1209.27 102.20 0 1.277 191.60
4. Casting and testing of specimen: workable condition. Workability of fresh concrete was
measured by slump test immediately after mixing. The
The required amount of all dry materials such as coarse
slump value was lying in between 36 mm to 46 mm.
aggregate, fine aggregate, cement, silpozz and RHA
The test specimens were cast in steel mould and
were weighed (by mass) and placed in the concrete
compacted by using table vibrator and demoulded after
mixer and it was thoroughly mixed in dry condition for
one minute. The specified water of required amount for 24 hours. Thereafter the specimen cured for 7, 28 and
respective mix is then added during mixing. Super 90 days in a curing chamber under water. The specimen
was removed from water after the specified curing time
plasticiser is than added to bring it to the proper
and wipe out excess water from the surface. Than and 10% of RHA, gives maximum strength as compared
compressive strength is measured from cube specimens, to other mixes.
flexural strength is measured from prism specimens and
split tensile strength is measured from cylindrical
specimens.
5. Results and discussions:
The characteristics of the hardened concrete are
obtained by testing the specimens at the specified time
that is 7, 28 and 90 days. A set of three concrete
specimens were cast and tested for each mix proportion
after specified time. The compressive strength, flexural
strength and split tensile strength test are conducted to
know the hardened concrete properties of the specimen.
5.1. Compressive strength
The summary of compressive strength test results of
concrete mix having w/b ratio 0.375 are presented in a Figure 3: Compressive strength versus age
Table 6. The compressive strength versus age in days
for various concrete mixes is shown in Figure 3 and
compressive strength for various concrete mixes type is
shown in Figure 4.
Table6. The summary of compressive strength results
7 days 28 days 90 days
Mix comp. comp. comp.
Identification strength strength strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
M1S0R0 42.30 56.25 65.88
M1S0R20 43.36 58.50 67.40
M1S5R15 47.50 60.60 68.45
M1S10R10 53.80 64.35 72.35
M1S15R5 46.85 58.35 67.48
Figure 4: Compressive strength versus concrete mix
M1S20R0 43.58 57.60 66.55
5.2. Split tensile strength:
It is observed from the Table 6 that the compressive
A set of three concrete cylinders were cast and tested
strength of control specimen M1S0R0 after 7, 28 and 90
each after 7, 28 and 90 days for each mix proportion to
days are 42.30 MPa, 56.25 MPa and 65.88 MPa
determine the split tensile strength. The summary of
respectively, whereas the compressive strength of
split tensile strength results of concrete specimen having
M1S10R10 is 53.80 MPa, 64.35 MPa and 72.35 MPa
w/b ratio 0.375 are presented in a Table 7. The split
respectively. This result shows that M1S10R10
tensile strength versus age in days for various concrete
achieved higher compressive strength than other mixes.
mixes is shown in Figure 5 and the split tensile strength
It is also observed that at early age the enhancement of
for various concrete mixes type is shown in Figure 6. It
strength with respect to control specimen is higher as
is observed from the results that the maximum split
compared with the later age strength. The early age
tensile strength is observed in M1S10R10 specimen as
enhancement of strength is due to the combination of
compared to control specimen M1S0R0. The Table 7
high end superplasticiser, silpozz and RHA. It is
shows that percentage increase in strength w.r.t control
observed from Figures that, as curing period increases
specimen is higher at early age as compared to the later
the compressive strength of concrete increases. The
age. It is also observed from Figures 5-6 that, as age of
compressive strength of all concrete mixes prepared by
curing increases the split tensile strength of concrete
the addition of different percentage of silpozz and RHA
increases in all mixes. The rate of increment of strength
is higher as compared with the control mix. The rate of
is more from 7 to 28 days as compared with 28 to 90
increment of compressive strength at early age (7-28
days.
days) is more as compared to the later age (28-90 days)
strength. The cement replacement with 10% of silpozz
Table7. The summary of split tensile strength results for 7, 28 and 90 days are 5.12, 6.78 and 7.23
respectively whereas for control specimen M1S0R0 it is
7 days 28 days 90 days
4.7, 6.25 and 6.8 respectively. This represents the
split split split
Mix specimen M1S10R10 gives maximum flexural strength
tensile tensile tensile
Identification than other specimen. The percentage change in strength
strength strength strength
w.r.t control specimen shows that at early age, strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
is more than later age. It is observed from Figures 7-8
M1S0R0 3.41 4.35 4.85 that, as age of curing increases, the flexural strength of
M1S0R20 3.48 4.47 4.98 concrete increases in all types of concrete mix. The rate
M1S5R15 3.58 4.55 5.10 of increment of strength is more from 7 to 28 days as
M1S10R10 3.79 4.68 5.22 compared with 28 to 90 days.
M1S15R5 3.64 4.62 5.15 Table8. The summary of flexural strength results
M1S20R0 3.52 4.52 5.05 7 days 28 days 90 days
Mix flexural flexural flexural
Identification strength strength strength
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
M1S0R0 4.70 6.25 6.80
M1S0R20 4.80 6.38 6.95
M1S5R15 4.95 6.55 7.10
M1S10R10 5.12 6.78 7.23
M1S15R5 4.98 6.58 7.18
M1S20R0 4.88 6.45 7.03
Abstract: Unlike man-made materials, natural materials can interact with the surrounding environment, protect
themselves from it, and heal autonomously when damage occurs. Inspired by such properties of natural materials,
research on the development of innovative and novel bacterial concrete is underway and few research findings on its
durability characteristics were presented in this paper. The notion of self-healing concrete that can repair itself
without human intervention seems to be the stuff of science fiction till now but research conducted at JNTU
Hyderabad on bacteria incorporated concrete realizes the potential of this new field of bio-inspired self-repair
innovation to extend the lifetime and safety of concrete structures, reduces demand for expensive conventional crack
repair methods, and allows self-remediation in human inaccessible locations. Bacterial concrete has self-healing
component in the form of bacterium Bacillus subtilis JC3 and nutrients that will heal the damage to restore the
integrity of the concrete structure. This emerging technology provided a benefit by extending the periods at which
maintenance had to be carried out, and reducing the damage it sustained, extending the life of the concrete structure.
Developing a bio-based concrete that would work reliably in potentially extreme conditions and remain stable over
the life of the material was also a challenge. In the present investigations, artificially cracked cubes are immersed in
bacteria mediated nutrient suspension for 7 days to study the mechanism of bio-remediation. The cubes were
examined for the variation in their compressive strength and inferred that compressive strength showed increase.
Our results showed that the durability properties of bacterial concrete enhanced enormously in terms of
permeability, porosity, resistance to acid attack, chloride ion penetration.
Keywords: bacterial concrete, bio mineralization, MICP, Bacillus subtilis JC3, durability.
sphaericus. In the present study the enhanced achieved. The microbial precipitation of CaCO3 is
performance potential of bacteria B.subtilis is reported. determined by several factors including: the
De Muynck et al. found that the influence of the concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon, the pH, the
calcium source is limited to the morphology of the concentration of calcium ions and the presence of
crystals. By means of SEM observations, they proved nucleation sites [7]. The first three factors are provided
that the presence of chloride ions resulted in by the metabolism of the bacteria while the cell wall of
rhombohedral crystals, while the presence of acetate the bacteria will act as a nucleation site [8]. This
ions resulted in spherical crystals [4]. B.subtilis strain was chosen because of its greatest
potential for precipitation of calcium carbonate, even
under extreme conditions, as well as its lack of
pathogenicity and a very negative zeta-potential [9][10].
The chemical equations involved in microbial activity
are:
Ca2+ + B.subtilis Cell → B.subtilis Cell- Ca2+
CH3CH(NH2)COOH (Peptone) + ½O2 ---------> C2H2
+ H2CO3 + NH3
H2CO3 ----------> H+ + HCO3-
NH3 + H2O --------> NH4+ + OH-
B.subtilis Cell- Ca2+ + CO32- → B.subtilis Cell CaCO3
Figure1. Schematic diagram to distinguish porosity and 3. Experimental Investigations
permeability (EuroLightCon, 1998)
3.1. Compressive Strength
Bacteria-based self-healing sustainable concrete which
To study the effect of biomineralization, due to Bacillus
can extend its service life is our focus of research.
subtilis JC3 on the compressive strength of concrete
Calcite precipitation due to microbial chemical process
treated with 1x 105 cells/ml bacteria spore suspension,
by specific alkali resistant microorganisms can act as a
Cubes of size 100 x 100 x 100 mm are cast and tested
self-healing agent when induced into concrete. This
for compressive strength as per IS 516:1959.
mechanism is of great interest for repair in concrete
structures without human intervention [5]. The research 3.2. Water Absorption
findings shows that a new type of alkaliphilic aerobic
The water absorption test was conducted as per ASTMC
microorganism belonging to Bacillus species, which
642 (82) in order to determine the increase in resistance
when added to concrete enhances the strength and
towards water penetration in concrete. The cube
durability characteristics of concrete structures
specimens of 100x100mm were prepared both with and
significantly due to growth of filler material called
without bacteria. After28 days curing, the specimens
calcite(CaCO3) within the pores of the cement–sand
were oven dried at 105°C in oven, establishing a mass
matrix leading to pore refinement and enhanced
equilibrium of less than 0.5% between two
concrete microstructure [6]. This paper presents the
measurements at 24 h intervals. Then the specimens
research findings to suggest the potential use of the
were immersed in water at approximately 21°C for 48 h
microbial calcite precipitation process in remediation of
and saturated mass after immersion was calculated.
the surface cracks and subsurface of porous media.
Then the specimens were placed in suitable receptacle,
2. Chemistry of biogenic activity by Bacillus Subtilis covered with tap water and were boiled for 5 h, further
JC3 the saturated mass after boiling was calculated. The
specimens were suspended by a wire and the apparent
Calcium chloride was used for precipitation of calcium
mass in water was calculated. The ratio of the difference
carbonate, while culture medium consisting of Peptone:
between the mass of saturated surface dry specimen and
5 g/lit., NaCl: 5 g/lit., Yeast extract: 3 g/lit. and beef
the mass of the oven dried specimen to the volume of
extract was used for cultivation of microorganisms.
the specimen (1000 ml) gives the permeable voids in
B.subtilis cell can attract Ca ions (Ca2+), which react
percentage.
with carbonate ions CO32- originating from peptone
during oxidative deamination of amino acids. Volume of permeable voids %= (C-A)/(C-D) x 100
Simultaneously, ammonia ions NH4+ increase pH value
Where A is the mass of the oven dried sample in air
in surrounding medium which improves calcite
(gm) C is the mass of sample after immersion and
precipitation efficiency. Precipitation of calcium
boiling (gm) and D is the apparent mass of sample in
carbonate crystals occurs by heterogeneous nucleation
water after immersion and boiling (gm).
on the bacterial cell wall once super-saturation is
The oven dried cubes after attaining constant weight, pores in concrete matrix, volume of micropores, pore
were then immersed in water and the weight gain was size distribution and specific surface area. This test
measured at regular intervals until a constant weight confirms the modification in pore size distribution due
was reached. The absorption at 30 min (initial surface to the addition of microorganisms. The porosity and
absorption) and final absorption was determined. The pore size distribution as measured by BET Nitrogen
final absorption in all cases was determined at 96 hrs. Adsorption Method are reported graphically as shown in
The absorption characteristics indirectly represent the Fig 7.
volume of pores and their connectivity.
3.5. Thermo gravimetric Analysis
3.3. Sorptivity Test as per ASTM C1585
A sample of the repair material was removed from the
Sorptivity is a measure of the capillary forces exerted by crack by means of a needle. This material was used for
the pore structure causing fluids to be drawn in to the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). About ±30 mg of
body of the material. It provides a relative measure that the repair material was brought in a sample cup.
combines pore size diameter and number of pores. The Subsequently the cup was placed in the TGA apparatus.
samples (100 x 50 mm size cylindrical specimens) are During the analysis, the crack repair material was
preconditioned to a certain moisture condition, either by exposed to temperatures ranging from 20°C to 900°C at
drying the sample for 7 days in a 50°C oven. The sides a rate of 10 °C/min in an inert argon atmosphere.
of the concrete sample are sealed, typically with Through performance of the TGA analysis, the presence
electrician’s tape or by sealant while the suction face of CaCO3 in the repair material is determined. When
and the face opposite it were left unsealed. The initial CaCO3 crystals are present in the repair material, they
mass of the sample is taken and at time 0, is immersed will decompose into CaO and CO2 upon heating. As
to a depth of 5-10 mm in the water. The procedure was CaCO3 decomposes between the temperature ranges of
repeated, consecutively, at various times such as 15 500-800 °C a decrease in weight, caused by the release
min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, 4 hr, 6 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr and 72 hr of CO2, is expected around that temperature interval for
until the last reading. The gain in mass per unit area the samples treated with bacteria. As it can be seen in
over the density of water (I) is plotted versus the square Fig 7, at about 100 -200 °C the water in the specimens
root of the elapsed time (√t). The slope of the line of evaporates, leading to a decrease in weight. Between
best fit of these points (ignoring the origin) is reported 500 and 800 °C another decrease in weight is observed
as the sorptivity (k). For one dimensional flow, it can be due to the decomposition of CaCO3. For the without
stated that: bacteria specimens the weight loss is rather small while
for with bacteria specimens a strong decrease in weight
I = k x √t
is observed. These results provide evidence that
Where k is sorptivity coefficient and I = W/(A x d) particularly in the case of concrete specimens with
W = the amount of water absorbed in kg; A= the cross- bacteria, CaCO3 crystals are formed. In other graph, the
section of the specimen that was in contact with water percentage change in weight / °C is shown versus the
(m2); d= density of the medium in which the specimen temperature to indicate the points at which the weight
was dipped (1000 kg/m3 in case medium is water). The loss is most apparent. For concrete specimens without
rate of water absorption, sorptivity (k), is the slope of I- bacteria only a small amount of CaCO3 is decomposed
√t graph (m / min1/2 or kg/ m2 / √ min). Because of small at the temperature of 591 °C. This decrease in weight
initial surface tension and buoyancy effects, the may possibly be attributed to chemical precipitation of
relationship between cumulative water absorption CaCO3. For concrete specimens with bacteria, the
(kg/m2) and square root of exposure time (t 0.5) shows observed peaks are more distinct. XRD analysis was
deviation from linearity during first few minutes. Thus, performed to find out which type of material was
for the calculation of sorptivity coefficient, only the formed besides CaCO3. It was shown that the crystalline
section of the curves for exposure period from 15 min to materials present in the mortar matrix were calcite,
72 hrs, where the curves were consistently linear, was vaterite and aragonite. All these are crystalline forms of
used for the calculation of Sorptivity. While volume of CaCO3 from which calcite is the most stable form.
permeable voids (VPV) is a measure of voids, Aragonite and vaterite undergo transitions to calcite at
Sorptivity gives a measure of nominal pore radius and 455 °C and between 350 and 400 °C respectively.
number of pores. Consequently about 600 °C the reactant CaCO3 would
normally be the calcite.
3.4. Brenauer-Emmett-Teller’s (BET) Nitrogen (N2)
Nitrogen Adsorption Method 4. Test Results and Discussion
BET nitrogen adsorption method is used to determine Test results of various investigations carried out on
the volume, size and surface area of pores. Porosity bacteria incorporated concrete are presented below:
characteristics of Concrete including total volume of
Table1. Effect of Bacillus subtilis JC3 cell concentration on Compressive Strength (MPa)
Average Compressive Strength (MPa) ± S.D
Cell concentration/ml % Increase % Increase % Increase
of mixing water 7 days relative to14 days relative to28 days relative to
control control control
Nil (control) 37.32 ± 0.42 - 44.1±0.66 51.81±0.10 -
104 41.68±0.52 11.68 45.23±0.85 2.56 58.02±0.72 11.99
105 45.02±0.22 20.63 49.21±0.91 11.59 61.79±0.68 16.15
106 43.09±0.36 15.46 47.69±0.32 8.14 57.21±0.49 10.42
107 40.11±0.58 7.48 45.97±0.44 4.24 54.66±0.89 5.51
An alkaliphilic aerobic soil microorganism Bacillus Figure2. Strength development of a Normal concrete
subtilis JC3 is incorporated at different cell and Bacterial concrete
concentrations with the mixing water. Different cell
concentrations were derived from the bacterial growth
culture by serial dilution method. The study showed that
a 16 % increase in 28 day compressive strength of
cement mortar was achieved with the addition of about
105 cell/ml of mixing water as shown in Table 1. The
strength improvement is due to growth of filler material
within the pores of the cement–sand matrix as shown in
Fig 2. The modification in pore size distribution and
total pore volume of cement–sand mortar due to such
growth is also noted.
(c) Water Absorption Capacity (WAC) (%) and Volume of permeable voids (VPV) (%)
Controlled Concrete Bacterial Concrete
M20 M40 M60 M80 M20 M40 M60 M80
Water Absorption Capacity (WAC) (%) 5.62 2.79 1.93 1.52 2.79 1.19 0.77 0.38
Volume of permeable voids (VPV) (%) 12 6 4 3 6 3 2 1
It was observed that with the inclusion of bacteria, water
absorption capacity of concrete decreased. Maximum
reduction in water absorption was observed with 10 5
cells/ml for bacterial concrete specimens as shown in
Table 2 a-c. The deposition of a layer of calcium
carbonate on the surface and inside pores of the
concrete specimens resulted in a decrease of water
absorption and permeability as shown in Fig 4 and 5.
Once the pores are sealed, reduction in water ingress is
observed. This bacterial action deposition can seal the
pores, voids and micro cracks, where other sealants are
unable to work through. Concrete specimens treated Figure 4 Water Absorption Capacity (WAC) (%)
with bacteria and nutrients showed significantly less
water absorption compared to untreated specimens
indicating that about 65% of this decrease was
attributable to the presence of biological matter, which
physically hindered the movement of water as shown in
Fig 6. This improvement is probably due to deposition
on the microorganism cell surfaces and within the pores
of cement–sand matrix, which plug the pores within the
mortar. As a consequence, the carbonation rate
decreased by about 25–30%
0.009
M20 Controlled
0.008 M40 Controlled
M60 Controlled
M80 Controlled
0.007 M20 Bacterial
M40 Bacterial
M60 Bacterial
0.006
M80 Bacterial
0.005
I x 10 -3 m
0.004 1
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00 50.00 60.00 70.00
t0.5 min
will decompose into CaO and CO2 upon heating CO2, is expected around that temperature interval for the
(CaCO3 → CaO + CO2). As CaCO3 decomposes samples treated with bacteria. A clear difference in
between the temperature ranges of 500–700°C a weight loss can be observed between the samples
significant decrease in weight, caused by the release of treated with and without bacteria as shown in Fig 8.
1.20E-02
1.00E-02
Cumulative Pore Volume (cc/g)
M20 Controlled
M40 Controlled
8.00E-03
M60 Controlled
M80 Controlled
6.00E-03
4.00E-03
2.00E-03
0.00E+00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Pore Diameter (nm)
95
Weight %
90
85
80
75
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
o
Temperature C
0.4
without bacteria
with bacteria
0.3
Change in Weight (%/ oC)
0.2
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
o
Temperature C
Figure8. TGA Results showing weight loss and Change in weight loss per oC
Abstract: Performance of civil engineering structures to a great extent depends on the characteristics of the
materials used for their construction. Innovation in construction is highly linked with development of advanced
construction materials. Fibre reinforced concrete can offer a convenient, practical and economical method for
overcoming micro-cracks and similar type of deficiencies. Conventional concrete used in building and civil
engineering applications requires compaction to achieve strength, durability and homogeneity. The typical method
of compaction, vibration, generates delays and additional costs in projects and moreover is a serious health hazard in
and around construction sites. Self-Compacting Concrete or Self Consolidating Concrete (SCC) is a highly flowable,
stable concrete which flows readily into place, filling formwork without any consolidation and without undergoing
any significant segregation. In the present work, Fiber Reinforced Vibrated Concrete (FRVC) and Fiber Reinforced
Self-Compacting Concrete (FRSCC) were developed independently. A relationship is developed between the tensile
strength and compressive strength, flexural strength and compressive strength of FRVC and FRSCC for M40 Grades
of Concrete. The values of Compression, Split, Flexure and Modulus of Elasticity of VC and SCC with and without
glass fiber were also compared with the Indian Standard Codal Provisions.
Key words: Vibrated Concrete, Self Compacting Concrete, Glass Fiber, M40 Grade of Concrete, Mechanical
Properties, Relationships.
Fig.3 L-Box
Table2. Basic Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete for M40 Grade
S. No Method Unit SCC GFRSCC EFNARC limit
1. slump flow by Abrams cone mm 710 675 650-800
2. T50cmslump flow sec 4.12 4.61 2-5
3. V-funnel sec 5.79 10.50 6 - 12
4. Time increase, V-funnel at T5minutes sec 2 2.5 0-3
5. J-ring mm 7 9 0-10
6. L-box(h2/h1) 0.85 0.80 0.8 – 1.0
3. Experimental Program The Fly ash available locally was used as a partial
replacement for cement and Conplast SP337
An experimental program was designed to develop
superplastisizer, in optimum dosages for improving the
Vibrated concrete and Self-Compacting Concrete with
strength and workability properties of concretes. The
and without Glass Fiber for M40 grade of concrete. The
strength properties of self- compacting concrete and mixes were designed as per ACI mix design [9] for
vibrated concrete with and without Glass Fiber were normal vibrated concrete (VC) and Nansu method of
mix design [10] for Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC).
studied. Cubes, cylinders and prisms of standard
The details of the mix proportions are as shown in
dimensions were cast and tested. The compressive
Table.3.
strength, Split tensile strength flexural strength and
modulus of elasticity of Self- Compacting Concrete 3.2Casting of specimens
(SCC) and Vibrated Concrete (VC) with and without
The program consisting of casting and testing of 12
Glass Fiber were determined and an inter relationship is
cubes, 12 cylinders, 12 prisms and additional 12
proposed between split tensile strength & compressive
cylinders(for Modulus of Elasticity) of each. Of these
strength and flexural strength & compressive strength of 12 specimens 6 corresponds to VC and 6 corresponds to
VC and SCC with and without Glass Fiber. SCC. Of these 6, 3 each correspond to with fiber and
3.1Materials used without fiber in each of these concretes. Of these 3
specimens 150 x 150 mm cubes, 100 x 100 x 400 prism
The materials used throughout the experimentation are
same for both SCC and VC. Ordinary Portland cement specimens for flexure, 150mm diameter and 300 mm
of 53 grade (compressive strength not less than 53 height specimens for split tension and Modulus of
Elasticity were employed. Both VC & SCC with and
N/mm2) was used in the study. The cement was selected
without glass fiber specimens were cast at the same time
as per IS-12269 [7]. Fine aggregate was standard river
under identical temperature conditions and all the
sand procured locally and was confirming to zone-II as
specimens were demoulded after 24 hours of air drying
per IS-2386 [8]. Crushed granite was used as coarse
aggregate. The aggregate was passed through standard and kept in water for 28 days for water curing.
sieves of 20mm and retained on 4.75mm sieve. The 3.3 Testing of Specimens
Glass Fiber (GF) is Cem-Fil Anti Crack and its Specific
At the end of 28 days curing the specimens capped
gravity is 2.6, length of the fiber is close to 12 mm, and
using plaster of paris if required to ensure plane testing
the Specific surface area is 105 m2 /kg. The optimum surface. Tinius-Olsen testing machine (TOTM) of
dosage of Glass fiber was arrived as 1 Kg/m3 of capacity 2000KN was used for testing the specimens
concrete based on the fresh and hardened properties.
under standard load rate control. While testing, determined using compressometer setup and tested
precautions were taken to ensure axial loading. For under TOTM. All the above tests were done as per IS
flexural strength standard three point loading was Codal Provisions [11].
adopted. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was
Table3. Mix Proportions
Super- Viscosity
Concrete Cement Fly ash Powder Sand Aggregate Water
Plasticizer Modifying
Type (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Kg) (Lit)
(Lit) Agent (Lit)
(1) (2) (3) (4) =(2+3) (5) (6) (7)
(8) (9)
M40 (VC) 437.57 77.22 514.79 753.79 940.90 187.04 5.15 -
M40
437.57 102.96 540.53 753.79 940.90 187.04 5.40 -
(FRVC)
M40
417.39 131.00 464.91 908.28 800.40 200.02 14.60 0.42
(SCC)
M40
417.39 166.00 583.39 908.28 800.40 200.02 16.00 0.50
(FRSCC)
4. Interpretation and Discussion of Test Results additions has shown pronounced increase of split tensile
The results obtained from the detailed experimental strength of self-compacting concrete.
program conducted on VC and SCC without and with 4.3 Effect of Fibers addition on Flexural Strength of
fiber are discussed and presented in the next paragraphs. VC and SCC
Table 4 shows the details of various mechanical
Table 4 & Fig 9 show the details of flexural strength for
properties viz., compressive strength, split strength and no fiber and fiber additions. There is an increase in
flexural strength for vibrated concrete and self- flexural strength of fibrous concretes as compared to no
compacting concretes with and without glass fiber. The
f
optimum fiber content utilized throughout the fiber concretes. The values are close to 0.7 ck as
experimentation was based on initial strength and flow given by IS code for the relationship between flexural
studies. strength sqrt (fck) for normal concrete. The value of
4.1 Compressive Strength of Fiber Reinforced VC fck
flexural strength to is more with glass fibrous
and SCC concretes. From Fig 8, it can be concluded from this
The mechanical properties of concrete cast without and study that the fibers improve the flexural strength as
with Fibers additions are shown in Table 4. Addition of high as 9.72% in FRVC concrete and it is 11.11 % in
fibers has definitely increased the compressive strength, the case of FRSCC. At this stage it may be concluded
though marginally. The variation of compressive that the bending behaviour is greatly improved with
strength with fiber additions and the percentage increase glass fiber additions in self-compacting concrete.
in strength with fiber addition is plotted in Fig 7. It can 4.4 Effect of Fibers addition on Modulus of Elasticity
be noted that the percentage increase is marginal. It is of VC and SCC
3.56 % in Vibrated Glass Fiber reinforce concrete while
it is 4.15 % in Glass Fiber Reinforced Self-Compacting The brittle behavior of self-compacting concrete is
Concrete. It can hence be concluded at this stage that known. The fiber addition in such concretes may
fiber additions do not increase the compressive strength modify the stress-strain behaviour of concrete. Using a
much. compressometer setup and under compression the
stress-strain values are evaluated and curves were drawn
4.2 Influence of Fibers on Split Tensile Strength of for the initial elastic portions. The Modulus of Elasticity
VC and SCC (E) was calculated, following the specifications as laid
The tensile strength of SCC is relatively much lower by IS Code 516-1999[11]. Table 5 shows the details of
than its compressive strength because, it can be the values of modulus of elasticity for VC and SCC
developed more quickly with crack propagation. Hence, without and with fiber respectively. It may be concluded
it is important to improve the tensile strength of such a that the addition of fiber in general increased the value
concrete. The variation of split tensile strength with of E of self-compacting concrete. These values were
fiber additions is shown in Table 4. It can be noted that close to 5000*√fck in case of no fiber concrete & higher
the percentage increase is 8.54% in GFVC and 13.07% in case of fibrous concretes.
in GFRSCC (Fig 8). It can be inferred that the fiber
Abstract: This paper presents the results of an experimental research on the workability and mechanical properties
of self-compacting concrete. The work focused on concrete mixes having Packing Factors of 1.10, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13
and 1.14 for a Water Cement ratio of 0.25. The Concrete mixes contains different proportions of GGBS, Super
plasticizers, Water binder ratios, Coarse aggregate, Fine aggregate and constant proportions of water cement ratios,
Cement, Micro Silica and VMA, for different Packing Factors. The percentage of Micro Silica added is 7% for all
mixes. The mix proportions are obtained on the basis of NAN-SU mix design. All the mixes contain Cement of 574
kg/m3 but with different total binder content. The workability tests utilized in this research were the Slump flow, V-
funnel, L-box and U-box, which can be used to evaluate the filling ability, segregation resistance and passing ability
of self-compacting concrete. Based upon the experimental results, it is observed that when Packing Factor is less
than 1.10 the mix requires more binders there by affecting the workability, whereas when Packing Factor is more
than 1.14 the required strengths and workability are not achieved.
Keywords: Self-Compacting Concrete, Packing Factor (PF), Workability, GGBS, Micro silica, Super plasticizer and
VMA.
(OPC 53 grade), GGBS and Micro silica were used as were GLENIUM B233 (a new generation based on
cementitious materials. Natural river sand and crushed modified poly carboxylic ether) as super plasticizer and
gravel with a nominal maximum size of 10 mm were Glenium Stream-2 as VMA.
used as the aggregates[10]. Chemical admixtures used
Table1: Mix proportions of concrete containing different Packing Factors
Concrete Mixes
M3 M4 M5
M1 P.F=1.10 M2 P.F=1.11
Mix Components P.F=1.12 P.F=1.13 P.F=1.14
Qty. Qty. Qty. Qty. Qty.
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Cement 574 574 574 574 574
GGS 54.20 45.57 36.73 28.00 19.27
Micro Silica 40.18 40.18 40.18 40.18 40.18
Fine aggregate 829.40 836.94 844.48 852.20 859.56
Coarse aggregate 790.94 798.13 805.32 812.52 819.71
Water 151.85 149.34 146.83 144.32 141.81
Super Plasticisers 11.31 11.15 10.99 10.84 10.68
VMA 1.722 1.722 1.722 1.722 1.722
3. Workability and compressive strength: strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength and
workability are discussed for different Packing Factors.
The strict definition of workability is the amount of
Packing Factor is defined as the ratio of mass of
useful internal work necessary to produce full
aggregate of tightly packed state in SCC to that of
compaction. The useful internal work is a physical
loosely packed state. The workability tests performed in
property of concrete and is the work or energy required
this research were as per EFNARC. The tests done were
to overcome the internal friction between the individual
Slump flow, V-funnel, L-box and U-box.
particles of the mixture. Because of the very high
workability of self-compacting concrete, it needs no 4.1. Experimental Results:
external vibration and can spread into place, fill the
The results of workability tests on self-compacting
framework and encapsulate reinforcement without any
concrete are shown in Table 2. The results of
bleeding or segregation. In other words, to ensure that
compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural
reinforcement can be encapsulated and that the
strength are shown in Table 3
framework can be filled completely, a favourable
workability is essential for self-compacting concrete. 4.2. Fresh and hardened state properties of Self-
Moreover, aggregate particles in self-compacting compacting concrete:
concrete are required to have uniform distribution in the
It is observed that the Slump Flow (SF) decreases as the
specimen and the minimum segregation risk should be
Packing Factor (PF) increases. When PF increases from
maintained during the process of transportation and
1.10 to 1.14(3.6%), slump flow increases from 680mm
placement.
to 650mm(4.41%) which is shown in Fig.1.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and
It is observed that the T500, V-funnel, T5 and U-box
significantly affected by the presence of voids in the
values are increasing as the PF increases. When PF
compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum
increases from 1.10 to 1.14(3.64%), T500 time
possible density. This requires a sufficient workability
increases from 2.66 sec to 4.62 sec (73.68%),V-funnel
or virtually full compaction. It is obvious that the
time increases from 6.93sec to 11.78sec (68.54%), T5
presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and
time increases from 11.65sec to 14.94sec(28.24%) and
greatly reduces the strength, which means the presence
U-box value increases from 5mm to 12mm (140.00%).
of 5 percent of voids can lower the strength by as much
It is observed that workability decreases as the PF
as 30%. This research compares the compressive
increases which are shown in Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 6
strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of
respectively.
self-compacting concrete mixtures for different Packing
Factors. It is observed that the L-box value decreases as the PF
increase. When PF increases from 1.10 to 1.14(3.6%),
4. Results and Discussion:
L-box ratio decreases from 0.98 to 0.94(5.15%). It is
In this part of the paper, the experimental results of self- observed that flow ability decreases as the PF increases
compacting concrete mixes related to compressive which is shown in Fig.5.
685
Slump Flow in mm 680 680
675
670 668
665
660 662
658
655
650 650
645
1.095 1.1 1.105 1.11 1.115 1.12 1.125 1.13 1.135 1.14 1.145
Packing Factor
5 4.62
4.16 4.23
3.77
4
T50 in sec
2.66
3
0
1.095 1.1 1.105 1.11 1.115 1.12 1.125 1.13 1.135 1.14 1.145
Packing Factor
8.86
10
6.93
8
6
4
2
0
1.095 1.1 1.105 1.11 1.115 1.12 1.125 1.13 1.135 1.14 1.145
Packing Factor
20 14.02 14.94
12.17 13.53
15 11.65
T5 in sec
10
5
0
1.095 1.1 1.105 1.11 1.115 1.12 1.125 1.13 1.135 1.14 1.145
Packing Factor
0.98
L-Box Ratio 0.97 0.97
0.96 0.96
0.95 0.95
0.94
0.93 0.93
0.92 0.92
0.91
1.095 1.1 1.105 1.11 1.115 1.12 1.125 1.13 1.135 1.14 1.145
Packing Factor
3.92 3.81
4
3 3.896 3.78
3.396
MPa
3.237 3.12
2 Split tensile strength(28days)
1 Split tensile strength(7days)
0
1.09 1.1 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15
Packing Factor
Abstract: This paper presents the experimental investigation done on flexural behavior of reinforced geopolymer
concrete. The molarity used for the preparation of geoploymer specimens was 12. The grades choosen for the
investigation were M-30, M-40 and M-50. The alkaline solution used for present study was the combination of
sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solution with the ratio of 2.50. The test specimens were 150x150x150 mm
cubes and 150x150x2000mm reinforced beams cured at room temperature. The percentage of reinforcement was
varied in the range of 0.55, 1.1 and 1.65 for all the 3 mixes designed. The results revealed that the workable flow of
geopolymer concrete was in the range of 85 to 145mm and was dependent on the ratio by mass of sodium silicate
and sodium hydroxide solution. The freshly prepared geopolymer mixes were cohesive and their workability
increased with the increase in the ratio of alkaline solution. The failure patterns of the beam specimen were found
almost similar to that of conventional RCC beam. At early stages, flexural crack occurred in the central portion of
the beam and gradually spread towards the support. The geopolymer concrete do not have Portland cement, they can
be considered as less energy intensive. Since it utilizes the industrial wastes such as fly ash for producing the
binding system, they can be considered as eco-friendly materials.
Keywords: geopolymer concrete, fly ash, molarity, sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide.
reorganizes to form chains, which finally grow to concentration. When sodium hydroxide and sodium
become nuclei. Immediately after the inititations of the silicate solutions mixed together polymerization will
dissolution process, polycondensation (polymerization) take place liberating large amount of heat, which
occurs simultaneously with dissolution leading to the indicates that the alkaline liquid must be used after 24
formation of geopolymer gel. hours as binding agent.
1.2 Experimental Investigations 2.2 Mixing, Casting, Compaction and Curing of
Materials: geopolymer concrete
GPC can be manufactured by adopting the conventional
The following materials have been used in the
techniques used in the manufacture of Portland cement
experimental study [12]
concrete. In the laboratory, the fly ash and the
a) Fly Ash (Class F) collected form Raichur Thermal aggregates were first mixed together dry on pan for
power plant having specific gravity 2.00. about three minutes. The liquid component of the
b) Ground granulated blast furnace slag collected from mixture is then added to the dry materials and the
JSW Steel Ltd., Vidyanagar, Toranagallu, Bellary mixing continued usually for another four minutes
having specific gravity 2.90. (Fig.1 and Fig. 2).
c) Fine aggregate: Sand confirming to Zone –III of IS:
The addition of sodium silicate is to enhance the process
383-1970 [13] having specific gravity 2.51 and
of geopolymerization [11]. For the present study,
fineness modulus of 2.70.
concentration of NaOH solution is taken as 12M with
d) Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite metal
Na2SiO3 / NaOH as 2.5 for all the grades of GPC mixes.
confirming to IS: 383-1970 [13] having specific
gravity 2.70 and fineness modulus of 5.85. The workability of the fresh concrete was measured by
e) Water : Clean Potable water for mixing means of conventional slump test (Fig. 3). In order to
improve the workability, superplasticizer Conplast SP-
f) Alkaline liquids: Specific gravity of
430 with a dosage of 1.5% by mass of the fly ash was
i) Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) = 1.16
added to the mixture. Extra water (other than the water
ii) Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) = 1.57
used for the preparation of alkaline solutions) and
Tests were conducted on specimen of standard size as dosage of super plasticizer was added to the mix
per IS: 516-1959 [14]. Details of tests conducted and according to the mix design details. The fly ash and
specimens used are given in Table 1. alkaline activator were mixed together in the mixer until
2. Mix design of geopolymer concrete homogeneous pate was obtained. This mixing process
can be handled within 5 minutes for each mixture with
In the design of geopolymer concrete mix, coarse and different ratios of alkaline solution. After casting the
fine aggregates together were taken as 77% of entire specimens, they were kept in rest period for two days
mixture by mass. This value is similar to that used in and then they were demoulded. The demoulded
OPC concrete in which it will be in the range of 75 to specimens were kept for ambient air curing as shown in
80% of the entire mixture by mass. Fine aggregate was Fig. 6.
taken as 30% of the total aggregates. The density of
geopolymer concrete is taken similar to that of OPC as 2.3 Specimen details
2400 kg/m3 [10]. The details of mix design and its The beam specimens were 150mm wide and 150mm
proportions for different grades of GPC are given in deep in cross section. They were 2000mm in length and
Table 2. simply supported over an effective span of 1900 mm as
2.1 ALKALINE SOLUTION shown in Fig. 8. The clear cover of the beam was
25mm. HYSD bars of 8mm and 10mm were used as the
In geopolymerization, alkaline solution plays an longitudinal reinforcement in the specimens. Three
important role. The most common alkaline solution used different percentages of tensile reinforcement of 0.55%
in geopolymerization is a combination of sodium to 1.65% tension reinforcement (under balanced,
hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH) and balanced and over balanced section) were used. The
sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or potassium silicate reinforcement details are given in Table 3.
(K2SiO3). In this study, a combination of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate was choosen as the 2.4 Flexural test setup
alkaline liquid. Sodium based solutions were choosen The test specimen was mounted in a loading frame of
because they are cheaper than Potassium based 1000 kN capacity. The load was applied on two point of
solutions. Generally sodium hydroxide and sodium mm away from centre of the beam towards the support.
silicate are readily available in market in the form of The beams were cleaned and white washed with a thin
pellets and gel (liquid). The pellets of NaOH are coat of white surface to facilitate the detection of cracks
dissolved in one liter of water for the required and the propagation of cracks. Dial gauges are used
having a magnetic base. The least count of dial gauge maximum strength was observed for the alkaline ratio of
was 0.01 mm and can measure deflection of 5mm has 2.5, this variation was true for any grade of concrete.
after which has to rested. The points at which dial The trend of results was in par with the observations
gauges to be fixed were cleaned. (Fig. 7) made by Hardjito et al [9].
3. Results and Discussions 3.3 Behaviour of beams
3.1 Workability The beam specimens were tested under two static
loading until failure. As the load increased, beam started
Fresh GPC mixes were found to be highly viscous and
to deflect and flezural cracks developed along the span
cohesive with medium to high slump. The workability
of the beams. All the beam specimens failed in the same
of the geopolymer concrete decreases with increase in
the grade of the concrete as presented in Fig. 5, this is fashion due to yielding of the tensile steel (primary
because of the decrease in the ratio of water to tension failure) followed by crushing of concrete at the
compression face (secondary compression failure) as
geopolymer solids by mass. For a given geopolymer
shown in Fig. 8.
concrete, the total mass of water in the mixture is taken
as the sum of the mass of water in the sodium silicate 3.4 Crack pattern
solution, the mass of water in the sodium hydroxide Plain concrete is weak in tension, though it is a versatile
solution and the mass of extra water added to the
and strong material in compression. It cracks at an early
mixture. The mass of geopolymer solids is the sum of
stage of loading history when the tensile strain is of the
the mass of fly ash, the mass of sodium hydroxide flake
order of 0.0002 to 0.0005. In fact the tensile
and the mass of sodium silicate solids (the mass of
reinforcement becomes effective only when the concrete
Na2O and SiO2 in sodium silicate solution). The test cracks. Large scale cracking is not acceptable, as it is
data shown in Figure are somewhat analogous to the aesthetically not appreciable and also promotes moisture
well-known effect of water-to-cement ratio on the
ingress, resulting in corrosion. Cracking is considered to
compressive strength of OPC concrete, although the
be an important limit state of serviceability. The total
chemical processes involved in the formation of the
numbers of cracks, numbers of cracks in flexural zone
binders of both these types of concretes are entirely are shown in Table 5. The propagation of cracks was
different. observed for each increment of load up to failure. The
3.2 Compressive strength cracks first appeared in flexure zone and extended well
up to top with increase in load. In all the beams initial
The compressive strength is one of the most noteworthy
properties of hardened concrete and is considered as the cracks progressed vertically upwards up to yielding.
characteristic material value for the classification of Later on few of cracks appeared outside the pure
bending zone and flexural cracks seemed to be
concrete. The compressive strength of the GPC
temporarily stabilized with secondary crack formation
specimens synthesized at three different grades are as
gaining ground. At still higher loads a steady growth
shown in Table 4. The chemical reaction of the
was observed. The pattern of crack formation and
geopolymer gel is due to substantially fast
polymerization process, the compressive strength do not widening is same for all grades. The cracks are well
vary with the age of concrete. This observation is in distributed and symmetrical about the center. The cracks
in the pure bending region are predominantly vertical
contrast to the well-known behavior of OPC concrete,
and parallel as expected. Cracks that are found at shear
which undergoes hydration process and hence gains
span are inclined at 60° to 75° to the horizontal.
strength over the time. Heat should be provided to
facilitate the hardening process as the condensation 3.5 Deflection profiles
polymerization that takes place during hardening
Deflection is one of the important serviceability limit
process is endothermic in nature. The phenomenon is
states to be satisfied in the design of concrete structures.
different from OPC based concrete as GPC does not
IS: 456-2000 recommends a ratio of span to effective
involve water in its geopolmerization reaction. Water is depth less than or equal to 20 as generally sufficient to
used to wet the solid components of the mixture and in restrict the deflections to an allowable value of span/250
the mix plays a vital role in the synthesis and acts as a
or 20 mm, in case of simply supported beams.
medium for dissolution, condensation and
Deflections are measured at mid span and the load
polymerization of Al and Si precursors into polymeric
points.
structures.
The deflection in geopolymer concrete beams is
The cube specimens of the GPC mixes, when tested
increasing as percentage of reinforcement increases for
under compression, generally failed in the ‘pyramidal
any grade of concrete. The different reinforcement
frustum’ form, similar to the regular Portland cement
levels considered all the beams have almost same
concrete cubes. It is clear from the test results that
deflection but the load level is high shown in Fig. 9 to
150
140
Slum p (mm)
2
130
120 2.5
110 3
100
3.5
90
Alkaline solution 80
Figure1: Stages of preparation of alkaline solution M-30 M-40 M-50 M-60
Grade of GPC
Figure7: Test set up in the laboratory Figure8: Longitudinal and cross section of GPC beam
70
60
50
Load (kN)
40
0.55%
30
1.10%
20
10 1.65%
0
0 5 10
Deflection at mid span (mm)
Figure9: Load Vs Deflection for M-30 GPC Figure11: Load Vs Deflection for M-50 GPC
Abstract: Fly ash (FA) is a waste product of thermal power plants which is generated in huge quantity. More than
80 million tones of FA are generated in India each year. The percentage of utilization of FA is very less and majority
is just land filled. This process is not environmental friendly. This paper presents the results of an experimental
investigation to study the effects of partial replacement of fine aggregate with class F-FA in mechanical properties
of concrete. The fine aggregate is replaced with five different percentage of class F-FA by weight such as 10%,
20%, 30%, 40% and 50% having w/c ratio 0.40, 0.42, 0.45, 0.48 and 0.50 respectively. The mix design is targeted
for M30 grade concrete. The compressive strength, split-Tensile strength and flexural strength of concrete are
determined at 7, 28 and 90 days. The test result indicates that 30% replacement of fine aggregate with FA gives
higher compressive strength whereas 50% replacement of fine aggregate with FA gives compressive strength less
than the conventional concrete.
Key words: Fly ash (FA), compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength.
Figure 3: Compressive strength versus age Figure5: Split tensile strength versus age
Figure4: Compressive strength versus concrete type Figure6: Split tensile strength versus concrete type
3.2.2. Split Tensile Strength: 3.2.3. Flexural Strength:
The split tensile strength of FA based concrete mixes The flexural strength test results of FA based concrete
was determined at the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days. The are given in Table 7 and graphically shown in Figures 7
results are given in Table 6 and are graphically shown in and 8. Figure 7 shows the variation of flexural strength
Figures 5 and 6. Figure 5 shows the variation of split with age for different FA percentages and Figure 8
tensile strength with age for different FA percentages shows the variation of flexural strength with different
and Figure 6 shows the variation of split tensile strength concrete mix type. It is evident from the result that the
for different concrete mix type. From Table and Figures, flexural strength of FA concretes continued to increase
it is observed that the split tensile strength of all with age. From Figure 8, it can be seen that the flexural
concrete mixes increases as age of curing increases. It strength of concrete mix with FA increases up to 40%
can be seen that there is increase in split tensile strength replacement and thereafter the strength decreases. It is
with the increase in FA percentages upto 40% also observed that the improvement of flexural strength
replacement of fine aggregate and thereafter the strength is more in early ages. It is also observed that the flexural
decreases. The rate of increment of strength from 7 to strength of all FA based concrete specimen gives higher
28 days is more as compared with 28 to 90 days. It is value than control specimen (MS100F0) at all ages.
also observed that the split tensile strength of all FA
Table7: Flexural strength test result
based concrete specimen gives higher value than control
specimen (MS100F0) at all ages. Mix Average flexural strength (MPa)
Table6: Split tensile strength test result Identification 7 Days 28 Days 90 Days
Average split tensile strength MS100F0 4.70 6.25 6.80
Mix
(MPa) MS90F10 4.90 6.48 6.95
Identification
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days MS80F20 5.20 6.75 7.12
MS100F0 3.41 4.35 4.85
MS70F30 5.45 6.88 7.25
MS90F10 3.51 4.45 4.98
MS80F20 3.65 4.65 5.15 MS60F40 5.58 7.08 7.31
MS70F30 3.78 4.85 5.28 MS50F50 5.32 6.78 7.14
MS60F40 3.95 4.89 5.32
MS50F50 3.82 4.70 5.18
5. Acknowledgements:
The author would like to thanks to ITER, Siksha ‘O’
Anusandhan University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha for the
support of conducting the experimental works.
Reference
[1] Bakoshi T, Kohno S, Kawasaki S and Yamaji N
(1998), Strength and durability of concrete using
bottom ash as replacement for fine aggregate, ACI
Spec. Publ., (SP-179), pp.159-172.
[2] Ghafoori N, Cai Y and Ahmadi B (1997), Use of
Figure7: Flexural strength versus age dry bottom ash as a fine aggregate in roller
4. Concluding remarks: compacted concrete, ACI Spec. Publ., (SP-171), pp.
487-507.
The slump value for concrete mix with and without [3] Hawng K R, Noguchi F and Tomosawa F (1998),
FA was remaining between 12 mm to 35 mm. Effects of fine aggregate replacement on the
Compressive strength of fine aggregate replaced rheology, compressive strength and carbonation
FA concrete specimens is higher upto 40% than the properties of fly ash and mortar, ACI Spec. Publ.,
control specimen without FA at all ages. (SP-178), pp. 401-410.
[4] Siddique R (2003), Effect of fine aggregate
Split tensile strength and flexural strength of all replacement with class F fly ash on the mechanical
fine aggregate replaced FA concrete specimens are properties of concrete, Cement and Concrete
higher than the control specimen without FA at all Research, Vol.33, pp. 539-547.
ages. [5] Berg E and Neal J A (1998), Concrete masonry unit
As age of curing increases, compressive strength, mix designs using municipal solid waste bottom
flexural strength and split tensile strength of fine ash, ACI Mater. J, Vol. 95(4), pp. 470 - 479.
aggregate replaced FA concrete increases. [6] Maslehuddin M (1989), Effect of sand replacement
on the early age strength gain and long-term
The 30% replacement of fine aggregate with FA corrosion-resisting characteristics of fly ash
gives maximum compressive strength whereas 50% concrete, ACI Mater. J, Vol. 86(1), pp. 58-62.
replacement of FA gives lower strength than that of [7] Dhir R K, McCarthy M J and Title P A J (2000),
control mix. Use of conditioned PFA as a fine aggregate in
The maximum split tensile strength and flexural concrete, Mater. Struct., Vol. 33(225), pp. 38-42.
strength is observed at 40% replacement of fine [8] IS: 8112 (1989), Indian Standard Specifications for
aggregate with FA. 43-grade Portland cement, Bureau of Indian
Standards, Manak Bavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar
The results of this investigation suggest that Class Marg, New Delhi 110002.
F-FA could be conveniently used as partial [9] IS: 383 (1970), Indian Standard Specification for
replacement of fine aggregate in structural concrete. Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources
for Concrete (Second Revision), Bureau of Indian
Standards, Manak Bavan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar
Marg, New Delhi 110002, India.
[10] American Society for Testing of Materials, Annual
Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.01. Cement,
lime, Gypsum, Philadelphia.
[11] IS: 10262 (1982), Recommended Guidelines for
Concrete Mix Design, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi 110002, India.
Abstract: This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation to study the effects of partial replacement
of cement with fly ash (FA) in rubberised concrete. The percentage of rubber used in this study was 5% replaced
with coarse aggregate and FA varies from 0-20% were replaced with cement in conventional concrete. Two size of
rubber chips are used i.e. 5 mm and 10 mm. 40% of rubber used from 5 mm size and 60% of rubber used from 10
mm size. The mix design was targeted for M30 grade of concrete. The mix proportion of the concrete was 1: 1.03:
2.37 with water cement ratio of 0.375. The fresh and hardened properties of rubberised concrete produced at five
different replacement ratios of FA were compared to those of conventional concrete without rubber and FA. The test
results indicate that there was a small reduction in the strength with the 5% increase in rubber content as compared
with the conventional concrete. However, the increase of FA from 5% to 20% improved the mechanical properties
of rubberised concrete.
Key words: Fly ash (FA), rubber, compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength.
(2008) [8] determined the hardened properties of weight and in 5% rubberised concrete FA is replaced
concrete using different types of tyre rubber particle as a with cement from 0-20% by its weight. The chemical
replacement of aggregate in concrete. The different composition of FA is presented in Table 1. The
types of rubber particles used were tyre chips, crumb properties of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate
rubber and combination of tyre chips and crumb rubber. obtained experimentally as per IS 383-1970 [12] are
These particles were used to replace 12.5%, 25%, presented in the Table 2. Two size rubber chips i.e. 5
37.5%, and 50% of the total mineral aggregate by mm and 10 mm and FA sample used in the present
volume. study is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 respectively.
The results showed that the fresh rubberised concrete Table1: Chemical composition of FA
had lower unit weight and workability compared to
plain concrete. Panda et al. (2012) [9] investigated on Oxides (%) Average Oxides (%) Average
the influence of the rubber content on fresh and SiO2 58.13 Na2O 0.05
mechanical properties of rubberised concrete starting Al2O3 31.00 K2O 0.90
with the 0% rubber content (i.e., without rubber) and up
Fe2O3 4.10 SO3 0.12
to 12% rubber content in the M20 grade concrete. With
a partial replacement of the coarse aggregate by 3%, CaO 0.60 P2O5 0.39
6%, 9% and 12% of rubber, the compressive strength MgO 0.10 CI 0.011
decreased as the percentage of replacement increased, LOI 2.90 TiO2 1.63
but rubber in 3% replacement concrete developed
slightly higher compressive strength than those of Table2: Properties of fine and coarse aggregates
without rubber concrete. Schimizze et al. (1994) [10]
Fine Coarse
developed two rubberised concrete mixes using fine Characteristics
aggregate aggregate
rubber granular in one mix and coarse rubber granular
in the second. While these two mixes were not Abrasion value (%) - 27.02
optimized and their design parameters were selected Bulk density(kg/m3) 1568 1418
arbitrarily, their results indicate a reduction in Crushing value (%) - 28.70
compressive strength of about 50% with respect to the
3.48
control mixture. The elastic modulus of the mix Fineness modulus 7.95
(Zone1)
containing coarse rubber granular was reduced to about
72% of that of the control mixture, whereas the mix Impact value (%) - 24.00
containing the fine rubber granular showed a reduction Specific gravity 2.63 2.84
in the elastic modulus to about 47% of that of the Water absorption (%) 0.30 0.10
control mixture. The reduction in elastic modulus
indicates higher flexibility, which may be viewed as a
positive gain in rubberised PCC (RPCC) mixtures used
in stabilized base layers in flexible pavements. Topcu
(1995) [11] investigated the particle size and content of
tyre rubbers on the mechanical properties of concrete.
Also found the strength of rubber-filled concrete was
reduced, the plastic capacity was enhanced significantly.
This study investigates the influence of Fly Ash (FA),
obtained from thermal power plant, in rubberised
conventional concrete (CC). Further, the fresh and
hardened properties of conventional concrete and the Figure1: 5 mm and 10 mm rubber chips samples
comparison between 5% rubberised concrete with
influence of FA from 5-20% are also investigated.
2. Experimental program:
2.1. Materials used and properties:
In this experimental study, Ordinary Portland Cement
43 grade (OPC) Ramco cement, zone I fine aggregate,
natural coarse aggregate (20 mm passing), waste tyre
rubber (5 mm and 10 mm), tap water, FA (F class)
supplied by NALCO, Angul, Odisha, were used. The
rubber is replaced with coarse aggregate i.e. 5% of its
Figure2: FA samples
2.2. Mix proportion and identification: R0F0 indicate 0% of rubber chips and 0% FA, R5F0
A concrete mixture of M30 was designed as per indicate 5% of rubber chips and 0% FA, R5F5 indicate
standard specification IS: 10262-1982 [13] to achieve 5% rubber chips and 5% FA. The details of concrete
mix proportion and identification are given in Table 3.
target mean strength 39.9 MPa. The mix proportion 1:
The details of mix quantity per m3 of concrete are given
1.03: 2.37 is taken for this experiment. Six concrete
in Table 4.
mixtures were made by replacing 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%
of cement with FA and water/cement (w/c) ratio 0.375.
Table3: Details of concrete mix proportion along with identification
Concrete Mix Proportion Mix Identity
C Concrete mix with 100% NCA + 100% cement + 0% Rubber chips + 0% FA CR0F0
C Concrete mix with 95% NCA + 95% cement + 5% Rubber chips + 0% FA CR5F0
C Concrete mix with 95% NCA + 95% cement + 5% Rubber chips + 5% FA CR5F5
C Concrete mix with 95% NCA + 90% cement + 5% Rubber chips + 10% FA CR5F10
C Concrete mix with 95% NCA + 85% cement + 5% Rubber chips + 15% FA CR5F15
C Concrete mix with 95% NCA + 80% cement + 5% Rubber chips + 20% FA CR5F20
Table4: Details of mix quantity per m3 of concrete
Mix quantity of different constituents per m3 of concrete
Mix
Rubber chips (kg) Fly Ash Water
Identity Cement (kg) Sand (kg) NCA (kg)
5 mm 10 mm (kg) (kg)
CR0F0 511.00 527.00 1209.27 - - - 191.60
CR5F0 511.00 527.00 1148.81 24.18 36.28 - 191.60
CR5F5 485.45 527.00 1148.81 24.18 36.28 25.55 191.60
CR5F10 459.90 527.00 1088.34 24.18 36.28 51.10 191.60
CR5F15 435.35 527.00 1027.88 24.18 36.28 76.65 191.60
CR5F20 408.80 527.00 967.42 24.18 36.28 102.2 191.60
2.3. Test program:
The workability of fresh concrete mix is measured by
slump cone test and to get the strength properties of
hardened concrete specimens the compressive strength,
flexural strength and split tensile strength of the
concrete specimens were tested after 7, 28 and 90 days.
The concrete cubes of size 150 x 150 x 150 mm were
tested for compressive strength, 100 x 200 mm
cylinders for split tensile strength and 100 x 100 x 500
mm prisms for flexural strength. The setup for
compressive, flexural and split tensile strength is shown Figure3: Test setup for compression, split tensile and
in Figure 3. The compressive strength, flexural strength flexural strength of concrete specimen
and split tensile strength were computed for cube, fck = 3. Results and discussions:
P/B2, for prism, fb = PL/bd2 and for cylinder, fsp = 2P/
3.1. Fresh concrete test results:
ᴨLD respectively. Where, fck is compressive strength in
MPa, P is Maximum applied load in Newton, B is size The workability of fresh concrete is determined by
of the cube specimen in mm, fb is flexural strength in slump cone test. The slump values for different concrete
MPa, b is width of the specimen in mm, d is depth of mix are shown in Figure 4. From figure it is observed
the specimen in mm, fsp is the split tensile strength in that, in CC (CR0F0) the slump is 36 mm and in 5%
MPa, L is length of the specimen in mm and D is rubber replacement (CR5F0) the slump value is 25 mm
Diameter of the cylinder in mm. this indicates CR5F0 has low workability. When FA
replacement increases in 5% rubberised concrete from
5-20% the slump values increases as compare with
CR5F0. It is concluded that FA improves the 3.2. Hardened concrete test results:
workability of fresh rubberised concrete.
3.2.1. Compressive Strength:
The summary of compressive strength test results for
5% rubberised FA based concrete is given in Table 5.
The compressive strength versus age and the
compressive strength versus mix type are shown in
Figure 5 and Figure 6 respectively.
age strength is more than later age strength. The 90 days 5% rubberised concrete with FA replacement from 10-
flexural strength is more than 28 days flexural strength. 20%. From Figures 7 and 8 it is observed that, the
As compared with 5% rubberised concrete the strength strength increment is more in 5% rubberised concrete
is more in 5% rubberised FA based concrete. As with FA from 5-20% at all age.
compared with CR0F0, the flexural strength is more in
Table6. Summary of flexural strength test results
7 Days 28 Days 90 Days
Mix % change in % change in Average % change in
Identity Average flexural Average flexural
strength w.r.t strength w.r.t flexural strength w.r.t
strength (MPa) strength (MPa)
CR5F0 CR5F0 strength (MPa) CR5F0
CR0F0 4.70 - 6.25 - 6.80 -
CR5F0 4.55 0 6.20 0 6.71 0
CR5F5 4.60 1.1 6.22 0.32 6.75 0.60
CR5F10 4.78 5.05 6.35 2.42 6.90 2.83
CR5F15 4.88 7.25 6.48 4.52 6.98 4.02
CR5F20 4.95 8.79 6.55 5.65 7.10 5.81
the later age strength is more than early age strength.
The strength increases in 5% rubberised concrete with
the influence of FA from 0-20% at all age. From
Figures 9 and 10 it is observed that, the strength
decreases in 5% rubberised concrete (CR5F0) than
CR0F0. After addition of FA in 5% rubberised concrete
the strength gradually increases and with 20%
replacement of FA in 5% rubberised concrete the
strength is greater than the strength of CR0F0 at all age.
Abstract: The paper presents the comparison done with the density and mechanical properties of LECA (Light
expanded clay aggregate) against conventional concrete by replacing natural aggregates with LECA. The grades
chosen for the present investigation were M-15, M-20 and M-25. The test specimens were cubes 150x150x150mm,
cylinders 100x200mm and flexural beams 100x100x500mm RCC beams cured in ambient air. The specimens were
cast with both conventional concrete as well with LECA. The variation of the study was done with 3, 7 and 28 days
of curing. The results revealed that the workable flow of concrete made with LECA aggregate was slightly increased
in par with conventional concrete. There was slight decrease in the strength of mechanical properties of light weight
aggregate concrete compared with conventional concrete, which may be neglected in the interest of reducing the
dead weight of the structure. Hence Light weight concrete has become more popular in the recent years owing to the
tremendous advantages it offers over the conventional concrete.
Keywords: light weight clay expanded aggregate, workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural
strength
The mechanical properties such as cube Expanded Clay Aggregate, Concrete Repair,
compressive strength, split tensile strength and rehabilitation and Retrofitting II – Alexander et al
flexural strength of light weight aggregate concrete (eds), 2009, pp. 117-122.
is reduced as compared to conventional concrete. [6] M.S.Shetty “Concrete Technology Theory and
There is reduction in density of light weight Practice”, S. Chand Publications, Fifth Revised
aggregate concrete using LECA as compared to Edition, 2005, New Delhi.
conventional concrete. The percentage reduction in [7] Pampana Gowda and Sadashiva Kembhavi, Light
density as compared to conventional concrete for Weight Aggregate Concrete Replacing
M-15, M-20 and M-25 grade of LWAC are Conventional Aggreagte With LECA, B.E. Project
37.20%, 36.68% and 35.74% respectively for 28 Report, Basaveshwar Engineering College,
days. Bagalkot, 2013.
[8] IS: 2386 (Part-IV)-1963, Methods of test for
Reference aggregates for concrete-mechanical properties,
[1] Smita Badur and Rubina Chaudary, Utilization of Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
Hazardous Wastes and By-Products as A Green [9] IS: 10262-2009, recommended guidelines for
Concrete Material A Review, Rev. Advanced concrete mix design, Bureau of Indian standards,
Material Science, 17, 2008, pp. 42-61. New Delhi.
[2] Serkan Subasi, The Effects Of Using Fly Ash On [10] IS: 383-1970, Specification for coarse and fine
High Strength Lightweight Concrete Produced aggregates from natural sources for concrete,
With Expanded Clay Aggregate, Scientific Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
Research and Essay, Vol. 4, April 2009, pp. 275- [11] IS: 516-1959, Methods of test for strength of
288. concrete, Bureau of Indian standards, New Delhi.
[3] Hjh Kamsiah Mohd.Ismail et al., “Study Of [12] ACI Committee 211.2-98, Standard Practice for
Lightweight Concrete Behaviour” selecting proportions for structural Light weight
[4] M.Abdullahi, H.M.A. Al-Mattarneh and B.S. concrete, American Concrete Institution, Detroit,
Mohammed, Equations For Mix Design Of 1998.
Lightweight Concrete, European Journal of [13] IS 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and
Scientific Research, Vol. 31, No.1, 2009, pp. 132- reinforced concrete, Bureau of Indian standards,
141. New Delhi.
[5] M. Hubertova, R. Hela and R. Stavinoha,
Durability Of Light-Weight Concrete With
2.5
7 day conv.
2 28 day conv.
7 day LECA
1.5 28 day LECA
15 20 25
Grade of Concrete
Abstract: The High Strength concrete can be advantageously used for columns and shear walls of high rise
buildings, elevated structures, precast and prestressed products and construction where durability is required. Recent
developments in materials technology and a need for High Strength concrete have increased its use in many parts of
the world. Achievement of High Strength concrete required quality materials resulting in increase of cost which
necessitates the use of chemical and mineral admixtures in the concrete industry. The addition of mineral admixture
in cement has dramatically increased along with the development of concrete industry, due to the consideration of
cost saving, energy saving, environmental protection and conservation of resources. High Reactivity Metakaolin
(HRM) is the best suited material amoung the new generation of admixtures. Flyash, partly on economic grounds
can be used as pozzolona for partial replacement of cement. It has beneficial effects of low water demand for similar
workability, reduced bleeding, lower evaluation of heat of hydration and improved performance against sulfate
attack and alkali aggregate reactions. In the present investigations an attempt has been made to study the properties
of concrete with partial replacement of cement with metakaolin and flyash with the view to study the possibility to
have concrete with superior performance characteristics over plain concrete and at same time to reduce the cost of
concrete. The mechanical properties investigated are Compressive Strength, Split Tensile strength, Flexural strength
and Modulus of elasticity. The investigation consists of casting and testing of specimens of 10 different mixes of
M30 grade concrete with different percentages of partial replacement of cement by metakaolin (5%, 10% and 15%)
and fly ash ( 10%, 20% and 30%). The test results obtained show that the strength of concrete increases with the
increase in replacement of cement with metakoilin (upto 15%) at all replacements levels of flyash. The maximum
strength characteristics are achieved for the mix with 10% flyash and 15% metakaolin.
Keywords: Metakaolin, Flyash, Pozzolona, admixtures, flexure, modulus of elasticity.
2. Research significance: 20%, 30%) for 28 days of curing period. The tests were
Metakaolin is a high quality pozzolanic material, which conducted according to IS: 516-1959 to attain the
is blended with Portland cement in order to improve the mechanical properties of concrete.
strength and durability of concrete and mortars (1). It
removes chemically reactive calcium hydroxide from
3.11 Materials used:
the hardened concrete, densifies and reduces the
thickness of the interfacial zone, thus improving the Cement
adhesive between the hardened cement paste and Ordinary Portland cement of 53 grade ultratech (11)
particles of sand or aggregate. It also improves strength confirming to IS: 12269 and tested as per IS: 4031-1988
and durability to various types of chemical attacks, such was used. The normal consistency, fineness and specific
as acidic (or) sulphate waters and the reaction causing gravity of the cement used are 33.5%, 4.52% and 3.15
alkali aggregate expansions. The addition of metakaolin respectively.
in small amounts (10% by weight of cement) has no
significant effect on the setting time of cement. But the Aggregates
addition of Metakaolin is sensitive to plastic shrinkage, Fine Aggregate used was locally available river sand
when exposed to drying condition at early age. confirming to Zone-II as per IS: 383-1970(12) was
However, there is no significant effect on the drying used. Locally available machine crushed granite chips
shrinkage. When metakaolin reacts with calcium with maximum size of 20mm were used as coarse
hydroxide (CH) a pozzolanic reaction takes place where aggregates. The physical properties of fine aggregate
by new cementations compounds (C2A3H8) and (CSH) and coarse aggregates are given in the table – 1
are formed. These newly formed compounds will
replace weak and soluble calcium hydroxide.The special Table1: Physical properties of fine and coarse
characteristics of metakaolin like super fineness, high aggregates
silica content, etc gave the scope for enhancing the Fine Coarse
properties of normal cement concrete when mixed with S. No Properties
aggregate aggregate
cement as partial replacement. The excessive Specific
cohesiveness and excellent sulphate resistance of 1 2.60 2.66
gravity
metakaolin mixed concrete is of greater importance in Fineness
shortcrete applications. Fly ash (2) affects the properties 2 2.69 7.27
Modulus
of concrete by improving workability (3), reducing Compacted
water demand, reducing segregation and bleeding, and 3 1604kg/m3 1540kg/m3
bulk density
lowering heat of hydration. It also increases strength, Loose bulk
reduces permeability, reduces corrosion of reinforcing 4 1447kg/m3 1380kg/m3
density
steel, increases sulphate resistance, and reduces alkali-
aggregate reaction. Fly ash chemically reacts with the Metakaolin
lime to create more CSH, the same glue produced by the Metakaoline is obtained from the 20 Microns Limited
hydration of cement and water, thereby closing off the Company at Vadodara in Gujarath. The average particle
capillaries that allow the movement of moisture through size, specific gravity and bulk density of Matekaolin is
the concrete. The use of blended admixtures as partial 1.5µm, 2.65 and 0.5 kg/ m3
replacement of OPC (4) has been found very suitable in
developing the durable concrete. Hence the need for the Fly ash
experimental investigation is to examine the effects of Fly ash was obtained from Hyderabad Industries private
the blends on the various properties of the concrete. limited, Hyderabad, which was originally obtained from
3. Experimental program Vijayawada Thermal Power Station. The physical
properties were tested as per IS 3813-1999 and
The objective of the present investigation is to study the presentated in the table -2
influence of different replacement levels of cement by
metakaolin and fly ash on the mechanical properties of Table2: Physical properties of fly ash
concrete i.e., compressive strength, split tensile strength
S. No Properties Values
and flexural strength of M30 grade concrete with 5%,
10% and 15% replacement of cement by metakaolin and 1 Specific Gravity 2.23
10%, 20% and 30% replacement of cement by fly ash
and compare them with normal concrete. The present 2 Specific Surface Area 334m2/kg
investigation consists of casting and testing of Particles Retained on 45
specimens for 10 mixes with different replacement 3 24%
micron IS sieve
levels of metekaolin (5%, 10%, 15%) and fly ash (10%,
achieved. The strength increase is attributed to the 6 MM2F2 3.45 4.71 29.5
higher content of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) in 7 MM3F2 3.69 5.02 30.6
the Metakaolin specimens due to the reaction of calcium
hydroxide produced from cement hydration with the 8 MM1F3 3.08 3.74 27.9
active silica of the Metakaolin. 9 MM2F3 3.28 3.85 28.8
Table5: Compressive strength of concrete at different 10 MM3F3 3.47 3.90 29.2
ages 4.14 Flexural strength of concrete
Compressive strength The flexural strength test was carried out according to
S. (N/mm2)
Mix id IS: 516-1959(13) on standard prisms of size 100mm x
no
7 days 28 days 56 days 100mm x 500mm. The test results for 28 days curing
1 MM0F0 34.82 41.33 46.22 period are presented in table-7. It has been observed
2 MM1F1 35.85 41.55 53.04 that, for a given replacement of cement with fly ash, as
replacement of metakaolin increased the flexural
3 MM2F1 36.29 45.04 55.12 strength also increased. At 10% replacement of fly ash,
4 MM3F1 37.11 47.26 57.05 the three mixes with metakaolin (5%, 10%, 15%) have
5 MM1F2 30.96 43.26 52.13 achieved more flexural strength than that of normal
6 MM2F2 32.44 45.33 54.04 concrete, the highest being at 10% fly ash and 15%
metakaolin with a % increase of 12.81%. At20% and
7 MM3F2 33.33 46.22 55.92 30% replacements of fly ash, the flexural strength of
8 MM1F3 27.55 41.92 49.02 concrete was less than that of normal concrete except
9 MM2F3 28.59 42.07 52.40 for mix with 20% fly ash and 15% metakaolin. The
above results show that high flexural strength of
10 MM3F3 31.26 42.37 53.89
concrete can be achieved with less replacement of fly
4.13 Split tensile strength ash (10%) and more replacement of metakaolin(15%).
The Split tensile strength test has been conducted 4.15 Modulus of elasticity
confirming to IS 516-1959(13) on the standard cylinders The test was carried out conforming to IS: 516-1959(13)
of size 150mmx300mm. The test results are presented in to obtain the stress-stain curve and modulus of elasticity
the table-6.It has been observed that, for a given of concrete. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is
replacement of cement with fly ash, as the replacement tested for 28 days and the values are presented in table-
of metakaolin increased the split tensile strength 6. It has been observed that the modulus of elasticity of
increased. At 10% replacement of fly ash, the three all the mixes with different replacement of metakaolin
mixes with metakaolin (5%, 10%, 15%) have achieved and fly ash is more than that of the normal concrete. The
more strength than that of normal concrete, the highest highest modulus of elasticity is achieved at replacement
being at 10% fly ash, and 15% metakaolin with a of 15% metakaolin and 10% fly ash with an increase of
increase of 17.17%. At 20 % and 30% replacements of 12.6% over normal concrete.
fly ash, the strength was less than that of normal
concrete except for the mix with 20% fly ash and 15% 5. Conclusions
metakaolin. The above results show that high tensile 1. The workability of concrete decreases with the
strength of concrete can be achieved with less increase in the replacement of cement with
replacement of fly ash (10%) and more replacement of metakaolin at all replacements of fly ash.
metakaolin (15%). 2. The compressive strength of concrete at all the
Table6: Split tensile strength and flexural strength and replacement levels is superior to that of plain
modulus of elasticity values of concrete at 28 days concrete. The compressive strength increases with
the increase in the replacement of cement with
Modulus metakaolin at all replacement of fly ash. The
Split tensile Flexural
S. of
Mix id strength strength maximum compressive strength is achieved for
no Elasticity
(N/mm2) (n/mm2) concrete mix having 10% fly ash and 15%
(GPa)
metakaolin with an increase of 14.35% at 28 days
1 MM0F0 3.61 4.92 27.8
and 23.43% at 56 days over plain concrete.
2 MM1F1 3.70 5.34 28.1 3. Early high strength of concrete can be achieved at
3 MM2F1 4.00 5.42 29.4 all replacement levels of metakaolin with 10%
4 MM3F1 4.23 5.55 31.3 replacement of fly ash. The 7 days strength of the
above said mixes was greater than of normal
5 MM1F2 3.23 4.59 28.2
concrete.
4. The splitting tensile strength of concrete increases Resistance of Cement Mortar and High Strength
with the increase in the replacement of cement with Concrete”, Fourth Regional Symposium on
metakaolin at all replacements of fly ash. The Infrastructure Development in Civil Engineering
maximum splitting tensile strength is achieved for (RSIDA4), Bangkok, Thailand, 2003
concrete mix having 10% fly ash and 15% [6] J.M.Justice and K.E.Kurtis, “Influence of
metakaolin with an increase of 17.17% over plain Metakaolin Surface Area on Properties of Cement
concrete. Based Materials”, Journal of Materials in Civil
5. The flexural strength of concrete increases with the Engineering, ASCE, September-2007, Vol 19, No
increase in the replacement of cement with 9, pp-762-771.
metakaolin at all replacements of fly ash. The [7] Khatib and Wild, “Pore Size Distribution of
maximum flexural strength is achieved for concrete Metakaolin Paste”, Cement and Concrete Research
mix having 10% fly ash and 15% metakaolin with 1996, Vol 26, No 10, pp 1545-1553.
an increase of 12.81% over plain concrete. [8] Khatib and Wild, “Portlandite Consumption in
6. The modulus of elasticity of concrete at all Metakaolin Cement Pastes and Mortars”, Cement
replacement is more than that of the plain concrete. and Concrete Research 1997, Vol 27, No 1, pp 137-
The highest modulus of elasticity is achieved for 146.
concrete mix having 10% fly ash and 15% [9] IS: 456-2000 “Code of Practice for Plain and
metakaolin. Reinforced Concrete”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
Reference
[10] IS: 12269-1987 “Specifications for 53 Grade
[1] Basheer Long and McCabe, “Properties Of Ordinary Portland Cement”, Bureau of Indian
Concrete Containing Metakaolin”, International Standards, New Delhi.
Conference, Sheffield Academic Press 1999, ISBN [11] IS: 383-1970 “Specifications for Coarse and Fine
1-84127-051-2pp. 199-211. Aggregate from Natural Source of Concrete”,
[2] Headwaters Resources, “Fly Ash for Concrete”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Brochure of Headwater Resources, South Jordan, [12] IS: 516-1959 “Methods of Tests for Strength of
Utah. Concrete”, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
[3] J Bai, S. Wild, B.B. Sabir and J.M. Kinutha, [13] IS: 10262-2009 “Recommended Guidelines for
“Workability of Concrete Incorporating Pulverized Concrete Mix Design”, Bureau of Indian Standards,
Fuels Ash and Metakaolin”, Magazine of Concrete New Delhi.
Research 1999,No-3 pp 207-216 [14] SP: 23-1982 “Hand Book of Concrete Mixes”,
[4] J Bai, S. Wild, B.B. Sabir and J.M. Kinutha Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
“Strength Development in Concrete Incorporating [15] Ashok K. Jain., “Reinforced Concrete Structures”,
Pulverized Fuels Ash and Metakaolin”, Magazine Vol.1, New Delhi, 2005. \
of Concrete Research 2000,No-3 pp 153-162 [16] M.S. SHETTY., “Concrete Technology” CBS
[5] Jirwat Suwanpruk, Suvimol Sujjavanich and Publications, 2009.
Jaroenwut Punyanusornkit, “Impact of Low
Sulphate Metakaolin on Strength and Chloride
Abstract: Reinforced concrete structures contain heavy reinforcement for structural requirements needs. Using
conventional concrete in such constructions may result in poor compaction due to congestion of reinforcement
resulting in large number of voids, affecting performance and long term durability of structure. The important factor
which influences the durability and long term performance of concrete is the quality of concrete and adequate
consolidation. Hence Self-compacting Concrete is found suitable in such situations.
According to Okamura’s5research the main cause of the poor durability performances of Japanese concrete
structures was the inadequate consolidation of the concrete in the casting operations. Self-compacting concrete,
with mineral admixtures like GGBS and RHA which is easily flowable and environmental friendly gives high
compressive and flexural strengths is an ideal option for civil engineers in the aforementioned situations.
Considering the advantages of SCC, a new type of SCC with GGBS and RHA is developed. Based on the literature
available and studies done by previous researchers it can be concluded that the extensive studies are made on self-
compacting concrete with different combinations of mineral and chemical admixtures. Even though extensive work
is reported on SCC with different mineral and chemical investigations not much work is reported on the behavior of
SCC with GGBS and RHA as mineral admixtures. Keeping this in view, the present experimental is taken up to
study the stress-strain behavior of combination of GGBS and RHA in different grades of mixes, M20, M40 and
M60, i.e. low grade, standard grade and high grade concrete mixes.
Key Words: SCC-Self Compacting Concrete, GGBS-Ground granulated blast furnace slag, RHA-Rice Husk Ash.
The following tables shows the properties of Rice Husk Table1: Physical properties of RHA
Ash in table1, designation of mix proportions in table2,
fresh concrete properties of SCC in table3, designation S. No Characteristics Properties
of M20 grade mixes in table 4, experimental stress 1 Specific gravity 2.3
strain values of M20 SCC mix in table 5 and peak stress 2 Loss on ignition 3.6%
values and strain values corresponding to peak stress for
3 Fineness Blains 16000 cm2/gm
M20 mixes in table 6.
Table2. Designations of mix proportions
GGBS S.P
S. Cement C.A F.A Water VMA
Mix Designation % RHA % (kg) %
No (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) %
(kg) (bwp)
1 M20 M2S 400 780 844 0% ---- 180 0.80 0.08
M20- 30%
2 M2SG 280 780 844 ----- 180 0.62 0. 06
GGBS =120
M20- 3%
97%
3 GGBS- M2SGR 280 780 844 (replacement) 180 1.08 0.11
=116.4
RHA =3.6
Table3. Fresh concrete properties of SCC
Slump Cone Test V -Funnel Test L- Box Test
S. T50 Time for Time for Time for
Designation Horizontal T5min
No. (time in complete 0- 400mm 0-400mm H2/H1
Slump (mm) in sec
Sec) discharge spread spread
1 M2S 760 3.08 6.21 8.03 2.99 4.02 0.98
2 M2SG 760 3.89 7.02 8.68 4.12 6.15 0.98
3 M2SGR 750 4.2 7.20 8.6 4.0 5.50 0.98
Table4. Designation for M20 grade SCC mixes
Percentage of steel confinement
S. No Description
0 0.79 1.06 1.32 1.82 2.43 3.04
1 0%-GGBS M2S M2S1 M2S2 M2S3 M2S4 M2S5 M2S6
2 30%-GGBS M2SG M2SG1 M2SG2 M2SG3 M2SG4 M2SG5 M2SG6
GGBS+3%RHA
3 (RHA replaced by M2SGR M2SGR1 M2SGR2 M2SGR3 M2SGR4 M2SGR5 M2SGR6
wt of GGBS
Table5: Experimental Values of Stresses & Strains for M2S mixes
Table5.1: M2S Table5.2: M2S1
S. No Strain Stress N/mm2 S. No Strain Stress N/mm2
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.00008 2.26 2 0.0001 2.26
3 0.00022 4.43 3 0.00034 4.43
4 0.00044 6.58 4 0.00058 6.58
5 0.00079 8.45 5 0.00084 8.05
6 0.00129 11.82 6 0.00138 11.82
7 0.00153 13.79 7 0.00158 13.79
8 0.00178 15.83 8 0.00188 15.83
9 0.00202 17.09 9 0.00212 17.09
10 0.00228 19.23 10 0.00234 19.23
Table6: Peak stress values and strain values corresponding to peak for M2S mixes
z Designation Peak Stress in N/mm2 Strain at peak stress
1 M2S 28.64 0.00437
2 M2S1 30.52 0.00558
3 M2S2 33.34 0.00672
4 M2S3 35.39 0.00702
5 M2S4 36.32 0.00742
6 M2S5 40.44 0.00772
7 M2S6 42.23 0.00812
The graphs showed below shows the stress strain
behavior of M20 mix with GGBS and RHA.
6. Photographs
Abstract: Soil-structure interaction is Interdisciplinary field which involves both structural and geotechnical
engineering. In the design of building frame using conventional method of analysis structural engineers assumes that
columns are resting on fixed support, whereas the foundations settlements are calculated without considering the
stiffness of the superstructure. For simplifying the mathematical model the interaction effect is ignored which may
result in a design that is either unnecessarily costly or unsafe. To have the realistic design in terms of safety one can
design the structure by considering the soil-structure interaction. In the present paper an attempt is made to present
the literature related to the soil-structure interaction on building frames resting on different types of foundations.
From the literature it is observed that very few investigations were carried out on SSI analysis of building frames
resting on pile foundations.
Key Words: Soil-structure interaction, settlements stiffness, building frames, pile foundations.
frame-raft-soil is shown in figure 3. Detailed parametric (figure 5). As the softness of the soil increases the
study was carried out by varying the soil and raft values of the above parameters also increases. The
stiffness by keeping building stiffness as constant. From authors have recommended adopting suitable
the results it is observed that the performance of the raft foundation system while designing building frames for
is influenced by relative stiffness of soil. The total and seismic force by considering the effect of soil stiffness.
differential settlements values that were observed in the
interaction analysis were less when compared to non-
interaction analysis.
frame with plinth beam supported by pile group. Sand is proved to be a very useful method for studying the
used as the soil media and the effect of SSI on effect of soil-structure interaction. Winkler hypothesis
displacement and rotation at the column base was will give reasonable results despite of its limitations.
studied. The experimental setup is shown in figure 8. Very few studies have been carried out on soil structure
The authors have calculated the shear force and bending interaction effects of multi-storey building frames
moments on the building frame and the experimental resting on pile foundations. From the review of the
results were compared with those obtained from finite literature it is observed that a complete soil structure
element analysis and conventional method of analysis. It interaction analysis of multi-storey building frames with
is also observed that there is a good agreement of the pile foundations using either appropriate numerical
experimental results with that of nonlinear finite methods or F.E.M is justifiable. It is also observed that
element analysis. very few researchers have attempted the experimental
analysis of building frames resting on pile foundations.
Reference
[1] Chameski, C.(1956), Structural Rigidity in
Calculating Settlements, Journal of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, ASCE, 82 (1), 1956,
1-9
[2] Morris, D. (1966), Interaction of Continuous
Frames and Soil Media, Journal of Structural
Engineering Division, ASCE, 5, 1966, 13-43.
[3] Lee IK, Brown PT (1972), Structures–foundation
interaction analysis, JStruct Eng Div ASCE 1972;
pp- 2413–2431.
[4] King, G.J.W. and Chandrasekaran, V.S(1974),
Interactive Analysis of a Rafted Multistoreyed
Space Frame Resting on an Inhomogeneous Clay
Stratum, Proceedings International Conference on
Figure6: Typical building frame considered in the Finite Element Methods, Australia, 1974, pp-493-
present investigation 509.
[5] Buragohain DN, Raghavan N, Chandrasekaran VS
(1977), Interaction of frames with pile foundation.
In: Proceedings of International Symposium on Soil
Structure Interaction. Roorkee, India.
[6] Subbarao, K.S., Shrada Bai, H. and Raghunatham,
B.V. (1985), Interaction Analysis of Frames with
Beam Footing, In: Proc. Indian Geotechnical
Conference, Roorkee (IGC-1985), India, 1, 1985,
389-395.
[7] Deshmukh, A.M. and Karmarkar, S.R.(1991),
Interaction of Plane Frames with Soil, In: Proc.
Indian Geotechnical Conference, (IGC-1991),
Surat, India, 1, 323-326.
[8] Rao PS, Rambabu KV, Allam MM (1995),
Figure7: Schematic diagram of the test setup. Representation of soil support in analysis of open
plane frames, Comput Struct 56:917–925.
3. Concluding Remarks [9] Noorzaei J, Viladkar MN, Godbole PN (1995),
The forces in superstructure, foundation and soil mass Elasto-plastic analysis for soil structure interaction
are significantly altered due to the effect of soil- in framed structures, Comput Struct 55(5):797–807.
structure interaction. For estimating the design force [10] Aljanabi et al (1990), Interaction of plane frames
quantities, the effect of soil–structure interaction is with elastic foundation having normal and shear
needed to be considered under the influence of both moduli of subgrade reactions, Comput. Struct.,
static and dynamic loading. The redistribution of loads 36(6), 1047-1056.
modifies the total and differential settlements [11] S.C.Dutta, and R.Roy, (2002), A critical review on
considerably. Settlements are found to be more in the idealization and modelling for interaction among
non-linear analysis. The finite element method has
soil-foundation structure system, Comput. Struct., interaction of frame, Electron. J. Geotech. Eng., 15,
80, 1579-1594. 861-878.
[12] M. Hora, (2006), nonlinear interaction analysis of [17] Ravi Kumar Reddy. C and Gunneswara Rao. T. D,
in filled building frame-soil system, J. Struct. Eng., (2011), Experimental study of a modeled building
33(4), 309-318. frame supported by pile groups embedded in
[13] Chore H.S and R K Ingle (2008), Soil Structure cohesion less soil. J. Interaction and Multiscale
Interaction Analysis of Building Frame Supported Mechanics, Volumne, No. 4, 321-336.
on Pile Group, Asian Journal of Science and [18] R. M. Jenifer Priyanka (2012), Studies on Soil
Technology for Development (AJSTD), Thailand, Structure Interaction of Multi Storeyed Buildings
25 (2), 457-467. with Rigid and Flexible Foundation, International
[14] K. Natarajan and B. Vidivelli, (2009), Effect of Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced
column spacing on the behavior of frame-raft and Engineering, Volume 2, Issue 12.
soil systems, J. Appl. Sci., 9(20), 3629-3640. [19] S.A.Rasal et al,. (2012), Interaction of Frame with
[15] R. Agrawal, and M.S.Hora, (2012), nonlinear Pile Foundation, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and
interaction behaviour of plane frame layered soil Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) PP: 59-62.
system subjected to seismic loading, Int. J. Struct. [20] Ravi Kumar Reddy. C and Gunneswara Rao.
Eng. Mech., 11(6), 711-734. T. D, (2012), Study of soil interaction in a model
[16] D.Thangaraj and K.Ilamparuthi, (2010), Parametric building frame with plinth beam supported by pile
study on the performance of raft foundation with group, International Journal of Advanced Structural
Engineering, volume 4, pp: 1-15.
Abstract: Earth retention is one of the oldest of the problems of civil engineering. Construction of road ways
railways tunnels, mining and irrigation structures require earth retention to various degrees. Earth retention is needed
to resist the lateral pressure exerted by the earth and is normally achieved by the construction of retaining walls and
sheet pile walls. With the advancement of geosynthetics, geogrids are majorly used in the construction of reinforced
soil walls. The theoretical background adopted for the analysis of geo-grids is based on either experimental studies
or certain empirical formulae, which is either tedious or time taking and mostly based on trial and error method of
analysis. Hence, in the present work, precision in the designing is brought with the finite element analysis of earthen
embankment duly reinforced with geogrids is carried out using a general purpose finite element package called
NISA. The analysis is carried out on 3 different sizes of embankment placing 3 to 5 numbers of geogrids at different
locations with respect to the top surface of the embankment. Towards the end the variation of the stress pattern in
the embankment and the member end forces in the grid element are presented.
Key words: Soil embankments, Geogrids, finite element method, finite element module.
a new era of retaining walls was introduced in the 1960s reinforcing elements for geostructure such as the one
by Vidal of France with the concept of reinforced earth. using finite element analysis is desirable. Hence the
Metal strips extending from the exposed facing panels present work which is pioneering in this direction is
back into the soil serve the dual role of anchoring the taken up by making use of a general purpose finite
facing units while being restrained through frictional element package called NISA.
stresses mobilized between the strips and backfill soil.
3.1. Methodology
The backfill soil thus creates the lateral pressure on the
wall face and interacts with the strips to resist it. The The analysis of earthen embankment is carried out using
walls are relatively flexible compared to massive General purpose finite element package called NISA in
gravity structures. They offer many advantages, the following step
including significantly lower cost per square foot of 3.2. Geometric modeling
exposed surface.
Using display-III the geometric modeling of the earthen
2.1. Geotextile-Reinforced Embankments embankment is carried out. The sizes of the various
It should come as no surprise that if vertical wall can be embankment for which the analysis is carried out is
built using geotextiles, embankments can be stabilized listed to Table 1 to 3. The model is created by creating
by them also. In fact, as the slope angle with the grids and then joining then by lines.
horizontal decreases, one essentially has an 3.3. Finite Element Modeling
embankment, albeit one in which the exposed face is not
geotextile covered. In this section, geotextiles will be The geometric model developed in step (1) is discretised
deployed in horizontal layers with no upturned facing into 256 3-noded plane strain triangular elements called
treatment of facing panels. When this is the case, the NKPT-2 using the Fig option of display-III. For the sake
design methodology switches from lateral earth pressure of brevity, one of the modules is depicted in Fig. 1
theory into slope stability analyses. The longer lengths 3.4. Boundary Conditions
of major reinforcement layers extend beyond the
hypothetical failure plane. The short edge strips, The nodes corresponding to the bottom surface of the
sometimes, called secondary rein hypothetical failure embankment are restrained against X-displacement and
plane. The short edge strips. Sometimes called Y-displacement. The loads in the form of element
secondary reinforcement, represent a surface pressure are applied for a chosen length along the upper
compaction aid since high compaction at the edge of the surface of the embankments.
slope is difficult to achieve. 1. The linear elastic properties of the material of soil
3. Finite Element Method mass are defined here.
In brief, the basic of the finite element method is the 2. At chosen depth geogrids are introduced to the
representation of a body or a structure by an assemblage earthen embankments. The elements of geogrids are
of sub-division called finite elements. These elements oriented in such a way their end nodes merge with the
are interconnected at joints which are called as nodes nodes of triangular elements of soil mass. 3D beam
are nodal points. Simple functions are chosen to elements called NKPT-12 are used to model the grid
approximate the distribution of actual displacements elements
over each finite element. Such assumed functions are 3. The model thus generated is submitted the finite
called displacement functions or displacement models. elements module called NISA II for processing.
The unknown magnitudes or amplitudes, of the
4. Making use of display-III the results concerning X,
displacement function are the displacements (or the
Y-displacements, the von-moises stress, principal stress-
derivatives of the displacement) at nodal points. Hence
I and principal stress-II of the soil mass can be obtained
the final solution will yield the approximate
with graphic user interface. Similarly the axial tensile
displacements at discrete locations in the body, the
forces carried by the grid element can also be obtained
nodal points.
using graphic user interface. The other results in detail
The theoretical background adopted for the analysis of can be access by going through the output file of NISA
geo-grids by the above researching is based on either package.1
experimental studies or certain empirical formulae.
These formulae are again dependent on theories which
are not totally rational. Since slope retention of earthen
embankments is of highest priority in the development
of infrastructure, the concept of designing reinforced
earthen embankments have attained highest priority in
the light of this aspect a more competent analysis of the
10) When a geogrid was provided at a depth of 3.2 on [5] Dr. Murali Krishna. N, Mr. Krishna Mohan. V.S.V
from the top surface, the max. X-displacement was “Design of earth retention structures using geo-
found 30.45N/mm2 and von-mises stress is 49.29 synthetics – software based approach”. National
N/mm2. seminar on advances in construction materials,
Reference 2013.
[6] Geosynthetics in Geotechnical Engineering. Robert.
[1] Robert M. Koerner (1990). “Designing with Geo-
M.Koerner
textiles”, pp. 67-327
[7] Designing with geotextiles. Robert. M.Koerner
[2] Manual, “Reinforced and Anchored Earth
Pg.No.67-327
Retaining Wall and Bridge Abutments for
[8] Technical Specifications of materials provided by
Embankments”, Technical Memorandum, BE 3/78,
TENAX (Dealers for Geosynthetics in India)
Department of Traffic and highways of U.K.
TENAX Geosynthetics, 4/5, Kalkaji EXTENSION,
[3] “Report on Construction of Reinforced Soil Wall at
S.F1, New Delhi.
OHKLA Flyover” by CRRI, New Delhi.
[9] A Brief history of Reinforced Earth, Henri Vidal.
[4] V.S.V. Krishna (June 2001), “A Parametric study
of retaining walls using geogrid reinforcement”.
Abstract: In nature, soils are subjected to wetting and drying due to the prevailing environment. This nature of
wetting and drying if occurs in fine-grained soils may cause increase and decrease in their volumes, respectively.
The increase in the volume upon the wetting is termed as swelling, where the drying induces decrease in the volume
known as shrinkage. The swelling and shrinkage are major attributes of fine-grained soils and also in understanding
the soil-water interaction. In this regards, several researchers have proposed various methods for studying the
shrinkage in the soils. Most of these methods are laborious and/or constitute difficult measuring procedures. In some
soils, which exhibit the phenomenon of cracking during shrinkage pose a major problem in measuring the volumes
of such soils when allowed for shrinkage. With this in view, Image Analysis, the process of acquiring the required
information from the images, is found handy for studying shrinkage in soils even when they crack. With this in
view, the paper brings out details of the technique, important aspects in measurement and application of Image
analysis to study the shrinkage measurement and crack patterns in the soil samples subjected to drying tests.
Keywords: Image analysis, fine-grained soils, shrinkage, environmental drying, cracking.
different boundary conditions have been studied. Due to are used for the further analysis and the required
the active minerals present in the soils, they exhibit the information from these digital images has been acquired
tendency of cracking during the process of shrinkage. from image processing and analysis software developed
Hence, the measurement of the area of the specimen in-house. The sequences of processing and analyzing
during the shrinkage becomes difficult. In order to the images, obtained from the experiments, have been
surmount this problem, the Image Analysis technique discussed herewith.
has been developed and employed.
For the analysis of the image, the image is first
2.0 Experimental Investigations thresholded, the process of converting the color or RGB
(Red Green Red) images to grayscale or black and
For the study, two commercially available soils, white
white. In thresholding, based on the color intensities, the
clay (WC) majorly consisting of Kaolin and Bentonite
scale is set from 0 to 255, based on the intensities on the
(BT) containing montmorrilonite, have been used.
These soils have been characterized for their various image a suitable range is selected and the image is
properties and their values have been presented in converted into black and white (Uday and Singh, 2013)
as depicted in Figure 1. After the images are
Table. 1. These soils have been mixed thoroughly with
thresholded, depending on the various disturbances /
water to form consistent slurry and poured into a
distortions in the image, various image filters are
petridish, with plain surface. This petridish is tapped
applied. After the processing of the image, the
carefully, on a wooden platform, to remove entrapped
air, if any. The petridish is then placed carefully in an parameters required for the analysis are obtained. The
environment chamber operated at desired temperature processed image can then be used for further analysis
from the Analysis mode. Various analyses options (viz.,
and humidity, fitted with a camera on the top. The
Shrinkage Percentage, Particle Count, Shrinkage
alignment of the camera is adjusted such that the line of
Uniformity, Angle Measurement, Linear Measurements,
focus of the camera is normal to the plane of surface of
the specimen in the petridish. The camera, which is Arc measurements, Calibration, and Change calibration)
connected to a personal computer, is programmed to have been included to facilitate the understanding of the
various parameters to correlate the effect of exposure
take the sequence of images of the specimen with the
conditions (temperature and humidity) and boundary
prefixed time interval. The images are regularly stored
conditions (surface roughness) on the shrinking and
in the computer along with the time of the capture of the
cracking charcteristics of the soil.
images. At the end of the testing period, these images
Table1: Properties of the soils used in the study
Size fraction (%) (%)
Soil G Mineralogy USCS
Sand Silt Clay LL PL PI SL
BT 10 8 82 305 140 165 30 2.50 Montmorillonite
CH
WC - 46 54 54 27 27 17 2.63 Kaolinite
2.1 Calibration
This option is required to be used at the beginning of the analysis of each set of images. This option enables fixing
the scales of the image pixels to the unit of the measurement, as desired. The calibration should be checked before
analyzing each set of the images.
independent of the thickness of the specimen. This can specimen is influential and the boundary condition has
be attributed to the fact that the self-weight of the no/less influence on the shrinkage area.
Table2: Shrinkage measurements from the image analysis
Formation of
11 3794.43 1251.30 32.98 2 segments
segments
Crack
14 3794.43 1085.20 28.6 21.945
formation
Severely
4 3794.43 * * No crack
Wrapped
7 Greased 3794.43 1282.31 33.79 Wrapped No crack
11 3794.43 1094.14 28.83 Wrapped No crack
14 3794.43 918.04 78.73 Wrapped No crack
* Measurement was not possible
Reference Determination of Shrinkage Limit of Fine-Grained
Soils, Journal of Hazard Toxic Radioactive Waste,
[1] ASTM D427-04 (2004), Test Method for Shrinkage
Vol. 15(2), pp.121–126.
Factors of Soils by the Mercury Method
[10] Yassoglou, Y., Kosmas C.S., Moustakas N.,
(withdrawn from 20008), ASTM International,
Tzianis E. and Danalatos N.G. (1994), Cracking in
West Conshohocken, PA, Vol. 04.08.
recent alluvial soils as related to easily determined
[2] ASTM D4943-08 (2008), Standard Test Method for
soil properties. Geoderma, Vol. 63, pp.289-298.
Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Wax Method,
[11] Yesiller, N., Miller, C. J., Inci, G. and Yaldo, K,
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA,
(2000), Desiccation and cracking behaviour of three
Vol. 04.08.
compacted landfill liner soils, Engineering
[3] Buyukozturk B, Rhim H C (1995) Radar imaging
Geology, Vol. 57, pp.105-121.
of reinforced concrete specimens for nondestructive
[12] Tang, C. S., Cui, Y. J., Tang, A. M. and Shi, B.,
testing, Nondestructive Evaluation of Aging
(2010), Experiment evidence on the temperature
Bridges and Highways, Oakland, CA, Vol. 2456.
dependence of desiccation cracking behavior of
[4] Dequiedt, A S, Coster M, Chermant L and
clayey soils, Engineering Geology, Vol. 114,
Chermant, J L (2001) Study of phase dispersion in
pp.261-266.
concrete by image analysis, Cement and Concrete
[13] Lakshmikantha, M. R., Prat, P. C. and Ledesma,
Composites, Vol. 23(2-3), pp.215–226.
(2009), A. Image analysis for the quantification of a
[5] Holtz, R. D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981), an
developing crack network on a drying soil,
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice
Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 32, pp.1-11.
Hall, NJ.
[14] Uday, K. V. and Singh, D. N., (2013), Application
[6] Lee, H. (1993), Survey: Fundamental Pavement
of Laser Microscopy for Studying Crack
Crack Imaging Algorithms, Digital Image
Characteristics of Fine-grained Soils, Geotechnical
Processing: Techniques and Applications in Civil
Testing Journal, Vol. 36(1), pp.146-154
Engineering, ASCE, Kona, Hawaii, United States,
[15] Uday, K. V. and Singh, D. N., (2013),
pp.195-202.
Investigations on Cracking Characteristics of Fine-
[7] Lee. H and Chou, E. Y. J., (1993) Survey of Image
grained Soils under Varied Environmental
Processing Applications in Civil Engineering,
Conditions, Drying Technology, Taylor and
Digital Image Processing: Techniques and
Francis, Vol. 31(11), pp.1255-1266.
Applications in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Kona,
[16] Kodikara, J., Barbour, S. L. and Fredlund, D. G.,
Hawaii, United States, 195-202.
(2000), Desiccation cracking of soil layers, Proc.
[8] Moran, C.J., 1994. Image processing and soil
Asian Conference on Unsaturated Soils: From
micromorphology, Soil Micromorphology: Studies
theory to Practice, A. A. Balkema, pp.693-698.
in Management and Genesis, Proc. IX Int. Working
[17] Canny, J. (1986), A Computational Approach to
Meeting on Soil Micromorphology, Townsville,
Edge Detection, IEEE Transactions on Pattern
Australia, pp.459–482.
Analysis and Machine Intelligence archive, Vol.
[9] Prakash, K., Sridharan, A., Karthik, H., and An
8(6), pp.679-698.
and, C. (2011). Sand Replacement Method for
Abstract: Laterite soils are formed in hot, wet tropical regions with an annual rainfall between 750mm to 300mm.
Laterite soils are formed due to the weathering process of igneous or metamorphic rock over millions of years.
Laterites are hard as rock when dry and can be cut into blocks or bricks, used for constructions. In presence of water,
loosens out and become soft. It exhibits high collapse potential on wetting. Collapse is reduction in the volume of
fill materials or natural soil deposits on inundation, no change in applied stress. Collapse is primarily due to loss of
soil suction upon wetting. Oedometer tests are conducted for studying collapse potential of laterite soils. Soil
structure, matrix suction and external stress greatly influence the collapse behaviour. The present study examines the
influence of variations in compaction dry density, initial water content, inundation stress, grain size of soil and
flyash content on the collapse behaviour of compacted laterite soils. Experimental studies showed that maximum
collapse potential of 8.52-10.64 % occurred at inundation stress of 100kPa which indicated the apparent pre-
consolidation pressure for the laterite soil is 100kPa.
Keywords: Laterites, Collapse, Oedometer tests, inundation stress.
2. A high enough value of net total stress is applied to 3. The influence of Flyash stabilization on the
develop a metastable structure. collapse study of laterite soil.
3. A high enough value of soil suction (or other 4. The influence of the grain size on the collapse
bonding or cementing agent) to stabilize behaviour of laterite soil.
intergranular contacts, and whose reduction on
2.0 Materials and Methods
wetting will lead to collapse.
4. The addition of water to the soil, which causes the 2.1 Soil
bonding or cementing agent to be reduced and the Laterite soil is excavated from the quarry at
interaggregate or intergranular contacts to fail in MALLAMPALLY, about 45 km from NIT Warangal,
shear, resulting in a reduction in total volume of the depicted in Figure 1. The flyash used for this
soil mass. investigation was obtained from National thermal power
Reznik (1993) defined the magnitude of collapse by plant at Ramagundam. The dry ash is collected from the
hoppers and termed as silo ash. nformation of the soil as
Cp = dh/h0 (1)
laterite, chemical analysis was conducted.
Where, Cp=collapse potential;
dh =decrease in the height of specimen subsequent to
inundation; and
h0=height of specimen before saturation.
The collapse potential is expressed as a change in void
ratio on wetting compared to the pre wetting volume of
the soil at any stress level.
Cp=∆e/1+ eI (2)
Where ∆e = Change in void ratio upon wetting; and
ei = void ratio at the beginning of saturation.
Several researchers examined the role of soil structure Figure1: Different type of laterite soils used for the
in the collapse behavior of compacted soils by varying study
the compacted dry density and clay content of the soil
specimens (Cox 1978, el-Sohby and Rabbaa 1984, Table1: Properties of Laterite Soil
Lawton et al. 1992, 1992, Alwail et al. 1994). The Property Value
amount of collapse is expected to increase with the Specific gravity 2.74
increase in magnitude of the external stress (dry density
and moisture being constant), at which the unsaturated Liquid limit 40
specimen is wetted (Barden et al., 1973, Cox 1978, El- Plastic limit 21
Sohby and Rabba 1984). The role of matric suction in Plasticity index 19
the collapse behavior of compacted soils has been Grain size distribution
indirectly evaluated by varying the compaction water Gravel (%) (> 4.75 mm) 0
content of the soil specimens (Cox 1978, Houston and Sand (%)(4.75-0.075 mm) 24
Houston 1988, Lawton et al. 1992, El-Ehwany and Silt (%) (0.075-0.002 mm ) 52
Houston 1990). Lawton et al. (1992) reported collapse Clay (%) (<0.002 mm) 24
potential is an especially significant consideration in I.S. Classification CI
earth dam design because of certainty that post
Compaction properties
construction wetting will occur. Peterson and Iverson
(1953), Leonards and Narain (1963), Leonards and Optimum moisture content 19
Davidson (1984) reported the collapse settlement of Maximum dry density (g/cc) 1.8
earth dams caused several failures of earth dams. Coefficient of permeability (cm/s) 1.5x10-7
With this in aim, the following objectives were framed California bearing ratio
in this study. Unsoaked 24
Soaked 2
1. The influences of variations in the compaction dry
Shear parameters (undrained)
density, water content on the collapse behavior of
Cohesion (kg/cm2) 0.64
compacted laterite soil.
Angle of internal friction (degrees) 40.650
2. The influence of inundation stress on the collapse
behavior of compacted laterite soil.
Collapse Potential
decreases. The same trend is also reported by Trivedi 2
and Sud (2004) for coal ashes. The collapse potential
decreased at a high moisture contents due to the 4
dissolution of solubles and hence decreased surface
tension forces (Trivedi and Sud, 2004; Lawton et 6
w=15%
al.1992). 8
3.2 Effect of Density w=19%
10
Figure 2(b) presents the plot of variation of collapse w=22%
potential with relative compaction (dry density) at 15%, 12
19% and 22% water of soil, conducted at inundation (b)
stress of 100kPa. With the increase in the degree of
compaction, the collapse potential decreased, as Fig2: Effect of (a) Water content and (b) Dry density on
expectated, for samples compacted at 12% and 15% the collapse behavior of Laterites
water contents. This is due to increase in densification 3.3 Influence of Inundation Stress
and reduction in void ratio. The decrease of collapse
Figure 3(a) compares the variation of collapse potential
potential indicated the stability of the densified laterites
with inundation stress at different water contents 12% to
due to preloading and rearrangement of particles. The
22% for soil compacted at 90% relative compaction.
collapse potential of 1% is normally considered to be a
Collapse potential increased upto 100kPa and later,
limiting value for the evaluation of collapse in a single
decreased with the increase in inundation stress.
oedometer for soils and 0.75% for coalashes (Trivedi
Indraratna et al. (1991) reported similar results for
and Sud 2004). At relative compaction of 80%
flyash. Lawton et al. (1992) have also observed, for
compacted at 15% water contents exhibited maximum
soils that for given moisture content and dry density, the
collapse potential (10.62%).
collapse potential reached maximum value at some
critical value of inundation stress, beyond which
Water Content (% )
collapse potential decreased with the increasing
10 15 20 25 30
inundation stress. The reduction in collapse potential at
0
higher stresses is attributed to densification and
Collapse Potential
2
50kPa
100kPa
3
200kPa
400kPa
4
(a)
(a)
[13] Leonards G.A. and Davinson L.W. (1984) [16] Rollens K.M., Rogen, G.W. (1994) Mitigation
Reconsideration of failure initiating mechanisms measures for small structures on alluvial soils
Teton Dam Proceeding of International Conference Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, vol.
on Case histories in Geotechnical Engineering, vol 120(9), pp: 1533- 1553.
2, pp: 1103 – 1113. [17] Trivedi, A. and Sud V.K. (2004) Collapse
[14] Mitchell, J.K. (1976) Fabric Structure and property behaviour of coal ashes, Journal of Geotechnical
relationships Fundamentals of Soil Behaviour, John and Geo-environmental Engineering. vol. 130 (4),
Wiley &sons New York, pp: 222- 252. pp. 403-415.
[15] Reznik, Y.M. (1993) Plate Load Tests on
collapsible soils Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, vol 119(3), pp: 608 – 615.
Abstract: For the safe and economic design of retaining structures, correct estimation of earth pressure on retaining
surfaces is very important. Due to analysis complexities, this problem has drawn attention of researchers from last
few decades. Even under static conditions this is one of the most critical and complex problems of soil mechanics and
geotechnical engineering. Dynamic loading conditions make the problem further complicated. In this paper, a method
is studied to obtain the natural time period of a retaining wall both for active and passive earth pressure condition and
the dynamic analysis of such a wall is carried out. Time period of RCC cantilever retaining wall is found out from
derived natural time period formula. Shear force and bending moment at the base of retaining wall is obtained with
the help of time period and parameters such as height of wall and unit weight of retained soil. Parametric study shows
that these are most influencing parameters affecting behaviour of retaining wall.
Keywords: Retaining wall, time period, earth pressure, shear force, bending moment.
shear force and bending moment at different levels for zone II, III, IV & V respectively for 4 meter height of
various earthquake zones are compared with static shear retaining wall.
force and bending moments. Variation in dynamic SF over static SF is 4.21%,
3.1. Parameters used for natural time period 6.72%, 10.09%, and 15.12% for zone II, III, IV & V
respectively and variation in dynamic BM over static
Present formula (equ. vi) is depending on following
parameters such as: BM is 8.32%, 13.31%, 19.97%, and 29.95% for zone II,
1. 1. Height of wall in mm : 8000 mm III, IV & V respectively for 6 m meter height of
retaining wall.
2. 2. Unit weight of soil () : 18 kN/m3
3. 3. Angle of internal friction of soil () : 280 Variation in dynamic SF over static SF is 3.03%,
4. Average thickness wall for determine moment 4.86%, 7.29%, and 10.93% for zone II, III, IV & V
5. of inertia of wall (tw) : 500 mm respectively and variation in dynamic BM over static
6. Strength of concrete for determine modulus of BM is 6.01%, 9.62%, 14.42%, and 21.63% for zone II,
7. elasticity of concrete : 25 N/mm2 III, IV & V respectively for 8 m meter height of
Each of parameter has its significance on formula. By retaining wall.
varying one by one parameter, study is carried out to 4.2.2. Passive earth pressure
find out variation of natural time period of for active as
well as passive earth pressure. Table 3 shows variation in dynamic SF over static SF is
1.67%, 2.80%, 4.05%, and 6.05% for zone II, III, IV &
3.2. Parameters used for shear force and bending V respectively and variation in dynamic BM over static
moment BM is 3.42%, 5.30%, 7.93%, and 12.07% for zone II,
Natural time period is used to found out shear force and III, IV & V respectively for 4 meter height of retaining
bending moment at the base of retaining wall [6]. The wall.
dynamic shear force and bending moments is Variation in dynamic SF over static SF is 1.26%,
determined by varying the following parameters: 2.07%, 3.07%, and 4.52% for zone II, III, IV & V
1. Height of wall respectively and variation in dynamic BM over static
2. Earthquake Zones BM is 2.52%, 4.02%, 6.03%, and 9.03% for zone II, III,
Data Considered for Analysis IV & V respectively for 6 m meter height of retaining
wall.
Height of wall in mm : 4000, 6000 and 8000
Earthquake zones : II, III, IV and V Variation in dynamic SF over static SF is 0.73%,
Unit weight of soil in kN/m3 : 18 1.23%, 1.85%, and 2.73% for zone II, III, IV & V
Angle of internal friction of soil : 280 respectively and variation in dynamic BM over static
Avg. thickness wall in mm : 500 BM is 1.49%, 2.41%, 3.61%, and 5.42% for zone II, III,
Strength of concrete N/mm2 : 25 IV & V respectively for 8 m meter height of retaining
Soil Profile : Same as shown in Figure 1 wall.
4. Results and Discussion Table1: Variation of parameters and there time periods
for active earth pressure (AEP) and passive earth
4.1. Natural time period pressure (PEP) conditions
Table 1 shows variations of most influencing parameters
like height of wall and unit weight of soil and their Time Period in Seconds
Parameters Varied
respective time periods for active and passive earth AEP PEP
pressure conditions. 4000 0.132 0.219
4.2. Shear force and bending moment 5000 0.230 0.383
Height of
Table 2 and 3 shows Static & Dynamic Shear Force 6000 0.363 0.604
wall in mm
(SF) and Bending Moment (BM) for Active Earth 7000 0.533 0.887
Pressure condition and for Passive Earth Pressure 8000 0.744 1.239
condition for different earthquake zones: 14 0.657 1.093
4.2.1. Active earth pressure Unit weight 15 0.680 1.131
Table 2 shows variation in dynamic SF over static SF is of soil in 16 0.702 1.168
4.67%, 7.48%, 11.22%, and 16.83% for zone II, III, IV kN/m3 17 0.724 1.204
& V respectively and variation in dynamic BM over 18 0.745 1.239
static BM is 9.24%, 14.79%, 22.19%, and 33.28% for
Table2: Static & dynamic shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) for active earth pressure condition
[8] Mononobe N. and Matsuo H. (1929), “On the [11] S. Ramamrutham, (2002) “Design of Reinforced
determination of earth pressure during Concrete Structures”, Dhanpat Rai Publishing
earthquakes,” Proc. World Engg. Congress, pp.9. Company. Page No. 421-513
[9] Okabe, S. (1926), “General theory of earth [12] Scott R.F., (1973), “Earthquake-induced pressures
pressures,” J. Japanese Soc. Civil Engg., Vol. 12, on retaining walls,” Proc. 5th World Conf. on
No.1. Earthquake Engineering (Tokyo: Int. Assoc.
[10] Punmia B.C, and Jain A.K. (2005) “Soil Mechanics Earthquake Engg.) 2: pp.1611–1620
and Foundation Engineering”, 16th Edition, Laxmi [13] Veletsos A.S and Younan A.H, (1994), “Dynamic
Publications (P), Ltd. Page No. 499-541 modeling and response of soil-wall systems,” J.
Geotech. Engg. ASCE 120: 2155–2179.
Abstract: The prediction of the behaviour of the pile foundations is of paramount importance in the seismic design
and assessment piles for the structural sustainability during earthquake. Generally pile provides a good agreeable
performance in the complex soils conditions like soft soils having less bearing capacity. The nonlinear condition and
dynamic condition are coupled with each other to produce the complex soil action to the pile motion which can be
well captured by the soil structure interaction phenomenon stated as soil-pile interaction analysis. In this research
paper numerical analysis of a single pile is carried out for a different soil conditions like, C-soils, Ø-Soils and C- Ø
soils to understand the soil-pile interaction for a EL-Centro (1940) ground motion. The displacements profiles are
studied for flexible long and rigid short pile for the different soil types as mentioned earlier and soil pile interaction
analysis. The axi-symmetric numerical model is developed by using Finite Element Program Open-Sees PL18 to
understand the soil pile interaction under the dynamic loading condition. The study concludes that the maximum
displacement is less for C- Ø soil as compared to other two types C-soil and Ø -soil. Under the dynamic loading
conditions, long pile is more sustainable than the Short rigid pile.
Keywords: Soil-pile interaction, Rigid and flexible pile, Numerical analysis, Open-sees PL, Master slave analogy,
Rigid interface.
Table1: Soil data 5. Dynamic analysis of the soil pile interaction model
Soil Parameter C-soil Ø-soils C-Ø Soil A dynamic load in the form of El Centro ground motion
Shear Modulus, (M= 6.9) with a peak ground acceleration 0.3g is
6x104 10x104 10x104 applied at the rigid end of the pile to perform a Base
G (kN /m2)
Bulk Modulus, B Shaking analysis. The spectra of the given ground
3x105 3x105 2.3x104 motion is shown in Figure 2. The tool offers the
(kN /m2)
Cohesion, C Newmark time integration procedure with two user
(kN /m2)
37 0 25 defined coefficients and [4] Computations at any
Permeability time step are executed to a convergence tolerance of
1x10-9 1x10-4 1x10-4 0.0001.
Co.eff (m/s)
Unit Weight (kN
15 20 19
/m3)
Friction Angle
0 35 33.5
(Degrees)
4. Pile Properties
Numerical analysis is carried out for circular rigid short
and flexible long concrete pile with grade of concrete
varies from M-30 to M-40 and length 4.5 m and 18 m
respectively with diameter 0.5 m. The pile is considered
to be fixed at the bottom and pinned at the top to find its
response against the given dynamic load. The different
combinations taken for analysis are shown in Table 2.
Figure2: Spectra for EL Centro ground motion (1940)
Table2: Different properties of soil and pile considered
with peak acceleration
for present study
6. Results
Grade of
Pile Type Soil Type For the given ground motions stresses and displacement
Concrete
M-30 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil are observed. The displacements are calculated in the
Short pile direction of the lateral load applied. Figure 3 shows the
L= 4.5 m, M-35 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil initial stress condition for the given dynamic loading.
D= 0.5 m M-40 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil The displacement is calculated along the length of pile
Long pile M-30 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil for both short and long pile. Figure 4 and Figure 5
L= 18 m, M-35 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil explains the displacement profile for the pile for all type
D= 0.5 m of soil viz cohesive (c-soil), non-cohesive (Ø-soils) and
M-40 C-soils Ø-soil C-Ø soil combination of both (C-Ø soil) for short and long pile
The pile of 0.5 m is modelled with a semi-infinite soil respectively.
medium of size 100 m x 100 m x 50m to simulate the
soil structure interaction phenomenon17. Figure 1 shows
basic soil-pile interactive model considered for dynamic
analysis.
[11] Pecker A. and Pender M., “Earthquake Resistant [14] Tokimatsu K., Suzuki H. and SatoM., “Effects of
Design of Foundations: New Construction”, inertial and kinematic interaction on seismic
Proceedings of GeoEng - 2000. Melbourne, behavior of pile with embedded foundation” , Soil
Australia, 2000. Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, vol. 25 pp.
[12] Randolph M. F., (1981), “Response of flexible 753-762, 2005.
piles to lateral loading”, Geotechnique, vol.31 pp. [15] Wolf J. P., Dynamic soil-structure interaction,
247-259. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Chapter 1, and 3, 1985.
[13] Scott R. F., Tsai C. F., Steussy D. , and Ting J. [16] Open Sees PL, 3D Lateral Pile-Ground Interaction
M., “Full-scale dynamic lateral pile tests”, User Manual, (Beta 1.0), 2004.
proceedings in 14th Offshore Technology
Conference-1982, Houston, Texas,1982.
Abstract: Bearing capacity and load-deformation response of geotechnical structures such as retaining walls, buried
culverts, piles, etc., depend on the stress-displacement behavior of interfaces in the contact area with soil. So it is
essential to determine the interface strength between soil and geotechnical structures to make a good estimation of
load transfer between structures and soils. To provide some insight into the interface behavior between concrete and
gravel soils, an experimental study was performed to evaluate the importance of various parameters. The parameters
varied in this investigation were surface roughness (which include smooth to rough), soil gradation (well and poorly
graded) and normal stress (0.05 N/mm2 to 0.20 N/mm2). Experimental results show that soil gradation and surface
roughness of concrete specimens were significantly changes the interface friction angle. Shear strength at the
interface increases with increase in normal stress and surface roughness. This study will be beneficial to the
researchers and practicing engineers working in soil-structure interaction problems.
Keywords: Direct shear test, gravel soils, internal friction angle, interface friction angle, surface roughness.
Fig3: Interface friction angle against surface roughness of concrete specimens with well graded gravel soil
Fig4: Interface friction angle against surface roughness of concrete specimens with poorly graded gravel soil
5.2 Effect of normal stress on shear stress: normal stress for well and poorly graded gravel soils are
Shear stress against normal stress was plotted; it given in the Table 4 and 5 respectively. Typical shear
stress against normal stress between well graded gravel
indicates that the shear strength increases with
soils is shown in Fig5.
increasing normal stress. Maximum shear stress against
Table4. Maximum shear stress against normal stress for well graded gravel
Normal Maximum shear stress (N/mm2)
stress, GW-Smooth GW-Medium GW-Rough GW-Coated
(N/mm2) GW-GW
surface concrete surface concrete surface concrete surface concrete
0.05 0.04626 0.04018 0.04387 0.05398 0.04482
0.10 0.09225 0.07956 0.09113 0.11548 0.07852
0.15 0.14375 0.12578 0.11795 0.15182 0.12153
0.20 0.18086 0.15754 0.17525 0.21264 0.14915
Table5. Maximum shear stress against normal stress for poorly graded gravel
Normal Maximum shear stress (N/mm2)
stress, GP-Smooth GP-Medium GP-Rough GP-Coated
(N/mm2) GP-GP
surface concrete surface concrete surface concrete surface concrete
0.05 0.05274 0.04024 0.04926 0.05450 0.03825
0.10 0.10247 0.07988 0.9228 0.10548 0.07828
0.15 0.13352 0.10854 0.12269 0.14858 0.09986
0.20 0.17409 0.14698 0.16125 0.19685 0.14428
Fig5. Shear stress against normal stress for well graded gravel soils
5.3 Effect of shear stress on horizontal displacement: constant shear stress. Typical shear stress against
Horizontal displacement against shear stress was horizontal displacement curves between well graded
gravel soils and well graded gravel soil to concrete
plotted; it indicates that horizontal displacement
specimen (smooth surface) are shown in Fig. 6 and 7
increases gradually with increase in shear stress until it
respectively.
reaches its failure shear stress. After that, further
increment in horizontal displacement resulting in
Fig6. Shear stress against horizontal displacement curves for well graded gravel soils
Fig7. Shear stress against horizontal displacement curves for well graded gravel soil to concrete specimen (smooth
surface)
6. Conclusions: Angle of interface friction between smooth surface
Direct shear tests were conducted to investigate the concrete specimen with well and poorly graded
interface friction angle between well and poorly graded gravel soils were 4.09 % and 6.31 % lower than
gravel soils with concrete specimens. The tests were medium surface concrete specimen.
performed under four values of normal stress 0.05 Angle of interface friction between rough surface
N/mm2, 0.10 N/mm2, 0.15 N/mm2 and 0.20 N/mm2. concrete specimen with well and poorly graded
Examining the data obtained from direct shear test, it gravel soils were 14.75 % and 15.44 % higher than
could be seen that, the shear strength at the interface medium surface concrete specimen
increases with increase in surface roughness of concrete Angle of interface friction between epoxy coated
specimens. The shear strength increases with increasing concrete specimen with well and poorly graded
normal stress. gravel soils were 8.55 % and 8.76 % lower than
medium surface concrete specimen
Abstract: In the recent years the use of laminated composite plates has considerably increased. The knowledge of
dynamic behaviour of plates and shell structures is very essential for sound design. When such structures are
subjected to dynamic loads, their behaviour is affected by excessive vibrations, higher displacements and
accelerations, which may deteriorate the structural performance. Hence, the dynamic response of laminated
composite plates to excitations, varying arbitrarily with time is investigated in this paper. Effect of fibre orientation
of plies on the stresses and deflections is studied. Laminated composite plates subjected to transient dynamic loads
are analyzed for various fibre orientations and boundary conditions. A rectangular laminated plate simply supported
along all the four edges is subjected to triangular and rectangular impulsive loads. The most robust fibre orientation
with respect to various response parameters is suggested.
In many practical situations, the dynamic excitation is neither harmonic nor periodic. Laminated composite plates
subjected to transient dynamic loads are analyzed for sixteen varieties of fibre orientations (0/0/0/0/0, 0/30/45/30/0,
0/30/0/30/0, 45/0/45/0/45, 45/0/0/0/45, 45/-45/0/-45/45, 30/60/90/60/30, 30/-45/0/-45/30, 90/45/0/45/90, 90/-60/45/-
60/90, 90/0/90/0/90, 0/90/0/90/0 30/45/60/45/30, 30/-45/60/-45/30, 45/60/90/60/45, 90/-30/45/-30/90) and simply
supported boundary conditions. Finite element modelling of the plates is carried out using layered shell element in
ANSYS. The plate consists of five layers and the thickness of each layer is taken as constant. Laminates are
considered to be made of two orthotropic materials and joined alternatively to make full plate. First, third, fifth
layers are made of one material and second, fourth layers are made of another material.
Keywords: laminated, composite plates, dynamic load, fibre orientation, optimization and von- mises stress.
method. Layer thickness and layer orientation angles are It is observed that the peak deflection, velocity and
taken as the design variables. This new technique gives acceleration are minimum in the case of 90/-60/45/-
an efficient optimization approach for the laminated 60/90 and maximum in case of 0/0/0/0/0, whereas the
composites. peak stress is maximum in case of 45/0/45/0/45 and
minimum in case of 90/-60/45/-60/90. Hence, 90/-
A multilevel approach to the optimal design of
60/45/-60/90 is the most robust orientation with respect
laminated composite plates is presented by Kam and
to various response parameters.
Chang [4] by considering deflection, damping and
natural frequency. Ply orientation and thickness are 4.2. Simply Supported – Load Case 2:
designed to minimize the volumes of the plates
A rectangular laminated plate simply supported along
subjected to constraints on the first natural frequencies,
all the four edges is subjected to rectangular impulsive
deflections induced by the applied loads and damping of
load i.e. load case-2. The deflection profile is shown in
the first vibration modes. Figure 5(a). The Von Mises stress contour is shown in
Pathak et al. [5] studied the transient dynamic analysis Figure 5(b). The displacement, velocity and acceleration
of three dimensional composite laminated plates. time histories are shown in Figures 5(c), (d) and (e)
Simply supported plate made up of five layers, two respectively. The maximum response parameters for
orthotropic materials stacked in alternate layers are various fiber orientations are given in Table 3(a). The
investigated. Number of plates is analyzed by varying absolute maximum / minimum response parameters are
the fiber orientation, thickness and type of loading. listed in Table 3(b).
3. Illustrative Example: It is observed that the peak deflection, velocity and
A rectangular laminated plate of size 2500 mm x 1250 acceleration are minimum in the case of 90/-60/45/-
mm, simply supported along all the four edges is 60/90 and maximum in case of 0/0/0/0/0, whereas the
peak stress is maximum in case of 30/60/90/60/30 and
investigated in this paper. Finite element modelling of
minimum in case of 90/-60/45/-60/90. Hence, 90/-
the plates is carried out using layered shell element and
60/45/-60/90 is the most robust orientation with respect
is shown in Figure 1. The plate has been discretized into
1250 elements and 3901 nodes. The plate consists of to various response parameters.
five layers and the thickness of each layer is 5 mm. Two 5. Conclusions:
types of dynamic loads such as triangular impulsive
Laminated composite plates fixed and simply
type as shown in Figure 2(a) and rectangular impulsive
supported along all the four edges subjected to
type as shown in Figure 2(b) are applied on the plate. triangular and rectangular impulsive loads are
The peak load at each node is 10 N and load duration is investigated for various types of fiber orientations.
one second in both the load cases 1, 2. Laminated
It is observed that fiber orientation plays a vital role
composite plates subjected to transient dynamic loads
in distribution of stresses and deflections.
are analyzed for 16 varieties of fiber orientations as
By properly orienting the fibers in laminated
shown in Figures 3(a) to (p).
composite plates, the maximum deflections can be
Laminates are considered to be made of two orthotropic reduced to an extent of about 90% and maximum
materials and joined alternatively to make full plate. stresses can be reduced to an extent of about 85%.
First, Third, Fifth layers are made of material 1 and This implies considerable saving in material can be
second; fourth layers are made of material 2. The achieved by properly orienting the fibers.
mechanical properties of these materials are taken from It is observed that the peak deflection, stress,
Meyers & Chawla [6] and are shown in Table 1. velocity and acceleration are minimum in 90/-
60/45/-60/90 orientation (all the cases) and
4. Results & Discussion:
maximum in 0/0/0/0/0 orientation. (most of the
4.1. Simply supported – Load case 1: cases) Hence, 90/-60/45/-60/90 is the most robust
A rectangular laminated plate simply supported along orientation with respect to various response
all the four edges is subjected to triangular impulsive parameters.
load i.e. load case-1. The deflection profile is shown in Design of composite laminated plates based on
Figure 4(a). The Von Mises stress contour is shown in these studies will not only save the material but also
Figure 4(b). The displacement, velocity and acceleration evolve robust design.
time histories are shown in Figures 4(c), (d) and (e) Reference
respectively. The maximum response parameters for
various fiber orientations are given in Table 2(a). The [1] Conti P, Luparell S and Pasta A (1997), Layer
absolute maximum / minimum response parameters are thickness optimization in a laminated composite,
listed in Table 2(b). Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol.28, Issue 3,
pp. 309-317.
Load (N)
6
[3] Fukunaga H and Vanderplaats G N (1991),
Strength optimization of laminated composites with 4
12
10
8
Load (N)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Time (Sec)
Figure 4(d). Velocity Time History Figure 5(c). Displacement Time History
Abstract: Lateral forces caused by wind, earthquake, and uneven settlement loads, in addition to the weight of
structure and occupants create powerful twisting (torsion) forces. These forces can literally tear (shear) a building
apart. Reinforcing a frame by attaching or placing a rigid wall inside it maintains the shape of the frame and
prevents rotation at the joints. Shear walls are especially important in high-rise buildings subject to lateral wind and
seismic forces. The present work deals with a study of the effect of openings in shear walls in high rise buildings. In
this work a high rise building with shear walls with and without openings is considered for analysis. The high rise
building is analyzed for its top displacement, Stiffness, and Maximum absolute principal stress.
Keywords: Shear Wall, Drift, Earthquake Loads, Finite Element Analysis.
Fig3: Sections of 12-story buildings with different sizes and locations of door and window openings in shear walls
Rectangular shear walls with and without opening are condition assumed for top of the solid strip and piers
modelled using plate elements available in structural increases the actual rigidity.
analysis program ETAB. Uniformly distributed lateral
The relative stiffness of shear walls with opening of
load was applied at the top of shear walls. For
same size at different vertical locations is a straight line
parametric study the percentage of horizontally centered
in Figures5e and 5f. It reveals that the stiffness of the
opening at the base of wall is increased from 6% to
wall obtained by the simplified method does not
14%, 9% to 21%, 12% to 28% and 15% to 35% by consider the vertical location of opening.
increasing the ratio of opening height to shear wall
height (ho/h) from 0.3 to 0.7 for fixed ratio of opening SR vs ho/h
1.00
Due to time limitations, it was impossible to account
accurately for all aspects of behaviour of all the 0.95
3. Floors slabs are assumed rigid in plane. -0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
SR vs ho/h SR vs ev (m)
1.0
1.5
0.9
Stiffness ratio (kN/mm)
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.0
0.5
-0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
ev (m)
(c) 2m wide opening
SR vs ho/h
(f) 2m x 1.2m Opening at Different ev (m)
Fig5: Stiffness of walls with opening relative to that of
1.0 solid wall
0.9 For wall with 20% opening, the simplified method
overestimates the stiffness of the wall by about 39% for
0.8 opening aspect ratio (ho/bo) of 0.75. However,
Stiffness ratio (kN/mm)
1.0
earthquake load are compared in Figure 6 to Figure 8.
Thus, it is easy to observe the effects of opening size and
its location in shear wall on seismic response of the
0.5 frame-shear wall structures under seismic excitation.
0.0
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
ev (m)
Disp vs Opening %
Disp vs ev (m)
47 42.7
46
42.6
45
42.5
Displacement (mm)
44
42.4
Displacement (mm)
43
42.3
42
42.2
41
40
42.1
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 42.0
Opening %
41.9
(a) Horizontally centered door openings of 2.1m high 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
ev (m)
Disp vs Opening %
48
Fig. 8 Top displacements of frame-shear wall structures
47 with 2 m × 1.2 m window openings at different vertical
46 locations in shear walls
45 Figure 6 show that the top displacement of 12-story
Displacement (mm)
44
building with an increase in openings sizes. It means
43
that the stiffness of the system decreases with the
increase in opening size. The stiffness of the system is
42
not only affected by the width of the opening but also
41 affected by the height of the opening. For shear walls
40 with opening area less than or up to 20% of the wall
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
area, the rate of increase in top displacement of the
Opening % system and decrease in base shear in shear walls with an
increase in opening size is nearly the same for different
(b) 2m wide window openings at 0.6m from floor level opening arrangementsin12-story buildings. The top
Fig. 6 Top displacements of frame-shear wall structures displacement of 12-story building (Figure 7) with door
with different size of door and window openings in openings of 28% in shear walls has been found 44.79
shear walls mm, respectively. It has been found 47.89 mm,
Disp vs eh (m)
respectively for shear walls with same opening area of
42.5 windows at 0.6 m from floor level. It thus, the opening
arrangement in shear wall has significant effect on the
42.4
stiffness of the system, when the opening area in the
shear walls is larger than 20%.
42.3 The effect of vertical location of window openings
Displacement (mm)
either uniaxial tensile strength or uni-axial compressive the openings area is increased to 35%. Location of
strength. Thus, magnitudes and locations of maximum maximum principal stress is at top of opening at 2nd
absolute principal and maximum principal stresses in floor (Table 3) in shear walls with door openings of
shear walls due to service loads are compared in Tables different sizes considered in this study. Similarly, for
5 to 8 for all structures. In addition to that, maximum window openings, it is at the top of window at 2nd floor
absolute principal stress at top corner of opening at 2nd for opening area up to 24% in shear walls of 12-story
floor of shear walls, are compared. buildings (Table 4). However, the location of maximum
Maximum principal stress (Smax) in shear wall increases principal stress shifted to the bottom of window at 4th
with the increase in openings sizes. The maximum floor in 12-story building with opening area of 28% in
shear walls. This is because the behavior of wall tends
principal stress in shear wall with horizontally centered
to change from coupled wall systems to two
door openings of 14% in 12-story building has been
independent walls.
found 6.39 N/mm2. It increased to 11.99 N/mm2 when
Table3: Principal stresses in shear walls with horizontally centered door openings of 2.1 m height, in 12-story
buildings
Principal stresses in shear walls (N/mm2)
bo/L Opening Max Location of stress in Location of stress in
(%) absolute shear wall S max shear wall
0.2 14 11.99 Base of wall 6.39 Top of door at 2nd floor
0.3 21 12.78 Top of door at 2 nd floor 8.55 Top of door at 2 nd floor
0.4 28 14.00 Top of door at 2 floor 10.42 Top of door at 2 nd floor
nd
The maximum absolute principal stress at the top corner [2] El-Tawil, S., C.M. Kuenzil and M. Hassan 2002.
of opening at the 2nd floor in shear wall increased with Pushover of hybrid coupled walls I: design and
an increase in opening size. However, it decreased when modeling. Journal of Structural Engineering.
the window opening is increased from 24% to 28%. ASCE, 128 (10): 1272-1281.
Maximum absolute principal stress at the opening [3] Kim, H.S. and D.G. Lee. 2003. Analysis of shear
corner decreased from 13.96 N/mm2 to 11.47 wall with openings using super elements.
N/mm2when horizontal distances (eh) from center line Engineering Structures. 25: 981-991.
of vertical boundary element in shear wall to the edge of [4] Lin, C.Y. and C.L. Kuo. 1988. Behavior of shear
doors openings of 14%, is increased from 1 m to 2 m in wall with openings. Proceedings of Ninth world
12-story buildings. However, the effect of vertical Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Tokyo-
location of the window opening is negligible. Kyoto, Japan, IV: 535-540.
[5] Neuenhofer, A. 2006. Lateral stiffness of shear
5. Conclusions
walls with openings. Journal of Structural
From the above results and discussions, following Engineering. ASCE, 132 (11): 1846-1851.
conclusions can be drawn: [6] Paulay, T. and M.J.N. Priestley. 1992. Seismic
1. The stiffness of the wall decreases with the increase design of reinforced concrete and masonry
in opening size. buildings. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. USA.
2. The stiffness as well as response of frame-shear [7] Qaqish, S. and F. Daqqaq. 2000. Effect of
wall structure is more affected by the size of horizontal forces on shear walls with small
openings than their locations in the shear walls with openings. Technical Services and Studies-
opening area ≤ 20%. University of Jordan. Jordan.
3. It is advisable to limit the simplified method to [8] Sharma, S.K. 1998. Study of various structural
calculate the stiffness of shear walls with maximum systems under seismic excitation. M. Sc. Thesis,
opening area of 10% at the base of shear wall. Tribhuvan University, Institute of Engineering,
4. The Displacements are increasing with the increase Lalitpur, Nepal.
in the percentage of opening. [9] Singh, M. 2000. Effects of curtailment of shear wall
5. In the case of maximum absolute principal stress at at different levels on seismic resistance of
opening corner in the shear walls, the results multistory buildings. M.Sc. Thesis, Tribhuvan
indicate that effects of horizontal locations of door University, Institute of Engineering, Lalitpur,
openings of 14% is more sensitive than that of the Nepal.
vertical locations of window openings of 16%. [10] Smith, B.S. and A. Coull. 1991. Tall building
6. It can be concluded that it is better to locate the structure: Analysis and Design. 1st ed. John Wiley
door openings at center of shear wall. Therefore, and Sons, Inc. USA
maximum absolute principal stress in shear wall at [11] Varayani, U.H. 2002.Structural design of multi-
opening corner is minimized. storeyed buildings.2nd ed. South Asian publishers,
Reference New Delhi.
[12] Yanez, F.V., R. Park and T. Paulay. 1992. Seismic
[1] Atimtay, E. and R. Kanit 2006. Learning seismic behavior of walls with irregular openings.
design from the earthquake itself. Practice Earthquake Engineering. Tenth World Conference,
Periodical on Structural Design and Construction. Balkema, Rotterdam.
ASCE, 11 (3): 149-160.
Abstract: The paper makes a review of available data base and shear models to predict the shear strength of
reinforced concrete beams without web reinforcement and an effort has been to predict a shear equation to evaluate
shear strength of high strength concrete beams (65 Mpa) with different shear span to depth ratios (a/d = 1, 2, 3 & 4)
without web reinforcement and compare the test results with the analytical model created in ANSYS. The reinforced
concrete beams were modeled in „ANSYS‟. The test results were compared with the „ANSYS‟ model results. The
shear capacity evaluated using „ANSYS‟ model for the beams were closer to test results. Thus a simplified equation
has been evaluated using the previous database and the ANSYS model, to predict the shear capacity of high strength
concrete beams without shear reinforcement.
Keywords: High-strength Concrete, Shear, Shear span to Depth Ratio (a/d), Finite Element Analysis (FEA).
1. Introduction: [6], Ferguson [7], Taylor [8] found that shear capacity
of Reinforced concrete beams varied with a/d ratio. In
Utilization of high strength concrete in construction
this research, shear span-to-effective depth ratio is taken
sector has increased due to its improved mechanical
as main variable keeping all other parameters constant.
properties compared to ordinary concrete. One such
mechanical property, shear resistance of concrete beams Fanning [9] evaluated reinforced and post tensioned
is an intensive area of research. To Estimate the shear concrete beams using the ANSYS package. Kotosov
resistance of beams, standard codes and researchers all and Pavlovic [10] analyzed short shear reinforced
over world have specified different formulae concrete beams using 3D finite element approach to
considering different parameters into consideration. The validate the rational prediction of its behavior observed
parameters considered are varying for different codes in the test program. Zho, Kwan and He [11] analyzed
and researchers leading to disagreement between nonlinear behavior of reinforced concrete deep beams
researchers, making it difficult to choose an appropriate using a 2D finite element method. The present study
model or code for predicting shear resistance of concentrates on details of the finite element analysis of
reinforced concrete. Therefore an extensive research four shear critical high strength rectangular beams
work on shear behavior of normal and high strength having no shear reinforcement. The finite element
concrete is being carried out all over the world. The analysis of these beams has been carried out in
major researchers include Bazant Z.P. [1], Zsutty T.C, „ANSYS‟ package considering perfect bond between
[2] Piotr Paczkowski [3], Jin-Keun Kim [4], and Imran the tension reinforcement and the surrounding concrete.
A. Bukhari [5] and many more. Estimation of shear The predicted results using „ANSYS‟ model, have been
resistance of high strength concretes is still compared with the corresponding test data.
controversial therefore it‟s a thrust area for research. 2. Objectives:
The shear failure of reinforced concrete beams without
Study the shear response of concrete beams without
web reinforcement is a distinctive case of failure which shear reinforcement varying shear span to depth
depends on various parameters such as shear span to ratio (a/d) from 1 to 4 (1,2,3 & 4).
effective depth ratio (a/d), longitudinal tension steel
Compare the shear formulae formulated by eminent
ratio (ρ), aggregate type, strength of concrete, type of
codes with the experimental test data.
loading, and support conditions, etc. Most of the
Develop and analyze the HSC beam model in
researchers concluded that failure mode is strongly
ANSYS and compare the results with the test data.
dependent on the shear span to depth ratios (a/d). Berg
corresponding series. The test set up is presented in LINK8 3D Spar element. The 3-D spar element is a
Figure.2: uniaxial tension-compression element with three
degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the
nodal x, y, and z directions with large deflection
capabilities. The cross sectional area of each element is
given as area equivalent to each rebar. The rebar
young‟s modulus is taken as 2 x 105 MPa and Poisson‟s
ratio as 0.3. For the rebar the same mesh size as that of
concrete element is adopted. Perfect bond between
concrete and reinforcement is ensured between the two
elements in ANSYS. The figure 3 shows a typical beam
modeled in ANSYS for a/d =1 with element mesh size
of 25mm.
1
ELEMENTS
AUG 17 2010
U 06:05:29
F
Figure2: Beam and LVDT arrangement in 100 ton Y
loading Frame Z X
The variation of deflection with load of HSC beams the specified limit leading to failure of the specimen.
without shear reinforcement for a/d = 1, 2, 3, and 4 are The behaviour of concrete elements modeled in ANSYS
shown in figure 5, which indicate the increase in a/d is as such that after crushing to maximum extent (that is
ratio has shown reduction in shear capacity of the beam. after third crack represented in blue color in ANSYS
At lower a/d ratios the ultimate load was observed to be crack and crush model) the material shows a softening
more than twice at diagonal cracking. The deflections behaviour in all direction resulting in distortion of all
increased with a/d ratio, which signify that at lower a/d the linked elements.
ratios i.e. up to 2 the strut behavior and above 2 the arch The first crack observed in the shear span during the
behaviour of the beams. At lower a/d ratios (up to 2), testing of the beam was found to be similar in the
the failure was observed to be sudden compared to
ANSYS predicted model. In further stages of loading of
failure pattern observed for higher a/d ratio (a/d – 2 to
ANSYS predicted model the cracks propagated through
4).
the shear span and new cracks emerged at the constant
moment zone at the loads closer to ultimate load. The
orientations of cracks predicted by the model were
inclined in the shear span region and vertical in constant
moment region. The crack patterns and the order of
cracks predicted by ANSYS model were in confirming
with experimental observations. During the test process,
at ultimate load the inclined crack in shear span
widened and concrete under the load point crushed. The
ANSYS model predicted the crushing of concrete at
ultimate by indicating large distortion of element nodes.
The crack patterns indicate purely shear failure at a/d =1
and 2 and shear – flexure failure at a/d =3 and 4.The
crack pattern observed in ANSYS model at failure is
Figure5: Load - Deflection illustration for R01 (a/d=1), illustrated in figure 8.
R02 (a/d=2), R03 (a/d=3) & R04 (a/d=4).
The failure pattern of the beams shown in figure 6
clearly exemplify that for a/d, 1 and 2 crack initiated
approximately at 45 degree called as web shear crack,
across the neutral axis before a flexural crack appeared .
A compression failure finally occurred adjacent to the
load which may be designated as a shear compression
failure. For a/d 3 and 4 the diagonal crack started from
the last flexural crack and turned gradually into a crack
more and more inclined under the shear loading. The
crack did not proceed immediately to failure, the
diagonal crack moved up into the zone of compression
became flatter and crack extended gradually at a very
flat slope until finally sudden failure occurred up to the
load point. The failure may be designated as diagonal
tension failure.
The ANSYS Load- Deflection response of HSC beams
without shear reinforcement has been compared with
the experimental results in figure 7. The illustration
articulate, at the initial stage of loading the ANSYS
model data overlapped with the test data, where as in
the post crack regime it was found to be smoother
compared to experimental results. The variation in the
results may be attributed to the difference in bond
characteristics of concrete and reinforcement in the
model and the test. The ANSYS model could predict the
results modestly up to the ultimate load. The model
could not predict the load-deflection response in the
post crack regime as the elements are distorted above
Y
Z X
Commentary (318R-02). Farmington Hills, Mich.: [16] Ahmad, S.H., Khaloo, A.R., and Poveda, A. (1986),
American Concrete institute, 2002. “Shear Capacity of Reinforced High Strength
[13] Karim S. Rebeiz, Javier Fente and Michael Concrete Beams,” ACI Journal, 83(2), 297-305.
Frabizzio, “New Shear Strength Prediction Using [17] Batchelor, B., “Shear in R.C. Beams without Web
Statistical and Interpolation Function Techniques”, Reinforcement”, Journal of Structural Division,
8th ASCE Speciality Conference on Probabilistic 107(ST5) (1981), pp. 907–919.
Mechanics and Structural Reliability, PMC 2000, [18] Elahi, A., “Effect of Reinforcement Ratio and
pp 279-283 Shear Span on Shear Strength of High-strength
[14] CSA Technical Committee on Reinforced Concrete Concrete Beams”, MSc Thesis, Taxila University,
Design, Design of Concrete Structures A23.3-94,. 2003.
Rexdale, Ontario, 1994. [19] Reineck, K. H., Kuchma, D., Kim, K.S., and Marx,
[15] European CEB-FIP Model Code. London: Thomas S., “Shear Database for Reinforced Concrete
Telfair, Services, 1990 Members without Shear Reinforcement”, ACI
Structural Journal, 100(2) (2003), pp. 240–249.
Abstract: The aim of structural optimization is to determine the structural geometry with respect to topology and/or
shape of the structures. Thickness/Shape optimization and Topology optimization dealt separately produce improved
new designs. However, integration of Thickness/Shape and Topology optimization offer more efficient tool to be
used. Depending on the practical considerations in the industry, it is recommended to consider the combination of
some vital thickness and shape parameters along with topology optimization. In the present paper an algorithm is
formulated integrating shape and topology using a three stage process developed for two objective functions,
minimization of structural compliance(maximizing the static stiffness) and maximization of weighted
frequency(maximizing the dynamic stiffness). An illustrative example of concrete cylindrical shell is considered
from the past researchers (which was optimized only with respect to shape) and using the three stage algorithm
optimized models combining shape and topology are obtained for different support conditions. Present work uses
ANSYS software and the results are discussed and presented.
Keywords: Static stiffness, Dynamic stiffness, Structural Compliance, Topology Optimization, Cylindrical Shell,
Weighted frequency.
l and u are lower and upper bounds. are used to constrain the design and make the
Where x is the n-dimensional vector of the design optimization problem a constrained one. The ANSYS
variables; program converts this problem to an unconstrained
(x) is the objective function; optimization problem because minimization techniques
hk(x) is the kth equality design constraint; for the latter are more efficient. The conversion is done
gj(x) is the jth inequality design constraint; by adding penalties to the objective function
mi is the number of equality constraints; approximation to account for the imposed constraints.
md is the number of inequality constraints; 2.2.2. Convergence Checking: At the end of each loop,
n is the number of variables; and a check for convergence is made. The problem is said to
xLi ,xUi is the lower limit ,upper limit of the variable
be converged if the current, previous, or best design is
2. 2. Design Optimization Method in ANSYS feasible and any of the following conditions are
In the present problem ANSYS which is robust and satisfied:
efficient optimization module is built-in is used for The change in objective function from the best
structural analysis and optimization. The design feasible design to the current design is less than the
optimization terms used in ANSYS are: objective function tolerance.
Design variables are independent quantities, varied The change in objective function between the last
to achieve the optimum design. two designs is less than the objective function
State variables are quantities that constrain the tolerance.
design. The changes in all design variables from the current
design to the best feasible design are less than their
Objective function is the dependent variable that we
respective tolerances.
are attempting to minimize.
The changes in all design variables between the last
Feasible design is a design that satisfies all
specified constraints (those on the state variables as two designs are less than their respective
well as on the design variables). If any one of the tolerances.
constraints is not satisfied, the design is considered 2.3. Topology Optimization
‘infeasible.’ The ‘best design’ is the one, which
Topological optimization is a form of shape
satisfies all constraints and produces the minimum optimization, sometimes referred to as layout
objective function value. optimization. The goal of topological optimization is to
The optimization methods are traditional techniques that find the best use of material for a body that is subject to
strive for either minimization or maximization of an either a single load or multiple load distributions. The
objective function subject to constraints. The ANSYS best use of material in the case of topological
program always tries to minimize the objective function optimization represents the maximum-stiffness design.
as it efficiently handles the minimization problems. If
2.3.1. Topology Optimization in ANSYS: Unlike
we need to maximize a quantity, restate the problem and
traditional optimization topological optimization
minimize the quantity x1 = 1/x. In the present paper one
requires neither parameters nor the explicit definition of
of the objective function is to maximize the fundamental optimization variables. The objective function (i.e., the
frequency, is converted into the problem of minimizing function to be minimized) is predefined, as are the state
the time period and optimized. The optimization
variables (i.e., constrained dependent variables) and the
methods transform the constrained problem into an
design variables (i.e., independent variables to be
unconstrained one that is eventually minimized. The
optimized). You need only to define the structural
design tools, on the other hand, do not directly perform
problem (material properties, model, loads, etc.) and the
minimization. The optimization method employed in the percentage of material to be removed.
present study is Sub-problem approximation method.
The goal of topological optimization is to minimize the
2.2.1. Sub-problem approximation method: This is an
energy of structural compliance while satisfying a
advanced zero-order method, which requires only the
constraint on the volume of the structure. Minimizing
values of the dependent variables (state variables and the compliance is equivalent to maximizing the global
the objective function), and not their derivatives. It is a structural stiffness. This technique uses design variables
general method, which can be applied efficiently to a
( i) that are internal psuedo-densities assigned to each
wide range of engineering problems. There are two
finite element
concepts that play a key role in the sub-problem
approximation method, the use of approximations for 2.4. Maximum Static Stiffness Design (Subject to
the objective function and the conversion of the Volume Constraint)
constrained optimization problem to an unconstrained In the case of maximum static stiffness design subject to
problem. State variables and limits on design variables a volume constraint, one seeks to minimize the energy
of the structural static compliance (UC) for a given load frequency is considered as the objective function in case
case subject to a given volume reduction. Minimizing 2 as mentioned in the following sections.
the compliance is equivalent to maximizing the global
2.6. Weighted Formulation
structural static stiffness. Minimum compliance
topology optimization problems impose a constraint on Given m natural frequencies (ωi,……. m), the
the amount of material which can be utilized. In this following weighted mean function (ΩW) is defined:
case, the optimization problem is formulated as a m
special case of equation (1), (2) and (3) as ΩW = W i i (11)
UC =a minimum w. r to ηi (5) i 1
i = a maximum w. r to ηi …..(8)
Vi = volume for element i
Subjected to 0≤ ηi ≤ 1 where i=1, 2, 3……N (9) The pseudo densities effect the volume and the elasticity
V≤ V0 –V* …..(10) tensor for each element. That is,
Fig4: Density Plots of optimum model for minimum volume as objective using integrated Shape and topology
Optimization
assumed a shape of flat plate in case of shell [5] Lin, C.Y., Chao, L.S. ,[2000], ‘Automated image
supported on straight edges. interpretation for integrated topology and shape
In the case of shell supported on curved edges optimization’, Journal of structural and multi-
maximum reduction in volume (78.22%) is reported disciplinary Optimization, Vol.20, p.125
when compared with the other support conditions. [6] Bendshe, M.P., and Rodrigues, H.C.,[1991],
Un-averaged density plots for higher volume ‘Integrated topology and boundary shape
reduction sometimes result into a truss like optimization of 2-D Solid’, Computer Methods in
structure, which gives an idea of material Applied Mechanics and Engineering, Vol. 87, p.15.
distribution. [7] Cappello, F. and Mancuso, A.,[2003], ‘A genetic
It is noticed that completely automated procedure in algorithm for combined topology and shape
arriving at the optimal shape/topology should be optimizations’, Computer-Aided Design,Vol.35,
only be used as guide to the designer who must p.761
exercise the judgment in the selection of [8] Zhou,M., Pagaldipti,N., Thomas,H.L., Shyy,Y.K.,
appropriate and practically possible designs as large [2004], ‘An integrated approach to topology, sizing,
reduction in volume (up to 80%) as constraint and shape optimization’, Structural
results into unpractical cases. Multidisciplinary Optimization, Vol. 26,p.308.
[9] Yildiz, A.R., Ozturk, N., Kaya N. and Ozturk F.,
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Abstract: In most of the metropolitan cities in India, the road use patterns are very different from those in
developed countries. Migration from rural to urban in search of better livelihood, urbanization and modern
infrastructure have made man more and more dependent on motorized vehicles. This results in the increase in
economic activities and tremendous growth of motor vehicles which is considered as one of the primary factors
responsible for increasing road accidents in many metropolitan cities of developing countries, including Hyderabad,
India. In India nearly 4.7 lakhs of lives are met with road accidents in the year 2011; a significant share of it is from
the major cities. Haphazard city planning and unscientific road designs are the reasons for our city to stand second in
Hyderabad country in the list of road accidents. In this study, an assessment of the current level of road safety in
Hyderabad is done by using secondary data. Motorbike helmet analysis is carried for short and long distance.
Wearing helmet rates continue to squat in metropolitan cities like Hyderabad. This characteristic is examined in the
comprehension, mind-set, and conduct of motorcyclists towards helmet use in few selected places of Hyderabad
city. Riders near the sites were opportunistically approached and asked about comprehension of and opinion about
use of helmet. Altogether, 12,450 motorbikes were interviewed at six selected stretches of Hyderabad city with a
large proportion of both drivers and passengers (67%) did not wear a helmet. Wearing of helmet is very low among
female & male drivers, younger people in local streets, major roads, for short distance and during the evenings and
weekends. The majority of the drivers who were interviewed (82%) recognized the benefits of wearing helmet, but
79.1% accounted that helmets are not always comfortable, and 93%said they would wear a helmet for precautionary
purposes of preventing injuries. In addition, numerous drivers felt that police enforcement was not severe (62%).
These results recommend that educational programs about helmet use in city of Hyderabad should call awareness to
the hazard of helmet use. Stringent enforcement, particularly on major roads and during peak & peak hours, could
also improve helmet wearing tradition.
Key Words: Accident Severity, Helmet, Comprehension & Mid-set.
1. Introduction: In India
India is undergoing major economic and demographic The magnitude of road accidents in India has gone up to
transition coupled with increasing urbanization and an alarming proportion. About 4, 97,686 were killed in
motorization. Among the top ten causes of mortality in road accidents in India in the year 2011 1. This clearly
the country, road traffic accident was the tenth cause demonstrates the magnitude of road traffic problems in
two decades back, but with the increasing urban India which continues to worsen primarily due to the
expansion and lifestyle changes, it is projected that road ever-increasing growth of motor vehicles and the
traffic accidents will occupy the fifth position in the list inadequacy of the road system to cope with the
of major killers and third position among causes of saturated traffic flow. The actual trend in the total
disease burden in 2020. In India, 11% of deaths due to accidents, fatalities and injuries in India for the period
non-communicable diseases are due to injuries and 78% 2001-2011 is illustrated in Fig 1 which clearly reflects
of injury deaths are due to road traffic accidents (NCRB the increasing trend of road accidents during this period.
2011). It is the leading cause of mortality for young The total number of road accidents and fatalities has
adults of less than 45 years and a major burden of gone up significantly resulting in an increase of 22.2%
disease across all age groups. and 5.5% respectively over a period of decade. As
compared to an all India level, the total road accidents
1.1 Accident Scenario:
the observation unit. Variables observed for each sample of 12450 riders. The data reliability is assessed
observation unit included helmet use, engine size, using the SPSS statistic, for all variables and examined.
gender, and estimated age group (<25, 25–50, >50) of
Data analysis:
the person. Helmet use was classified into three
categories: (i) helmet use (ii) no helmet use (i.e., not In addition to descriptive analyses, statistics were used
wearing a helmet) shown in Figure 7. to examine the association between socio-demographic
variables and variables related to the behavior,
comprehension, and attitude towards helmet use.
Logistic regression was used to examine the association
between helmet non-use and the independent variables.
Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS V14).
5.0 Results:
a) Roadside observations
As shown in Table 3, we had observed 12,450
Motorbike on roadside. Observations indicate that
Fridays and Saturdays are with large volume comparing
with remaining weekdays of the week and time periods.
There were three accommodation of the drivers (71%)
were male, and most were estimated to be aged 25–50
years (71.2%). Tables 4 show the characteristics of
proper helmet use was low, with less than one-third of
drivers (38.2%) of the passengers wearing a helmet. 67
Figure7: Helmet Wearing Characteristics at Selected
percent of the drivers did not wear a helmet at all. Male
Study Area in Hyderabad City
(driver: 76.9%) and riders younger than 25 years of age
Mind-set and awareness survey (driver: 35.4%) were less likely to wear a helmet
Interview sites were adjacent to the roadside properly. The rate of proper helmet use among
observational sites in locations where a large number of motorcyclists was highest in the morning (driver:
Motorbikes were parked, such as service stations or 64.0%) and lowest in the evening (driver: 31.7 %,); and
supermarket car parks. Riders were selected marginally higher on weekdays than on weekends for
opportunistically. We interviewed riders using a semi- drivers (37%). The highest risk of not wearing helmet
structured questionnaire measuring comprehension, use was observed among Females and those in the
attitudes, and practices. The survey questionnaire was younger age group for both drivers and passengers.
adopted from a study of Motorbike helmet use Zhou et b) Mind-set and awareness survey
al., 2003. In addition to basic demographic information,
Overall, 12450 riders were interviewed. More
participants were asked about Motorbike safety-related
respondents were male (81%) and aged 25–50.
comprehension and attitudes; helmet wearing behavior;
Although 79.1% of the motorcyclists believed that
and understanding of existing helmet laws and penalties.
helmets have a protective effect, only 34.5% reported
Questions included in the questionnaire were (i) the
that the main reason for wearing a helmet was to
main reason for wearing a helmet; (ii) whether they
prevent or decrease the severity of head injury. The
think helmets are truly protective; (iii) whether helmets
majority of respondents (71.8%) said they would wear a
are needed only when riding on major streets; (iv)
helmet “to cope with police”. As shown in Table 4,
whether they feel that helmets block vision; (v) how
these patterns were consistent among males and females
comfortable they are when wearing a helmet; (vi)
and between the different age groups, except that
whether they had heard any messages about helmet
slightly more male riders reported they would wear a
wearing; (vii) whether they received helmet education
helmet to avoid being stopped by police. Over 84.6% of
when they received Motorbike driver training; (viii)
the interviewees had seen messages about helmet use
whether they know it is against the law not to wear a
during different periods of their life, including when
helmet; (ix) how strict they feel police enforcement of
they first learned how to ride. Overall, 79.1% believed
the helmet law is; (x) whether they feel ok when obliged
that it was against the law not to wear a helmet while
to wear a helmet; and (xi) whether they support strict
riding a Motorbike; however, more females and younger
penalties for not wearing a helmet. A pilot study was
riders reported this opinion (Table 6). Many
conducted in observational sites and a convenience
interviewees also felt that helmets are not always
comfortable (69.3%) that helmets could block vision
(31.7%), and that police enforcement was usually not (27%) or occasionally uncomfortable (45%), and
strict enough. Both younger age and male gender were thought or felt that helmets block their vision (39%)
significantly associated with the perceptions that when riding. Some interviewees in our study may have
“helmet blocks visions” and “uncomfortable to wear a used poor vision or discomfort as an excuse for not
helmet” (Table 6). wearing a helmet. Almost all interviewees reported that
they believed helmets were only needed when driving
5.1 Discussion:
on major roads (84.1%). On the other hand, over 76%
In this study, we found that 82% of Motorbike riders knew that failure to wear a helmet violates the law;
and passengers in two medium-sized cities in nearly 72% agreed that helmet use should be
Hyderabad believed safety helmets are protective. compulsory, and about half supported the adoption of
However, the drivers 68.5% did not wear a helmet at all. strict penalties for those who do not wear a helmet.
It was also observed that the rate of not wearing helmet Nevertheless, less than 54% believed that police
was highest on local streets compared to major arteries. enforcement of the law was strict and 61% reported they
Almost all interviewees reported that they believed would wear a helmet just to “cope with police”. On the
helmets were only needed when driving on major roads other hand designers of Motorbike helmets should take
(84.1%). On the other hand, over 76% knew that failure this into consideration when designing new
to wear a helmet violates the law; nearly 72% agreed
In order to minimize accidents, major policy may be
that helmet use should be compulsory, and about half
supported the adoption of strict penalties for those who evolved to reduce the growth of personalized vehicles
do not wear a helmet. Nevertheless, less than 54% and simultaneously to encourage the use of public
transport vehicles. Due to data limitations, other zones
believed that police enforcement of the law was strict
of the city could not be considered. Though a limited
and 61% reported they would wear a helmet just to
study has been reported so far in the area of road
“cope with police”.
accidents, it is desirable to look into the causes and
6.0 Conclusions effects of road accidents to be carried out not only at a
Helmet analysis explains the results that many macro-level but also at a micro-level.
motorbike considered helmets to be uncomfortable
Table 3. Helmet Data Collected From Selected Study Areas
Number of Helmet
Name of The Wearing Helmet Not wearing Helmet
S. Motorbike
Section Not
No. Riders Wearing
Considered M F M F wearing
Interviewed
1 Balanagar 1950 653 92 928 277 745 1205
2 Ameerpet 2150 720 101 1023 306 821 1329
3 Laki-di-ka-pool 1700 570 80 809 242 649 1051
4 JNTU 2450 821 115 1166 348 936 1514
5 Hi-Tech City 2150 720 101 1023 306 821 1329
6 Nizampet 2050 687 96 976 291 783 1267
Total Sample 12450 4171 585 5924 1770 7694 4756
Table 4. Characteristics of Helmet wearing among Motorbike drivers in Hyderabad
Helmet
Description
Not Wearing Wearing
Driver Characteristics 61.7 38.3
Gender
Male 76.9 87.7
Female 23.1 12.3
Age Group
18- 25 Years 82.6 17.4
25 – 50 Years 35.4 64.6
“Predictors of injury among younger and older Implications” Transportation Research Record:
adults in fatal motor vehicle crashes” Accident Journal of the Transportation Research Board
Analysis & Prevention vol. 40,(6) pp: 1804–1810. Vol.1954, pp:15-21
[7] Keng, S.H., (2005) “Helmet use and Motorbike [11] Road Accident data (2001 – 2011) Hyderabad City
fatalities in Taiwan”. Accident Analysis and Police
Prevention vol.37 (2), pp: 349–355. [12] Road Accident data (2011) Cyberabad City police.
[8] Matthew G. Karlaftis, Ioannis Golias (2002) [13] Skalkidou, A., Petridou, E., Papadopoulos, F.C.,
“Effects of road geometry and traffic volumes on Dessypris, N., Trichopoulos, D. (1999) “Factors
rural roadway accident rates” Accident Analysis Affecting Motorbike Helmet Use in the Population
and Prevention vol. 34 pp: 357–365 of Greater Athens, Greece”, Injury Prevention
[9] Patricia Turner, Christopher Hagelin (2005) vol.5, pp: 264-267.
“Motorbike Helmet Use and Trends Before and [14] Zhou, J.T., Geng,W.K., Zhang, J.H., (2003). “A
After Florida's Helmet Law Change in 2000” study on the traffic injury status, reasons and
Transportation Research Record. Vol. 1922(1) pp: countermeasure in some areas in Guangxi”.
183-187. Guangxi Prev. Med. Vol. 9 (2), pp: 80–88.
[10] Prianka Nalin Seneviratne (2006) “Road Sector
Development in China and India Trends and
Appendix
Snapshots from Daily News Paper of Hyderabad city emphasizing on the Importance of wearing helmet while
driving on motorbike
Abstract: The subgrade of any pavement plays an important role in load bearing and support of traffic in the form
of foundation. Pavement construction over soft soils (Black cotton soils) requires a suitable treatment needs to be a
mandatory consideration with respect to strength and overall construction cost. The most effective methods of
subgrade treatment currently appear to be using fly ash and geo-textiles compacted with the natural soil of the
subgrade. As environmental and population pressures become more severe, infrastructure projects will be directed
further towards locations where ground conditions are marginal. The first objective of the study is focused on the
laboratory investigations on the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of unreinforced and reinforced fly ash with
geotextiles overlying soft soil beds collected from Vijayawada Thermal Power Plant in Andhra Pradesh. In addition
to CBR test, Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) on fly ash also tested in the laboratory for effective
evaluation of strength characteristics soft soil. The second objective of the study is by using Geo-textiles stabilized
at various locations of soil subgrade to find out the bearing capacity in terms of CBR is evaluated. The inclusion of
geo-textile into the compacted fly ash bed enhances the bearing ratio and also reduces the thickness of pavement
subgrade.
Keywords: Soft soil, subgrade, California bearing ratio, fly ash, geo-textiles, Unconfined Compressive strength,
pavement.
The present study is a geotechnical laboratory CBR Value is increased also when soil compacted
program to estimate how the use of Geo-textiles with 20% of fly ash (6.5 to 10.4) but when
could improve the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) compared to Geo-textile this amount was less.
of soft sub-grade soil.
Reference
In this study soil samples are tested for un-soaked
and soaked for four days by using with and without [1] Metcalf R.C., Holtz. R.D., Allen T.M (1995), Field
Geo-textiles as an interface to evaluate the investigation to evaluate the long-term separation
California Bearing Ratio values. and drainage performance of Geo-textile separators,
In the un-soaked condition without using Geo- Proc. Geo-synthetics-95 conference, Nashville,
textiles the CBR values are 6.598%, with the Tennessce, USA, pp 591-967
provision of Geo-textiles at a depth of H/5 Cm from [2] Nishigata K., Nishigata T. (1994) the evaluation of
bottom the CBR value is 13.9%.The CBR value is separation for Geo-textiles, Proc. 5th International
increased by more than 100% by providing the conference on Geo-textiles, Geo-membranes and
Geo-textile, this shows that addition of Geo-textiles related products, Singapore, pp 139-142.
improves the bearing capacity of the soil, being [3] Tsai W.S.,Savage B.M., Holtz R.D, Christopher
tested. B.R., Alien T.M., (1993) Evaluation of Geo-
The CBR value of soil , when the Geo-textile synthetics as separators in full-scale road test, Proc.
providing at a distance of H/5 and H/10 cm from Geo-synthetics -93 conference, Vancourver,
the bottom is = 14.2%.The CBR value is increased Canada, pp 65-80.
by more than 100% by providing the Geo-textile, [4] Olivera A. (1982), Use of Non-woven Geo-textiles
this shows that addition of Geo-textiles improves to construct a deep highway embankment over
the bearing capacity of the soil, being tested. swampy soils, Proc. 2nd International conference on
Similarly the same trend was observed in the Geo-textiles, Las Vegas, USA, pp 626-630.
soaked sample without the addition of Geo-textiles [5] Resl S., Werner G (1986), the influence of Non-
the CBR value is 2.5% and with provision of Geo- woven needle punched Geo-textiles on the ultimate
textile at a distance of H/10 from bottom the CBR bearing capacity of the sub-grade, Proc. 3rd
value is 4.6%.The CBR value is increased by International conference on Geo-textiles, Vienna,
84%.Indicates the improving the strength of the Austria, pp 345-352.
CBR. [6] Basavanna, B.M. and Itagi Ravi Kumar (1990), Use
The CBR value of soil, when the Geo-textile of Coal Ash to Improve Some Properties of Black
providing at a distance of H/5 and H/10 cm from Cotton Soil, Indian Geotechnical Confrence-1990
the bottom is 4.06% in soaked condition. Value is on Advances in Geotechnical Engineering, Indian
increased by 62.4% Geotechnical Society, Bombay, India, pp. 185 –
188.
In un-soaked and soaked conditions of CBR tests,
[7] Ferguson, G. (1993). Use of self-cementing fly
the addition of Geo-textiles increases the CBR
ashes as a soil stabilization agent, Fly ash for soil
values.
improvement, Geotechnical Special Publication No.
The use of Geo-textile is the best method to reduce
36, ASCE, New York, 1–14.
the cost than the chemical stabilizations and attains
[8] Suryanarayana P (2000), Action Plan for Utilization
same improvement or properties of chemical
of fly ash as an Alternative Construction Material.
stabilization.
New Building Materials and Construction World.
The penetration loads of CBR samples that had 7
5(8):pp.50-58.
days soaking time curve are greater than other [9] Murty A.V.S.R. (1998), Utilization of fly ash for
penetration loads.
Embankment Construction. Proc. of Experience
After each cycle of soaking period for the samples sharing Meet on Use of fly ash in Roads and
tested, the penetration load and CBR values Embankments, CRRI New Delhi. pp. 5-20.
decrease during soaking periods increase.
Abstract: Urban Goods Transport is an important component of urban transport and has multi-dimensions to study
and understand. The heavy vehicles moving goods into and out of the cities and also smaller fast moving and slow
moving vehicles carrying goods within the city have to share the same road space along with the passenger vehicles.
To appreciate the needs of goods transport, it is essential to understand the characteristics of urban goods flows and
establish quantifiable relationships between the quantum of goods demanded and the readily available robust
parameters like population, households, GDP etc. These relationships can be used in estimating the goods transport
demands. Primary surveys have been planned, organized and conducted to gather the information on urban goods
flows. On the basis of analysis of the data, urban goods flow characteristics such as consignment size, commodity
type, and vehicle type used, length of haul have been analysed for all Intracity movements. Quantities of goods
moved in urban areas are observed to be directly related to urban population who are responsible for their
consumption and also the trade and commerce activities which are responsible for handling the goods through
imports and exports. Analysis of the parameter like population, households and GDP reveled that they are strongly
correlated with each other and as such only one parameter namely population has found to be adequate to explain
the goods movements in urban areas. Therefore quantifiable relationships to estimate goods and vehicular flows
have been obtained by employing population as parameter.
Keywords: Image analysis, fine-grained soils, shrinkage, environmental drying, cracking.
• To urban citizens, freight is an impediment to a trucks during peak periods and banning their movement
faster, safer commute home, and is characterized by in congested areas”.
noisy, dusty activity centers that diminish the urban In Indian cities the markets are traditionally located in
experience and release harmful emissions that raise
the centre and little or no attention is paid in developing
health risks. Goods moving in and through the
decentralized markets to cope with the growing spatial
urban environment are carried by menacing
structure of the city. As a result of this the inner cities
vehicles competing for lane space and impose long
are getting more and more congested and goods
waits at railroad grade crossings. In short, citizens transport operations are becoming uneconomical.
view freight operations as a nuisance and a threat to Therefore, to arrest further deterioration of the core
their health. To citizens, the quality-of-life benefits
areas of the cities, it is necessary to estimate the demand
from moving goods efficiently and reliably are
for goods in urban areas and assess the adequacy of the
largely invisible.
existing facilities. To perform this exercise and
Importance of Urban Goods Transport identifying the need for additional facilities, knowledge
of goods demanded in urban areas is necessary.
The term “freight,” in its most basic sense, refers to
goods transported from an origin to a destination. Need for the study:
Freight movement is not an end in itself, but serves an For planning the urban goods transport system on
economic purpose: to ensure that products reach a rational basis knowledge of the urban goods flow
location where they can be consumed. For this reason,
characteristics for cities Warangal and HMA. The
demand for freight is considered a derived demand
review of literature in this direction has revealed that
rather than a primary demand. In other words, the
there is a need to conduct special studies of urban goods
demand for freight stems from the economic
movement in the two cities in order to assemble the
requirement to move goods from a production site to a goods flow information to develop quantifiable relation
market.
between city size and the demand for urban goods
Freight transportation contributes to the Gross Domestic movement to assist in planning of facilities for goods
Product (GDP) by providing place, time and quality vehicles.
utility to the commodities. The movement of
Objectives of the Study:
commodities is imminent because of the fact that
production and consumption centers are spread over Basic objectives of this study are therefore:
depending upon the geographical and socio-economic To study the urban goods flow characteristics in cities
characteristics of the areas. Freight movement is of various sizes, characteristics and develop basis for
dictated by the concentration of source of supply, excess estimation of urban goods flows.
demand and spatial separation of production and
consumption centers. Commodity transportation; in To help planners locate available data and freight-
addition to satisfying the consumer needs results in related forecasts compiled by others and to apply this
effective utilization of natural resources, power information in developing forecasts for specific
generation, opening of new markets and provides means facilities.
to develop regional specializations. In a nutshell it can Methodology:
be stated that this is the key sector for the survival of the
individual or nation as whole. The aim of this study is to collect the information on
urban goods flow in selected cities to analyse the
The freight transportation around the world in general, characteristics and to identify demography and
depicts the commodity movement being taken care by economic activities. As the structure of the urban
the models like road ways, railways and waterways with economy has direct influence on the urban goods flow
marginal distribution by pipelines and airlines. In this efforts to find out basis for classifying the cities into
context, it is felt necessary to discuss more details about different groups on the grounds of economy. Urban
the modal share of freight transportation. The National Goods Transport is very vital for development of urban
Commission on Urbanization [46] has observed area and that the planning efforts have been lacking to
“Freight Transport has yet to receive adequate attention. provide efficient urban goods transport system. For
There is need to optimize the location of truck terminals developing the planning methodology it is also found
and wholesale markets / warehousing facilities so as to essential to understand the goods flow characteristics
facilitate distribution by light commercial vehicles. In and the relationships between the flows and planning
view of heavy truck traffic on narrow roads in urban parameters like population and employment.
areas, there is a need to designating truck routes in
urban centre’s, imposing restrictions on movement of
Abstract: Traffic congestion in India has been recognized as a national problem by government and as one of the
top community problems by the public. Commuters travel on streets at speeds lesser than 12 kilometers per hour in
the central area during peak hours in metropolitan cities like Hyderabad and this truth certainly affects not only the
travelers temper, but also the national economy. Traffic Congestion has negative effects on the environment, fuel
consumption, health, and society. Literature review is done for understanding the concepts of adaptive traffic control
systems like SCOOT, VISSIM etc. As per Indian traffic conditions a suitable architecture for heterogeneous traffic
is proposed and implemented in VISSIM. In The Present Study, an attempt is made towards potential improvements
on traffic operations at Ambedkar Y Junction of Hyderabad City. The major focus in this study is optimization of
signal phases, to propose an optimum cycle time delays and average queue length built on each phase of approach.
The proposed methodology is applied to selected study area of an urban arterial road of National Highway (A NH –
65) in Hyderabad city from Moosapet to Kukatpally (Ambedkar Y Junction).
The traffic survey is carried at Ambedkar Y Junction using and it was observed that the intersection has highest peak
hour volume of 15,518 Vehicles per hour from 7-PM to 8-PM on Friday. After analysis and simulation in VISSIM
5.40 the output parameters were evaluated in terms of delays and average queue lengths. It was observed from the
results that the delay time for Balanagar to Kukatpally approach leg is reduced to 104.5sec per vehicle with an
average queue length of 122m after providing lane priority.
Keywords: Vehicular System Architecture, Delay, Queue, Vehicle Set in Motion.
frequency of APSRTC buses and minimal coverage, The objective of this project is to study evaluate the
poor frequency and information system of local rail traffic operations at signalized intersection. A
services (MMTS) is one reason for the growth of private methodology is proposed to reach a desired equilibrium
vehicles. between delays and travel time of all road users of the
selected intersections with signal controllers. In order to
Details of Growth of Vehicles in Andhra Pradesh achieve the study objective, the following procedure has
(1998 - 2010) been identified:
a. Collect and compilation of traffic data for the study
100 92
90
area.
81
80 73 b. Propose a methodology to identify the signal plan
65
70 that identifies and optimizes motor vehicular delay
Veh in Lakhs
59
60 54
50 45
49 at signalized intersections.
40
40 33 36 38
c. Propose a tactic for estimation of queue length of
30 vehicles using node evaluation techniques in
20
10
VISSIM.
0
1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
2.0 Literature:
Year Several traffic studies Castro-Neto et al., (2006) and
Black et al., (2001) showed that improved operations of
Figure1: Details of Growth of Registered Vehicles in closely spaced intersections in urban downtown areas
Andhra Pradesh (1998-2010) can be achieved if implemented signal timing plans
account for some kind of signal synchronization. Day et
100.00
Vehicular Population in Hyderabad al (2009) explains the need of Traffic Signal providing
T/w along a roadway is more efficient when traffic demand
Auto
10.00
along that particular road is significantly larger than the
Car
Bus demand along the crossing roads. Hagen et al. (1989)
Veh in Lakhs
Literature and Study Area Selection classification of vehicles they are converted into
equivalent passenger car units as per IRC 106 – 1990.
Table 1 shows Peak hour data at Ambedkar Y Junction
on Friday
Inventory Surveys Other Surveys Table1: Peak hour data on Friday (7pm to 8pm) @
Ambedkar Y Junction
Appendix
Screen Shots of VISSIM before and after lane priority
PRT Systems
SAI SUMAN P OOJARI1 AND UDAY K V2
1
V R TECHNICHE Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, India.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India.
Email: suman.poojari@vrtechniche.in, uday1112@gmail.com
Abstract: Most mass transit systems move people in groups over scheduled routes. This has inherent inefficiencies
for passengers; wastage of time by waiting for the next arrival, indirect routes to their destination, stopping for
passengers with other destinations and often, confusing or inconsistent schedules. Slowing and accelerating large
weights can undermine public transport's benefit to the environment while slowing other traffic. In this context,
Personal Rapid Transit systems attempt to eliminate the inconsistency by moving small groups, nonstop, in
automated vehicles on fixed tracks. A detail on comparison with the existing system with respect to new technology
is briefed in the paper.
Keywords: Personal Rapid Transit system, public transportation, transit efficiency, comparison.
on collisions are therefore theoretically possible with one mile will serve the same swath of land one mile
these systems. (Peter J. Muller et al., 2011). wide with maximum walking distances of one half mile.
Average PRT walking distances will thus be about one
3.2 Lower maximum speed for higher average
half of average LRT walking distances.
speeds:
Since T-Pods bypasses all stations except for the
destination station, the trip is non-stop and the
maximum speed is close to the average speed. This is
not the case for other systems that have to stop at each
station. An LRT system with stations a mile apart must
have a top speed around 55mph in order to average
25mph. A PRT system in the same situation needs to
only have a top speed around 27mph. The Morgantown
PRT system has completed 110 million injury-free
passenger miles. Conventional transit injures over a
hundred people in that many miles. (Peter et al., 2007).
3.3 Steady stream of traffic facilitates processing of
passengers:
PRT has the potential to allow a secure perimeter
containing security-screening points to be implemented 3.7 Non-stop travel:
around a facility like an airport terminal. Off-loading
bus or train passengers at such a screening point, This is a fundamental PRT concept. Each station has its
screening them and the reloading them would be very own off- and on-ramp to the guide way (like a mini
difficult. On the other hand T-Pods would bring freeway interchange). This means that T-Pods stopped
passengers in a steady stream. They could actually pass in the guide way are off-line from the main guide way
through the building between each screening station and and do not disrupt the passing traffic on the main guide
then reload passengers who have been screened. way. Some PRT systems can accommodate station bays
that are off-line to each other. That means that a person
3.4 Shared rides can be avoided: could delay a T-Pod in a station and other T-pods
Most PRT vehicles are intended for use by small groups behind it could still get out without waiting.
traveling together. There will usually be no need to Less waiting and walking combined with non-stop
share rides with strangers. It is probable that all stations travel allow PRT systems to provide improved total trip
and possibly all T-Pods will have CCTV monitoring to times with relatively low maximum speeds. When high-
help prevent forced ride sharing. In addition T-Pods will speed PRT systems become available urban trip times
usually be equipped with an alarm button that could will be dramatically reduced. Cities with widespread
cause the vehicle to be met by emergency response high-speed PRT systems should see a dramatic
personnel at its next stop. reduction in automobile use.
3.5 PRT Saves Time: 4.0 Conclusions:
PRT concept is to divide public transit up into the 4.1 PRT Is Environmentally Friendly:
smallest possible pieces. Instead of a few large vehicles
carrying many people every 5 minutes or so, we have Less energy PRT vendors claim it uses less energy than
many small vehicles carrying a few people every 5 automobiles and public transit. Although this has not
seconds or so. This translates into little or no waiting. been verified it is likely to prove correct for three
With PRT the vehicles typically wait for the passengers. reasons. PRT travel is non-stop and so little energy is
expended accelerating. PRT travel is relatively slow and
3.6 Less Walking: so little energy is expended combating wind resistance.
Elevated PRT systems have very little right of way PRT systems should have less need to move empty
requirement, a column every one hundred feet or so. For vehicles around in off-peak periods.
this reason even systems that serve a corridor are likely Less emission PRT systems have fewer emissions
to have their inbound guide way located about half a because they use less energy, as they maximum speed is
mile from their outbound guide way. Since PRT station only 40 kmph. In addition they are typically
spacing is typically one half mile, a swath of land one
mile wide will have a PRT stations with maximum
walking distances of one quarter of a mile. An LRT
serving the same corridor with typical station spacing of
aspects of the design before committing to one [4] Manual (2003), Transit Capacity and Quality of
particular specification. Ideally funding would be made Service, Transportation Research Board, TCRP
available such that the major engineering colleges could Report 100, 2nd Edition.
pair with appropriate industries (automotive, software, [5] Miller J. L., Hammersley, L. and Davenport, N.,
etc) to develop competing designs. Fortunately the idea (2009), Ridesharing in Personal Rapid Transit
of individualized vehicles running on tracks is not Capacity Planning, ASCE APM Conf,.
new. A handful of very dedicated individuals have been [6] Miller, J. D. L. and Wilson, R. E., (2012), Proactive
pushing various PRT (Personal Rapid Transit) concepts empty vehicle redistribution for personal rapid
for many years. They invariably differ from PRT transit and taxis, Transportation Planning and
Project in scope since they are designed to coexist with Technology, Special Issue: Universities' Transport
the automobile rather than replace it, running at airports Studies Group, UK Annual Conference 2011,
or down major thoroughfares, but the good news is that Volume 35, Issue 1, 2012, pp: 17-30
MUCH of their work applies directly to this concept. [7] Muller, P. J., Allee, W., Personal Rapid Transit, an
Airport Panacea? Transportation Research Board
Reference
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Canberra, Telecommunications Journal of (2007), Personal Rapid Transit Safety and Security
Australia, 59(1), pp: 06.1-06.10. on a University Campus, Transportation Research
[2] Kerr, A.D., James, P.A., Cook, C.V. and Craig, Board Paper No. 07-0907, 95-103.
A.P., (2005), Infrastructure Cost Comparisons for [9] Miller, J. D. L. and Wilson, R. E. (2012), Sampling
PRT and APM, ASCE 10th International of Redistribution of Empty Vehicles for Personal
Conference on Automated People Movers, Rapid Transit, Transportation Research Record:
[3] Lowson M.V., PRT for Airport Applications, Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol.
Transportation Research Record, Journal of the 2216, pp: 174-181.
Transportation Research Board No 1930 2005 pp.
99-106.
Abstract: One of the emerging trends in the numerical modeling field is the use of automated inverse modeling
procedure to quantify different parametrs that are invaribaly used to define a system. In many cases, some of these
parameters can not be evalutaed without utilizing inverse modeling. This paper presents the use of inverse modeling
in the field of soil-water and solute movemnt models. Two case studies are presented, wherein the inverse modeling
led to the evaluation of parameters that could not be measured or estimated in any other way. The first case study
relates to the evaluation of conditions for sustainable root zone salinity in a drainage impacted area, and the second
case study is for the prediction of soil water movement under crop residue cover.
Keywords: Numerical modeling, Inverse modeling, salinity, evaporation.
model (1980), together with the capillary-based In such cases, if numbers representing the inputs or
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity prediction model [4]: excitations are supplied to a numerical model
representing the system and the model‟s parameters are
s r
( h) r
1 h
(2) adjusted such that model outputs matches with
n m measurements made on the system, the effective
parameters that define the behavior of the system are
obtained.
for s s
It is then concluded that the model with the quantified
2
K (h) K s Sel 1 (1 Se1/ m ) m (3) effective parameters will represent the system‟s
behavior adequately as the latter responds to other
( h) r excitations as well, excitations which we may not be
Se (4) prepared to give the system in practice. A model is said
s r to be “calibrated” when its parameters have been
m = 1 – 1/n, n > 1 adjusted in this fashion.
The model uses five independent parameters, referred to Once an effective parameter set has been determined for
as van Genuchten parameters: θr is the residual soil which model behavior adequately matches system
water content (L3 L-3), θs is the saturated soil water behavior, it is then reasonable to ask whether another
content (L3 L-3), is the soil water retention parameter parameter set exists which also results in reasonable
(L-1), n is an exponent in the soil water retention simulation by the model of the system under study. The
function, and Ks is the saturated hydraulic conductivity existence of another parameter set giving equally valid
(L T-1). When solute transport model is also coupled outputs relate to the non-uniqueness of the calibration
with the soil-water movement model, additional process. Thus one should be aware that inverse
parameters related to the Fickian-based advection- modeling process can be as much of an art as it is a
dispersion equation, soil specific parameters such as science. Thus inverse modeling can only be used to
longitudinal dispersivity and solute specific molecular complement the efforts in understanding a system and
diffusion coefficient in water is required. The pore inferring its parameters. It cannot act as a substitute for
connectivity parameter l in the hydraulic conductivity experience; it cannot extract more information from a
function was estimated [4] as 0.5, an average for many dataset than the inherent information content of that
soils. The five soil hydraulic parameters of the van dataset.
Genuchten equations and the solute transport parameters In this paper, two different examples of the use of
are either estimated from laboratory and field inverse modeling to understand and predict the response
experiments using direct measurement or inverse of the system with respect to the movement of water and
solution methods. These methods can be time solutes in the soil profile are presented.
consuming and expensive. Direct methods, either field
or laboratory, use only limited number of samples and Inverse Modeling: An often used method of inverse
up-scaling of parameters based on limited number of modeling is manual calibration by „trial and error‟
tests may introduce significant error. Indirect methods method. The main drawbacks of this method are that it
such as pedotransfer functions (PTF) [4,5] allow users can take a lot of time and for complex models with
to estimate these properties from limited soil number of parameters involved it is difficult to judge
information such as soil texture, bulk density and the interaction between these parameters and in which
organic C quickly and cheaply, however PTF‟s do not direction they should be adjusted. It is also totally
most of the time reflect field behavior. subjective depending on the modeler to determine when
to stop the process. For complex models involving
As an alternative to these methods of determining number of parameters, it is not possible to ensure that
parameters needed for the numerical models, inverse the best set of parameters is found.
modeling or parameter estimation techniques are
increasingly being used. The basis for the inverse The use of automated inverse modeling methods , where
modeling is that in numerical modeling, mathematical the process searches for the best possible set of
equations are used to describe the physical processes in parameters in an iterative way, by varying the
the system. These equations contain certain system parameters and comparing the measured response of the
specific parameters, and if these parameters are known system with the numerical solution given by the model
then it may often be possible to evaluate the response of are an attractive alternative. The search is usually
the system to a certain excitation or input to that system. targeted towards finding the global minimum of an
Most of the time, though, field measurements giving objective function defined by the error between
output of the system in response to certain inputs to the measured and simulated values. There are many
system are available, but the parameters are uncertain. algorithms in use having different strategies for
minimizing the objecting function. For the two cases solutes in variably-saturated media, and PEST, a model-
presented here, PEST software was used. Parameter independent parameter optimizer, the processes of soil
estimation (PEST) [6] is a widely used calibration water and solute movement in root zone and the deep
model, where parameter optimization is achieved using vadose zone were investigated. The inverse modeling
the Gauss-Marquardt-Levenberg method for which the effort produced a set of unsaturated soil hydraulic
discrepancies between model-generated numbers and parameters and downward flux (natural drainage) from
corresponding field data are reduced to a minimum in the system by comparing the model generated values of
the weighted least-squares sense. vadose zone salinity and shallow water levels to the
observed values. The process yielded a difficult to
2. Use of inverse modeling in evaluating the
obtain natural drainage rate as a function of water table
conditions required for sustainable root zone salinity
height within the control volume. The results showed
in the presence of shallow water table in San Joaquin
that unsaturated soil hydraulic properties and the
Valley, California, USA:
downward flux from the soil profile are the critical
In the San Joaquin Valley of California, a combination parameters in ensuring the success of land retirement
of lack of adequate out-of-basin drainage caused by programs. A „natural drainage approach‟ to sustainable
topographic and environmental constraints, intensive land management for drainage impaired land in general
irrigation practices, and the presence of a shallow and retired lands in particular resulted from the use of
underlying layer of low permeability soil has caused the inverse modeling approach.
root zone to become highly saline and the shallow water
table to rise. Because the San Joaquin Valley of 3. Inverse modeling for predicting soil water
California is one of the major agricultural production movement under crop residue cover:
regions of the state, the mitigation of its salinity-toxicity Plant residue on the soil surface is considered useful for
drainage problems has been a top priority of both reducing the evaporation component of crop
federal and state agencies. The U. S. Department of evapotranspiration. In contrast to soil, the upward
Interior, Bureau of Reclamation (BR) through San Luis movement of water through the plant residue layer is
Drainage Feature Re-evaluation project decided to retire predominantly in the vapor phase rather than the liquid
up to a total of approximately 78,500 ha of land in the phase. Because of this difference in the mechanism of
drainage area. However, due to the lack of knowledge water movement, physically based numerical models
regarding the potential effects, positive and negative, of that simulate liquid-dominated water movement in the
retirement of agricultural land on a large scale, the soil profile have not been tested for water movement
decision was identified as a cause of concern [7]. through residue. An innovative use of inverse modeling
Because of these concerns, the U.S. Department of technique was made by Singh et al., 2011 [10] to show
interior through the Interagency Land Retirement Team that physically based numerical model, Hydrus-1 D
implemented the Land Retirement Demonstration could be used to simulate the changes in soil moisture in
Project (LRDP) located in western Fresno County of a residue-covered production system. The data for
California to provide site specific scientific data [8]. calibrating and validating the model were collected
The project collected five years of continuous data on from two different studies in 2010 at the University of
the changes in salinity levels in the soil profile and California West Side Research and Extension Center in
shallow water table to analyze the effects of land Five Points, California.
retirement on the environment. Based on the analysis of The water stored in the soil is depleted due to
the data, it was concluded that the retirement of land led evaporation and transpiration and is thus a target for
to gradual lowering of the shallow water table and also
improved management. While transpiration is essential
to the lowering of salinity levels in the root zone.
for plant growth, evaporation is considered non-
However, based on the field data it was not possible to
essential in terms of crop yield benefit. Especially in
identify the factors that led to such an outcome. Could very dry and hot weather, evaporation could be a
the same outcome be expected at other locations with significant portion of the evapotranspiration demand of
different set of conditions? To answer this question, it
the crops. Mulch or plant residue on the soil surface has
was decided to develop a numerical model of the
long been considered a useful way to minimize
process and calibrate it with the measured data. Singh et
evaporation. Research comprising broadly three
al., 2010 [9] developed a comprehensive theoretical and
approaches has been undertaken to understand and
numerical modeling framework to evaluate the specific quantify the effects of plant residue on evaporation. The
site conditions required for a sustainable land retirement first approach involves the use of lysimeters to measure
outcome on natural drainage. Using field data,
the difference between evaporation under mulch
principles of mass balance in a control volume, the
covered soil and bare soil conditions [11, 12, 13]. In the
HYDRUS-1D Software Package for simulating one-
second approach, researchers have investigated crop
dimensional movement of water, heat, and multiple
residue effects on surface radiation and the energy
balance [14, 15, 16]. It has been observed that the soil function of the ESL by optimizing against a time series
surface temperatures under crop residue are different of soil moisture content measurements in the soil
from that of bare soil, with daytime summer profile. The soil hydraulic function of the ESL, derived
temperatures being lower under crop residue than for from the parameter optimization technique, was
bare soil and nighttime temperature being lower for bare validated against another independent set of soil water
soil than for crop residue. Daily evaporation is found to measurements for different meteorological conditions
be correlated only with soil moisture and wind speed. It
4. Conclusion:
is thus concluded that reduced evaporation from the
residue covered soil was related to reduced wind speed While the inverse modeling tools like the PEST
and lower surface temperature under the crop residue software that was used in the two cases presented here
are generally used to infer the soil moisture retention
In the third approach, many models have been
and hydraulic conductivity properties of the soil in the
developed to represent the water and heat flows across water and solute transport numerical models, the inverse
the crop residue system [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. modeling process can also be used to derive other
The currently available approaches to simulating the parameters of the physical system being modeled. In the
soil water profile under a crop residue cover are first case presented here, the quantification of the
inherently limited by the need to simulate the movement natural drainage rate for the soil profile led to the
of water through the crop residue layer. The current formulation of land management options in drainage
models generally consider crop residue cover as a soil impaired area. In the second case, the use of inverse
layer with specific hydraulic properties [19, 21]. Despite modeling allowed to quantify the hydraulic properties of
being a porous medium, crop residue layers are different the residue cover. Without the PEST software, it would
from soil in terms of hydraulic properties. There are not have been possible to reliably estimate either the
physically based mathematical models that do an natural drainage rate in the first case or the hydraulic
excellent job of simulating the movement of water, heat, properties of the residue cover in the second case. An
and solutes in the soil profile with or without a crop. intelligent use of inverse modeling process can generate
Thus, if the crop residue layer were to behave more information from the measured data set than it can
hydraulically as a soil layer, then the whole exercise of yield otherwise and thus greatly enhance the reliability
simulating water and heat in the soil profile under crop and the usability of the water and solute transport
residue cover would simply entail determination of the models in any given situation.
saturated and unsaturated hydraulic properties of the
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either through direct measurements or inverse modeling, (2000), The Hydrus-1D software package for
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Abstract: The ever growing demand for water is due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. One of the negative
impacts of global warming envisaged is the change in rain fall pattern. This in turn is expected to affect the
availability of water in space and time. Also, to meet the increasing demand for water, proper understanding of the
groundwater condition in a given area is essential.
The present study is to carry out the Geo-physical investigations in the Kudliar watershed, Medak District, AP to
understand the sub-surface lithology of the watershed. It serves as a base line data for future water resources
planning and development. The entire watershed is underlain by consolidated rocks. Yield potential of the aquifers
in the consolidated rocks vary widely as the resistivity values at 16-48 feet indicate the resistivity of 12-150 Ω-m
representing laminated zone, at 48-80 feet indicating the resistivity of 150-500Ω-m representing weathered zone,
and above 80 feet resistivity values are very high representing fresh granite/basement zone. Due to over exploitation,
the yields have fallen drastically leading to failure of wells. In the present watershed, the groundwater occurs in
phreatic condition in weathered and fractured rocks. The rise of water levels from pre-monsoon to post-monsoon
range between 0.03 to 16.26 m. Based on the results of the study, the groundwater conservation and management
techniques have been suggested.
Key Words: Resistivity, Hard rock, Watershed.
Resistivity imaging survey was conducted in granitic pairs are switched automatically using a control module
terrain at kudliar watershed in Medak district in Andhra connected to a earth resistivity meter(that provides
Pradesh Viz., Raipol, and Bhumpalli. Dubbak, output current).In this way a profile of resistivity against
Gollapalli and Sangapur. depth(Pseudosection) is built up along the survey line
data is collected by automatic profiling along the line
until the last electrode is reached. The spacing is than
increased by minimum electrode separation and the
process is repeated in order to provide an increased
depth of investigations. The maximum depth of
investigation is determined by the spacing between the
electrodes and the number of electrodes in the array. For
72 electrodes array with an electrode spacing of 10 m
this depth is approximately 90 m. The raw data is
initially converted to apparent resistivity values using a
geometric factor that is determined by the type of
electrode configuration used. Once converted the data is
modeled using finite eliminate and least squares
inversion methods in order to calculate a true resistivity
versus depth pseudosection.
5. Methodology At Raipol:
Conventional resistivity sounding and lateral profiling, The Resistivity 2D section (Fig.3) obtained from
2D resistivity imaging is a fully automated technique Wenner-Schlumberger configuration along NW-SE
that uses a linear array of about 72 electrodes connected direction shows a layered structure with slight
by multi core cable. The current and potential electrode undulating topography up to a total depth of 86.2 m.
This section also shows that the resistivity of the
Abstract: Planning and construction of water harvesting, soil and water conservation structures requires estimation
of runoff and peak discharges. Most of the watersheds where these structures are constructed are ungauged and do
not have any records of runoff. During last decade the Geographic Information System (GIS) technology has
emerged as an effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Distributed
runoff modeling based on digital terrain models requires data and parameters at an element or grid scale. The present
research describes the use of GIS in modeling the runoff, which is used in estimation of the peak discharge from an
ungauged basin. The study is taken up in six villages of Warangal District of Andhra Pradesh state of India, covering
an area of about 358.307km2. Hydrologic modeling involves the computation of the time of concentration (T c) for
each delineated watersheds. A procedure is developed to use the topographic analysis tools available within the
ARC/INFO GRID package. Slope and travel time has been estimated from the developed Digital Elevation Model
(DEM). Multi-spectral IRS 1D LISS III data acquired on June 2000 is used for the preparation of land use/land
cover map. With the available 30 years daily rainfall data the intensity-duration-frequency relationship has been
developed for the study area, which is used in the runoff estimation.
Keywords: Watershed, Ungauged, GIS, DEM.
applications could benefit from the spatial analysis and 6 sub-watersheds with designation of 4D1C8 according
display capability of GIS (Shea et al. 1993). White to the CWC, Govt. of India. Table1. gives the codes,
(1988) used grid-based application of runoff estimation areas and perimeters.
using curve numbers. Zelazinki (1986) gave a procedure
Table1: Sub watershed areas
for estimating the flow velocity, which involves
development of a relationship between the velocity and Sub-Watershed Total area in Perimeter
corresponding peak discharge. White (1988) attempted code Sq. Km (km)
to model runoff using SCS curve number procedure in a 4D1C8w 91.446 42.79
distributed format using a raster GIS. The procedure 4D1C8u 57.48 49.39
was modified to allow for aerial variation of land use,
land cover and rainfall over a regular-girded network. 4D1C8v 42.315 30.63
Weihua and David (1994), uses digital elevation model 4D1C8x 55.43 37.94
and grid size land scape parameters in hydrologic 4D1C8y 75.943 44.50
simulation studies. Ross and Tara (1993) illustrated the
4D1C8z 35.695 29.09
benefits of using GIS for hydrologic modelling by
developing a computer model, which aids phosphate The average annual rainfall is about 800 mm. Almost
mine-reclamation design. Nageshwar et.al. (1992) has 80% of this rainfall occurs during the months of June to
taken a study for selected watersheds within the Big October. Even during these months the distribution of
Sandy River basin in northern Kentucky based on the rainfall is highly uneven both temporally and aerially.
hydrologic model. The application of this model in The soils in this region can be classified into three major
hydrology can be facilitated by using a GIS to compile types namely loamy skeletal, coarse loam and fine loam.
the require database, composed of various geomorphic
and other hydrologic characteristics as spatial data
input. Rodriguez-Iturbe and Valdes (1979) have done
study on several basins in Venuzuela and Puerto Rico in
which the geomorphologic IUH for each basin was
compared with IUH‟s derived from the discharge
hydrograph produced by a physically based rainfall-
runoff model of the same basins and then the effects that
the nonlinearities of the rainfall- runoff model have on
the derivation of the IUH are analysed, and further,
controlled experiments are carried out in which the IUH
is derived under constant velocity conditions. SCS-CN
technique is widely used and efficient method for Figure1: Location map of the Study area
determining approximate amount of runoff from a 2.1. Data used
rainfall event. SCS-CN method uses land use / land
cover and related parameters derived from remotely Digital data: A Standard False colour composite
sensed data integrated with GIS to simulate watershed (FCC) of IRS 1D LISS III data acquired in June
in evaluating time distribution of runoff from an 2000 has been used for land use/land cover
ungauged watershed. Runoff curve numbers are mapping.
estimated by using land use, soil and Antecedent Analog data: Survey of India Scanned toposheets of
Moisture Conditions (AMC). Land use information is 1: 50000 No. 56 O/5 and 56 O/2 have been used as
obtained from topo-sheets and digital analysis of IRS- base map for Geo-referencing and digitize contours.
1D LISS-III image data. Rainfall data provided by District Watershed
Management Authority, Warangal.
2. Study Area and Data:
Pedological data provided by Agriculture and soil
The study area is Station Ghanpur Mandal of Warangal Deportment, Warangal.
District, Andhra Pradesh State of India (Figure 1). The Software: Image processing - ERDAS Imagine 8.5,
total area lies between longitudes of 790 09 l 07 ll to 79 0 GIS – ARC GIS 9.0
26 l 13 ll and latitudes 17 0 47 l 52 ll to 17 0 59 l 52 ll. The
3. Methodology:
total area of the watershed is 358.307 Km2. Major
population of the area depends on agriculture. Different thematic coverages are prepared for runoff
Topography of this watershed varies from almost flat modelling. This coverages are watershed boundary,
terrain to steep hills. The altitude varies from 310 to 630 contours, drainage, streams/water bodies. Survey of
m above Mean Sea Level (M.S.L). The slope varies India scanned toposheets of scale 1: 50000 No. 56 0/5
from 100 to 600 degrees. The total area is delineated into and 56 0/2 is used as base maps for digitizing contours
and other thematic map layers. Digital Elevation Model operations more linear. After determining the S – value,
(DEM) is generated from the contour data, through depth of runoff is derived from the following equation.
which the slope parameter required for the model is
obtained. Satellite digital data is used to generate
Depth of runoff , Q
P 0.2 S 2 (5)
thematic maps of different land use/land cover units
within the watershed.
P 0.8 SGrid
3.1.3. Estimation of Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph
3.1.1. Estimation of Curve Number:
with Clark’s Technique in GIS:
The Runoff Curve Number method, developed by U.S.
Clark‟s synthetic unit hydrograph method is different
Soil Conservation Service (SCS) is widely used
than the other techniques; flexibility of Clark‟s
methodology for understanding the response of the
methodology enables it to be adapted to new
basin to rainfall. The Curve Number (CN) values
ranging from 40 to 100 reflect the land condition as a technologies such as Geographic Information Systems
function of soil type, land use and soil moisture (GIS), which is widely used in water resources field.
Clark‟s methodology requires estimation of three
condition of the basin. SCS has published guidelines for
parameters of the basin for the derivation of unit
estimating CN values of various areas depending on the
hydrograph (i) time of concentration, Tc (ii) storage
soil groups and land use /land cover and Antecedent
attenuation coefficient, R (iii) time-area histogram of
Soil Moisture conditions. In the present study, AMC- II
condition is followed. the basin. In the present study the Soil Conservation
Service (SCS) lag equation is used to determine Tc
3.1.2. Runoff estimation: value. SCS equation requires main channel length,
The volume of runoff (Q) is dependent on the volume of average Curve Number and slope of the basin, which
precipitation (P) and the volume of storage that is can be evaluated from GIS tools. The time-area
available for retention (F). The actual retention (F) is the histogram represents the area of the basin contributing
difference between the volume of precipitation and to the flow at the basin outlet at any given time after the
runoff. Furthermore, a certain volume of precipitation at application of a unit excess rainfall. The Digital
beginning of storm, which is called the initial Elevation Model (DEM) of the basin, which is the 30 x
abstraction (Ia), will not appear as runoff. The SCS 30 meter cell sized grids having elevation values, is
assumed the following relationship F Q (1) used for this purpose. First, travel distance of each cell
S P I a to the outlet (in time units) is determined by estimating
Where, S = Potential Maximum Retention. cell flow lengths. Then the time-area graph of the basin
is prepared. After instantaneously applying a unit excess
The actual retention when the initial abstraction is rainfall over the basin, the translation hydrograph is
considered derived from the time-area graph. The translation
F = (P- Ia) – Q (2) hydrograph, which reflects the travel time of runoff to
outlet, is then routed through a linear reservoir and
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1) the final Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) of the basin is
equation is determined. Instantaneous unit hydrograph is the result
Q
P I a (3)
of a unit depth of rainfall occurring in an infinitely small
P I a S time interval over the basin. Since the duration of
rainfall is assumed as zero, shape of the hydrograph
The initial abstraction is a function of land use, depends only on the basin characteristics.
treatment and condition, interception, infiltration, 3.2.1. DEM Generation:
depression storage and antecedent moisture condition.
An empirical analysis is performed for development of Cell based grid generation is a geo-processing system in
SCS rainfall- runoff relation and following formula is ARC/INFO environment. TOPOGRID is a hydrological
found to be best suited for estimation of Ia correct grid of elevation from point, line, and polygon
coverage‟s. For best interpolation results along the
Ia = 0.3 * S for AMC-I edges of the DEM, x and y limits should be smaller than
Ia = 0.2 * S for AMC-II and AMC-III the extent of the input data by at least 10 cells on each
side. The default values for x and y are the minimum
Here S is a function of curve number, given by
and maximum of all inputs. The default value for z is
2540 20% smaller than the minimum and 20% larger than the
S 25.4 (4)
CN maximum of the input values. The generated DEM is
shown in figure 2.
The parameter CN is transformation of S and it is used
to make interpolation, averaging and weighting
converted to a grid of 30 m resolution and named as values of FlGrid and to convert it to time values. The
nGrid. travel time grid of the basin is then prepared from the
Table2: Manning's roughness coefficients for different equation below.
land use types TtGrid = Tc x FlGrid
LAND-USE TYPE MANNING’S (n) Max. of cell travel lengths (9)
Forest 0. 15 The third parameter of the Clark‟s methodology is the
Water bodies 0. 01 time-area histogram, which is developed from TtGrid of
the basin. IUH of the watershed can be derived for
Shrubbery 0. 60 infinitely small time interval. Practically it is impossible
Pasture & Meadow 0. 24 to obtain the histogram of TtGrid with infinitely small
Farmlands 0. 17 time interval. So the smallest possible time interval is
selected to apply in the Clark‟s technique. Histogram of
Unused areas 0. 01
TtGrid has time values on the abscissa and number of
The second parameter of the Manning‟s equation is the cells on the ordinate. The time-area histogram of the
hydraulic radius value. For open channels hydraulic watershed is calculated from histogram of TtGrid by
radius is calculated from the ratio of flow area to wetted converting number of cells to area (900 m2 for 30x30 m
perimeter of the channel. But in order to obtain the grid).
velocity grid of the whole basin, in addition to open 3.3.3. Translation Hydrograph:
channels, hydraulic radius values of the overland areas
must also be assigned. A grid named as RGrid is After determining the three parameters of Clark‟s
prepared representing hydraulic radius value of each methodology, the unit excess rainfall is uniformly
cell in the basin. Hydraulic radius of open channels is distributed over the basin. Then this precipitation is
calculated from geometry of the channel. But in a grid- conveyed to the basin outlet by a translation
based representation of the topography it is difficult to hydrograph. For this purpose the time-area histogram,
estimate the cells forming streambeds, the flow which is obtained in the previous step, is used. The
accumulation grid, which is named as FaGrid of the time-area histogram represents the percent of the basin
basin is used for this purpose. FaGrid is computed from area contributing to the flow at the outlet in each time
the FdGrid which is obtained from DEM. Any cell value interval.
of FaGrid indicates the number of the cells giving all After application of instantaneous unit rainfall, total
their surface waters to that cell. Then the stream volume of water that will be observed at the basin outlet
network is extracted by considering the cells as is determined by multiplying basin area (358.307 km2)
streambeds, which have a FaGrid value greater than a with the depth of precipitation (1 cm). Then from the
predefined threshold value as1000 in this study. After time-area histogram of the basin, percentage of total
defining the streams, hydraulic radius (R), values of volume contributing to the flow at the outlet in each
these cells are estimated on a 30 x 30 m and 10 x 10 m time interval is calculated. Volumes are then converted
resolution areas are given in Table. 3. into discharges for corresponding time intervals. Finally
Table3: Hydraulic radius values by plotting these values at the mid values of time
intervals the translation hydrograph is obtained.
FLOW ACCUMULATION
VALUE HYDRAULIC 3.4. Linear Reservoir Routing
RADIUS The instantaneous unit excess rainfall is conveyed to the
30 x 30 DEM 10 x 10 DEM
100 – 500 1000 – 5000 0. 04 basin outlet by two components (i) a translation
hydrograph (ii) linear reservoir routing. The translation
500 – 1500 5000 – 15000 0. 08 hydrograph represents the rainfall-runoff relationship of
1500 – 3500 15000 – 35000 0. 12 the basin by means of surface flow only. The effect of
> 3500 > 35000 0. 25 stream channel storage on the hydrograph is reflected by
linear reservoir routing. The following HEC Equation
3.3.2. Travel Time Grid: routes the translation hydrograph.
After computing the travel distance of each cell t t
Q (t) = I t 1 Qt 1 (10)
(FlGrid), the next step is calculating the travel time R 0.5t R 0.5t
values. The maximum value of the FlGrid belongs to the
remotest cell of the basin to the outlet. Travel time of Peak runoff rate (Qp in m3/s) is computed by
flow from that cell to outlet gives the time of
concentration value. Equation 6 is used to estimate the
0.903
command in ARC GRID environment. Size of each grid
Q p 3.79 A0.7 CS 0.16 o
R
LW 0.19 (11) cell is 30 meters. In the study area, average slope value
25.4
is 1 in 1000. With slope grid, the flow direction grid
Where A is the drainage area in km2, CS the channel (FdGrids) is obtained by “FLOWDIRECTION”
slope in m / km, RO the runoff volume in mm, and LW is command in ARC GRID environment. The direction of
the watershed length–width ratio. flow is determined by finding the direction of steepest
3.5. Runoff estimation with ARC Macro Language descent, or maximum drop, from each cell. This is
(AML) programme: calculated as follows
The ARC/INFO Open Development Environment Maximum drop = change in z value / distance
(ODE) provides a new, more convenient way to create The flowdirection grid shows a grid of flow direction
ARC/INFO applications. Until now, the only way to from each cell to its steepest downslope neighborhood
create ARC/INFO applications is to use ARC Macro cell. The output of FLOWDIRECTION is an integer
Language scripts and associated menus. A system for grid whose values range from 1 to 128. With slope grid,
customized watershed delineation can be operated in the flow accumulation grid (FaGrids) is obtained by
real time through a simple AML program for “FLOW ACCUMULATION” command in ARC GRID
delineation of watershed boundary using an outlet point environment. Size of each grid cell is 30 meters. The
and flow direction grid map. flow accumulation-grid shows a grid of accumulated
3.5.1. Watershed Delineation: flow to each cell, by accumulating the weight for all
cells that flow into each downslope cell.
Generally watersheds are delineated with reference to
drainage pattern and elevation data. The process usually 4.1. Estimation of Runoff using SCS-CN Method:
requires thematic maps of drainage pattern and SCS has published guidelines for estimating CN values
elevation data (i.e. toposheets). If digitized contour data of various areas depending on the soil groups, land use
is available, delineation of the watershed at user- /land cover and Antecedent Soil Moisture condition
selected outlets can be done with a simple AML (AMC). In the present study, AMC- II is followed. CN
program. values are assigned to land use / land cover coverage
3.5.2. Using curve number with AML: based on their classification and hydrological soil group.
CN grid is prepared with assigned CN vales of landuse /
After delineating the watershed, the next step of AML is land cover coverage is shown in figure 3. In the study
runoff volume calculations to that delineated watershed. area, CN values vary from 40 to 100. Mean value of CN
The input data set is curve-number grid of whole study is 76. After determining the CN – grid, retention grid
area and delineated watershed coverage and then a new (S-grid) has been derived using the following eqation
grid of curve numbers is formed to delineated 12. SGrid 25400 CNGrid 254 (12)
watershed. A procedure for calculating runoff volume to
delineate watersheds in AML programme is developed.
3.5.3. Time of concentration (Tc) and IUH to
delineated watershed:
After runoff is estimated for delineated watershed, the
next step of AML is calculation of time of concentration
(Tc). The input data sets are DEM grid, average slope
values and curve numbers of the area.
4. Results and Discussion:
The study area is delineated according to All India Soil
Survey & Land Use Planning watershed atlas (AISS &
LUP) guidelines. Different thematic coverages are
prepared for runoff modeling. Coverages of total
delineated watershed area, drainage, water bodies and Figure3: Curve Number Grid Map
contour lines are used to create DEM, direction flow
grid and direction accumulation grid. The DEM grid Finally, the S- grid is developed and the size of each
map shows each point as a square cell with surface grid cell is 30 meters. S values vary from 0 to 17.6
value. All locations within the cells are assumed to have Mean value of S is 8.079.
the same z value. In the study area, „z‟ values vary from After determining the SGrid, Runoff grid (Q-grid)
387 to 636 m above MSL. With grid based DEM, slope derived from the following equation.
grid (SGrid) of catchment area is obtained by “SLOPE”
QGrid P 0.2 SGrid P 0.2 SGrid P 0.8 SGrid (13) 4.4. 1-Hour unit hydrograph by using IUH:
Where P is rainfall Runoff grid is prepared for a rainfall The one-hour unit hydrograph is prepared from the
of 22 cm and the estimated average runoff is 15.05 cm. instantaneous unit hydrograph, which is described in the
table 4 and corresponding hydrograph is shown in
4.2. Time of Concentration (Tc): figure5.
In this study the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) lag Table4: 1hour Unit Hydrograph Ordinates based on
equation is used to determine Tc value. SCS equation IUH
requires main channel length, average Curve Number
and slope of the basin, which are evaluated by the tools IUH 1hr unit
Time Ordinates
of GIS. Longest flow path is the maximum value of ordinat hydrograph
(hr) of IUH
Flowlength Grid (FlGrid). The FlGrid represents travel es*F Ordinates (m3/s)
distance of each cell in the basin to the outlet. In this 0 0 0 0
study two FlGrids are calculated (i) for weight condition 1 0.17 169.2 91.1
and (ii) no weight condition. Average CN value of the 2 0.18 179.2 175.3
basin is determined as 76. Average watershed slope is
3 0.165 164.2 168.6
derived from slope grid (SGrid) of the basin, which is
obtained from DEM. After clipping SGrid with the 4 0.145 144.3 152.6
watershed boundary, mean value of the clipped SGrid is 5 0.13 129.4 135.6
determined as 0.3327. By inserting these values in 6 0.1 99.5 109.8
Equation (1), the time of concentration value of study 7 0.08 79.6 87.3
area is obtained as 212 minutes for weight grid
8 0.05 49.8 61.4
condition and 432 minutes for no weight grid condition.
The time area graphs of study area obtained for weight 9 0.03 29.8 38.3
grid condition and no weight grid conditions. Similar to 10 0 0 0
time area graph two translation hydrographs are also
obtained for weight grid condition and for no weight 1hr unit Hydrograph
grid condition. Figure 4 shows the translation
200
hydrograph for no weight grid condition.
Discharge (Cumecs)
150
Translation Unit Hydrograph
100
0.9
0.8 50
Discharge in m3/ min
0.7
0.6 0
0.5
0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0.3 Time (hr)
0.2
0.1
0 Figure5: 1- Hour Unit Hydrograph
1 15 29 43 57 71 85 99 113 127 141 155 169 183 197 211
Time(Min)
4.5. The popup-menu results for watershed 1
Description about Delineated Watershed
Figure4: The Translation hydrograph of Study Area for Watershed Name: watershed1
no- weight grid condition Area of watershed: 36.5931 Km2
4.3. Linear Reservoir Routing Maximum Elevation: 506.000
Minimum Elevation: 374.000
As mentioned earlier the instantaneous unit excess
Maximum Slope: 29.030
rainfall is conveyed to watershed outlet by two
Average Slope: 1.730
components (i) a translation hydrograph and (ii) linear
Estimated Parameters
reservoir routing. The effect of stream channel storage
Maximum Flow Length to outlet: 12.890 Km
on the hydrograph is reflected by linear reservoir
Time of Concentration: 25.71 Min.
routing. The translation hydrograph obtained in the
Total Runoff Volume: 38.43 X 106 m3
previous section is routed by equation (10). Q (t), which
is obtained after routing, is the instantaneous unit The popup-menu results for watershed 2:
hydrograph of the basin. The routing process is Description about Delineated Watershed
continued till an excess flow depth of 1 cm is obtained Watershed Name: watershed2
under the hydrograph.
Abstract: Seawalls are the most widely adopted coastal protection structures. Depending on site requirements and
design considerations, a variety of seawalls may be adopted. A number of studies are available for the study of
hydrodynamic characteristics over the plane slopes whereas, the studies on serrated and dented slopes are scanty. A
new approach for calculating the hydrodynamic characteristics over the serrated and dented slopes is adopted using
the CFD solvers. These serrations and dentations are arranged in a staggered manner. A friction coefficient f b is
calculated by using the energy loss between the two sections. The value of f b for the serrated slope chosen is 0.012
and for dented slopes, it is 0.0097 for a Froude number, Fr of 0.6. The performances of serrated and dented slopes
are compared with the published experimental results. It is concluded that the serrated slopes are superior to the
dented slopes in reducing the reflection as compared to that of the plane slopes.
Keywords: Boussinesq equations, Friction coefficient, Roughness elements, Serrated, Dented seawalls.
by various authors are different, the resulting dispersion Wall with no shear
relationship of the extended Boussinesq equations is
Pressure outlet
Velocity inlet
similar. The relationship may be written in the form:
boundary
1
1 kh
2
2 ghk 2
3 ---(1)
1 kh
2
2 2
1
z u . . du .u t . du t 0 approach of estimating f b is attempted using general
2
purpose RANS model. In the RANS approach, the
Where, is surface elevation, d is still water depth, geometric details of the serrations/dentations are
modelled and the energy loss due to the presence of
u is horizontal velocity vector at the water
serrations and dentations is obtained. This approach will
depth z z 0.531d ,
,
x y
is the provide the flow behaviour and energy loss of the
incoming flow as a function of Froude number Fr the
horizontal gradient operator, g is gravitational figure .2 shows a schematic representation of the flow
acceleration and subscript t is partial derivative with during run-up of a wave on the slope.
respect to time.
2.3 Boundary Conditions:
Wave run-up
Solutions of the Boussinesq equation for wave
propagation over a finite domain requires appropriate T, H
boundary conditions to be specified in the numerical
model. Two kinds of boundary conditions are primarily S.W.L
used. These are total reflecting vertical wall and
absorbing boundary condition. In some cases, partial
Serrated Sloped
reflection boundary condition can also be adopted. The Seawall
boundary conditions adopted in the present study is as
shown in Figure 1.
---(4)
S.W.L
L
Dented Sloped
Seawall
P1
Froude number Fr varying from 0.2 to 1.0. sloping wall and length of the tank of 25m are adopted
for the entire numerical study. The details of the various
3.1. Estimation of friction coefficient fb variables and the non-dimensionalised parameters used
in the present study are listed in Table 1. The validation
The change in momentum per unit time in the body of is carried out by comparing the present numerical
water in a flowing channel must be equal to the resultant results with the published experimental results of
of all the external forces that are acting on the body. Sakthivel (2006).
Table1: Range of parameters considered in the present Figure 7(a) and (b) show the validation of the present
study numerical results of the wave run-up and the reflection
Measured coefficient with that of the experimental results of
S No. Parameters Sakthivel (2006) over the serrated and dented seawalls
range
1. Wave height
H in m 0.07-0.18 for a bed slope of 30o and 45o.When compared with
experimental results, a deviation of about 13% is
2. Wave period
T in sec 1.00-4.00 observed for the serrated seawall and 11% for the
Relative wave dented seawall in wave run-up. In the case of reflection
3.
height
H d 0.07-0.18 coefficient, the said deviations for the serrated and
dented seawalls are observed to be 6% and 4%
Relative water depth respectively.
4.
d L 0.06-0.64 2.8
2.8
Ru/H i
1.6
Ru/Hi
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.8
Figure 5 (a) and (b) shows the intercomparison of the 0.4
H=0.12d, Angle:30o
H=0.12d,Angle:45o
Present numerical 0.4
present numerical results of the wave run-up between 0
Sakthivel (2006)
Present numerical
Sakthivel (2006)
the serrated and dented seawalls for angles 30o and 45o. 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
d/L
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
When compared between the two different seawalls, a 2.8 2.8
d/L
deviation of about 15% is observed for angle 30o and 2.4 (b 2.4
Ru/Hi
Ru/Hi
Ru/H i
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
1.2 1.2 d/L d/L
Kr
0.5 0.5
0.2
0.3
adopted for serrated and dented slopes respectively.
Serrated 0.2 Serrated
0.1
Angle:30o
Dented
0.1
Angle:45o
Dented The reflection coefficient and the run-up is
0 0 maximum for the dented seawalls when compared
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
d/L d/L to the serrated seawalls.
Figure6: Intercomparison of reflection coefficient The serrations are much effective in reducing the
between serrated and dentedslope (a) Angle: 30 o and (b) reflections as well as the run-up.
Angle: 45o
The friction coefficient obtained from CFD for [2] Chow. V.T. (1959), “Open channel hydraulics”,
serrations and dentations is incorporated into McGraw-Hill, New York.
FUNWAVE successfully and this approach has [3] Madsen, P. A., Murray, R. & Sorensen, O. R.
been successfully verified by comparing the results (1991), “A new form of Boussinesq equations with
from FUNWAVE with that of experiments. It is improved linear dispersion characteristics”, Coastal
clear that the numerical results are in good Engineering, 15, 371-388
agreement with that of the published experimental [4] Peregrine, D.H. (1967), “Long waves on a beach”,
results of Sakthivel (2006). Journal of. Fluid Mechanics, 27, 815-882
[5] Sakthivel, S. (2006), “Wave induced pressures and
Reference
run-up on plane, serrated and dented sea walls”, M.
[1] Bruun, P. (1953), “Breakwaters for coastal Tech Thesis, Ocean Engineering Department, IIT
protection”, Proc. XVIII International Navigation Madras
Congress, Section 2, Question 1, Rome, Italy, pp. [6] Sandhya, N. (2002), “Wave interaction with plane,
25-35 dentated and serrated seawalls”, MS Thesis, Ocean
Engineering Department, IIT Madras.
Abstract: India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic
conditions-Earthquakes, landslide have been recurrent phenomena .About 60% of the land mass is prone to
earthquakes of various intensities. An earthquake is a sudden natural movement of a portion of the earth crust that
produces trembling or shaking of the ground .Earthquake occurrence is a global problem. Several thousands of
earthquakes are registered daily on account of which an average 250 per day me potentially damaging during
earthquakes, rocks releases energy. Geological evidence of ancient marine sediments on land reveals that the
continents of the world were once submerged beneath the sea. Tsunami occurs due to the energy transfer from earth
to water during under the sea. The energy transferred to the water starts moving as a very long wave with velocities
in the order of 200 to 300 m/s in all directions. World at present 2/3 of population live within average width of 10
km from the shoreline, which accounts only 3 percent of total land surface. Integrated coastal zone management
involves prevention of marine eco-system-protection from erosion, tides, cyclones, tsunamis and maintains the
coastal resources and meets the needs of present and future generation.
Key words: Earthquakes, Oceans, Tsunamis, Coastal zone management.
Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a allow the structure to absorb energy during
particular place based on the observations of the earthquakes and avoid sudden collapse of structure
affected areas and can also be described using a 8. Suitable details shall be worked out to connect the
descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli intensity scale non-structural parts with the structural framing so
or the Medvedev- Sponheuer- Karnik scale. that the deformation of the structural framing so
that deformation of the structural frame leads to
minimum damage of the non- structural elements
9. Fire frequently follows an earthquake. Therefore
buildings shall be constructed to make them fire-
resistant.
Users can get revised and modified codes from BIS
know the details of earthquakes designs. National
building codes –prepared BIS lays down a set of
minimum, provisions designed to protect the safety of
the public with regard to structural design, the hazard
and health aspects of the buildings. Major earthquakes
in our country warranted civil engineers, structural
engineers, architects, and builders to follow specific
guidelines of BIS - codes in highly - moderate – high
seismic zones. A detailed analyses in our country
earthquakes resulted heavy loss lives mainly due to
failures of building structures. It is well known says not
earthquakes but collapsing of buildings cause heavy loss
Fig1: Seismic Zoning Map and Seismic Vulnerability of lives - Ministry of Urban Development – under the
Atlas (Source-BIS-IMD) disaster safety codes -9 in designing buildings and other
The Ministry of Urban Affairs, GOI, has recently civil engineering structures) has issued notification on
prepared a vulnerability atlas giving state and district March 21, 2001.
wise hazard to buildings and other infrastructure due to
Research and development in Earthquake loss
natural dilatators- Guidelines for hazard resistant reduction-ongoing process
constructions and land zoning have also suggested
NEHRP Space-based technologies such as Global
General Principles for earthquake resistant designs and Positioning System (GPS) technology can be utilized to
Constructions (IS4326-1975-BSI) provide continuous-in-time measurements of how the
1. The buildings, particularly roofs and upper story’s ground is deforming in areas of earthquake risk, and
shall be as light as possible. Synthetic Aperture Radar remote sensing applications
2. As far as position such buildings shall be tied are being developed to provide a spatially continuous
together in such a manner then it act as one unit image of crustal deformation. Other new geophysical
crumple sections shall be provided. methods include high- performance seismometers and
3. Projecting parts shall be avoided and if that is not seismographs for recording broadband, high-dynamic-
possible they shall be properly reinforced and range ground motion which are being installed world-
firmly tied to the main structure. Suspended wide. These stations are particularly important for
ceilings and ceiling plaster shall be avoided. emergency response to damaging earthquakes and for
4. To minimize torsion, the building should have a recording the strong motion data needed for building
simple rectangular plan and be symmetrical with design. Borehole tilt meters, borehole strain meters, and
respect to mass and rigidity coincides with each laser-ranging instrumentation measure ongoing
other. distortion of the earth's crust and may eventually aid
5. Buildings with plans with shapes like L, T, E and T earthquake prediction. Paleoseismic methods have
shall preferably be separated into rectangular parts rapidly advanced in the last decade and enable
by providing separation sections at appropriate identification of pre-historic earthquakes and improved
places. estimates of earthquake recurrence intervals.
6. The structure shall be designed to have sufficient Probabilistic seismic hazard methods have been
strength against earthquakes along both the developed to provide estimates of earthquake ground
horizontal and vertical axes. motion in areas of low recurrence (such as the eastern
7. The main structural elements and their connections U.S.).
shall be designed to have a ductile failure. This will Oceans
It has been estimated that oceans and seas cover an area Earth's land surface, yet it accommodates more than
of about 361 million square kilometers of the 510 60% of the world's population.
million square kilometers of the entire earth .About 1.4 Furthermore, only 40% of the one million km of
billion cubic kilometers of water is concentrated in seas
coastline is accessible and temperate enough to be
and oceans. Thousands of kilometers of coasts along the
habitable. As a result, coastal zones are marked by
borders of the continents create variety of mixed
above-average concentrations of people and economic
engineering problems. All coasts are not same in
activity. Ocean provides many varieties of resources for
geologically –geomorphologically. Some are stable and our civilized life. However, there are many challenges
few are unstable. Coasts are the borders between need to be faced by us with the ocean and it is necessary
continents and oceans. However, in certain areas they
to understand these challenges in order to derive the
are built up by sea –deposition while in others are
cost effective and appropriate scientific solutions. Some
subject to extensive erosion. A fascinating view of the
of the important challenges which needs more focused
global ocean floor is presented in fig-2
attention of the worldwide scientific community are in
the area of Tsunami, Cyclones, Sea level rise problems,
Acidification of ocean, Sediment transport problems,
Subsea tunnels for transportation, Ocean observatory,
Offshore oil and gas exploitation, Force reduction
techniques on marine structures, Coastal erosion
control, Marine pollution, field measurements of
Metocean parameters, Coral reefs, Mangroves, artificial
beach developments, new materials for innovative
marine structures, Aquaculture, Desalination for potable
water, Port & Harbor development and the impact on
neighboring shorelines, Shipping & Navigation issues,
Dredging /Reclamation, Shore Protection against
erosion, Sea water intake Structures, Disposal of wastes
in the marine environment, Renewable energy from the
Fig2: A fascinating view of the global ocean floor –note Ocean (Offshore Wind Energy / Wave Energy / Tidal
marina trench 11o05 m deep compared to Mount Energy / Ocean thermal Energy / Ocean Currents),
Everest with 8848 m high Island Developments, Mangrove developments, Sea
India has long coast line of nearly 7,500 km along Survey, Prediction of design conditions, Environment
which several million people live and are engaged in impact of new & existing projects, Issues in the
various activities. The Indian coastline may be divided Integrated coastal zone management for sustainable
into east coast and west coast. Geological evidence of development, Innovative new structures for Economy &
ancient marine sediments on land reveals that the Improved life span, Remote Sensing Applications, Field
continents of the world were once submerged beneath data collection. Overexploitation of Living & Non-
the sea. The continental seas and coastlines of the world Living resources, Tourism & development, Sea sports,
have fluctuated greatly in the past ,time after time the Development of New Township along the Coastline,
marginal seas grew and sharnk over a period of million Coastguard Establishments for security, Human
years .Rock records-stratigraphic evidence show that the Resource Development in this vital area. The list
magnitude of these marine floods was greater in earth’s mentioned above is not exhaustive. Each and every
earlier history than in more recent times (Venkat Reddy, activity in the coastal area results in significant social
2010). benefits and environmental impacts, technical
challenges and financial implications (Neelamani and
The coastal zone is the transitional area between land Venkat Reddy, 2009).
and sea. It is defined as a strip of land and sea of
varying width depending on the nature of the Tsunamis
environment and management needs. It seldom Tsunami is Japanese word which means harbor wave.
corresponds to existing administrative or planning units. Many people commonly refer it as tidal wave, but in
The natural coastal systems and the areas in which reality tsunamis have little to do with tides. Tsunamis
human activities involve the use of coastal resources are large waves that are generated when sea floor is
may therefore extend well beyond the limit of territorial deformed by seismic activity, vertically displacing the
waters and many km inland. The worldwide average overlying water in the oceans.
width of the coastal zone on the terrestrial side is said to
Indian Tsunamis-A note
be 60 km. The zone occupies less than 15% of the
The first tsunami struck Bhola in Bengaal in 1874 beneath the overriding Burma plate. The December 26 th
killing several people. British Geologist –seismologists earthquake occurred as result of thrust faulting. Detailed
and meteorologists rushed to the disaster areas and description technical parameters have been reported by
collected valuable information .The British government USGS-2004. Tsunami resulted in south western Asia
established first seismological and Meteorological including Sumatra in Indonesia, Srilanka Andaman and
center in Alipore –Calcutta in 1874 (Mihir Guha, 2004). Nicobar, east coast of India, particularly Tamil Nadu,
Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Arattupuzha in
Second Tsunami caused by a major earthquake and
recorded magnitude of 8.5 n Richet’s scale. Tsunami Alappuzha district of the west coast of Kerala claimed
inundated western Andaman and Nicobar islands and more than 1, 50, 000 lies and extensive damage to
property of the region. Typical pictures of tsunami
then hit to the east coast of India destroying and killing
induced flow of water and destruction of coastal
people
properties’ during Dec-2004 is presented fig.4.
Third tsunami –Hit the Andaman and Nicobar islands-
East coast of India-west coast of Kerala –in parts -25
December ,2004;A great earthquake occurred at
00;58.53-UTC on Sunday 26th December of west coast
of Northen Sumatra –magnitude of 8.9 Richet’s Scale
Tsunami-causes –challenges for coastal protection
Tsunami occurs due to the energy transfer from earth to
water during under the sea. The energy transferred to
the water starts moving as a very long wave with
velocities in the order of 200 to 300 m/s in all
directions. The phase velocity, v of the wave reduces
when during its propagation to the coastal region
following the formula v= (gd)1/2 –where g –
acceleration due to gravity and d-water –depth. This
process results in the reduction of wave length and
Fig4: Typical pictures of tsunami induced flow of water
increase in wave height resulting in piling up of wall of
and destruction of coastal properties during Dec-2004
water by the tsunami reach the coast. The pile of water
enters into the land adjacent to the coast like burst and Tsunami protective structures in India
the high velocity of the flowing water with debris The coastal and ocean structures in the Bay of Bengal
destroys everything in its way (Neelamani and Venkat and Arabian seas were not built for tsunami impacts
Reddy2009)How tsunami works presented in fig-3 before December 24. However, the procedure is revised
after December, 2004 tsunami event. Now a days,
tsunami induced force is considered as the main
hydrodynamic load for the design of coastal structures
in these region. Many coastal countries around the
world have not experienced Tsunami effects and it does
not mean that they will never experience Tsunami
hazard in the future. It is essential to study and
understand possibility of occurrence of severe
earthquakes in the future. For example, the countries
surrounded by the Arabian Gulf have not experienced
severe Tunami effects till date. But it is possible that
earthquakes of the order of 8 or more in Richards scale
is possible at the subduction zone which falls in the
Fig3: Tsunami formation eastern side of the Arabian Gulf closer to the Iranian
coasts. Hence it is beneficial to study the impact on the
26 December, 2004 Earthquake Tsunami-Brief Note coastal regions of the Arabian Gulf coasts for the
The devastating mega thrust earthquake of 26 December possible catastrophic earthquake induces long wave
2004 occurred on the interface of the India-Burma impacts. Country like Japan has built Tsunami barriers
plates and was caused by the release of stresses that (Fig.) to protect the coastal uplands from slamming of
developed as the India plate sub ducted beneath the powerful water jets during Tsunmi run-up. They are
overriding Burma plates and was caused by the release very expensive and obstruct the free view of the sea.
of stresses that developed as the India plate sub-ducted Tsunami barrier of Japan model is presented in fig.5.
network comprises of 12 BPRs transmitting real time be prepared and know nature’s tsunami warning
data through satellite communication to NIOT at signals.
Chennai and INCOIS at Hyderabad simultaneously for 10. During a tsunami emergency, your local civil
processing and interpretation. Each BPR is strategically defense, police, and other emergency organizations
placed at 30 minute and 60 minute tsunami wave arrival will try to save your life. Give them your fullest
times (from hypothetical tsunami sources), so that they cooperation.
offer sufficient warning time and redundancy. At the
Tsunami Modeling Management - Experts Analyses
same time, they are far enough from the earthquake
zone so that the tsunami wave signal can be clearly INCOIS – NIOT- network- supercomputer
distinguished from the seismic Rayleigh wave. In implementation of most models allows the efficient
addition to Indian BPR network, INCOIS is also computation of many scenarios. This capability will
receiving real time data from internationally coordinated perform multiple-run sensitivity studies of two closely
networks like DART (Deep Ocean Assessment and related but separable processes off shore wave
Reporting Tsunamis) in Indian Ocean via Internet. dependence, on distant earthquake magnitude and
Currently, NIOT has deployed four BPRs out in Bay of position and site specific inundation dependence on off-
Bengal and two BPRs in the Arabian Sea (INCOIS- shore wave characteristics. The result will be organized
2012). into electronic data base and associated software will be
developed for analysis and visualization of this data
Safety rules suggested by INCOIS (Source: INCOSIS- base, including the assimilation of real-time data
2012) streams (Venkat Reddy, 2010).
1. All earthquakes do not cause tsunamis, but many
Tsunami hazard management can be divided into
do. When you know that an earthquake has
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery, with
occurred, stand by for a tsunami emergency each of these functions being promoted by regulations,
message.
incentives and risk communication (Lindell and Perry,
2. An earthquake in your area is one of nature’s
2004).
tsunami warning signals. Do not stay in low-lying
coastal areas after a strong earthquake has been felt. Regulations can take place a variety of forms and land –
3. Tsunamis are sometimes preceded by a noticeable use permits, seismic or coastal zoning, sub-division
fall in sea level as the ocean retreats seaward regulations and building codes that restrict permits
exposing the seafloor. A roar like an oncoming seismic or coastal zoning, subdivision regulations and
train may sometimes be heard as the tsunami wave building codes –that restrict households and business
rushes toward the shore. These are also nature’s land use and building construction practices (Lindell,
tsunami warning signals. 2006). Site assessment and tsunami hazard review
4. A tsunami is not a signal wave, but a series of procedures can be used as regulatory tools in post
waves that can come ashore for hours. The first tsunami recovery phase. Tsunami legislation can be
wave may not be the largest. Stay out of danger provide a legal support for local regulatory efforts
areas until an “all-clear” is issued by a recognized (Jonientz-Trisler, 2005)
authority. Coastal Regulation Zones – Guidelines
5. A small tsunami at one point on the shore can be
extremely large a few kilometers away. Don’t let CRZ guidelines were notified in Feb, 1991 as per the
the modest size of one make you lose respect for notification, the entire country coast divided into four
all. zones depending on the density of the population and
6. All warnings to the public must be taken very ecology.
seriously, even if some are for non-destructive Zone-I- This zone includes most of the sensitive areas
events. The tsunami of May, 1960 killed 61 people with mangroves and coral where no development is
in Hilo, Hawaii because some thought it was just permitted up to 500 meters from HTL and land between
another false alarm. Low Tide Levl-LTL-It means the position on the land
7. All tsunamis are potentially dangerous, even though up to which the highest water line reaches during high
they may not damage every coastline they strike. tides
8. Never go down to the shore to watch for a tsunami. Zone-II- It includes towns and cities where buildings
When you can see the wave you are too close to are already touching the sea and this zone permits the
outrun it. Most tsunamis are like flash floods full of maximum of development.
debris. Tsunami waves typically do not curl and Zone-III - It includes underdeveloped areas and tourist
break, so do not try to surf a tsunami. places where the permission for development is allowed
9. Sooner or later, tsunamis visit every coastline in the on a case –to case basis.
pacific and all oceans. If you live in a coastal area,
Zone-IV- The Andaman and Nicobar Islands and bio-shield, buffer zones, sand dune, artificial reefs
Lakshadweep islands lie in this zone .The ministry also etc., may be adopted wherever appropriate.
amended the notification to allow developmental 7. Integrated Coastal Zone Management plans may be
activities for tourism on seven islands of the Andaman prepared for the coastal areas taking into account
and Nicobar groups and some in Lakshadweep. the sea and land part and also vulnerability to
hazards, livelihood security of the people and other
How to proceed for coastal zone management:
social, economic and infrastructural requirements.
a. Reliable knowledge on coastal process
b. Effects of beach sand mining and decrease in What we need-Few in puts from experts
sediment supply to beaches Developments of Early Warning System (EWS)
c. Conditions of existing wetlands changes that may Knowledge and Risk Based Management
take place throughout time and space Responses Recovery Mitigation Preparedness
d. A reliable sand budget for coastal littoral cells .This Prevention
requires quantitative information on sand in puts Vulnerability Assessment and Hazard Analysis
and out puts Proper and sustainable Environmental Planning
e. Information on tsunamis, there in puts on coastal Centralize Information Hub
zones and the protective measures (Jayappa,1998 & Improved observation system
Venkat Reddy, 2005) Best practice and its exchange
Conclusions Strengthen technical collaboration and Co-
operation among researchers and practicing
1. Geology of coastal region affects the supply of members.
sediment to the beaches and total morphology. Close interaction with policy maker
Tsunami impact on coastal zone depends upon the
nature and configuration of coastal regions. It is not an individual problem and only collective effort
Tsunami impact reduction primarily depends upon can minimize the disaster with proper planning and
the coastal zone configuration. Geological, action to save the mother earth.
geomorphological and technical parameters are What we are doing is just a drop in the Ocean. But the
responsible for formation of coastal zones. Ocean will be less because of that missing drop. -
2. The recent tsunami has demonstrated that the CRZ (Mother Teresa).
rules even if implemented rigorously will be of
little help in saving life and property in coastal Reference
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horizontal distance of 200m or 500 m from HTL d’information erosion et defense des cotes Paris.
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can travel far inland and cause much damage. regional sea bed variations. Earth Planetary Science
3. The tsunami disaster illustrated that the results of letter
valuable seismological research and development [3] David Long (2005). A note on seismology of
must reach the users at grassroots-particularly those recent, British geological survey in Edinburgh,
in coastal communities. The mangroves and coral Scotland
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(ISDR) (www.uni-sdr.org) has warned that half the coastal dynamics protection against sea waves, The
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tsunamis, storm surges, cyclones may be identified with special reference to Karnataka, Environmental
for restricting other major investments like power Impact Assessment and Management, Editors:
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be by structural means as seawalls groins, offshore
break waters .Soft methods like beach nourishment,
[9] Kerry Sieh (2005) A note on seism city of the Impact Assessment and Management, Daya
south Asia-a geologist at the California Institute of publications.
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Tamil Nadu, Journ Geol Soc of India, Vol 68, pp. [23] Neelamani.S and Venkat Reddy.D (2009),
967-983. Challenges and Recent Developments in the Ocean
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Mexico, Env. Geology 5(3) December 26, 2004 Tsunami and Mitigation
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[17] Venkat Reddy (2010) Earthquakes - Oceans and sea, its impact on coastal consequences for the
Tsunamis - Engineering Geology Vikas publishers, protection and management of coastal areas-Indian
New Delhi Journal Environmental Protection, pp. 846-851.
[18] Jayappa,K.S (1998), Coastal Zone Management [27] Venkat Reddy.D (2010), Engineering Geology,
with special reference to Karnataka –Environmental Vikaspublishers, New Delhi.
Abstract: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) becomes today an important technology improving reliability and
safety of highly stressed civil structures, and supporting their effective maintenance. The civil infrastructure ages
and deteriorates with time as a result of aging of materials, excessive use, overloading, climatic conditions,
inadequate maintenance, and deficiencies in inspection methods. All of these factors contribute to the obsolescence
of constructed systems. As a result, health monitoring, repair, retrofit, rehabilitation, and replacement become
necessary to ensure the safety of the public. In addition, nondestructive evaluation (NDE) accelerated and
destructive tests are also needed to predict life-cycle performances based on short-term test data. In order to evaluate
the safety of a constructed system, it is essential to determine the remaining strength of the total system by a
performance analysis based upon the strength and inspection data of the materials and the structural system. A
comparatively recent development in the health monitoring of civil engineering structures is vibration-based damage
detection. Vibration characteristics of a structure, that is, its frequencies, mode shapes, and damping are directly
affected by the physical characteristics of the structure including its mass and stiffness. New methods and tools for
assessment, maintenance, repair and upgrade of the performance of existing civil structures needs to be developed.
Keywords: infrastructure, safety, inspection, performance, evaluation, upgrades.
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) aims to give, at If we consider only the first function, the diagnosis, we
every moment during the life of a structure, a diagnosis could estimate that Structural Health Monitoring is a
of the “state” of the constituent materials, of the new and improved way to make a Non- Destructive
different parts, and of the full assembly of the separates Evaluation. This is partially true, but SHM is much
constituting the structure as a whole. The state of the more. It involves the integration of sensors, possibly
structure must remain in the domain specified in the smart materials, data transmission, computational
design, although this can be altered by normal aging power, and processing ability inside the structures. It
due to usage, by the action of the environment, and by makes possible to reconsider the design of the structure
accidental events. Thanks to the time-dimension of and the full management of the structure itself and of
monitoring, this makes it possible to consider the full the structure considered as a part of wider systems.
InFigure1theorganizationofatypicalSHMsystemisgiveni
History data base of the structure, and with the help of
ndetail.Thefirstpartofthe system, which corresponds to
Usage Monitoring, it can also provide prognosis
the structural integrity monitoring function, can be
(evolution of damage, residual life, etc.).
defined by:
i) The type of physical phenomenon, closely related to integrity of in-service structures on a continuous real-
the damage, which is monitored by the sensor, time basis is a very important objective for
ii) The type of physical phenomenon that is used by the manufacturers, end-users and maintenance teams. In
effect, SHM:
sensor to produce a signal (generally electric) sent to the
acquisition and storage sub-system. Several sensors of 1. Allows an optimal use of the structure, a minimized
the same type, constituting a network, can be down time, and the avoidance of catastrophic failures,
multiplexed and their data merged with those from other 2. Gives the constructor an improvement in his products
types of sensors. Possibly, other sensors, monitoring the
environmental conditions, make it possible to perform 3. Drastically changes the work organization of
the usage monitoring function. The signal delivered by maintenance services:
the integrity monitoring sub-system, in parallel with the Classification of SHM Techniques:
previously registered data, is used by the controller to
create diagnostic. Mixing the information of the Afivelevelclassificationofstructuralhealthmonitoringtec
integrity monitoring sub- system with that of the usage hniquesisgivenbelow:
monitoring sub-system and with the knowledge based Level1: Detection-Determine if any kind of damage is
on damage mechanics and behavior laws makes it present in the structure.
possible to determine the prognosis (residual life) and
the health management of the structure (organization of Level2: Localization-Locate the site of the damage.
maintenance, repair operations, etc.).Finally, similar Level3: Assessment-amount of damage is estimated
structure management systems related to other
Level4: Prognosis- Estimate the future progress of the
structures which constitute a type of super system (a
damage and the remaining life of the structure.
fleet of aircraft, a group of power stations, etc.) make
possible the health management of the super system. Of Level5: Remediation- Determine, implement, and
course, workable systems can be setup even if they are evaluate effective remediation and repair efforts.
not as comprehensive as described here. Knowing the
[2] Araujodos Santosetal, (2005) Structural damage from changes in their vibration characteristics: a
identification inlaminated structures using FRF literature review”, LA-I3070-MS, Los Alamos
data, Composite Structures, 67: pp.239-249. National Laboratory.
[3] Azevedo ,S.G., Mast, J.E., Nelson, S.D., Rosenbury, [8] Dove JR, Park 0 and Zhang ZJ, (2006) “Hard ware
E.T., Jones, H.E., McEwan, T.E., Mullenh off, D.J., design of hierarchal active sensing networks for
Hugenberger, R.E., Stever, R.D.,Warhus, J.P. and structural health monitoring”, Smart Materials and
Wieting, M.G.(1996). HERMES: Ahigh-speedradar Structures: Vol. 15(2), pp.139-146.
imaging system for inspection of bridge decks. [9] ISIS Canada Corporation, (2001), Guidelines for
Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques for Aging Structural Health Monitoring, Design Manual No.2,
Infrastructure and Manufacturing, SPIE 294(6), www.isiscanada.com.
195–204. [10] Ken PChon, NicholasJ Carinoand Glenn Washer,
[4] Catbas FN, and Aktan AE, Condition and damage (2003), “Health monitoring of civil infrastructures”
assessment: issues and some promisingindices, SmartMat.Struct.12.pp.483-493.
Journa lof Structural Engineering, ASCE, [11] MasriSF, Chassiakos AG, Caughey TK, (1993)
Vol.128(8), 2002: pp.1026-1036. “Identification of nonlineard ynamic system susing
[5] Chong KP, CarinoNJ, and WasherD, (2003) “Health neural networks”, Journal of Applied Mechanics,
monitoring of civil infrastructures”, Smart Mater. ASME: Vol.60, pp.123-133.
Struct, Institute of Physics Publishing, 12: pp.483- [12] PatodiVS and PuraniSC, (2002) “Neuro solution for
493. damage detection and categorization of earthquake-
[6] ChouJH, and OhaboussiJ, (2001) “Genetical affected buildings”, The Indian Concrete Journal,
gorithmin structural damage detection”, Computers pp.504-509.
and Structures, 79:pp.1335-1353. [13] Ray, L. and Tian, L. (1999). Damage detectionin
[7] Doebling SW, Farrar CR, Prime MB, and Shevitz smart structures through sensitivity enchancing
DW, (1996), “Damage identification and health feedback. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 227(5),
monitoring of structural and mechanical systems 987–1002.
Abstract: The occurrence of earthquake is a global phenomenon. Earthquakes occur due to movements along the
faults that have evolved through geological and tectonic processes. This is the result of a sudden release of energy in
the earth crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are the most disastrous of all the natural calamities as they
affect large areas causing death, injuries and destructions of physical resources on a massive scale. These occur
without any fore warning and hence are unpredictable. Since earthquakes can’t be predicted, post-earthquake
programme are basically undertaken on adhoc basis without prior preparedness. Being fallen the entire North
Eastern State of India in the Zone-V, the most seismic hazard Zone (BIS-2002) and to Geo climatic conditions, it is
obvious that the region is highly prone to multiple natural disasters. According to the study of the North Eastern
India’s earthquakes history and finding of seismological researches, the region is now due for a large major
earthquake which is expected in the region between the epicentre of Shillong Earthquake M 8.7 of 1897 and Patkai
Range, Arunachal Pradesh, M.7 of 1950 in the near future. Earthquake Hazard of North East India cannot be
changed, however disaster can be mitigated. The precise prediction of earthquakes in terms of space and time is not
possible. Moreover, prediction may not helpful in avoiding or reducing damages caused by earthquakes because
buildings and other structures cannot be evacuated. It can, at the most, be helpful in saving human lives. This arise
the need of proper planning and implementation for earthquake disaster mitigation for the region in cooperating pre,
during and post-earthquake measures.
Keywords: Disaster, Mitigation, Seismic Hazard, Natural Calamities, Retrofitting.
relative concentrations can be taken as one of experienced 18 largest earthquakes (M≥7) during the
seismicity. Various geophysical parameters such as last hundred years including the great earthquake of
resistivity, magnetic and gravity etc also reflect seismic Shillong (1897, M=8.7) and Assam + Tibet border
status of a region. North East India is seismically one of (1950, M=8.7) and at the latest Sikkim (2011,
the six most active regions of the world, the other five M=6.9)(Table 1). Besides these major earthquakes,
being Mexico, Taiwan, California, Japan and Turkey. It several hundred small and micro earthquakes have also
is placed in Zone V, the highest zone of the seismic been recorded in the region.
Zonation map of India (BIS-2002). The region
Table1: Major Earthquakes in North Eastern Region in Recent Past
The underlying problems of growing vulnerability to individuals, groups, society, professional, administrator,
natural and technological hazards are largely an NGOs, etc.
outcome of short-sighted development activities,
4.1.3 Development Policy: Disaster prevention and
considering these factors, structural mitigation measures
preparedness should be considered as integral aspect in
are the key to make a significant impact towards
the formation of Development policy and planning at all
earthquakes safety in the world. The principal purpose
level (national, regional bilateral, multilateral and
of hazard mitigation is the protection of life, even when international level) preparedness for seismic hazard
the risk to a single individual at any time is involves sound emergency evacuation, relief and
comparatively small. Concerned with the impact of
rehabilitation plans, which can be effectively used
natural disasters in the background of United Nation’s
during a damaging earthquake mitigation and
resolution and following the Yokohama Strategy for a
preparedness measures go hand in hand for vulnerability
Safer World, May, 1994, there is paradigm shift from
reduction and rapid professional response to disasters.
post disaster reconstruction and relief to post disaster The Bhuj earthquake in January 2001 faced several
pro-active approach to reduce the impact of natural inadequacies in the system. The search and rescue team
hazards
had not been trained professionally, specialized dog
4. Earthquake measures squad to look for line bodies under debris were not
Following the strategy, disaster prevention, mitigation available; and there was no centralised resource
and preparedness are emphasised as better option than inventory for emergency response. Specialist search and
rescue team from other countries did reach Bhuj.
disaster response in achieving the goals and objectives
However, precious time was lost and failed to act as
of vulnerability reduction. Disaster response alone is not
quickly as desired.
sufficient as it yields only temporary results at a very
high cost. However all the measures of pre-earthquake 4.1.4 Techno Legal Measures: Techno legal measures
(preparedness/preparation & planning), during have to be adopted to prevent earthquake disaster. These
earthquakes (emergency and response) and post- include a firmed land used policy, Enforcing of strict
earthquake (recovery and rebuilding) should be a building bye laws following seismic construction codes,
continuous and interlinked co-ordinated activities to covering the aspect of ensuring technical
achieve the maximum satisfactory result. implementation of the safety aspects in all new
constructions and upgrading the strength of existing
4.1 Pre Earthquake Measures
structurally vulnerable constructions.
4.1.1. Preparedness : It is always more cost effective to
adopt appropriate mitigation measures in advance than The strict building bye laws may not only help to
to spend a large sum of money on relief, recovery and address any conflict of interest happened between the
owners who pay for the structures, who tend to attend
rehabilitation. Disaster preparedness includes all of the
higher risk on the occurrence of earthquake rather than
activities that are carried out prior to the advance notice
make large investment into extra safety measures for a
of a catastrophe in order to facilitate the use of available
large earthquake events that rarely happens.
resources, relief and rehabilitation in the best possible
fashion. 4.1.5 Retrofitting of Life Line Building: Retrofitting
of the existing vulnerable buildings should be taken on
4.1.2. Awareness Campaign: It is needed to be
the priority basis like hospitals, schools, railways,
launched effectively to educate the people about the
administrative building, cinema halls, multi-storeyed
disastrous effects of earthquakes and to prepare them to
face these in a better way. Prevention and mitigation Apartments Where People Congregate At The Most.
begins with the information. Moreover, public education 4.2 During Earthquake
and community participation is the key to success of the
The action plan prepared during pre-earthquake
implementation of reduction and mitigation
period has to be implemented immediately after the
programmes. However, awareness of the potential
occurrence of an earthquake.
benefits of disaster reduction is found limited to
The volunteer groups/rescue/search teams have to
specialised circle and has not yet been successfully
be activated to carry out the relief work.
communicated to all sectors of society, in particular
policymakers and general public. This is due to the lack The effected people need to be evacuated to the
of attention for the issue in sufficient commitment and safer places.
resources for promotional activities at all levels. The communication and other essential services
like water supply, electricity, transport, etc. ought
These shortcomings have to be addressed by to be restored on emergency basis.
involvement of people representation from all sorts of
Supply of food items and essentials need to be prognostic, Berlin, June, 24-27, 1986, Friedr.
taken up. Fastest means of communication Veiweg and Sohn.
(preferable helicopter) should be used to reach the [2] Agarwal, P.N. (2000). “Seismological Aspects of
remote villages. Earthquake Damage Reduction” Sixth IGC
Overall vigilance need to be maintained after the Foundation Lecture, IGC, pp. 1-19.
main shock as it is usually followed by many [3] Bapat, A. (1996). “Creation of awareness about
aftershock. The public has to be informed about the earthquakes – Case Histories” Proc. Int. Conf. On
development on an hourly basis. Disaster and Mitigation, Madras, 1: pp A1-A13.
[4] Bapat, A., Kulkarni, R.C. and Guha, S.K. (1993).
4.3. Post-Earthquake: “Catalogue of earthquake in India and
Damaged structures need to be reconstructed on neighborhood from historical record up to 1979”
war footing. Indian Soc. Earthq. Tech., Roorkee, India, 171p.
The affected people ought to be rehabilitated. [5] Ben-Menahem, A., Aboudi, E. and Schild, R.
A comprehensive list of the safe and unsafe (1974). The source of the great Assam earthquake-
structures has to be made incorporating the details an intraplate wedge motion. Phys. Earth Planet,
about their designing and method of construction. Int., 9: 265-289.
Loss of life and property need to be documented [6] Bhattacharjee, S. (1998). “Earthquakes in northeast
and published. India Mitigation-a possible approach” Status of
Counselling need to be done to removes the fear landslides in northeast India and Natural Disaster
psychosis. Management (Ed. G. D. Sharma), Assam
An in-depth evaluation of pre-earthquake measures University Press, pp. 77-84.
needs to be done. Shortcomings, if any, need to be [7] Gupta, H.K. (1985). “Cachar earthquake of
removed and plan, if required, may be modified. December 31, 1984- Is it a signal for the beginning
of seismic activity?” Jour. Geol. Soc. India. 26:
5. Conclusions 145-147.
North East India is highly vulnerable for earthquakes [8] Gupta, H.K. (1993). “Patterns preceding major
which cannot be prevented from occurring. Therefore, earthquakes in northeast India” Current Science,
we have to warn to live the earthquake hazard looming 64(11&12): 889-893.
and try to minimize its adverse impact on human [9] Gupta, H.K. and Singh, H.N. (1986). “Seismicity of
civilisation. Earthquake hazard is one of the most northeast India region: Part II: Earthquake swarm
deadly phenomenon’s which claim the lives of large precursory to moderate magnitude to great
number of person without any warning. These deadly earthquakes” Jour. Geol. Soc. India, 28: 367-406.
destructions were mainly caused due to the collapse of [10] Gupta, H.K. and Singh, H.N. (1989). “Earthquake
structures and buildings. We think of these disasters swarm precursory to moderate magnitude to great
only in the wake of a particular event and with the lapse earthquakes in northeast India region”
of time, political official and public interest diminishes. Tectonophysics, 167: 255-298.
Hence, to mitigate the destructions of this natural [11] Gupta, H.K. and Singh, V.P. (1982). “Is Shillong
disaster, we have to prepare a complete disaster region, northeast India, undergoing dilatancy stage
mitigation plan with concerted efforts of planners, precursory to a large earthquake?” Tectonophysics,
administrators, engineers, builders etc with strict 85: 31-33.
enforcement of building codes for constructions of [12] Guha, S.K. and Bhattacharya, U. (1984). “Studies
masonry structures, even for small housing complex in on prediction of seismicity in northeast India” Proc.
the earthquake prone zone and strict legalisation of land World Conf. On Earthquake Engineering, San
use may help the mitigation of earthquake hazards. This Francisco, USA, July, 21-27.
disaster mitigation plan should not be considered as an [13] Kayal, J.R. (1987). “Microseismicity and source
isolated effort and it cannot start and end with each mechanism study: Shillong Plateau, Northeast
disaster. India” Bull. Seismological Society of America, 77:
(1): 184-194.
6. Acknowledgements [14] Kayal, J.R. (1996). “Earthquake source process in
The authors would like to thank Manipur Institute of Northeast India: A review” Him. Geol. 17: 53-69.
Technology, Imphal for their support at the time of this [15] Kayal, J.R. (1998). “Seismicity of Northeast India
research. and surroundings – development over the past 100
years” Jour. Of Geophysics, 19(1): pp. 9-34.
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Abstract: The world famous Koderma Mica Belt lying at the northern fringe of Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss
Complex (CGGC) constitutes a distinct geological component of Singhbhum Supergroup along with CGGC that
occupy a vast area of Precambrian rocks of eastern India peninsular shield. The studied amphibolites associated with
both the units throw significant light on the plate setting, nature of the igneous protolith and P-T conditions of
metamorphism to help resolve various geological problems of the area in general and geodynamic models of the
concerned Singhbhum / Satpura orogenic belt having a ENE-WSW to E-W regional trend in particular. The detailed
field, petrographic and chemical investigations including major, trace & REE have led to their categorization into
Talc-tremolite-actinolite schist, foliated and non-foliated amphibolites exhibiting sill-flow mode of occurrence,
dominant Hbl-plagioclase mineralogy and chemically homogeneous composition within a narrow range varying
from mafic to ultramafic rocks of tholeiitic affinity which, upon fractional crystallization, have yielded rocks of
basalt to basaltic andesite typical of island arc tectonic regime. Spiky and irregular MORB-normalized trace element
pattern with prominent Nb-Ta-Ti & Zr-Hf anomalies along with a number of tectonomagmatic discriminant models
suggest subduction related island arc tectonic setting. The Chondrite normalized trace element pattern lends support
to the same. REE chemistry based on ΣREE, LREE/HREE, (La/Yb)N, (Ce/Yb)N, Eu/Eu* ratio and other parameters
also attest tholeiitic nature of amphibolitic rocks evolved under island arc set-up. Within the framework of island
arc, an intraarc position for the amphibolitic rocks representing the study area is delineated on the basis of Sugimura
index, sill-flow mode of emplacement and absence of volcanic ejectas. The protolith for these rocks has been
assigned to the immature or initial stage of island arc system. These findings attribute the stratigraphic position of
supracrustal group representing the Koderma mica pegmatite group to the intraarc basin that evolves earlier than the
backarc basin in which Dalma volcano-sedimentary sequence, which constitutes an important landmark in the
stratigraphy of the region, is supposed to have been laid down. Hence, the stratigraphic status/position of Koderma
mica belt becomes older than the Dalma volcanics which were, so far, tacitly assumed as part of Satpura orogeny on
the basis of regional strike.
Keywords: Koderma Mica Belt, Protolith, Tholeiitic, Tectonic Regime, Island Arc, Dalma Volcanics.
comprehensive study of the amphibolitic rocks associated metabasics. These two formations were
associated with both the mica belt and the adjoining earlier assumed to be the part of Satpura /Singhbhum
Chotanagpur gneissic terrane with a view to delineate orogeny on the basis of the regional trends.
their overall tectonic implication over the region. For
Regional Geologic Setting & Dalma Volcanics:
the purpose, as defined, two small areas one around
Koderma (Lat 24028`N & Long 85036`E) within the The stratigraphy of the region centres round a major
mica belt and another around Bagodar (Lat. 24 04`19``N arcuate fault popularly known as Singhbhum Shear
& Long. 85049`26``E) within the adjoining Chotanagpur Zone (SSZ) that divides the Archaean Singhbhum
gneissic complex (cf. Survey of India toposheet nos.- cratonic nucleous of the south from a linear Proterozoic
72H/10-12 & 16) were considered for systematic field volcano-sedimentary basin often referred to as
investigation and sampling followed by detailed Proterozoic Singhbhum basin (PSB) or north
geochemical investigation. Singhbhum mobile belt (NSMB) in the north that
constitutes the Singhbhum Supergroup rocks
In this context the present paper is an attempt to comprising of Chaibasa, Dhalbhum, Dalma-Chandil
establish the stratigraphic position of Koderma Mica
formations besides some short lived intermittent
Belt with respect to other known schistose formation
volcanism represented by metabasics and tuffs [3][4]
like Dalma metavolcanics, situated on the southern
[5].
extremities of CGGC through geochemical
characterization and tectonomagmatic setting of their
Figure-1: Regional Geological Map of the area (Modified after G.S.I. map)
The Precambrian metamorphites of the Singhbhum The metamorphism, tectonic history and granitic
region are divided into three parts – Older Metamorphic activities of the Singhbhum orogenic belt is correlatable
Group (OMG) with OMTG – c.3300 Ma & Iron Ore with the Satpura orogeny (c.850 Ma). The closing phase
group (IOG) with Singhbhum Granites and of the Singhbhum orogeny is marked by the
Granodiorites - c.2550 Ma in the south and the emplacement of Chotanagpur or Ranchi granites &
Singhbhum Supergroup - c.850 Ma in the north of SSZ. gneisses that occupy a vast area north of the mobile belt
or more precisely the TKF (Tamar Khatra Fault) i.e. the the Dhalbhum Fm. indicating concordant volcanic
northern Singhbhum shear zone or South Purulia Shear outpouring without any break in sedimentation.
Zone (SPSZ) and extending upto Indogangetic plain The Dalma volcanics were studied by several workers
(Fig.-1). The northern part of this Chotanagpur gneissic
and the suggested tectonic setting ranges from
complex constitutes what is known as Bihar mica belt /
continental rifting (Dunn & Dey, 1942) [15] to island
Koderma mica belt whose stratigraphy, classification
arc (Naha & Ghose, 1960) [16] and even backarc basin
and evolution is still a matter of speculation for paucity
(Bose et al., 1981, 1994) [17][18] that records
of lithological, structural and reliable chronological data sedimentation and volcanism under a rapidly changing
[2][6]. tectonic conditions. However these events could not be
Stratigraphically significant Dalma traps are extensive precisely dated for non-availability of appropriate
piles of massive, compact, vesicular basalts as well as datable rocks that puts serious constraints on the
fine and thin basaltic flows intercalated with fine and stratigraphic position of the Dalma volcanics.
coarse tuffs and agglomerates with bombs of grey and A lot of geochemical studies pertaining to the rocks of
green granular basalt which are sometimes interbedded
Dalma volcanics have been carried out. The lavas
with dark silicified shales, black cherts, quartzites and
exhibit low grade metamorphic environment that
phyllites disposed along the axial part of the NSMB. In
preserve a strong compositional bi-modality with highly
contrast to these, the upper Dalmas between the main
magnesian-Komatiitic-Picritic volcanic rocks developed
Dalma Fm. and the CGGC to the north is known as at the base and low K-basaltic flows above. Dalma
Chandil Fm [7][5] which are dominantly composed of mafic flows are closely comparable in geochemical
metapelites intercalated with lensoid bodies of
characteristics to a modern day MORB developed under
quartzites, metabasics and volcaniclastic felsic tuffs,
backarc basins that is a supracrustal subduction zone
rhyolites, carbonaceous slates and phyllites which are ~
tectonic environment [19][18][20]. It has also been
1600 Ma old [8][9][10][11]. indicated that depleted mid-oceanic ridge basalt is
usually the ultimate outcome of extensional tectonism
[21] as in the backarc setting.
Field Features of the Amphibolites:
Amphibolites of the studied area (Fig.-2 A&B) are
essentially hornblende-plagioclase rocks and occur
more commonly as narrow linear strips, bands, lenses
concordantly intercalated with associated metamorphic
rocks. Stocks or bosses or dyke-like discordant bodies
are also not uncommon. They are topographically
manifested as small mounds and oval shaped gently
sloping hills of variable sizes. Absence of pyroclastics
in the area is quite conspicuous and significant from
petrogenic point of view. The following varieties of the
amphibolitic rocks are identified in the field as (a) Talc-
tremolite-actinolite schists (b) Foliated amphibolites (c)
Non-foliated amphibolites. Of these, Talc-tremolite-
actinolite schists have better frequency of occurrence in
gneissic terrane. Foliated amphibolites are the dominant
types in both the areas. Talc-tremolite schists although
scarcely occurring and unevenly distributed are pale
green coloured, well foliated rocks of high genetic
values often characterized by splintery habit and soapy
feel. Foliated amphibolites occur often as sill-flow
complexes and have been simultaneously deformed and
Figure2 (A) & (B): Sample maps of the area cofolded with the associated metasediments such as
The stratigraphic status of the Dalma volcanics has long mica schists, schistose quartzites and quartzites with
been a matter of controversy [12][13][14]. Mazumder which they are intercalated. The non-foliated
(2005) [5] suggested two fold lithostratigraphic amphibolites are often characterized by crude or
subdivision of the entire Dhalbhum- Dalma volcano- imperceptible foliation. However, there is no sharp line
sedimentary succession. The latter conformably overlies of demarcation between the foliated and non-foliated
ones. Whenever they occur together the contact is
gradational. Infact there is no striking difference in the can be inferred from selective sericitization and
nature and mode of occurrence of the amphibolites from oscillatory extinction.
Mica belt & CGGC except some local variation here Neither there is found any marked mineralogical
and there depending upon their geological situation.
difference between non-foliated amphibolites from the
Petrography: Mica belt and the CGGC, nor do they differ much from
Petrographic and petromineralogical features pertaining foliated types except the presence or absence of
to the amphibolitic rocks of the area have supported foliation.
their characterization into : Talc-tremolite-actinolite Chemistry:
schists (Mg-rich amphibolitic), Foliated amphibolites &
The rocks of the area have been analysed for major
Non-foliated amphibolites. elements on XRF, and for trace and REE on ICP-MS in
Talc-tremolite-actinolite schists: are well foliated, the geochemical laboratories of NGRI, Hyderabad with
medium to coarse-grained, mesocratic rocks having high degree of precision and accuracy, details of which
greenish tinge, talcose feel and splintery habit. have been mentioned elsewhere [22][23]. A perusal of
Texturally they are porphyroblastic in which long the compositional data (Table-1) clearly indicates that
prismatic laths of tremolite-actinolite are set in a platy one of the rocks (A-77) which is petrographically
and felted microlitic talcose mass. Small microlites and identified as talc-tremolite-actinolite schist is
prismatic laths of tremolite often in felted aggregates compositionally ultramafic in character since it contains
with parallel to subparallel orientation impart schistosity low SiO2 (40.54 wt %.); exceedingly high MgO
to these rocks. Reddish brown iddingsite after olivine, (27.55); depressed alumina, Al2O3 (7.88); Fe2O3 (4.85),
antigorite, rutile are amongst the common accessories. FeO (9.34); CaO (4.59); exceedingly low alkalies (Na 2O
Foliated amphibolites (Hbl-schist/Hbl-gneiss): + K2O = 0.51 where Na2O ( 0.47) > K2O (0.04) and low
Alternating mineral folia of nematoblastic mafic TiO2 (0.35) wt%. The petrographic similarities of
minerals usually hornblende and quartzo-feldspathic foliated and non-foliated amphibolites from Mica belt
mineral distinguish them. They are dark-coloured, and the adjoining CGGC are also substantiated
medium-grained, well foliated rocks often schistose, chemically. They are mostly characterized by short
sometimes grading into gneissose character. Green range of SiO2 (44.48 – 52.93 wt %), MgO (5.87-10.34),
hornblende and calcic plagioclase (An35-50) are the CaO (7.75-13.38) Fe as Fe2O3total (10-18), low TiO2
dominant constituents. Plagioclase grains are fresh as (0.46-2.42) and exceedingly low alkalis (0.78-3.39)
well as variably kaolinised/sericitised and sometimes, wt% all reflecting their basic character. Al2O3 > 10 and
saussuritised. Twinning is common whereas < 16 wt % which is typical of the tholeiitic rock suites
compositional zoning is occasionally observed. Quartz also characterize them. A total alkalies v/s SiO2 (TAS)
and iron ores are present in subordinate amounts. They diagram (Fig.-3) of R. Le Maitre (2002) [24] with a
also contain, at times, porphyroblasts of relict pyroxene dividing line between alkalic and tholeiitic magma
both Cpx & Opx, sometimes, rimmed by green stout series after Miyashiro (1978) [25] reveals the tholeiitic
hornblende prisms that apparently look corona like nature of the rocks of the study area. It is also important
structure. Foliated amphibolites from mica belt and the to note that the amphibolitic rocks fall mainly in the
CGGC do not differ from one another. Having more or field of basalt and basaltic andesite. The MgO-rich talc-
less similar rock fabric and mineralogy, the foliated tremolite-actinolite schist lies in the field of picrobasalt
amphibolites from mica belt sometimes have pink that, perhaps, marks the first differentiate of
garnet as an additional mineral phase. Partial to crystallizing magma.
complete enclosure of plagioclase laths simulating relict
subophitic to ophitic texture suggests their igneous
origin. Non-foliated amphibolites: are massive, dark-
green, medium-grained, non-foliated rocks of gabbroic
look often characterized by hornblende–plagioclase
mineral combine. Sometimes, hornblende dominate so
much (> 80%) that they are classified as ‘hornblendite’.
The predominant green hornblende exhibit tabular and
prismatic habit with ragged terminations. They
sometimes enclose plagioclase laths to show relict
igneous texture. Both twinned and untwinned
plagioclase of andesine to labradorite composition
(An40-60), are the second dominant constituent.
Compositional zoning in some of the plagioclase grains Figure3: TAS (Total Alkali – Silica) Diagram after
Le Maitre (2002)
Trace element distribution (Table-2) shows consistency also strikingly similar patterns with only difference that
with the fractional crystallization model as also revealed the former are impoverished in HFSEs even as
by major oxide variation. Spiderdiagram for the rocks of compared to MORB whereas the latter have certain
the area, normalized to MORB using normalizing HFSEs more than MORB. However, in general all of
constants from Pearce (1983) [26] are shown in Fig.–4, them are variably enriched in more incompatible LILEs
where a flat line represents MORBs of depleted nature such as Sr, K, Rb, Ba & Th as compared to HFSEs. The
derived by extensive partial melting of a mantle source. trace element pattern of foliated amphibolites from mica
These trace element patterns are similar but irregular, belt also bears a –ve trough at K-Rb as against their
strongly spiky and negatively sloping. They are also counterpart in CGGC suggesting depletion of these
invariably marked with –ve troughs at Ta-Nb, Zr-Hf and elements which might be due to hydrothermal
in some cases at Ti. Talc-tremolite schists appear mobilization of these elements which play significant
virtually depleted in the whole range of incompatible role in the genesis of mineralized pegmatites as well as
trace elements relative to MORB except Th & P in in the formation of a number of rare earth minerals in
which they are marginally enriched. Foliated and non- them.
foliated amphibolites from mica belt and CGGC have
Figure4: MORB Normalized Trace Element Patterns Figure5: Chondrite Normalized multi element
using normalizing constants from Pearce (1983) spiderdiagram. Normalizing constants after Thompson
et al. (1984)
Chondrite normalized trace element patterns for these nature of their protoliths, petrotectonic association and
rocks as shown in the Fig.-5, using normalizing the tectonic regime of evolution. The comparison of
constants of Thompson et al. (1984) [27] also support these data with the known geochemical characteristics
the observations derived from MORB normalized of the Dalma volcanic and their inferred
patterns that the rocks of the area exhibit general but tectonomagmatic setting is of critical significance to
variable enrichment of more incompatible LILEs such address some stratigraphic issues of the region.
as Sr, K, Rb, Ba, Th (La) etc as compared to less
There are enough petrographic signatures of textural
incompatible HFSEs – a signature typical of island arc and mineralogical nature that suggest their igneous
setting. origin. The ultramafic mineralogy comprising tremolite
prisms and cross-fibres set within felted microlitic
talcose mass with subordinate amounts of actinolite,
anthophyllite, antigorite and pseudomorphous iddingsite
(after olivine), as well as cumulus igneous texture of
talc-tremolite-actinolite schist all point to the same. The
normal amphibolite mineral assemblage- hornblende +
plagioclase (An40-60) + Cpx (augite), presence of relict
igneous mineral phases like plagioclase and pyroxene
(augite) alongwith relict ophitic to subophitic texture,
preservance of twinning and zoning in plagioclase etc.
are some of the petrographic features favouring their
igneous origin as well as their compositional affinity
Figure6: Chondrite Normalized rare earth element towards basalts. Thus petrographically the rocks of the
patterns. Normalizing constants after Sun & area belong to basalt- basaltic andesite + rhyolite
McDonough (1989) association which is characteristic of present day
volcanic suite found in the subduction related island arc
The REE patterns of these rocks (Fig.-6) normalized to set up.
chondrite using the data from Sun & McDonough
(1989) [28] are broadly similar and invariably marked The tholeiitic nature of these rocks is indicated by TAS
with a small trough at Yb and negatively sloping. They (Fig-3) diagram. TAS also reveals compositional
show stronger enrichment in LREE (av. 77.41 ppm) variation from picrobasalt (A-77) to predominantly
compared to HREE (av. 15.62 ppm). There is basalt-basaltic andesite. Talc-tremolite-actinolite schist
apparently good correlation between LREE and LILEs represents, perhaps, an early formed ultramafite and
enrichment as well as between HREE and HFSEs also indicates olivine-fractionation at early stage of
depletion. However, the extent of total REE varies with differentiation of magma followed by fractionation of
rocks (Table-2). Foliated amphibolites have av. ΣREE = cpx + calcic plag. from the same parental magma that
57.96 ppm. Non-foliated amphibolites from mica belt has given rise to the bulk of amphibolites of the area.
and CGGC have similar concentrations of ΣREE (av. Amphibolites of the area from mica belt and the CGGC
139.80 ppm) but relatively higher than the foliated suggest a compositional homogeneity. Amphibolites are
amphibolites. Talc- tremolite schists have lowest quartz and hypersthene normative whereas ultramafic
concentration of ΣREE (13.97 ppm) but are rich in types are olivine normative. In addition, a narrow range
LREE (10.83 ppm) than HREE (3.14 ppm) following of variation in critical constituents FeOt/MgO (0.97–
the general trends of the rocks of the area. REE patterns 2.08), FeOt/ FeOt+MgO (0.49–0.68) along with their
of talc-tremolite schist are also marked with a metaluminous mineralogy and mg number (54–72) all
distinctive trough at Eu suggesting –ve Eu-anomaly supports their comagmatic nature.
whereas those of the rest of the rocks either bear a small The pattern of abundance of the elements Cr>Ni>Co
hump at Eu or remain flat suggesting a short +ve Eu- characterize both talc-tremolite-actinolite schist and
anomaly. Eu/Eu* values accordingly vary and are < 1 amphibolites. A high value of Cr (~ 2897 ppm), Ni (~
(0.74) for rocks with –ve Eu-anomaly and are > 1 (1.01– 624 ppm) and MgO (27%) and lower content of SiO2
1.29) for rocks with +ve Eu-anomaly. The higher values (<50 wt%) & K2O in talc-tremolite schist also described
of (La/Yb)N : 3.13 - 8.98 also suggest greater and as picrobasalt following TAS diagram indicate the
stronger LREE enrichment. primary nature of basaltic magma. Amphibolites are
Discussion: also characterized by Sr > Ba > Rb. A lower content of
Rb ranging from 1-7 ppm in some of these rocks
The review and interpretation of the data accrued from suggest island arc setting as 10 ppm of Rb has already
field, petrographic and chemical studies of the rocks been reported by Engel & Engel (1965) [29] from low
under reference is directed towards deciphering the – K island arc tholeiites. The spiky and irregular nature
of both MORB- and Chondrite- normalized trace Extremely limited variation in Ce/Nd ratio of immobile
element patterns for the rocks of the area with a –ve Nb- elements (1.13-1.89) may also point towards their
Ta-Ti anomaly and LILEs enrichment compared to comagmatic character and the uncontaminated nature of
HFSEs typify subduction related island arc setting the mafic suite belonging to both the areas because both
[30][1]. the elements are highly incompatible in mafic system
(Rajamani et al., 1989) [34] as tholeiitic and high MgO
Differential solubility of incompatible elements in slab
amphibolites have almost the same Ce/Nd ratios
generated hydrous fluid is thought to provide typical
spiky arc signature in normalized trace element patterns suggesting therefore that they must have evolved by
of these rocks. The MORB-normalised geochemical partial melting of the same source.
patterns provide convenient means of comparing Table3: Comparison of REE Geochemistry under
geochemical characteristics of basaltic rocks and different tectonic setting (after Shao – Cong Lai, 2007)
discriminating between the basalts erupted in different
tectonic setting (Pearce, 1983) [26]. Another distinctive
feature of these patterns is the occurrence of a –ve Nb-
Ta-Ti anomaly, perhaps, because of either depletion in
source or their retention in the refractory phase in the
mantle source to which these elements are highly
compatible during partial melting of the source. Such
characteristics develop where the composition of the
magma derived by partial melting of the mantle wedge
above the subducting slab is added with the component
rich in the more incompatible elements. The component
could be either an aqueous fluid or a water saturated
silicate melt, presumably derived from subducting
lithosphere that could metasomatise peridotitic mantle
In addition, a comparison of the REE chemistry of the
wedge. LILEs have low ionic potential and are readily
tholeiitic rocks under different tectonic settings after
dissolved and transported in aqueous fluid at high P&T
Shao-Cong Lai [35] (Tab.-3) with the studied rocks
(Tatsumi & Eggins, 1995) [31] as compared to HFSEs
w.r.t. ΣREE, LRRE/HREE, (La/Yb ) N, (Ce/Yb)N, Eu
which may be sequestered in residual hornblende in the
/Eu* ratios and the other characteristics reveals the
source (Drummond & Defant, 1990) [32].
tholeiitic nature of the amphibolitic rocks of the study
These rocks are LREE-enriched with respect to HREE area evolved under island arc set-up. Such a tectonic
aand show a trough at Yb in their REE patterns. A setting is also inferred from a number of
higher and largely varied values of (La/Sm)N > 1 (1.43- tectonomagmatic discrimination diagrams (Fig.-7 a & b)
3.21) reveals a source related LREE enriched nature of after Pearce [36] and Bhatia and Crook [37].
these rocks (Hart & Blusztajn, 2006) [33]. The total
The amphibolitic rocks of the area have thus major as
REE ranging from 13.97 to 150.54 ppm as well as the
well as trace element including REE signatures of
(La/Yb)N ratio ranging from 3.13 – 8.98 suggest a
tholeiitic basalts emplaced under island arc set-up
strongly fractionated REE pattern. (La/Ce)N > 1 (1.04-
during Proterozoic and suffered more than one period of
1.46) may depict the composition of the source. A small
deformation and metamorphism under high-grade
negative Eu-anomaly in the talc-tremolite-actinolite
amphibolite facies conditions.
schist indicates absence of plagioclase in this rock.
The spatial relation of the basaltic magmas in the island immature island arcs are generally tholeiitic whereas
arc system was discussed by Sugimura (1968) [38] and active continental margins are usually calc-alkaline
he used the index (θ = SiO2 wt% - 47 (Na2O + (Jakes & Gill, 1970) [40] (Plank & Langmuir, 1988)
K2O)/Al2O3 Mol. ratio) that varies from 44 – 41 for [41] . If they coexist in close temporal and spatial
basalts situated near the ocean sides of volcanic belt context, the latter follow with the maturity of arc
whereas it varies between 38 – 35 on the continental evolution. The protoliths of the studied amphibolites
side of the same volcanic belt. Since the average when reviewed and evaluated in the larger context of
Sugimara index for the amphibolitic rocks of the area is the geological evolution of the Eastern Indian Archaean
~ 37 of which about 40 % lies between 44 – 41 and 60 – Proterozoic system in general and Satpura orogenic
% between 38 – 35 suggest that the basin must have an belt (c.850 Ma) in particular to which the study area
intermediate position between the forearc & backarc belongs were found to have regional tectonic
system i.e., intraarc marginal position. implications. A poly- orogenic evolution of the region
Intrusive/extrusive character of these rocks can also be with several episodes of sedimentation, volcanism,
substantiated on the basis of oxidation states during tectonism, metamorphism and igneous activities is
generally agreed upon. The dichronous crustal evolution
emplacement. The averages of oxidation ratios
of the region during Archaean - Proterozoic period have
(Mol.2Fe2O3 x100/2Fe2O3+FeO) after Chinner (1960)
been demarcated into greenstone-granite terrane of the
[39] for the extrusive and intrusive rocks are 26.8 and
south and a high-grade supracrustal – Chotanagpur
16.5 respectively. The average oxidation ratio for the
amphibolitic rocks of the area is estimated as 26.46 and gneiss terrane in the north, perhaps, separated by Tamar
on this basis a sill-flow mode of emplacement for the Khatra lineament. The sedimentalogical history (2300 –
1600 Ma) of the basin that represents the North
protoliths of the amphibolitic rocks of the area may be
Singhbhum Mobile Belt is marked with large scale
accepted.
outpouring of basic volcanics forming the core of the
Tectonic Implication: mobile belt which are popularly known as Dalma
The arc volcanism is generally characterized by either volcanics and forms a landmark in the stratigraphy of
tholeiitic or calc-alkaline magmatism with overall the region as mentioned earlier.
geochemistry dependent upon location such that
The tectonic model has a bearing on the stratigraphy of (Bose,1994) [18]. This assigns the Dalma basin a
Singhbhum mobile belt north of Singhbhum Shear Zone distinctly younger tectonostratigraphic status and the
suggests that the Dalma volcano–sedimentary sequence crust below it of oceanic character. In a convergent
was laid down in a backarc basin situated over a major margin where a oceanic plate is subducting under a
subducting northern plate supporting the CGGC continental plate several backarc, intraarc and forearc
basins come into existence which differ from each other [8] Nelson, D.R., Bhattacharya, H.N., Misra, S.,
in location, status of evolution and sediment fill (Fig. Dasgupta, N., Altermann, W. (2007). New
8a). The protoliths of the studied amphibolites, as SHRIMP U-Pb zircon dates from the Singhbhum
inferred earlier is assignable to the immature and initial craton, Jharkhand-Orissa region, India. Abstract. In:
stages of the development of island arc system with no Banerjee, S. (Ed.), International Conference on
sign of volcanic eruption, complete absence of Precambrian Sedimentation and Tectonics and the
pyroclastics, the sill-flow nature of emplacement, Second GPPS Meeting. Indian Institute of
intrusive or extrusive, all suggest their deposition in a Technology, Bombay.
embryonic intraarc marginal basin which comes into [9] Reddy, S.M., Evans, D.A.D. (2009).
existence because of the diapiric rise of magma beneath Paleoproterozoic supercontinents and global
the arc creating a zone of rifting and subsidence like that evolution: correlations from core to atmosphere. In:
of Tonga-Lao & west Phillipines - Mariana regimes Reddy, S.M., Mazumder, R., Evans, D.A.D.,
(Karig,1971) [42], (Crawford et al.,1981) [43]. The Collins, A. (Eds.), Paleoproterozoic
present findings and data well support the tectonic Supercontinents and Global Evolution, vol. 323.
model envisaged by Bose [18] (Fig.-8b). The Geological Society of London Special Publication,
supracrustal belt, a part of which is under present study, pp.1-26.
is situated 150 – 200 Km north of Dalma volcanics and [10] Mazumder, R., Eriksson, P.G., De, S., Bumby, A.J.,
belong to a high grade metamorphic zone. In the paired Lenhardt, N., (2012a). Paleoproterozoic
metamorphic belt of Miyashiro (1973) [44] the high sedimentation on the Singhbhum craton: global
grade metamorphic rocks lie towards the trench side of context and comparison with Kaapvaal. In:
the ocean whereas low grade rocks are encountered Mazumder, R., Saha, D. (Eds.), Paleoproterozoic of
towards the continental side. Thus the stratigraphic India, vol. 365. Geological Society of London,
status of the mica belt supracrustal rocks becomes at Special Publication, pp. 51-76.
least older than Dalma volcanics all belonging to the http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP365.4.
Satpura orogeny because the intraarc basin evolved [11] Mazumder, R., Van Loon, A.J., Mallik, L., Reddy,
earlier than the backarc basin. However, the detailed S.M., Arima, M., Altermann, W., Eriksson, P.G.,
chronological dating of these rocks is needed to De, S. (2012b). Mesoarchaean-Paleoproterozoic
authenticate this view. stratigraphic record of the Singhbhum Crustal
Province, Eastern India: a synthesis. In: Mazumder,
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Abstract: In the food industry, the brewing sector holds a strategic economic position with the annual world beer
production. Beer is the fifth most consumed beverage in the world behind tea, carbonates, milk and coffee and it
continues to be a popular drink with an average consumption of 23 liters/person per year. The brewing industry has
an ancient tradition and is still a dynamic sector open to new developments in technology and scientific progress.
M/s. United Breweries (Formerly known as United Millennium Breweries) is a state of Art Brewery having a
licensed capacity of 12 Lakh HL per annum of Beer production. M/s. United Breweries has conducted exhaustive
survey to establish the types and amounts of polluting material in the atmosphere, effluent discharges and also by-
products out of the process at prevention of any wastage by work management and cost reduction programs, while
keeping a clear image and things transparent regarding pollution and waste from individual sources like stacks,
generators, treatment plants and its discharges.
Brewers are very concerned that the techniques they use are the best in terms of product quality and cost
effectiveness. During production, beer alternately goes through three chemical and biochemical reactions (mashing,
boiling, fermentation and maturation) and three solid liquid separations (wort separation, wort clarification and
rough beer clarification) consequently water consumption, wastewater and solid liquid separation constitute real
economic opportunities for improvements in brewing for environmental management and protection of the park.
The present study is focused on use of treated breweries effluent in agriculture to increase water use efficiency. The
study include Baseline survey of study area: Cropping pattern, Crop quality, Soil health, Irrigation sources and
quality, Groundwater quality, etc. Analysis of Physico-Chemical and Biological parameters of Soil and water.
Development and evaluation of appropriate bio-treatment for reuse of breweries’ effluent in agriculture. Laboratory
and field scale trials to evaluate impact of treated and The present study will have double folded advantages such as
understanding the extent of water pollution from brewery industries, application of treated effluent for crop
production and thereby providing proper management plan for control of water pollution and reuse of wastewater in
agriculture. Thus the proposed research has great concern in conservation of water resources.
under the water act, the air act and the Domestic 50
environmental (protection) act
Total 1230
Organizational set – up of the industry for decision
–making and environmental management with Recycling for bottle wash 240
special reference to their technical view point Total water drawn from bore
990
attitudinal view point and training, and well
Environmental policy of the company
Planning and Management of site surrounding
environment for conservation of natural resources
available.
Treatment Technologies at M/s. United Breweries for
Environmental Management and Planning:
The making process of beer in brief is as given below.
The cleaned malt is taken into a malt-weighing
hopper where the quantity of malt is weighed to the
required level.
After the malt required for one batch is taken into
the hopper, it is put in the malt mill where it is
crushed and mixed with water. This crushed malt
Fig2: shows the flow hart for “process for making
with water (called mash) is collected in Mash
beer”andTable.2 shows Water demand during different
Kettle
stages of beer production.
Maize Flakes/broken rice are paralelly cooked in
Adjunct Kettle and transferred to Mash Kettle. The Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP):
mashes along with cooked maize flakes are cooked 8
further Equali
zation
Prima
ry
Aeratio
n Tank
Second
ary
After mashing is completed, it is transferred to Tank
1000
Clarif
ier
1000
3
Clarifie
3 r
Lautertun where the extract from the mash is m
m 11.3
mtrdia
collected. The extract liquid wort is then pumped to
Wort Kettle where it is boiled @102oC. Sludge
After boiling is completed, it is transferred to less
system
whirlpool where the trub is separated by whirling of 3m
3
the wort.
Then the wort is passed through a plate heat Clarifie
Flash
Mixer &
exchanger where it is cooled to 10o C and d water
Tank
Lamella
Clarifier
transferred to the Unitanks. Yeast is pitched on line
during this transfer.
The wort thus mixed with yeast is held in the
unitank for 16 to 18 days for fermentation and
maturation.
Temperature of the product is maintained at 12 o C
during fermentation and -1o C during maturation.
The Beer after maturation is filtered, carbonated
and sent to Bright Beer Tanks. Now this beer is Fig3: Shows the ETP process
ready for bottling.
4. Zero Waste Management @ M/.s UBL:
Required water
Purpose Improved utilization of RO recycled water by 180
Quantity (KLD)
KLD.
Process (for beer preparation) 195 Reduced fresh water consumption in bottling hall
Washings (for beer preparing by shifting to recycled water.
380
tanks) Reduced effluent generation at various sources
Bottling section 470 Increased the condensate recovery by 10% and
Boiler feed 75 reduce the boiler feed water
Cooling tower (make up) 60 Reduced the water consumption for housekeeping
by using high pressure jet cleaning equipment
Collecting spent brewers grains from mashing to A Zero Waste strategy is a sound business tool that,
send to animal feed as by-product. when integrated into business processes, provides an
Avoiding discharge of hot trub into the sewer easy to understand stretch goal that can lead to
system. innovative ways to identify, prevent and reduce wastes
Collecting and reusing yeast from the fermentation of all kinds. It strongly supports sustainability by
process as a by-product. protecting the environment, reducing costs and
Recycling broken glass from returned bottles to producing additional jobs in the management and
produce new glass. handling of wastes back into the industrial cycle. A
Utilization of sludge from the brewery wastewater Zero Waste strategy may be applied to businesses,
treatment plan through its application as an communities, industrial sectors, schools and homes.
agricultural fertilizer. 9. Reference:
7. Rain Water Harvesting Pits: [1] Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is emerging as an guidelines on Waste management
important tool to generate fresh water resources as fresh (http://envfor.nic.in/)
water becomes scarce. For industries, it is twice as [2] Central Pollution Control Board http://cpcb.nic.in/
beneficial as it helps not only in generating fresh water [3] Journals of International Crop Research Institute
resources for in-house industrial and other non-potable for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICIRSAT) relevant to
applications, but also in effecting substantial savings on maize crop production
water. [4] Department of Environmental Protection, Waste,
2020 Draft Strategy, Towards zero waste by, 2020,
8. Conclusion: Australia, 2000
Currently we have a growing population faced with http://www.environ.wa.gov.au/DEP/waste2020/
limits of resources from the environment. We [5] Article on developing a holistic strategy for
understand that our society and industrial systems must integrated waste management within municipal
begin to mimic nature and move from being primarily planning: challenges, policies, solutions and
linear to being cyclical. Each material must be used as perspectives for Hellenic municipalities in the zero-
efficiently as possible and must be chosen so that it may waste, low-cost direction, Division of Business
either return safely to a cycle within the environment or Studies, Dept. of Economics.
remain viable in the industrial cycle. [6] Challenges and Opportunities in Transforming a
City into a “Zero Waste City” AtiqUzZaman* and
The vision of Zero Waste can be seen as a solution to Steffen Lehmann Zero Waste SA Research Centre
these needs and a key to our grandchildren's future. Zero for Sustainable Design and Behaviour (sd+b),
solid waste, zero hazardous waste, zero toxic emissions, School of Art, Architecture and Design, University
zero material waste, zero energy waste and zero waste of South Australia
of human resources will protect the environment and [7] Research paper on Waste management models and
lead to a much more productive, efficient, and their application to sustainable waste management
sustainable future. The use of an endpoint goal of "zero" – Mathee, IIT- Bombay
recognizes that simple making small steps without a [8] Waste to Energy: The Worldwide Market for Waste
goal may not achieve a sustainable future while use of a Incineration Plants 2010/2011; Docstoc: Santa
clear defined goal will lead to more rapid innovative Monica, CA, USA, 2010; Available from:
improvements. http://www.docstoc.com/docs/47656480/The-
Zero Waste promotes not only reuse and recycling, but Worldwide-Market-for-Waste-Incineration-Plants-
also, and more importantly, promotes prevention - 2010-2011 (accessed on 1 November 2011).
designs that consider the entire product life cycle. These [9] International; journal Research on Crops, Vol-
new designs will strive for reduced materials use, use of 14,No.3
recycled materials, use of more benign materials, longer [10] Environmental Standards and Water Quality criteria
product lives, reparability, and ease of disassembly at of National Environmental Engineering Research
end of life. Institute (NEERI).
Abstract: Nonlinear static analysis using pushover procedures are becoming increasingly common in engineering
practice for seismic evaluation of building structures. Various distributions of lateral forces are recommended in
FEMA-356 (2000) to perform a pushover analysis. However, the use of these force distributions does not adequately
represent the effects of varying dynamic characteristics during the inelastic response or the influence of higher
modes. In this paper, four lateral load patterns are evaluated by comparison of the pushover response of five and
twelve storey RCC moment frame buildings.
Keywords: Nonlinear Static analysis, Lateral Load Distributions, FEMA 356:2000.
1. Introduction
Nowadays design for seismic forces is still governed by
force-based design principles, to evaluate the inelastic
deformation demand in structural members in structural
earthquake engineering practice is to use performance-
based seismic evaluation methods A most used and
popular approach to evaluate these demands is a
“pushover” analysis in which a model of the building
structure is subjected to an inverted variant distribution
of lateral forces.
2. Non-Linear Static Analysis Fig1. The generalized force deformation relation while
exhibiting nonlinear behavior of a structural member
In this analysis, the static loads are applied in an
incremental fashion until it reaches to the ultimate state Figure 1 represents ductile behavior of a typical
of the structure. The non-linearity in the analysis comes component, characterized by an elastic range (point A to
from the various components/elements of structure are point B on the curve). Followed by a plastic range
modeled using a non-linear mathematical model. (points B to E) it includes strain hardening (points B to
C) and a strength-degraded range (points C to D) in
This section describes the main steps of this analysis in which the residual force that can be resisted is
a general manner. The employment of the non-linear significantly less than the peak strength, but still
static procedure involves four distinct phases as substantial. Acceptance criteria for primary elements,
described below and illustrated in Figures: that are required to have a ductile behavior, are typically
1. Define the mathematical model with the non-linear within the elastic or plastic ranges between points B and
force deformation relationships for the various C, depending on the performance level.
components/elements. 2.2 Typical Load Patterns
2. Define a suitable lateral load pattern.
3. Idealize the force-displacement curve. Typical lateral load patterns utilized in this analysis are
4. Evaluate the performance of the building. showed in Figure 2.These lateral loads profiles are
represents distribution of inertial forces during the an
2.1 Non-linear force deformation relationship earthquake. It can be easily understood that, due to the
changing stiffness and the different mode affects during k: a factor to account for the higher mode
the seismic event, the force distribution cannot be effects
clearly distinguished. Various patterns have been
(k=1 for T1≤0.5 sec and k=2 forT1>2.5 sec and varies
proposed by FEMA 356, right from the simple uniform
linearly in between T1 fundamental time period)
and inverted triangular patterns, to the more
sophisticated ones, like modal patterns. The patterns 3.4 'Multi-Modal (or SRSS)' Lateral Load Pattern
recommended by the FEMA 356 are referred to evaluate
The lateral load pattern considers the effects of elastic
the performance of the building.
higher modes of vibration for long period and irregular
structures and the lateral force at any storey is
calculated as Square Root of Sum of Squares (SRSS)
combinations of the load distributions obtained from the
modal analysis of the structures as follows:
1. Calculate the lateral force at i-th storey for n-th
mode from Equation (5)
(5)
Where Pn: modal participation factor for the n-th
Uniform FEMA EFM Multi Modal mode
273 (SRSS) Øin: amplitude of n-th mode at i-th storey
Fig 2. Typical Load Patterns An: pseudo-acceleration of the n-th mode
SDOF elastic system
3. Lateral Load Distribution 2. Calculate the storey shears,
In this analysis, four different lateral load patterns were
utilized to represent approximate distribution of inertia (6)
forces imposed on the structure during seismic event
and these lateral load patterns are described as follows. Where N is the total number of stories
Note that the storey forces are normalized with the base 3. Combine the modal storey shears using SRSS rule.
shear to have a total base shear equals to unity. 4. Back calculate the lateral storey forces, Fi, at storey
levels from the combined storey shears, Vi starting
3.1 'Uniform' Lateral Load Pattern from the top storey.
The lateral force at any storey is proportional to the 5. Normalize the lateral storey forces by base shear for
mass at that storey, i.e., convenience such that
(1) . (7)
Where Fi: lateral force at i-th storey The contribution of first three elastic modes of modal
mi: mass of i-th storey analysis was considered to calculate the 'Multi-Modal
(or SRSS)' lateral load pattern in this study. Elastic First
3.2 'Elastic First Mode' Lateral Load Pattern Mode', 'FEMA-273' and 'Multi-Modal (or SRSS)' lateral
The lateral force at any storey is proportional to the load patterns represents the inverted triangular lateral
product of the amplitude of the elastic first mode and load patterns. 'Uniform' lateral load patterns represent
the mass at that storey, i.e. the extreme case for invariant lateral load distribution.
Fig 5.1 Elevation of 5 storey and 12 storey RCC Figure 6.1. Push over Curve for 5 Storey R/C building
Building
Abstract: Extensible or inextensible reinforcement in reinforced soil wall is commonly aligned horizontal in the
reinforced soil applications such as reinforced soil walls, slopes, embankments and footings. The use of inclined
reinforcement in the form of grouted nails is adopted to stabilize the tunnel portals, excavations, temporary /
permanent retaining structures for road widening etc. The paper presents the formulation for use of flat unribbed and
ribbed inextensible reinforcement at a small downward inclination of 0 to 10º in reinforced soil wall. Downward
inclination of reinforcement increases the pullout resistance of reinforcement compared with that of conventional
horizontal reinforcement. Modified factor of safety against pullout of inclined reinforcement is quantified and
compared with that of conventional factor of safety against pullout of horizontal reinforcement. The variation of
modified factor of safety and its improvement over the conventional factor of safety for horizontal reinforcement is
presented with downward inclination of reinforcement. The contributions of angle of shearing resistance of backfill,
reinforcement – soil interface friction angle; number of reinforcement layers and surcharge pressure are studied.
Keywords: Unribbed, Ribbed, Inextensible, Reinforcement, Inclination.
inclined downward to the horizontal at an angle ‘ ’ is enough to mobilize the active stress conditions beyond 6
considered (Figure 2). The unit weights of retained and m from the top of the wall. In the present study the
reinforced fills are ‘’ and the angle of shearing coefficient of earth pressure is varied from at rest
resistance is ‘φ’. The interface friction angle between condition, k0 at the top half of the wall to active earth
soil and reinforcement is characterized by ‘φr’ and the pressure at 6 m from top of wall as shown in Figure 2.
spacing between reinforcement layers is ‘Sv’. The 3. Pullout of Horizontal Reinforcement
reinforced soil wall is subjected to a uniform surcharge
pressure of intensity ‘q’. The depth of ith layer of reinforcement, zi from top of
wall is
1 H
z i
i 2 n
(1)
Where H is the height of the wall and n - the number of
reinforcement layers.
Overturning moment, Momi due to retained fill acting on
the ith reinforcement layer
3 2
z z
M omi 0.5 ka i ka q i (2)
3 2
Figure1: Soil Nailing for Temporary Shoring Weight of the reinforced fill, Rvi on ith reinforcement
layer is
0.3H Uniform surcharge, q
K0 Rvi ( zi L) (q L)
(3)
Stabilizing moment, Msti acting on the ith reinforcement
Active layer is
H/2 Zone Resistant
6m M sti Rvi 0.5 L (4)
Zone
Eccentricity, ei of resultant vertical load on the ith layer
Sv is
L M sti M omi
e
i 2 R
vi (5)
H/2 L
The vertical stress, vbi obtained by considering the
overturning moment, Momi due to retained fill (after
Ka Meyerhof [8] ) is
Figure2: Inclined Reinforcement – Coherent R
vi
Gravity Method vbi L (2 e )
i(6)
The internal stability of reinforced soil with inextensible
Tension, Pai developed in the reinforcement is
reinforcement is based on Coherent Gravity method
presented by Schlosser [10] and Schlosser and Segrestin Pai k i s vi
vbi (7)
[11]. The failure mechanism in Coherent Gravity
method is simplified to bilinear failure surface passing Where ki, vbi, and svi are the coefficient of earth
through the toe of the wall and offsets to a distance of pressure, vertical stress, and spacing between the
0.3H from the face of the wall up to the mid height and reinforcement layers at the ith level respectively.
extends vertically to the top of the wall (Figure 2). The Horizontal reinforcement is subjected to a uniform
coefficient of earth pressure increases from 1.0 to 2.5 vertical stress of zi and surcharge pressure of intensity,
times the coefficient of active earth pressure at the top q. Thus the pullout resistance at depth, zi from the top of
of wall, and decreases linearly to ka at a depth of 6.0 m the wall is
from top of wall. The lateral stresses are relatively high
in the top half of the wall due to locking of compaction Ti 2 zi Lei tan r 2 q Lei tan r
(8)
stresses and the lateral restraint of inextensible
reinforcement. The lateral stresses decrease gradually as The analysis is carried out for flat unribbed and ribbed
the locked in compaction stresses are overcome by the inclined reinforcements (Figure 3). The coefficient of
overburden stress and the deformations become great interface friction equal to 0.4 remains constant along the
L
Ribbed steel strips F* = Tan r
t
Geogrids F* = 0.67 tanr
20
D 45º + φ/2
st
L0
st Figure5. Pullout Resistance for Inclined Reinforcement
Depths, z1i and z2i are evaluated corresponding to each
st
layer. The overturning moment, Momi and the vertical
load, Rvi are obtained for an average depth of
reinforcement layer, (z1i + z2i)/2 from Eqn. 2 and 3
Figure4: Variation of Pullout Friction Factor with respectively. The stabilizing moment, Meyerhof vertical
Depth of Wall (AASHTO [1]) stress and tension developed in each reinforcement layer
are obtained from Eqns. 4, 6 and 7 respectively.
The conventional factor of safety, FH, against pullout of
horizontal reinforcement is the ratio of total pullout Vertical stress acting on an infinitesimal length ‘dx’ of
resistance of reinforcement layers to the total tension inclined reinforcement at a distance, x, measured along
developed in the layers, as
The vertical force acting on an infinitesimal length ‘dx’ The improvement ratio, R, is the ratio of modified
of inclined reinforcement is factor of safety, F against pullout of inclined
Vinc z x sin q dx
i (16)
reinforcement to the conventional factor of safety, FH,
of horizontal reinforcement as
Improvement ratio, R F (24)
The vertical force, Vinc acting on the inclined F
reinforcement is resolved into normal, Vn and tangential H
components, Vt to the inclined reinforcement. The 5. Results and Discussion
normal force, Vn is
n
V ( z x sin q) cos dx
i
(17)
The following section presents the variations of the
modified factor of safety, F and the improvement ratio,
R, for a wide range of parameters. The analysis is
The tangential force, Vt is
carried out for 6 m high wall with length of
Vt z i x sin q sin dx reinforcement, L ranging from 0.5H to 0.8H. The unit
(18) weights, of reinforced and retained fill are assumed as
The increase of embedment of the reinforcement 18 kN/m3. The angle of shearing resistance of reinforced
increases the normal force, Vn, on the reinforcement and and retained fills, is assumed to be equal and varied
develops additional tangential pullout resistance, Vt. from 25º to 40º. The number of reinforcement layers, n
The increased normal force, Vn and additional tangential ranges from 4 to 8 and the interface friction angle, r
pullout resistance, Vt, increases the overall pullout varies from φ/3 to φ. The intensity of surcharge
resistance, Timp of the inclined reinforcement. pressure, q, ranges from 0 to 20 kN/m2. The rupture
strength of reinforcement and the connection strength
Timp
L
2 z i x sin q cos tan r dx are assumed to be high and the only possible mode of
LL
ei failure is pullout of reinforcement.
L
2 z i x sin q sin dx (19) The modified factor of safety, Fα of flat unribbed
LL
ei reinforcement increases from 3.19 to 4.47 i.e. by about
41% with increase of inclination of reinforcement, α
Where Lei is the effective length of inclined
from 0 to 10º for a length of reinforcement, L = 0.5H
reinforcement.
(Table 1). The increase of downward inclination of
Equation 19 is simplified to reinforcement, α increases the normal stress acting on
Timp ( z z
1i
2i
2q) cos tan r Lei the reinforcement and subsequently increases the
( z z
1i 2i
2q) sin Lei (20)
pullout resistance of reinforcement. The pullout
resistance of ribbed reinforcement further increases due
The effective length of inclined reinforcement in to passive resistance and the modified factor of safety,
coherent gravity method is constant in the upper half of Fα increases from 6.99 to 8.35 i.e. by 19% with increase
the wall but increases with depth of reinforcement in the of inclination of reinforcement, α from 0 to 10º for a
bottom half of the wall (Figure 5). length of reinforcement, L = 0.5H. The increase of
length of reinforcement increases the modified factor of
H
Lei L 0.3H sec for z i safety, Fα for flat unribbed and ribbed reinforcement.
2 (21) The improvement ratio, Rα, increases from 1.0 to 1.41
z1i zi for z H for flat unribbed reinforcement and from 1.0 to 1.21 for
Lei L
sin i 2 ribbed reinforcement with increase of inclination of
(22) reinforcement, α from 0 to 10º (Figure 6). The modified
The modified factor of safety, F against pullout of factor of safety, F increases at a similar rate of increase
inclined reinforcement is the ratio of total pullout of factor of safety for horizontal reinforcement, FH for
resistance of inclined reinforcement layers to the total different length of reinforcement. Thus the
tension developed, as improvement ratio, R is independent of length
reinforcement layer, L.
Modified factor of safety against pullout,
Modified factor of safety, Fα increases from 3.01 to 4.50
i.e. by 49% for flat unribbed reinforcement and from
7.52 to 9.15 i.e. by about 21% for ribbed reinforcement
with increase of downward inclination of reinforcement, Table2: Modified factor of safety, Fα for different
α from 0 to 10º for an angle of shearing resistance of inclination of reinforcement, α - Effect of angle of
backfill, = 25º (Table 2). The increase of angle of shearing resistance of backfill,
shearing resistance of backfill decreases the tension in
L/H = 0.6, n = 6, r =3/4, =18 kN/m3, H =
the reinforcement and increases the modified factor of
6.0m, q = 0
safety, Fα. The improvement ratio, Rα increases from 1.0
to 1.5 for flat unribbed reinforcement and from 1.0 to Flat Unribbed reinforcement
α
1.22 for ribbed reinforcement with increase of φ = 25º φ = 30º φ = 35º φ = 40º
downward inclination of reinforcement, α from 0 to 10º 0 3.01 4.58 6.81 10.02
and angle of shearing resistance of backfill, = 25º
2.5 3.40 5.07 7.43 10.83
(Figure 7). Improvement ratio, R is larger for lower
angle of shearing resistance of backfill, = 25º due to a 5 3.78 5.55 8.04 11.6
relatively smaller factor of safety for horizontal 7.5 4.15 6.01 8.62 12.34
reinforcement that is used as a reference. 10 4.50 6.46 9.18 13.04
Table1: Modified factor of safety, Fα for different Ribbed reinforcement
inclinations of reinforcement, α - Effect of length of
0 7.52 10.25 14.00 19.34
reinforcement, L
2.5 7.98 10.83 14.74 20.28
=30º, n =6, r =3/4, =18 kN/m3,
5 8.41 11.37 15.42 21.14
H = 6.0m, q = 0
Flat Unribbed reinforcement 7.5 8.8 11.87 16.05 21.93
α 10 9.15 12.32 16.62 22.65
L/H =0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0 3.19 4.58 5.94 7.29 1.50
2.5 3.53 5.07 6.59 8.08 L/H = 0.6, φ r = 3φ/4
5 3.86 5.55 7.21 8.85 n = 6, q = 0
7.5 4.17 6.01 7.82 9.59
= 25º
10 4.47 6.46 8.40 10.31 Ribbed = 40º
Ribbed reinforcement 1.25 Unribbed
Ra
Table3: Modified factor of safety, Fα for different interface friction angle, r = /3 (Figure 9).
inclination of reinforcement, α - Effect of number of Improvement ratio, R is larger for lower interface
reinforcement layers, n friction angle, r = /3 due to a relatively smaller factor
L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º, r =3/4, =18 kN/m3, H = of safety for horizontal reinforcement that is used as a
6.0m, q = 0 reference.
Flat Unribbed reinforcement Table4: Modified factor of safety, Fα for different
α inclination of reinforcement, α - Effect of interface
n =4 n =6 n =8
friction angle, r
0 3.04 4.58 6.11
2.5 3.37 5.07 6.77 L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º, n =6, =18 kN/m3, H =
6.0m, q = 0
5 3.69 5.55 7.41
Flat Unribbed reinforcement
7.5 4.00 6.01 8.03 α
r = /3 r = 2/3 r =
10 4.30 6.46 8.61
0 1.95 4.02 6.38
Ribbed reinforcement
2.5 2.44 4.52 6.88
0 6.89 10.25 13.63
5 2.92 5.00 7.36
2.5 7.27 10.83 14.4
7.5 3.39 5.46 7.81
5 7.63 11.37 15.13
10 3.86 5.91 8.24
7.5 7.96 11.87 15.79
2.00
10 8.26 12.32 16.39
L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º,
1.50 n= 6, q= 0
L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º
φ r = φ /3
φ r = 3φ/4, q = 0
Unribbed
n =4-8 1.50 φ r = 2φ /3
Ra
Ribbed
1.25
Unribbed φr = φ
Ra
1.00
0 5 10
Inclination of reinforcement, ( ) in degrees
1.00
0 5 10 Figure 9 Variation of Rα with α – Effect of r
Inclination of reinforcement, ( ) in degrees
Modified factor of safety, Fα of flat unribbed
Figure8: Variation of Rα with α – Effect of n reinforcement decreases marginally from 5.0 to 4.47
The increase of downward inclination of flat unribbed with increase of intensity of surcharge pressure, q from
reinforcement, α from 0 to 10º increases the modified 0 to 20 kN/m2 for a downward inclination, α = 5º and
factor of safety, Fα from 4.02 to 5.91 for an interface from 11.37 to 10.57 for a ribbed reinforcement (Table
friction angle, r = 2/3 (Table 4). The increase of 5). Modified factor of safety, Fα increases from 3.62 to
interface friction angle, r from /3 to increases 5.26 i.e. by about 45% with increase of downward
drastically the modified factor of safety, Fα from 2.92 to inclination of flat unribbed reinforcement, α from 0 to
7.36 for a downward inclination of reinforcement, α = 10º for an intensity of surcharge, q = 20 kN/m2 and from
9.67 to 11.31 i.e. by about 17% for ribbed
5º. The maximum modified factor of safety, F is 22.65
reinforcement. The improvement ratio, Rα increases
for ribbed inextensible reinforcement due to higher
from 1.0 to 1.45 for flat unribbed reinforcement and
interface friction coefficient of 1.8 at top of wall and 0.4
from 1.0 to 1.17 for a ribbed reinforcement with
at bottom of wall for a reinforcement inclination, =
increase of downward inclination of reinforcement, α
10. The improvement ratio, Rα increases from 1.0 to from 0 to 10º. The variation of improvement ratio, Rα
2.0 for flat unribbed reinforcement and from 1.0 to 1.29 with inclination of reinforcement, α nearly remains
for ribbed reinforcement with increase of downward same for two types of reinforcement for different
inclination of reinforcement, α from 0 to 10º for an intensity of surcharge pressure, q.
Table5: Modified factor of safety, Fα for different pullout resistance is quantified by a modified factor of
inclination of reinforcement, α - Effect of intensity of safety, F and is compared with the factor of safety
surcharge, q against pullout of horizontal reinforcement, FH. The
L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º, r =3/4, =18 kN/m3, H variations of modified factor of safety, F and
= 6.0m, q = 0 improvement ratio, R are presented for inextensible
reinforcement for flat unribbed and ribbed
Flat Unribbed reinforcement
reinforcements for inclination of reinforcement,
α q =10 q =20
q =0 ranging from 0 to 10.
kN/m2 kN/m2
0 4.02 3.79 3.62 The downward inclination of reinforcement, at =
10 increases the modified factor of safety against
2.5 4.52 4.25 4.05
pullout, F by a maximum of 45% and 20%
5 5.00 4.70 4.47 respectively for flat unribbed and ribbed
7.5 5.46 5.13 4.88 inextensible reinforcement.
10 5.91 5.54 5.26 The maximum modified factor of safety, F is
22.65 for ribbed inextensible reinforcement due to
Ribbed reinforcement
higher interface friction coefficient of 1.8 at top of
0 10.25 9.92 9.67 wall and 0.4 at bottom of wall for a reinforcement
2.5 10.83 10.44 10.14 inclination, = 10. The maximum modified factor
5 11.37 10.92 10.57 of safety, F for flat unribbed inextensible
reinforcement is 13.04 due to an interface friction
7.5 11.87 11.36 10.96
angle, φr of 30 along the height of wall.
10 12.32 11.75 11.31 The modified factor of safety against pullout, F of
1.50 inclined reinforcement increases with increase of
L/H = 0.6, φ = 30º, length of reinforcement, angle of shearing
q =0 resistance of backfill, interface friction angle and
n = 6 , φ r = 3φ/4
q = 20 kN/m2 number of reinforcement layers. The modified
Ribbed
factor of safety, F increases at a similar rate of
Unribbed increase of factor of safety for horizontal
Ra
Surface, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Vol. 18, [9] Raju P T and Venkatappa Rao G (2012), Tiered
pp. 311-331. Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls at
[4] Esfandiari J and Selamat M R (2012), Laboratory Vijayawada, India, 5th Asian Regional Conference
investigation on the effect of transverse member on on Geosynthetics, pp. 1 - 4.
pull out capacity of metal strip reinforcement in [10] Schlosser F (1978), History, current development
sand, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 35, 41–49. and future developments of reinforced earth, In:
[5] Gray D H and Ohashi H (1983), Mechanics of fiber Proceedings of the Symposium on Soil Reinforcing
reinforcement in sand, ASCE Journal of and Stabilizing Techniques, sponsored by New
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 109, pp. 335-353. South Wales Institute of Technology and the
[6] Gray D H and Al-Refai T (1986), Behavior of University of Sidney, Australia (in French).
fabric vs. fiber-reinforced sand, ASCE Journal of [11] Schlosser F and Segrestin P (1979),
Geotechnical Engineering Division, Vol. 112, pp. Dimensionnement des ouvrages en terre armée par
804–820. la méthode de l'équilibre local (local stability
[7] Kumar P V S N P and Madhav M R (2011), Pullout analysis method of design of reinforced earth
of Inclined Sheet Reinforcement in Reinforced Soil structures), International Conference on Soil
Wall, Indian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 41, pp. 95 - Reinforcement, Paris, France, vol. 1, pp. 157–162
100. (in French).
[8] Meyerhof G G (1953), The bearing capacity of [12] Shewbridge S E and Sitar N (1989), Deformation
foundations under eccentric and inclined loads, Characteristics of Reinforced Sand in Direct Shear,
Proceedings of Third International Conference on Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 115, pp.
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1134-1147.
Zurich, vol. 1, pp. 440-45.
Abstract: A desire to constantly upgrade the structural integrity and life of buildings and bridges has brought about
new developments in the area of concrete technology. The use of corrosion free basalt fiber composite rebars as
reinforcement for concrete is one such innovation. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation
that was carried out for the first time anywhere in the world to evaluate the performance of concrete beams
reinforced with basalt fiber composite rebars. The experimentally determined ultimate moment capacities of basalt
rebar reinforced concrete beams were compared with the calculated ultimate moment capacities evaluated according
to ACI-318 Building Code recommended design procedures. It was found that the actual ultimate moments of beams
reinforced with plain basalt bars were much less than the calculated ultimate moments due to bar pullout failure. The
modified basalt rebars, which were provided with slots, corrugations and anchors, did not slip and the actual
ultimate moments matched or exceeded the calculated moments. The bond strengths between the basalt rebars (plain
and modified) and concrete were also determined (ASTM C 234) and presented in this paper.
Keywords: Basalt Fiber, Basalt Rebar, Reinforced Concrete Structures, Structural Use.
The beams were tested in bending. Beams BRC-1, 2, 3 bars and the concrete. The primary task in this phase
& 5 had small amount of fibers, due to which, a ductile was to study the bond between modified basalt rebars
failure was observed. In beam BRC-4, there were no and concrete. There are several tests that can determine
fibers; hence a brittle failure was observed. All three the bond quality of the reinforcing element. One of
plain concrete beams failed instantaneously, at the these is the pullout test (Fig. 5a). In this test, the
appearance of the first crack. The failure was brittle and concrete is subjected to compression and the reinforcing
sudden, whereas all the beams reinforced with the basalt bar is subjected to tension, and both the bar and the
rebars had a gradual failure after considerable amount of surrounding concrete are subjected to the same stress.
deflection. As expected, the addition of reinforcement, The pull out test was done according to ASTM C234
either in the form of small fibers or composite basalt 91-a (1998).
rods converted the brittle failure into a ductile failure.
The actual ultimate moments were very less when
compared to the calculated ultimate moments of the
beams due to slip of the bars. But the actual cracking
moment was more than the calculated cracking moment
due to the addition of basalt fibers. Table 4 shows the
actual and calculated ultimate moments of the beams.
The results indicate slip of the reinforcing bars.
Table 4Comparison
Table4: - Comparison of
of Calculated
Calculated andand
Actual Moments
Actual of
Moments
of Beams Supplied by the Manufacturer
Beams Supplied by the Manufacturer
Beam Ultimate Actual Moments Calculated Moments
No. Load Ultimate Ultimate
(KN) (KN.m) (KN.m) Fig4: Modified Basalt Bars with Surface Modulations
and Improved Modulus of Elasticity
BRC-1 20.00 1.27 4.07
BRC-2 18.20 1.16 4.30
BRC-3 15.60 0.99 4.07
BRC-4 21.00 1.33 5.50
BRC-5 16.00 1.02 3.20
Phase III: Bond Test on Basalt Rebars and Cables
(ASTM C 234)--The results obtained from Phase I and
II revealed that the actual ultimate moments of basalt
rebar reinforced concrete beams were less than the
theoretically calculated ultimate moments. This was due
to bond failure between rebars and concrete.
To avoid this type of failure the Principal author and
Research & Technology Inc, had developed basalt
cables with corrugations, rods with slots, barriers and Fig5: (a) Bond Test on Basalt Rebars (b) Bond Failure
anchors (Fig. 4), for improving the bond between the due to Slip of Plain Basalt Rebars (c) Tensile Failure of
Modified Basalt Rebars Due to Good Bond with strength. At first a single cable was tested for the
Concrete bond strength. The single cable failed in tension and
First the plain basalt rebar reinforced specimens were there was no bond failure. The failure of the cable
was brittle in nature. Similarly two cables were
tested for the bond strength at an age of 21 days. As the
twisted together and were also tested for bond. The
load was applied the plain basalt rebars started slipping
results were similar to that of the single cable test.
and there was no bond between the reinforcement and
The cables failed due to tension and not due to lack
the concrete. It was also found that the grip of the
testing machine was slipping i.e., it was not holding the of bond. When three cables twisted together were
bar properly as the basalt fibers in the bar were crushed tested, the failure mode was the same as described
above for the single and two cables. All the
and powdered. There was also a slip in the anchoring
modified basalt rebars and cables except the plain
end leaving a scratch mark on the bar. Therefore, the
basalt bar had good bond with concrete. The failure
anchorage was done using a chuck, which held the
was due to the tensile failure of the rebars and the
specimen in its place at the anchoring end. The
specimen was then tested and the plain basalt bar cables and not due to the bond slip.
slipped and the marks on concrete were distinctly seen Phase IV: Determination of Cracking and Ultimate
on the bar (Fig. 5b). Loads for Extremely Under-Reinforced Beams --
Two extremely under reinforced beams (152.4 x 228.6 x
Then the 4-slot basalt bar was tested with both the
lower and upper horizontal position of the 1117.6 mm [6 x 9 x 44 in.], and 228.6 x 457.2 x 1320.8
reinforcement. The 4-slot basalt bar did not slip and mm [9 x 18 x 52 in.]), reinforced with modified basalt
rebars were tested to see whether adequate bond had
hence there was no bond failure. But the basalt bar
developed between the rebar and concrete. The
itself failed due to tension failure (Fig. 5c). The
reinforcement details of the beams BRC-1 and 2 are
failure was brittle. The 8-slot basalt bar also failed
in a similar manner to that of 4-slot basalt bar. The given in Table 5.
2mm (0.08 in.) cables were also tested for the bond
BRC-5 1137 (10063) 481 (4261) 765 (6772) 505 (4471) flexure by splitting into two
pieces after fracture of rebar
Primary flexural failure and
BRC-6 33184 (293663) 6475 (57300) 29685 (262701) 6199 (54855)
secondary shear failure.
Primary flexural failure and
BRC-7 38724 (342690) 6610 (58500) 32047 (283605) 6160 (54513)
secondary shear failure.
Note: In all the beams, the rebars did not slip or pull out, and there was no bond failure.
The beams were designed and cast in the lab, and are calculated cracking moment (Table 6), but
referred to as BRC-1 and BRC-2. The average cylinder ultimately the beam failed in shear. This was
compressive strength of the mix was 47 MPa (6816 psi). attributed to the fact that the beam was very deep.
The reinforcement provided for one beam was less than Even though the beam failed in shear, it took 88%
the minimum required according to ACI code 318. of the calculated ultimate moment (Table 6). The
Another beam was provided with the ACI beam did not fail due to slip of the rebar, which
recommended minimum reinforcement. Both beams indicated that there was a good bond between the 4 -
were tested in flexure after the 28-day curing period. A slot rebar and the concrete. If the beam had failed in
development length of 203.2 mm (8 in.) was provided flexure rather than in shear the beam would have
for both beams. The length between the two-point definitely carried more ultimate moment than the
loading was 304.8 mm (12 inch). Beam BRC-1 was calculated moment. The overall test results indicated
reinforced with basalt cables (3.25 mm [0.128 in. dia.]). that there was sufficient bond strength and the bars
The first crack occurred at the calculated cracking did not slip even after the ultimate load was
moment (Table 6). After first crack, the beam failed reached. The measured and calculated ultimate and
suddenly breaking into two pieces, because the beam cracking moments are compared in Table 6. The
was extremely under reinforced. The rebar broke tests indicated that it is possible to make concrete
without slipping, which indicated that there was good beams reinforced with basalt composite rebars. This
bond between the rebar and the concrete (Fig. 6). testing gave adequate information to plan for testing
other beams.
Phase V: To Determine Cracking And Ultimate
Loads For Five Under-Reinforced Beams -- A total of
five beams of dimensions, 127 x 203.2 x 1346.2 mm (5
x 8 x 53 in.), 127 x 203.2 x 1625.6 mm (5 x 8 x 64 in.),
76.2 x 101.6 x 1143 mm (3x 4 x 45 in.), 152.4 x 254 x
1320.8 mm (6x 10 x 52 in.) [Fe-Mn-Ni anchors], and
152.4 x 254 x 1320.8 mm (6 x 10 x 52 in) [Ti-Ni
anchors], reinforced with basalt rebars were tested.
Fig6: Flexure Test - Beam developed multiple cracks
Research & Technology Corp supplied the rebars and
and the modified rebars broke eventually without
the five beams were designed and cast in the Rama
slipping indicating good bond between modified basalt
Materials Laboratory at SDSM&T. The beams referred
rebars and concrete
to as BRC-3 to BRC-7 in the discussion, were designed
Beam BRC-2 was under reinforced with the according to ACI-318 Building Code recommended
minimum ACI 318 recommended reinforcement. design procedures. The reinforcement details of the
The beam first had a flexural crack at 85% of the beams BRC-3 to 7 are given in Table 5. All the beams
were designed as under-reinforced beams with the Beam BRC-6 was made with two basalt rods of
normal range used in construction. The average cylinder 1219.2 mm (48 in.) length and 9.65 mm (0.38 in.)
compressive strength of the concrete was 34.2 MPa diameter (Table 5). The beam was lightly under-
(4959 psi). All beams were tested in flexure after a 28- reinforced. The rods were supplied by the
day curing period. A development length of 203.2 mm manufacturer and were provided with 1 Fe-Mn-Ni
(8 in.) was provided for all beams. The distance anchors (smart alloys) on each end of the bar to
between the two-point loading was 152.4 mm (6 in.) for prevent slip. The actual cracking moment exceeded
all beams. the calculated moment by 4.5% (Table 6). After
Beam BRC-3 was designed as a lightly under first crack the beam took 5.1 times more moment
than the cracking moment (Table 6) indicating very
reinforced beam with one corrugated basalt rod 8.6
good bond strength between the rebar and the
mm (0.34 in. dia). The first crack occurred at 95%
concrete. The beam took 12% more than the
of the calculated cracking moment (Table 6). After
calculated ultimate moment (Table 6). The beam
first crack the beam took 2.7 times more moment
than the cracking moment (Table 6) indicating very failed primarily in flexure and secondarily in shear.
good bond strength between the rebar and the Overall the performance of the beam was very good
and the rods did not slip even at failure because of
concrete. The beam failed at 98% of the calculated
the anchors provided at the ends.
ultimate moment (Table 6). The beam failed
primarily in flexure and secondarily in shear. Beam BRC-7 was made with two basalt rods of
Beam BRC-4 was also under reinforced. Two cables 1219.2 mm (48 in.) length and 10.1 mm (0.399 in.)
diameter (Table 5). The beam was lightly under-
of 1524 mm (60 in.) length and 8 mm (0.315 in.)
reinforced. The rods were supplied by the
diameter were used as rebars. These cables were
manufacturer and were provided with 2 Ti-Ni
made in the laboratory by twisting three individual
basalt wires into one. The beam first had a flexural (50/50) anchors (smart alloys) at each end of the bar
crack at 76% of the calculated cracking moment to prevent slip. A strain gauge was placed on the
compression side of the beam, and another strain
(Table 6). After first crack the beam took 4.9 times
gauge was also placed on the rebar in the slot to
more moment than the cracking moment (Table 6)
measure the strain in the rebar. The actual cracking
indicating very good bond strength between the
moment exceeded the calculated moment by 7%
rebar and the concrete. The beam failed at 97% of
the calculated ultimate moment (Table 6). The beam (Table 6). After the first crack the beam took 5.9
failed purely in flexure. Overall the performance of times more moment than the cracking moment
(Table 6) indicating very good bond strength
the beam was good and the wires split partially at
between the rebar and the concrete. The beam took
failure indicating good bond strength. The cables
21% more than the calculated ultimate moment
did not slip even after the ultimate load was
(Table 6). Of all the beams, this beam performed
reached.
very well basically because of the anchors and the
Beam BRC-5 was made of three basalt cables of slots that were provided on the rebar. The beam
1041.4 mm (41 in.) length and 3.45 mm (0.136 in.) failed primarily in flexure and secondarily in shear.
diameter (Table 5). The beam was under-reinforced. Overall the performance of the beam was very good
The cables were supplied by the manufacturer, because of the anchors at the ends. The rods did not
unlike the one used in beam BRC-4 which was made slip even after the ultimate load was reached. A
in the laboratory. The beam first had a flexural typical load vs. deflection, load vs. concrete strain
crack at 95% of the calculated cracking moment and load vs. basalt rebar strain for beams reinforced
(Table 6). After first crack the beam took 2.4 times with modified basalt rebars are shown in Figures 8,
more moment (less than the other beams because it 9 and 10 respectively.
was under-reinforced, and the tensile strength of the 80
bar was also less) than the cracking moment (Table 70 (Beam Size = (304.8mm x 304.8mm x 1295.4mm)
(Diameter of Bar = 14.2mm)
6) indicating very good bond strength between the 60
Load (KN)
50
rebar and the concrete. The beam took 49% more
40
than the calculated ultimate moment (Table 6). The 30
beam failed primarily in flexure and secondarily in 20
shear. Overall the performance of the beam was 10
center of the beam between the concrete and the modified basalt rebars and
120
100
twisted cables. In general, the basalt rebars are suitable
80 for use in reinforced concrete structures.
60 5. Acknowledgements
40
20 First crack of The authors wish to thank Dr. Thirumalai, program
concrete
0 director of the IDEA program of the TRB of the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 National Research Council for sponsoring the basalt
fiber reinforced concrete research. The authors
Deflection (mm)
gratefully acknowledge the help, encouragement and
Fig. 8 A typical load-deflection curve of a modified advice received from Dr. Brik of Research &
basalt rebar reinforced concrete beam Technology Inc., and Dr. Inam Jawed of the IDEA
program.
200
Strain gauge located at 444.5 mm from one 200
180
end of the beam, and on the slot of the 180
160 rebar 160
140
140
Load (KN)
Load (KN)
120 120
100 Strain gauge located at 6.35 mm from the
100 top (compression side) at the center of
80 80 the beam
60 60
40 40
20 First crack of First crack of
20
concrete concrete
0 0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Tensile Micro Strain Compressive Micro Strain
Fig. 9 A typical load Vs. concrete strain curve of a Fig10: A typical load Vs. modified basalt rebar strain
modified basalt rebar reinforced concrete beam curve of a modified basalt rebar reinforced concrete
4. Conclusions beam
[5] ASTM C234-91a (1998), “Standard Test Method for Concrete Structures”, ACI Report 440 R-96
for Comparing Concretes on the Basis of the Bond American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 1-65.
Developed with Reinforcing Steel”, American [8] Brik, V., Ramakrishnan, V., and Panchalan,
Society of Testing of Materials. Ramesh, (2002), “Advanced Concept Concrete
[6] ACI Committee 440 (2001), “Guide for the Design Using Basalt Fiber/BF Composite Rebar
and Construction of Concrete Reinforced with FRP Reinforcement”, IDEA Program, Transportation
Bars”, ACI Report 440.1R-01 American Concrete Research Board, National Research Council, USA,
Institute, Detroit, pp. 1-41. Final Report, Contract No. NCHRP-86.
[7] ACI Committee 440 (1996), “State-of-the-Art
Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement
Abstract: This presents the investigation of the durability of basalt fibres following immersion in a range of
chemical solutions representative of the concrete medium. The tests were conducted over a 62 day period and the
solutions were sodium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium sulphate and combinations of the three. Weight loss was
observed in all alkali solutions with the worst being the combination of the sodium hydroxide with the sodium
sulphate. The impact of chloride was minimal in the alkaline environment and reduced the impact of the sulphate
when both were present. From microstructure analysis undertaken using SEM/EDX it was found that the silica
structure present in basalt fibers was degraded by the OH- from the alkali medium. The study suggests the need for
the modification or treatment of basalt fibers before using as fibre reinforcement in concrete.
Keywords: Basalt fiber, Chemical, Durability, Concrete, EDS and SEM.
was measured at fixed intervals at 3, 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 determine the chemical composition after and before the
and 62 days. The pH of the solutions was also measured treatment, the condition of the fibers and the presence of
at each time interval. The BF measurements were taken any precipitates on the fibers.
by washing the specimens with distilled water and
Results & Discussion
placing them in an oven for 24 hrs at 105 oC to obtain a
dry mass at each time interval. A photographic record of Experimental Results & Analysis
the fibres and the solution was also made at each point The mass of BF with time in each solution is shown in
and also the volume of the remaining solution. Table 5 and Figure 2. The % weight lost and pH at the
Prior to the conclusion of the experiment, the specimens conclusion of the tests is given in Table 6.
were also analysed using SEM and EDX techniques to
Table5: Weight variation (in grams) results obtained from the experiment during 62 days
BF in BF in BF in BF in NaOH + BF in NaOH + BF in NaOH +
NaCl Na2SO4 NaOH NaCl Na2SO4 NaCl + Na2SO4
Day 0 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00
Day 3 45.96 46.05 45.65 45.50 46.40 46.80
Day 7 45.49 45.55 44.50 44.65 43.30 44.80
Day 15 44.66 44.70 41.85 41.60 39.10 38.95
Day 21 44.76 44.80 39.80 40.25 35.80 36.85
Day 28 44.39 44.45 37.50 38.80 30.65 34.45
Day 42 44.22 44.35 35.90 36.70 14.90 30.25
Day 62 44.13 44.15 31.85 32.50 3.90 27.00
Fig2: Weight loss of the BF immersed in different solutions Vs time over a period of 62 days
Table6: Summary of weight loss and pH at day 62
NaOH NaOH + NaOH + NaCl +
Solution NaCl Na2SO4 NaOH
+ NaCl Na2SO4 Na2SO4
Initial Volumes of the solutions
500 500 500 500 500 500
(ml)
Initial weight of BF (gms) 45 45 45 45 45 45
Original pH of the solution 9.22 9.22 12.22 12.8 12.90 13.35
pH after 62 days 8.33 8.19 12.55 12.68 12.93 12.83
Volume of the Solution Left
300 300 0 0 0 0
(ml)
Weight of BF after 62 days 44.13 44.15 31.85 29.35 4.55 28
% of Weight Loss of BF after
1.89 1.87 29.2 34.7 90 37.8
62 days
Visual Analysis More than 50% volume was lost at the end of 21
days and there was no solution left at the end of 62
BF treated with NaCl: No surface damage was
days, Fig 4-e (21 days). There was slight increase
observed, the condition of the fibers at the
of pH from 12.90 to 12.93, table 6.
conclusion of the test appeared the same as the
original BF, Fig 3-a. The data shows a small
increase in mass for the solution at day 3 and at day
7, table 5. At the conclusion of the test there was
only a 1.89 % variation in the initial and final
weight, table 6. In addition, the colour as well as
the volume had not changed significantly, Fig 4-a
(21 days) and table 6. The pH had decreased from (a) (b) (c)
9.22 to 8.33 over the course of the trial.
BF treated with Na2SO4: Similar to the NaCl
exposure no surface damage was observed and the
fibres appeared the same as the original BF, Fig 3-
b. Again a small increase in mass and white traces
of powder on the dried fibres was noted at day 3
and at day 7 but at the conclusion of the test only a (d) (e) (f)
1.87 % change in the actual weight was recorded, Fig. 3 BF after 62 days of treatment with a) 3% NaCl
table 6. In addition, the colour as well as the (b) 10 % Na2SO4 (c) 1 M NaOH d) 1M NaOH + 3%
volume of the Na2SO4 solution had not changed NaCl e) 1M NaOH +10%Na2SO4 (f) 1 M NaOH+10%
significantly, Fig 4-b (21 days) and table 6. A Na2SO4+3 %NaCl
decrease in pH was also noted from 9.22 to 8.19. BF treated with NaOH+NaCl+Na2SO4: Severe
BF treated with NaOH: Severe damage of the damage of fibres was observed, and the fibres had
fibres was observed, the fibres had lost all of their lost all of their original characteristics such as
original characteristics such as colour and texture colour and texture. Again the fibres had broken and
and each fibre had broken and split into many thin split into many thin strands, Fig 3-f. The weight
strands, Fig 3-c. The weight loss observed was loss observed was approximately 38% at the end of
approximately 29% at the end of 62 days. In 62 days. The solution became turbid with time and
addition, the solution became turbid with time and there was almost 50% volume reduction at the end
there was almost 50% volume reduction in the of 21 days and there was no solution left at the end
solution at the end of 21 days and there was no of 62 days, Fig 4-f (21 days) and table 6. The pH
solution left at the end of the 62 days, Fig 4-c(21 dropped from 13.35 to 12.83, table 6.
days). There was an increase of pH from 12.22 to
12.55 by 62 days, table 6. SEM/EDX Analysis
BF treated with NaOH+NaCl: Similar to the fibre The basalt fibers were examined using SEM and EDX
treated with NaOH, severe damage of fibres was analysis to determine changes in the morphology and
observed. Again the fibres had lost their entire composition with time. An analysis was conducted on
original colour and texture and each fibre had untreated fibers at day 0 and on fibers from each
broken and split into many thin strands. Fig 3-d. solution at the conclusion of the trial. The SEM images
The weight loss observed was approximately 35 % on day 62 and % chemical compositions of each
at the end of 62 days. The solution had again specimen are given in Fig 5 and table 7.
become turbid with time and the volume of the
BF treated with NaCl: Small white spots were
alkali solutions were reduced such that there was
found on the fibre surface, Fig 5-a, but no
almost 50% volume reduction in the solutions at the
degradation of the surface was observed. No
end of 21 days and there was no solution left at the
significant difference in the elemental composition
end of 62 days, Fig 4-d (21 days) and table 6.
over the course of the experiment was observed,
BF treated with NaOH+Na2SO4: Complete
table 7, expect a small increase in Na content,
dissolution of the fibres was observed. Not only had
attributed to NaCl deposition on the fibres.
the fibres lost all of their original colour and
BF treated with Na2SO4: As with the visual
texture, but most of the fibres had become powder,
observations the SEM/EDX analysis showed almost
Fig 3-e. The weight loss observed was around 90%
identical results to those for the chloride solution,
at the end of 62 days. The solution became more
Fig 5-b. The only variation being a small increase
turbid than the rest and the volume was reduced.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4 Solutions left after 21days of immersion of BF
with a) 3% NaCl (b) 10 %Na2SO4(c) 1 M NaOH d) 1M
NaOH + 3% NaCl e) 1M NaOH +10%Na2SO4 (f) 1 M
NaOH+10% Na2SO4+ 3 %NaCl
(c)
(c)
(d)
(e) (d)
Fig. 7 SEM images of BF after 62 days treatment with
a) at point 1 of SEM image of BF NaCl + NaOH (b) at
point 2 of NaCl + NaOH (c) at point 1 of 3% NaC l+
1M NaOH + 10%Na2SO4 (d) at point 2 of 1 M NaOH +
10%Na2SO4 + 3%NaCl
Table 7 Surface concentrations of elements of treated
BF (wt%)
NaOH + NaCl
NaOH + NaCl
(f) + Na2SO4
Fig. 6 EDX analysis of BF after 62 days treatment in a) BF Cl OH Cl OH
3% NaCl (b) 10 % Na2SO4 (c) 1 M NaOH d) 1M NaOH O 36.31 15.311 42.16 24.530 45.926
+ 3% NaCl e) 1M NaOH +10%Na2SO4 (f) 1 M
NaOH+10% Na2SO4+ 3 %NaCl Na 1.36 21.199 3.17 15.910 4.372
Mg 2.68 1.243 2.23 1.610 2.528
Al 10.26 5.203 7.72 5.370 8.632
Si 32.87 16.076 22.84 13.850 22.178
K 1.70 1.031 1.29 0.900 1.082
Ca 6.56 4.145 7.69 2.940 4.372
Ti 0.90 0.644 0.79 0.850 1.204
Fe 7.12 4.794 6.90 4.780 7.844
Cl - 30.075 0.49 28.510 0.898
(a) S 0.280 0.33 0.730 0.958
Table 8 Surface concentrations of elements of treated
BF (wt%) at deposition and at no deposition in NaOH +
NaCl & NaOH + NaCl + Na2SO4
NaOH + NaCl
NaOH + NaCl
+ Na2SO4
BF Cl OH Cl OH
O 36.31 15.311 42.16 24.530 45.926
(b) Na 1.36 21.199 3.17 15.910 4.372
Mg 2.68 1.243 2.23 1.610 2.528
Al 10.26 5.203 7.72 5.370 8.632 The result of the dissolution is the degradation of the
fibres, the solution becoming turbid due to the metal
Si 32.87 16.076 22.84 13.850 22.178
ions dissolving and the loss of the solution due to the
K 1.70 1.031 1.29 0.900 1.082 reaction with the fibres and especially dissolution of Fe
Ca 6.56 4.145 7.69 2.940 4.372 ions [10,13] The addition of NaCl to the NaOH resulted
Ti 0.90 0.644 0.79 0.850 1.204 in similar observations to the NaOH solution. However,
when Na2SO4 is added to the NaOH the degradation of
Fe 7.12 4.794 6.90 4.780 7.844 the fibres has increased, such that the fibres are reduced
Cl - 30.075 0.49 28.510 0.898 to powder by the conclusion of the trial. It is
S 0.280 0.33 0.730 0.958 hypothesised that this is due to the sulphate ions
increasing the pH of the solution due to the hydration
2. Discussion reaction.
The results show that little to no degradation occurs on SO42-+ H2O <----> HSO4- + OH- (Hence release of more
the BF exposed to just the NaCl or the Na2SO4, small OH- ions)
deposits of the chloride and sulphate salts were
observed on the fibres. The slight reduction in volume [1] This is reflected by a lower pH in the NaOH +
of solution is attributed to the hydration of fibres but Na2SO4 solution compared to the NaOH or NaOH +
this hydration did not affect the Si structure, as there are NaCl solutions. Interestingly when both the chloride and
no hydroxyl ions to break the Si-O bond. The lack of sulphate ions are present with the NaOH the degradation
degradation of the fibre structure is also confirmed by observed is similar to the NaOH and NaOH + NaCl
the clean colour of the solution at the conclusion of the solutions. This is attributed to the chloride ions
tests. The decrease in pH is a function of the dissolution suppressing the production of hydroxyl ions by the
of the NaCl and Na2SO4 salts coupled with carbonation hydrolysis of the Na2SO4 salt. This is supported by the
of the solution in the atmosphere. All the fibres which pH in the NaOH + NaCl + Na2SO4 solution being lower
were exposed to the alkaline (NaOH) solution have than the NaOH + Na2SO4 solution.
shown degradation. This degradation is caused by the 3. Conclusion
hydroxyl ions forming weak bonds with silicon atoms
Neither chloride ions nor sulphate ions alone have any
on the substrate surface causing the original lattice
deleterious effect on the BF however, in an alkaline
bonds to weaken. The surface of silica is hydrophilic
environment equivalent to a pH 12.5 severe degradation
and will attract OH− ions to fill any open bonds from the
is observed. The degradation is increased in an alkaline
silica (hydration)[12], Fig 8.
environment by the presence of sulphate ions. The
presence of chloride ions has little effect on the
degradation in alkaline solutions, but does slightly
reduce the effect when both chloride and sulphate ions
are present.
The data indicates that the use of BF in concrete as fibre
reinforcement is susceptible to degradation due to the
alkaline nature of the concrete. Hence modification or
treatment of basalt fibres before using in concrete is
recommended.
Fig. 8 A simplified, 2D schematic of the surface of silica
when hydrated 4. Acknowledgements
It then becomes possible for the silicate molecules to The authors would like to acknowledge Mr Pavel
break away from the bulk structure, producing Si(OH) −5 Ryjkov and other technical staff of concrete laboratory
molecules in solution, Fig 9[12]. of RMIT University for their support in conducting the
experiments. The SEM and EDX analysis was carried
out with the assistance of the RMIT Microscopy and
Microanalysis Facility (RMMF) at RMIT University.
Also, would like to acknowledge the Kemenny Vek Ltd,
Dubna, Moscow region, Russia for providing basalt
fibres for the present research.
Reference
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[7] Wang Mingchao., "Chemical Durability and London alks ... M1- eid.ppt.
Mechanical Properties of Alkali-proof Basalt Fiber [13] Bin Wei, Hailin Cao and Shenhua Song (2010).
and its," Beijing, 2008. "Degradation of basalt fiber and glass/epoxy resin
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Ageing of Basalt Fiber Reinforced Epoxy
Abstract: Considerable literature is available on geopolymer concrete. The paper presents a brief background, the
constituents, and the mixture proportions of geopolymer concrete. Several applications of geopolymer concrete are
given.
Geopolymer concrete can be manufactured by using the As in the case of Portland cement concrete, the coarse
low-calcium (ASTM Class F) fly ash obtained from and fine aggregates occupy about 75 to 80% of the mass
coal-burning power stations. The chemical composition of geopolymer concrete. This component of geopolymer
and the particle size distribution of the fly ash must be concrete mixtures can be designed using the tools
established prior to use. An X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) currently available for Portland cement concrete. The
analysis may be used to determine the chemical aggregates must be prepared to be in saturated-surface-
composition of the fly ash. dry (SSD) condition, a state in which the aggregates will
Low-calcium fly ash has been successfully used to not absorb any further moisture but no surface water is
manufacture geopolymer concrete when the silicon and present. In geopolymer concrete, the necessity for SSD
is to eliminate the absorption of the alkaline solution by
aluminum oxides constituted about 80% by mass, with
the aggregates thus reducing the polymerization of the
the Si-to-Al ratio of about 2. The particle size
fly ash. Conversely the presence of excessive water may
distribution tests revealed that 80% of the fly ash
compromise the properties of the geopolymer concrete.
particles were smaller than 50 m (Gourley, 2003;
Gourley and Johnson, 2005; Hardjito and Rangan, 2005; Design of Geopolymer Concrete
Wallah and Rangan, 2006; Sumajouw and Rangan, The role and the influence of aggregates are considered
2006). to be the same as in the case of Portland cement
Coarse and fine aggregates used by the concrete concrete. The mass of combined aggregates may be
industry are suitable to manufacture geopolymer taken to be between 75% and 80% of the mass of
concrete. The aggregate grading curves currently used geopolymer concrete. The performance criteria of a
in concrete practice are applicable in the case of geopolymer concrete mixture depend on the application.
geopolymer concrete (Hardjito and Rangan, 2005; In order to meet the performance criteria, the alkaline
Wallah and Rangan, 2006; Sumajouw and Rangan, liquid-to-fly ash ratio by mass, the wet-mixing time, the
2006; Gourey, 2003; Gourley and Johnson, 2005; heat-curing temperature, and the heat-curing time may
Siddiqui, 2007, Sarker, 2007, Chang et al 2009). be selected as parameters.
A combination of sodium silicate solution and sodium With regard to alkaline liquid-to-fly ash ratio by mass,
hydroxide (NaOH) solution can be used as the alkaline values in the range of 0.30 and 0.45 are recommended.
liquid. It is recommended that the alkaline liquid is Sodium silicate solution is cheaper than sodium
prepared by mixing both the solutions together at least hydroxide solids.
24 hours prior to use. The sodium silicate solution is Geopolymer concrete can be manufactured by using
commercially available in different grades. The sodium only sodium (or potassium) silicate solution. The
hydroxide with 97-98% purity, in flake or pellet form, is following can be used as a base trial mixture; the mass
commercially available. The solids must be dissolved in of constituents are given for one cubic metre of
water to make a solution with the required geopolymer concrete: Low-calcium Fly Ash = 385 kg;
concentration. The concentration of sodium hydroxide Blast-furnace slag = 85 kg; Sodium silicate solution =
solution can vary in the range between 8 Molar and 16 110 kg; Water = 45 kg; Coarse Aggregates: 20 mm =
Molar; however, 8 Molar solution is adequate for most 280 kg, 14 mm = 370 kg, 7 mm = 650 kg; Fine sand =
applications. Note that the mass of water is the major 550 kg.This base trial mixture is rich and stiff, and can
component in both the alkaline solutions. be modified to suit the required design requirements and
In order to accelerate the setting time of fresh the local materials.The expected 28-day compressive
geopolymer concrete and to facilitate room-temperature strength may be in the range of 30 to 40 MPa.
curing, a small proportion of calcium-rich source The geopolymer concrete can be cured at room
material such as slag may be added to the mixture. temperature (21 degree C) or at ambient temperature in
When required, a high range water reducer super tropical climate (30-40 degree C). For precast concrete
plasticizer and extra water may also be added to the products, heat-curing at 60-80 degree C is suitable.
mixture.
It is important to know both the short-term and the long-
Mixture Proportions of Geopolymer Concrete term properties of geopolymer concrete.
The primary difference between geopolymer concrete Geopolymer Precast Concrete Products
and Portland cement concrete is the binder. The silicon
and aluminum oxides in the low-calcium fly ash reacts High-early strength gain is a characteristic of
with the alkaline liquid to form the geopolymer paste geopolymer concrete when dry-heat or steam cured,
that binds the loose coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, although ambient temperature curing is possible for
and other un-reacted materials together to form the geopolymer concrete. It has been used to produce
geopolymer concrete. precast railway sleepers, sewer pipes, and other
University of Queensland‟s Global Change Institute [4] Berndt, Marita L., Sanjayan, Jay, Foster, Stephen,
building in Australia, as shown in Figure 2. Some Sagoe- Crentsil, Kwesi, and Heidrich, Craig (2013),
details are reported in Architecture &Design News “Overcoming barriers to implementation of
(2013). The geopolymer concrete mixture comprised geopolymer concrete” Concrete in Australia,
both fly ash and ground blast furnace slag as the source Vol.39, No.3, pp.2733.
materials. The geopolymer floor panels experienced low [5] Chang, E. H. , Sarker, P, Lloyd, N and Rangan,
shrinkage, low heat of reaction which avoids the B.V. (2007), “Shear behaviour of reinforced fly
possibility of thermal cracking, 30 per cent higher ash-based geopolymer concrete beams”,
flexural tensile strength, and higher durability than Proceedings of the23rd Biennial Conference of the
similar Portland cement concrete. Concrete Institute of Australia, Adelaide, Australia,
pp. 679 – 688.
[6] Cheema, D.S., Lloyd, N.A., Rangan, B.V. (2009),
“Durability of Geopolymer Concrete Box Culverts-
A Green Alternative”, Proceedings of the 34th
Conference on Our World in Concrete and
Structures, Singapore.
[7] Concrete Institute of Australia (2011),
“Recommended Practice Note on Geopolymer
Concrete”.
[8] [8] Davidovits, J (1988) “Soft Mineralogy and
Geopolymers”, Proceedings of the of Geopolymer
Fig2: Precast Geopolymer Floor Beams (Architecture 88 International Conference, the Université de
&Design News 2013) Technologie, Compiègne, France.
[9] Davidovits, J (1994) “High-Alkali Cements for 21st
Andrews-Phaedonos and Ahmad Shayan (2012, 2013)
Century Concretes. In Concrete Technology, Past.
presented several trial applications of geopolymer
[10] Present and Future”, Proceedings of V. Mohan
concrete by VicRoads Australia; these include
Malhotra Symposium, Editor: P. Kumar Metha,
geoplymer precast footway panels and insitu
ACI SP- 144, 383-397.
geopolymer concrete landscape retaining walls. Other
[11] Gourley, J. T. (2003), “Geopolymers; Opportunities
applications and use of geopolymer concrete are
for Environmentally Friendly Construction
contained in the Recommended Practice Note on
Materials”, Paper presented at the Materials 2003
Geopolymer Concrete published by the Concrete
Conference: Adaptive Materials for a Modern
Institute of Australia (2011). Recently, Berndt et al
Society, Sydney.
(2013) commented that geopolymer concrete is ready
[12] Gourley, J. T., & Johnson, G. B. (2005),
for applications in precast industry and in the
“Developments in Geopolymer Precast Concrete”,
manufacture of non-structural elements.
Paper presented at the International Workshop on
3. Concluding Remarks Geopolymers and Geopolymer Concrete, Perth,
The paper briefly presented some background Australia.
information on geopolymer concrete. Based on the [13] Hardjito, D. and Rangan, B. V. (2005),
behavior and properties of geopolymer concrete Development and Properties of Low-Calcium Fly
available in the literature, it is clear that geopolymers Ash-based Geopolymer Concrete, Research Report
have a wide variety of applications in infra-structure GC1, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of
developments. Some applications have been described Technology, Perth, available at espace@curtin or
in the paper. www.geopolymer.org.
[14] Rangan, B.V. (2008) “Low-Calcium Fly Ash-based
Reference Geopolymer Concrete”, Chapter 26 in Concrete
[1] Ahmad Shayan, Amin Xu, Andrews-Phaedonos, F. Construction Engineering Handbook, Editor-in
(2013), “Field applications of geopolymer concrete: Chief: E.G. Nawy, Second Edition, CRC Press,
a measure towards reducing carbon dioxide New York.
emission “Concrete in Australia, Vol.39, No.3, [15] Rangan, B.V. (2009), “Engineering Properties of
pp.34-44. Geopolymer Concrete”, Chapter 11 in
[2] Andrews-Phaedonos, F. (2012), “Reducing the Geopolymers: Structures, Processing, Properties,
carbon footprint-The Vic Roads experience”, and Applications, Editors: J.Provis and J. van
Concrete in Australia, Vol. 38, No.1, pp.40-48. Deventer, Woodhead Publishing Limited, London.
[3] Architecture & Design News (2013) 13 September. [16] Sarker P.K., Grigg A, and Chang E.H. (2007),
“Bond Strength of Geopolymer Concrete with
Reinforcing Steel”, Proceedings of Recent Reinforced Beams and Columns, Research Report
Developments in Structural Engineering, GC3, Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of
Mechanics and Computation, CD ROM, Editor: A. Technology, Perth, available at espace@curtin or
Zingoni, Millpress, the Netherlands, 1315-1320. www.geopolymer.org.
[17] Siddiqui, K.S. (2007),”Strength and Durability of [19] Wallah, S.E. and Rangan, B.V. (2006), Low-
Low-Calcium Fly Ash-based Geopolymer Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete:
Concrete”, Final Year Honours Dissertation, The Long-Term Properties, Research Report GC2,
University of Western Australia, Perth. Faculty of Engineering, Curtin University of
[18] Sumajouw, M.D.J. and Rangan, B.V. (2006), Low- Technology, Perth, available at espace@curtin or
Calcium Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete: www.geopolymer.org.
Abstract: The February 2007 report issued by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated in no
uncertain terms that global warming is no longer an issue that has to be debated. According to the report, global
warming is here and drastic actions are needed for the long-term sustainability of our environment. It is in this
context that this paper discusses the role supplementary cementing materials as partial replacement of cement in
concrete in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Primary emphasis is on the use of high volumes of fly ash in
concrete because this is available in huge quantities worldwide, and this vast supply will continue to be available at
least up to 2050. Other supplementary cementing materials discussed include granulated blast-furnace slag and rice-
husk ash. The paper is concluded by referring to the tradable emission rights, and the role of developing countries
as regards to CO2 emissions and sustainability.
electric power generation from what is being generated cement, fly ash and other cementitious and pozzolanic
today, resulting in an increase in fly ash availability to materials. It is evident from Table 3 that fly ash is and
about 160 million tonnes annually. In that year, the will remain the major supplementary cementing
portland cement production is expected to reach 150 material for years to come. It is therefore important that
million tonnes. Table 3 presents current production and we concentrate our major efforts for the increased use of
anticipated production for the world for portland fly ash in concrete.
Table2: Regional and World Cement Production to Year 2010* (Million tonnes)
% of total % of total
1995 2000 2005 2010
1995 2010
European Union 168.1 187.9 194.1 189.3 12.1 9.4
Other parts of
65.8 80.0 90.2 94.7 4.7 4.9
Europe
Former Soviet
58.1 80.3 110.1 128.2 4.2 6.6
Union
North America 92.9 94.9 94.8 94.7 6.6 4.9
Central and South
89.4 106.6 127.4 145.0 6.4 7.5
America
Africa 64.8 74.3 80.7 85.5 4.6 4.4
Middle East 63.5 75.6 76.9 73.4 4.6 3.8
East Asia 623.4 732.7 798.8 844.3 44.6 43.4
S/SE Asia 161.2 219.1 255.0 279.2 11.6 14.4
Oceania 8.0 10.6 11.1 11.8 0.6 0.6
World Totals 1396 1662 1839 1946 100 100
*From: World Cement Annual Review, World Cement, Vol. 28, No. 7, July 1997, pp. 3-60.
Note: Recent published data indicate that the North American production had already exceeded 120 million tonnes
in year 2002, and will reach 130 million tonnes in year 2010.
Table3: World-wide Production (millions of tonnes) total CO2 emissions in China will exceed that of the
U.S.A. (Fig. 3).
Cement Fly Ash Others*
Current China
1600 900 20
Production
United States
Anticipated
3000 2000 >100
Year 2020 EU-15
Former
* Slag, silica fume, natural pozzolans, rice-husk ash, Sovier Union
metakaolin 2000
India
2025 (projected)
Unfortunately, the much needed industrial
Brazil
developments in China and India are affecting adversely
the environment in two ways. The installation of new 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
cement plants is increasing substantially the CO2
emissions, and the construction of very large capacity Fig3: Greenhouse-gas emissions, billion tonnes of
thermal power stations is resulting in huge amounts of carbon equivalent
CO2 emissions, in addition to the vast quantities fly ash (Sources: EIA; World Resources Institute)
and bottom ash becoming available that are not being
recycled in any meaningful manner. Most of the fly ash High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete Technology
is being dumped in lagoons, landfill sites and One of the major developments in the area of fly ash
abandoned quarries. Thus, potentially valuable utilization in concrete has been the technology of high-
cementing resources are being wasted in precisely the volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete by Malhotra (1) and
countries that need it most to reduce the greenhouse gas his associates at CANMET, Ottawa, Canada. It is
emissions, and to make economical and durable believed that in years to come, this development will
concrete structures. It is estimated that by year 2025, the
affect profoundly the use of portland cement in international trade in this product. However, with the
concrete. advent of large multinational cement companies, the
portland has become an internationally traded product.
Other Supplementary Cementing Materials
For example, the U.S.A. imports cement from a large
In addition to fly ash, the other supplementary number of countries including Mexico, Canada, and
cementing materials that are available in large quantities Spain. During the years 2002 and 2004, the U.S.A. was
and can be used to replace portland cement in concrete importing between 15 and 20 million tonnes of cement
include granulated, blast-furnace slag, natural pozzolans per year. Similarly fly ash is becoming an
and rice-husk ash; silica fume and metakaolin are internationally traded product. South Africa and India
available only in limited quantities. are exporting some fly ash to the Middle East and there
The worldwide production of granulated, blast-furnace is considerable trade in fly ash among European
slag is only about 25 million tonnes per year. The rice- countries. It is not unrealistic to assume that in the
husk is not yet available commercially, although the foreseeable future, like portland cement, large volumes
world-wide potential is about 20 million tonnes. The use of fly ash would be traded internationally for use in
of granulated blast-furnace slag in concrete has concrete.
increased considerably in recent years, and this trend is Tradeable Emission Rights and the Utilization of Fly
expected to continue. Rice-husk ash, when it becomes Ash
available commercially, will along with fly ash and
ATradeable emissions@ refers to the economic
granulated blast-furnace slag, be the most significant
mechanisms that are expected to help countries
supplementary cementing material for use as a partial
worldwide meet the stringent emission reduction targets
replacement for portland cement in concrete to reduce
established by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
CO2 emissions. The use of natural pozzolans is rather
limited because of their high-water demand when
incorporated in concrete, and the need for calcination.
Both Mexico and Turkey produce Portland / pozzolanic
cements with cement replacement levels of about 30
percent.
Silica fume, a highly pozzolanic material, is a by-
product of when silicon metal or ferro silicon alloys are
produced in smelters using electric arc furnaces. The
world-wide production is estimated to be less than 2
million tonnes. Its primary use is to enhance the
durability of concrete by making it less permeable. It is
normally not used as a cement replacement material but
is added to the concrete mixture in addition to portland
cement. Thus its contribution to CO2 emission reduction
is indirect because durable structures require less repair Fig. 4 Carbon-credit trading
and maintenance. The performance of metakaolin in (Source: Globe and Mail, Canada)
concrete is like that of silica fume, but as metakaolin is
a manufactured product, unlike silica fume which is a It is being speculated that in the not too distant future
by-product, its use in concrete contributes very little to one tonne of emissions will have a trading value of
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. No data have about $40 (U.S.), the current value being $25.00 (U.S.).
been published on the amount of metakaolin available, Thus, for example, if a country can replace 50 percent
but it is believed to be of the same order as silica fume. of cement utilization by fly ash or slag, the country
would have saved about 50 percent of the CO2
Limestone fillers are being used increasingly in Europe emissions from reduced need for cement. For a country
in the clinkering and grinding phase of portland cement that produces 100 million tonnes of cement annually,
production; however, these have not made any this 50 percent replacement by fly ash would amount to
significant inroads in North America because those are savings in CO2 emissions of 50 million tonnes. This, in
not by-product materials and there are concerns as to the turn, translates into a trading value of 1,250 million
long-term durability of concrete incorporating these dollars (U.S.) annually. One must keep in mind that the
fillers. value of the trading of emission rights can fluctuate
Global Trade in Fly Ash widely. However, given the political and environmental
pressures, the utilization of fly ash will pay rich
Until recently, portland cement was indigenously dividends. The developed countries have a major stake
produced in every country and there was very little
in this issue. If these countries can transfer fly ash fly ash concrete, it is proposed that the installation of
utilization technology to developing countries, and new cement plants should be avoided as much as
demonstrate the actual reduction in the installation of possible. In addition, the ageing portland cement plants
new cement plants in these countries, the former should be phased-out, and the resulting loss in capacity
countries can rightly claim CO2 emission credits. should be compensated for by the use of supplementary
cementing materials.
According to the World Bank, the carbon-trading
market was worth $21.5 billion (U.S.) in the first three The combined use of super plasticizers and
quarters of 2006, about double its value in year 2000. supplementary cementing materials can lead to
Primary market sellers are in China and India, and economical high-performance concrete with enhanced
primary market buyers are the U.K. and Europe (Fig. 4). durability. It is hoped that the concrete industry would
show leadership and resolve, and make contributions to
How the Cement and Concrete Industry Can
the sustainable development of the industry in the 21 st
Contribute to Reduction of Co2 Emissions century by adopting new technologies to reduce the
In addition to replacing portland cement by emission of the greenhouse gases, and thus contribute
supplementary cementing materials. There are a number towards meeting the goals and objectives of the 1997
of other ways by which the cement and concrete Kyoto Protocol.
industry can contribute towards reducing CO2 2. Acknowledgements
emissions. Some of these are:
This paper is based on various presentations made by
Proportion concrete mixtures with low water-to-
the author at a number of “International Seminars on
cementitious ratio
Concrete Technology and Sustainability Issues”, which
Use less portland cement
have been held recently in North America, Europe,
Use less unit water content by using more water India and China.
reducers and super plasticizers
Incorporate recycled aggregates in concrete Reference
Use stainless steel reinforcement in critical parts of [1] Sear Lindon, “The Future of Pulverized Fuel Ash
structures to make them more durable Concrete”, Concrete, Vol. 37, No. 2, 2003, pp. 50-
Where possible, specify strength acceptance criteria 51.
on 56 or 91 days instead of 28 days [2] Personal communication from Bruce Ramme,
Use lightweight concrete where possible Wisconsin Power, Milwaukee, U.S.A.
Conclusions [3] Anantharaman, V.J., “India’s Larges”, World
Cement, Vol. 33, No. 23, December 2002, pp. 53-
Environmental issues associated with the CO2 emissions 56.
from the production of portland cement clinker demand [4] Malhotra, V.M. and Mehta, P.E., “High-Volume
that supplementary cementing materials in general, and Fly Ash Concrete: Materials, Mixture Proportions,
fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag and rice- Construction Practice, and Case Histories”, 2002,
husk ash in particular, be used in increasing quantities to 101 pp., (Available from: Supplementary
replace portland cement in concrete. Given the almost Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development
unlimited supply of good quality fly ash worldwide, and Inc., Ottawa, Canada, K1Y
the development of technologies such as high-volume
Abstract: Being one of the largest infrastructure investments of a nation, the highway infrastructure system of the
national highway network deserves major attention and effort for its effective and efficient management. A highway
infrastructure system is a complex system comprising three main dimensions: infrastructure type, operational
functions, and system objectives. These three elements differ in their functional characteristics and operational
requirements. Their maintenance and management also require different expertise and considerations. An ideal
infrastructure management program for a highway network is one that would maintain all highway sections at a
sufficiently high level of service and structural conditions, but requires only a reasonably resources, offering safe
traffic operations with minimal adverse impacts. This requires optimal planning and programming of activities to
manage the system in a cost effective and efficient manner. This presentation describes the key characteristics of the
network level highway infrastructure management problem, highlights the challenges of achieving sound
management of the overall infrastructure system, and offers solutions to the problem.
infrastructure condition survey and evaluation, single-objective analysis, those requirements not
maintenance, improvement, and data management. The selected as the objective function are imposed as
planning phase covers demand analysis and estimation constraints in the formulation. This can be viewed as an
of infrastructure needs to accommodate the current and interference of the optimization process by artificially
future traffic. The design phase generates alternative setting limits to selected problem parameters. As a
design configurations, analyzes these alternatives, and result, the solutions obtained from these single-objective
evaluates and selects the optimal configuration. As for analyses are sub-optimal with respect to one derived
the construction phase, the major concerns are from multi-objective considerations.
preparation of specifications and contract documents,
Genetic Algorithm Optimization Approach
scheduling of construction activities, control of costs
and quality of construction, and monitoring of work Research at the Centre for Transportation Research,
progress. Under the in-service operation phase, the National University of Singapore has demonstrated that
three functional activities, condition evaluation, the technique of genetic algorithms are well suited to
maintenance, and improvement, are the main focus of handle the large number of data and attributes found in
most infrastructure systems. Data management is a vital the highway infrastructure management problem (Chan
link in any management system. It covers acquisition et al. 1994, Fwa et al. 1994, 1995, 1996). A genetic-
and compilation of data, organization and updating of algorithm (GA) based formulation for multi-objective
data bases. programming of highway management activities has
been developed by the research group (Fwa et al. 2000).
Multi-Objective Consideration Genetic algorithms, which are a robust search technique
The highway infrastructure management process is a formulated on the mechanics of natural selection and
multiple-objective problem. The main objectives may natural genetics, are employed to generate and identify
include the following: provision of an adequate level of better solutions until convergence is reached. The
service for traffic, preservation of infrastructure selection of good solutions is based on the so-called
condition at or above a desired level, achievement of a Pareto based fitness evaluation procedure by comparing
high level of traffic safety, minimization of agency and the relative strength of the generated solutions with
user costs, maximization of socioeconomic benefits, and respect to each of the adopted objectives.
minimization of the use of environmental and energy An important consideration of the optimization process
resources. The ultimate goal of a highway infrastructure is to produce representative solutions that are spread
management system is to satisfy these objectives as
more or less evenly along the Pareto frontier. This can
closely as possible within the constraints of available
be achieved by using an appropriate reproduction
budgets.
scheme to generate offspring solutions and to form a
A well-managed highway network forms an integral new pool of parent solutions. The robust search
element of a sustainable economy. An ideal characteristics and multiple-solution handling ability of
infrastructure management program for a highway GAs are well suited for multi-objective optimization
network is one that would maintain all highway sections analysis of multi-objective highway infrastructure
at a sufficiently high level of service and structural management and planning. The concepts of Pareto
conditions, but requires only a reasonably low budget frontier and rank-based fitness evaluation, and a shortest
and use of resources, and not creates any significant normalized distance method of selecting optimal
adverse impacts on the environment, safe traffic solution from the Pareto frontier were found to be
operations, and social and community activities, etc. effective in solving the problems. The proposed
Unfortunately, many of these are conflicting algorithm was able to produce a set of optimal solutions
requirements. For instance, more resources and budget which were well spread on the Pareto frontier.
are usually needed if the highways are to be maintained The approach described in the preceding paragraph is
at a higher state of conditions; and a program with more
equally applicable for the case of multiple highway
pavement activities could in general cause longer traffic
infrastructure elements. It is noted that the objectives
delay, increased environment pollution, more disruption
required to be achieved for each individual
of social activities, and inconvenience to the
infrastructure system, as well as the overall highway
community. Therefore, the programming maintenance system, are multiple and sometimes mutually
and rehabilitation of highway infrastructure involves a conflicting. To achieve the best results at both the
multi-objective consideration that addresses the
individual infrastructure system and the overall system
competing requirements of different objectives.
levels when a given overall budget is available, an
Practically all the highway infrastructure management optimal scheme for fund allocation to individual assets
programming tools in use currently are based on single- needs to be identified. This necessitates the
objective optimization (Fwa et al. 2000). In these simultaneous optimization of more than one objective,
while satisfying all the necessary constraints. The individual infrastructure sub-system (such as pavement
problem involves multiple infrastructure systems each management system, bridge management system, etc)
with a different set of multiple objectives, as well as a can further be represented by another level of agents.
central level covering the entire highway network with The highway infrastructure management problem at the
its own set of multiple objectives. The conventional network level can thus be represented by an
optimization approaches adopted in practice do not organization consisting of a group of agents with a set
address adequately the various issues required for of activities performed by each agent, and a set of
achieving the desirable outcomes for the individual connections among the agents.
infrastructure systems as well as the overall central
Multi-Level Optimization
agency.
The highway research group at the Centre for
Multi-Agency Optimization Transportation Research of the National University of
In addition to the three-dimensional matrix structure of Singapore has developed a dual-level multi-asset multi-
the highway infrastructure system, there are two other objective genetic-algorithm based optimization
aspects that make the highway infrastructure procedure for solving the highway infrastructure
management problem a rather complex one at the road management problem (Fwa and Farhan 2012). The
network level. One is the multi-agency structure of approach consists of a two-stage procedure. Stage me
practically all highway organizations. For instance, in a of the approach deals with the independent individual
major urban or a regional road network system, there infrastructure management systems, each addressing
would be divisions of sub-districts to facilitate traffic operational and service objectives unique to each
operations and infrastructure maintenance operations. particular infrastructure system, but also having a
There are issues related to coordination among the common objective in minimizing maintenance costs.
various parallel agencies. Another aspect is the multi- The multi-objective optimization for each infrastructure
level management structure a typical highway agency or management system will produce a family of Pareto
department, and there is a central management that optimal solutions. By having maintenance cost
oversees the overall road network operations. Hence, for optimization as an objective common to the various
a highway infrastructure management system to infrastructure management systems, it offers a
function effectively and efficiently, a workable convenient basis for performing cross-infrastructure
arrangement must be in place to facilitate the multi-level trade-off analysis to compare the outcomes of different
multi-agency operations to function in an optimal fund allocation strategies. The multi-objective
manner. optimization within each component management
system produces mutually exclusive Pareto optimal
Effective coordination among agencies responsible for
maintenance strategies with each strategy encompassing
different infrastructure elements of a highway network
must be attained in order to achieve an optimal total useful attributes for decision making such as overall
highway infrastructure management for the entire maintenance cost, performance indicator etc.
highway network. This can be achieved by means of an In Stage II, an optimal central-level budget allocation
iterative procedure between parallel agencies using analysis is carried out making use of the attributes of
genetic algorithms to arrive at an optimal solution that Pareto optimal maintenance strategies of the individual
considers the interaction and trade-off among the infrastructure systems. The Stage I Pareto optimal
agencies (Fwa and Hoque 2001, Chan et al. 2003). This strategies of the individual infrastructure systems offer
is practically achievable in today’s modern IT the links for interaction with the central-level
environment in which sharing of pavement network optimization analysis in Stage II. For any trial strategy
database and pavement management planning data for individual infrastructure systems, these links provide
among agencies of different districts is encouraged (Tan feedback on infrastructure performance information to
et al. 2004). the Stage II optimization process where cross-
infrastructure trade-off analysis is conducted to arrive at
The multiple agency interaction and coordination can
a central-level optimal management strategy.
also be modelled using the multi-agent system approach
(MAS) (Malone 1990). MAS is a computerized system 3. Summary
composed of multiple interacting intelligent agents each
This paper has presented the key characteristics of the
capable of making its own decision based on a set of
network level highway infrastructure management
considerations and constraints unique to its operations
problem. It highlights to highway agencies the
and service requirements. For the highway
challenges of establishing a sound management system
infrastructure management problem, the highway for the important key infrastructure system of the
infrastructure management system of each district can nation. The limitations of the current practice in
be represented by an agent. Within each district, the
network level highway operations are explained, and a
number of analytical solutions for optimal management [2] Chan, W. T., Fwa T. F. and Tan T. Y. (2003).
of the highway infrastructure system are offered. "Optimal fund-allocation analysis for multi-district
The network level highway infrastructure management highway agencies." Journal of Infrastructure
Systems, 9(4), 167-175.
problem is complex because of its three-dimensional
[3] Fwa, T. F., Chan W. T. and Tan C. Y. (1995).
structure, with multiple sub-dimensions within each
"Optimal programming by genetic algorithms for
dimension. There are different infrastructure types, each
pavement management." Transportation Research
having its own unique service and functional
characteristics. The operational and maintenance Record, No. 1455, 31-41.
requirements are different from one infrastructure type [4] Fwa, T. F., Chan W. T. and Tan C. Y. (1996).
"Genetic algorithm programming of road
to another. There are also more than one system
maintenance and rehabilitation." Journal of
objectives for each of the infrastructure type. In
Transportation Engineering, 122(3), 246-253.
addition, there are further complications to the problem
[5] Fwa, T. F., Chan W. T. and Hogue K. H. (2000).
in that a highway network operation typically involves
multiple highway sub-agencies and multiple level "Multi-objective optimisation for pavement
management. To achieve effective management of the management programming." Journal of
Transportation Engineering, 126(5), 367-374.
system, the adoption of multi-level multi-infrastructure
[6] Fwa, T. F. and Hoque K. H. (2001). "Optimal
multi-objective optimization techniques is
coordination of multiple agencies activities in
recommended. This paper has identified the technique
pavement Management." Proc. 5th International
of genetic algorithms to be a practical useful approach
to handle the complex problem of network level Conference on Managing Pavements, Univ. of
highway infrastructure management problem. The Washington, Seattle. WA.
[7] Fwa, T. F., Tan C. Y. and Chan W. T. (1994).
Pareto front procedure offers a family of good near
"Road maintenance planning using genetic
optimal solutions for the decision makers. To handle the
algorithms: Analysis." Journal of Transportation
multiple districts interaction and coordination necessary
in real-life operations, the technique of multi-agent Engineering, 120(5), 710-722.
systems can be employed. The paper also presents a [8] Malone T. W. (1990). Organizing Information
Processing Systems. In W. W. Zachary and S. P.
multi-stage technique to illustrate how effective
Robertson (eds.), cognition, Computation and
dialogue between different management levels could be
Cooperation, Albert norwood, NJ 56-83.
achieved in the process of identifying an optimal
[9] Sinha, K. C. and Fwa T. F. (1989). “On total
strategy for the management of the network level
highway infrastructure system. Highway Management System.” Transportation
Research Record, No. 1229, Transportation
Reference Research Board, 79-88.
[1] Chan, W. T., Fwa T. F. and Tan C. Y. (1994). [10] Tan, J. Y., Chan W. T. and Fwa T. F. (2004).
"Road maintenance planning using genetic "Interactive budget allocation concept for pavement
algorithms: Formulation." Journal of Transportation management". Proc. 6th International Conference
Engineering 120(5), 693-709. on Managing Pavements, Queensland Department
of Main Roads, Brisbane, Australia.
Abstract: The relationship between man and water always has been determined by availability and needs. The
availability of water differs from region to region, from season to season, i.e. 10.000 years ago from the ice ages to
today‟s conditions and in future with on-going climate change. For centuries cities more or less arranged to cover
their needs and protect against flooding. Urban water today conveys a split impression: water scarcity and flooding,
unpleasant looking lakes, dirty rivers and still here and there islands of beautiful landscapes and waters, retreat and
relaxation, playacting nature and environment is in order or strategies of survival only? The reasons for these
differences are discussed. It is argued, that conventional urban storm water management up graded by water
sensitive designs can better protect cities from water shortages and flooding as well. At the same time cities will
gain attractiveness, if storm water is integrated in tour ban landscapes. Examples of wise water management in
history and today are given to demonstrate that implementation is easier as many may think. Finally modern storm
water management strategies for more sustainable urban development and planning under changing climate
conditions are discussed.
Water pollution - not only an aesthetic problem Causes and effects of today’s many urban water
Although India has excellent environmental laws similar problems
to China most rivers and groundwater are observed to The reasons for the situation identified in chapter 2 may
be heavily polluted. Newspapers in India are full of be divided to natural and man-made causes. The natural
alarming news (see figure 1.14) cause mainly is climate and here heavy rainfall and
draughts and their recent changes as well as natural
silting of flood ways. Man-made causes are manifold
and include population growth and pressure. That
results in increased water demands, drop of groundwater
tables, deforestation for food production, decrease of
natural spaces for housing and industry, sealing of
surfaces, straightening and narrowing natural rivers and
eliminating flood plains/wetlands. In consequence rivers
fall dry, rain drains quickly away resulting in urban
floods and groundwater resources are over used
followed in coastal areas by saltwater intrusion. On top
of it climate change enlarges the bad effects. All will
Fig. 14 Alarming reports on water pollution in India more and more restrict human wellbeing, ecology and
(Source: Nameeta Prasad, Director, International finally economic growth.
Center for Environment Audit and Sustainable
Development, CAG of India) Population Growth and Pressure
According to official estimates, India has facilities to In 1950 30% of the world‟s population lived in cities, in
treat 18% of the 33,200 million liters per day of urban 2000 it was 47%. By 2007 more than half of the world‟s
sewage. In reality, it only treats 13%, because of population was living in cities. Natural growth (the
shortages of power and technical expertise in its sewage excess of births over deaths), migration from rural to
treatment plants. These figures even underestimate the urban areas and redefinition of administrative
problem considering the output of 700 Million Indians boundaries incorporating rural surroundings supports
who have no access to any toilet. Consequently most growth of cities to mega cities. Obviously developing
Indian rivers, from which millions of Indians draw their countries presently go through the same processes and
water, are horribly polluted. Unsurprisingly, an harmful activities, as developed countries did in the last
estimated 1,000 Indian children die of diarrhea every century, only at an exponentially larger scale, due to the
day. In the words of Sunita Narain, a prominent sheer size of their populations.
environmentalist, mocking the tourist ministry's slogan: One must appreciate that India‟s stringent definitions of
“Incredible India, drowning in its excreta” ( quoted “urban”- not updated in 50 years-are likely to create a
according to article “Despite good laws and even better statistical artifact. In fact, the Agglomeration Index -a
intentions, India causes as much pollution as any rapidly globally comparable measure of urbanization using
industrializing poor country”, Varanasi, July 17th 2008) population density (150 people per square kilometer),
If sewers exist they often are undersized, that overflows the minimum size of a large urban center (50,000
already occur even under dry weather conditions. Figure inhabitants), and travel time to that urban center (60
15 depicts such situation at the Ba He River in Beijing minutes)- shows India to be 52 percent urbanized.
Downward bias on India‟s urban statistics is also caused
by delays in redrawing municipal boundaries as these
areas expand. For instance, while 2,774 additional
settlements exhibited urban characteristics between
2001 and 2011, only 147 have official urban status. The
rest have urban characteristics but are not considered
urban for policy purposes. Rapid growth of metropolitan
suburbs is the most striking feature of India‟s
urbanization.
Many cities in India ranging from large metropolitan to
small transitional cities lack effective storm drainage
systems and face problems due to illegal, unplanned
Fig. 15 Combined sewer in Beijing discharging to Ba development and encroachment often on natural areas
He River under dry weather conditions and drainage systems/ways. As the cities grow, benefits
from important environmental functions (natural water
ways/areas) are often ignored and overlooked as a result their densification yield a runoff ratio of up to 80 % of
of which natural areas are degraded and damaged. rainfall.
Although many cities already have land occupation
rules, there are many areas with informal occupation
that does not follow these regulations. Residences
located by creeks margins with direct sewage emissions
to the water body are frequently found. (Government of
India, 2010)
Another problem for water management in Indian cities
is that data collection cannot keep pace with the fast
growth and changes, which makes appropriate forecasts
difficult. Time and space resolutions needed for
different planning purposes often are not available from
standard data sources. Often data records are lost and Fig. 17 Low runoff, high evaporation and infiltration
new projects dealing with issues, that have already been
addressed previously, have to start from zero. Reliable
financial and social data are of equal importance but
seldom are linked to water management. The different
dimensions and conventions in the different sectors
make it difficult to use data of different sources in a
correct manner (Geiger, 1995a). Further planning and
management activities often are not adapted to site
specific conditions.
Effects of urbanization on the water cycle
Urbanization changes the natural water cycle
significantly. Figure 16 depicts the urban water cycle Fig. 18 High runoff, low evaporation and low under
distinguishing between clean water, namely rainfall, natural conditions (Geiger and Dreiseitl, 1995)
surface and groundwater supplies and waste water being groundwater recharge under urban conditions
all fresh water used in cities for different purposes and Runoff dynamics depend on material and slope of
discharged for treatment or disposed uncleansed to surfaces. In general runoff hydrographs – that are the
water bodies. dependencies between runoff rates and time–are steeper
and higher, if impervious areas are linked and have only
little green spaces in between. Figure 1.19 exemplifies
how flood flow increases with ongoing urbanization and
densification of built-up areas. Further, the approach to
tackle drainage urban problems in developing countries
is based on the hygienist principle, trying to transfer the
water as quick as possible out from the inundated areas.
Similar to flood flows, groundwater recharge not only runoff, which frequently leads to downstream flooding
depends on rainfall characteristics, but also on the and increasing river bank erosion.
structure of urban development and the amount of Water pollution in India is a most serious problem, with
groundwater extractions (see figure 2.6).According to
more than 70 per cent of its surface and groundwater
its latest report on India‟s ground water level, the World
resources has been contaminated by biological, toxic,
Bank estimates 29 per cent of ground water blocks to be
organic, and inorganic pollutants. Many waters are
semi-critical, critical or overexploited, the situation
unsafe for human, industrial and even irrigation uses.
deteriorating rapidly. By 2025 an estimated 60 per cent According to Murty and Surender Kumar most of
of ground water blocks will be in a critical condition. pollution is found around large urban areas (India
Climate change will further strain the situation.
Infrastructure Report 2011, Water Pollution in India, An
The quality of groundwater also is worsening. The Economic Appraisal M.N. Murty and Surender Kumar).
nitrate concentration in Delhi‟s groundwater for According to WHO (2007) lack of water, sanitation, and
instance ranges from traces or low levels at a few places hygiene results in the loss of 0.4 million people annually
to 1,500 mg per liter - which is 33 times higher than the in India.
safety limit of 45 mg per liter. Fluoride concentration
Effects of climate change on urban life
varies from 0.07 mg per liter to 7.24 mg per liter in
North West districts. The main cause of pollution of Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment
groundwater is lack of adequate capacity to treat waste (INCCA) has assessed the likely changes in India in
water (Read more: 2030s caused by the climate change (table 1).
According to the report, the rise in annual average
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article
surface temperature has been projected to be ranging
-2288607/Delhis-great-water-fall-Capital-fears-riots-
from 1.7℃ to 2.0℃. The increased temperature will
water-shortages-groundwater-level-hits-dangerous-
affect the hydrological regime by altering the pattern
low.html#ixzz2ndBhZE2d)
and distribution of the Indian monsoon. The intensity of
To gain space for construction frequently natural rainfall is expected to increase while the number of
flooding spaces, especially valuable wetlands are wiped rainy days to decrease. Aside from glacier melting
out. Creeks and rivers are straightened and narrowed another environmental problem is that the river systems
down further limiting flooding space and accelerating will change their courses leading to heavy floods.
Table1: Climate change impact on water yield and health of four major regions in 2030s (INCCA, 2010)
1. Eastern coastal parts of West Bengal, Odisha and the northern coastal parts of Andhra Pradesh
display a drop
2. in water yield as less as 40%.
3. Southern parts of Andhra Pradesh and northern parts of Tamilnadu indicate growth in water yield
by 10% to
Coastal 4. 40%.
region 5. The western coastal region demonstrates overall reduction in water yield varying from 1% to 50%
(except, in the coastal ong Karnataka, where an increase of 10% to 20% is projected).
6. Southern tip of the coastal region indicates no change in water yield.
7. Rise in sea level to cause incursion of coastal waters leading to increase in salinity affecting fresh
water availability for drinking and agriculture.
8. Productivity and distribution of marine as well as fresh water fisheries to be affected.
Climate change will decrease the number of rainy days In nature storm runoff is slowed down by curved and
which will severely affect the ground water recharge as wide riverbeds, leaving rocks and trees in river courses
the adequate amounts of rainwater can‟t be infiltrated paralleled by pools and lakes. Over the years natural
into the ground. As the population will increase and the flood plains evolved wherever topography permitted.
industrial and agricultural sectors will need more water, Most of these occur on the surface and is visible. New
the decrease in groundwater table will force people to and modern storm water strategies rediscover the
go beyond the dynamic ground water resources concept of mother nature and show, not hide storm
opposing sustainable development. Especially urban water underground. They replicate nature by storm
areas will be vulnerable to the expected effects of water retention in pools and ponds, by infiltration of
climate change. storm water into the underground, by arranging spaces
for flooding and purification by soil and vegetation. Of
New storm water management strategies
course this requires complete rethinking of urban and
Urban water schemes can be classified into two landscape planning, as for more than a century the
categories according to different scales, local (minor) concept was to drain storm water as quick as possible
and regional (major) systems. Only effectively out of urban areas usually by underground pipes and
combining both, local and regional systems can reduce conduits.
water logging and the risk of flooding. Local systems
Best management practices (BMP), water sensitive
consist of infiltration facilities, rainwater harvesting and
urban designs (WSUD), low impact development (LID)
storage components as well as channels and conduits.
or in Germany “Naturnahe Regen was serbewirts
Regional systems are urban streams and lakes, large
storm drains and tunnels. All facilities can be found chaftung” (storm water management according to
nature‟s principles) only are different names for the
from literature and internet. Here emphasis is paid to
same philosophy. As shown in figure 20 storm water
principal features and aspects beyond the individual
should be primarily retained by storage and infiltration,
engineering devices.
where it originates. If local capacities are exceeded it
Water sensitive urban planning on local scale - a key should be slowed down as much as possible during its
strategy of storm water management runoff process. A compromise between storage and
Rainwater in a city is the essential source to maintain carrying it downstream needs to be found. It was found,
the hydrologic and ecological balance. At the same time that water sensitive urban designs are the only way to
it can give rich aesthetic values as well. Through cope with current urban water problems in the fast
ingenious design, storm water management can develop growing cities under climate change. Since the 80ies of
unique landscaping elements, reflecting cultural identity last century increasingly water sensitive designs
and the characteristics of the site and still provide the therefore superseded construction of large storm drains
necessary safety for small storms and in some cases or stormwater tunnels. Realization of this notion is not
even under extreme storm events. as difficult as many might have thought.
Resilience and preparedness, an essential part for groundwater levels at natural condition. Water
future stormwater management consumption today largely depends on ground water.
Figure 23 illustrates that drainage costs raise Therefore artificial recharge of storm runoff is as
important as rain water harvesting, which means “Catch
exponentially, if design storm frequencies are upgraded.
the rain water where it falls”. Rain water may be
The bad news is that upgrading design levels can lower
collected and recharged into ground water through pits,
the risks of property damage and the risk of casualties
trenches, recharge wells and shafts, lateral shafts with
only to a small extend (figure 24). Only resilient designs
and preparedness can reduce the risks significantly. well bores. Especially harvesting of rainwater and the
recharge of groundwater provide sites with resilience to
climate change, for example under droughts. Water
storage (in all its forms) plays a key role for adaptation
to climate change. In summary WSUD may enhance
resilience of a system (see chapter 4.1).
Composing optimal stormwater management
systems
Geiger et.al. (2011) have developed a staged decision
support systems (DSS) for integrated water resources
management (IWRM) as outlined in Figure 25. This
Fig. 23 Design level vs. costs DSS considers the quite restrictive availability of
detailed data, especially at the beginning of a planning
process. It integrates technical, social and political
issues involved in water management decisions. The
basis of the tool is catalogues of measures for each
application area, i.e. urban stormwater management,
agricultural irrigation or treatment processes, whereby
each measure is identified by its applicability,
environmental impact, costs and socio-cultural
acceptance.
and measures, and specify possible abatement strategies, Application of suggested strategies to the Indian
without losing sight of the important socioeconomic and urban situation and obstacles for their
politic measures. The same terminologies are linked to a implementation
general measure catalogue and a questionnaire system
Following suggestions are based on own observations of
where the answers are automatically compared with
the urban drainage situations in India around 1996 and
screening criteria contained in a measure-answer matrix.
studying recent assessment reports. Though the situation
The questionnaire serves to find out which measures
seems disastrous and responsible authorities appear
potentially can be applied under prevailing conditions in helpless at many locations, at least Indian society has a
a study area. On the basis of the answers, already realistic chance to solve many storm water problems
implemented or geographical and socio-cultural
themselves, but this needs the backing of corruption less
unsuitable measures are automatically screened out
law enforcement.
from the comprehensive measure catalogue. The
hierarchy can be gradually accomplished with estimates Indian law contains all the requirements needed to clear
of potential abatement costs and effects on environment the situation. Therefore it is suggested to start with
and finally serves as basis for financial or political removing litter and cleaning up rivers and water
decisions. Three additional elements are required for a courses, removing illegal housing in water carriage
selection of planning scenarios in DSS1: cross-sector ways and floodplains. Enterprises and people, adding to
comparability, location specificity and climate the pollution shall have their choice to pay money or
variability. join this clean-up process. At the same time
municipalities maybe with governmental support must
In DSS stage 2 interlinks of the human and the natural
provide waste water collection systems, sometimes in
systems are categorized by water fluxes. Measures
form of open collection channels, leading to wetlands or
modify these fluxes within the planning process and
in form of sewers, leading to technical treatment plants.
their effects on attaining a sustainable groundwater For this of course planning is necessary, which still can
balance. Thus a large number of combined strategies be based on hand calculations estimating future
can be applied against the framework of the local hydro-
wastewater quantities and simple hydraulic principles.
ecosystem and objectively evaluated on basic criteria
All of this certainly is the responsibility of sewer
that define cost efficiency (e.g. groundwater recharge).
departments.
Using this technique, the strategies can also be analysed
against breakpoints and trends in precipitation series, All future developments or redevelopments must follow
thus assuring a selection of economic and sustainable the WSUD and resilience principles explained. All
strategies. So far the system is basically a filter urban planning must be adapted to the local storm water
mechanism to avoid detailed analyses of an situation. It never functions, if urban housing
overwhelming amount of different measures. The development comes first and afterwards the solutions
effects of the measures as well as of combinations of for storm water shall be found. Further pricing
preferable measures do not differentiate spatial and measures, including volumetric charges, taxes and user
temporal (seasonal) characteristics. This might lead to fees, can act as incentives to conservation and more
wrong conclusions, where local conditions play a efficient allocation of water resources, provided they
dominant role in the water balance. address concerns of equity and affordability to the poor.
The system therefore is advanced in DSS stage 3 Most developing counties during fast economic
incorporating modelling approaches. Detailed models development look for quick solutions for their storm
will analyse the more precise storm water situation, water problems and are misled by stor mwater
estimate flows in mayor storm drain systems and management techniques functioning well in the past in
groundwater values. Models like SWMM, MOUSE; countries like Europe, North America, Australia,
MIKE11 and FEFLOW may be linked to an Arc GIS Singapore and maybe Japan. They do not consider, that
based information system. The information system 1. Storm water solutions in Europe, North America,
automatically prepares the models with adaptions Australia, Singapore and Japan have developed
related to the measures and transfers and summarizes over many years, i.e.in Germany over more than
the model results in a format which can be evaluated one hundred years and knowledge for planning,
together with the socioeconomic effects. design and operation grew according to socio-
The system has been developed and applied within the economic conditions and environmental awareness.
joint Chinese-German project “Overall-effective All cities and villages control their storm water in
measures for sustainable water resources management combined or separate systems.
in the coastal area of Shandong Province, PR China”, 2. Systems in above named countries have been
the financial support of which by BMBF is gratefully designed according to their local climate. Their
acknowledged. design matured and was constantly adapted to the
experience made with operation of the systems and Modern water scapes are water sensitive and adaptive.
new research findings. For instance, the early Thus they shall not only meet present needs, but also
strategy of large storm sewers and storm water ensure the existence and wellbeing of future
tunnel systems has widely been replaced by source generations. The principal guidance for new
control strategies today. development should be that it shall not deteriorate the
3. Demographic alterations, economic development, water balance compared with the situation before the
altering living standards as well as climate change development. To be more specific, no more water shall
require adequate data and planning flexibility, be extracted from surface and ground waters beyond the
which obliges water management not only to be amount recharged to water bodies on an annual average.
cross-sectorial, but also open for temporal and Following examples show, how storm water
spatial adaptation. management can improve urban life, restore
4. Storm water management is linked to social and groundwater tables and provide flooding safety. Such
political conditions. In Germany for instance the solutions certainly raise people‟s acceptance or even
high success in managing storm water also is a desire for new approaches. Examples from India, China
result of political decisions made in the 1970s, and Europe are given.
when it was decided, that all rivers and lakes shall
City Park in Mumbai
have a water quality level of at least grade II by
1990. Mumbai with an annual precipitation of 2,587.7 mm
5. Most developing countries have not only different suffers serious urban floods occurring almost every year
climates, but sometimes also different attitudes in monsoon season. Mumbai also is known for its
towards environment and keeping (environmental) former large natural wetlands. However, during urban
laws. development in the last decades, wetlands were
6. Corruption in above named countries is low and the commonly considered to be wastelands. But wetlands
money allotted for storm water management ends are an important part of nature's bio-engineering,
up where it should be. protecting coastlines, checking soil erosion, enabling
flood control and providing feeding and breeding
A fact is, that decision makers in countries like India
grounds to aquatic life. The design of a park in the city
and China often
of Mumbai, took the opportunity to reintroduce natural
think that water management is a means that wetlands that existed before the fast growing city took
supports economic-political goals only, over. The park was designed realistically both in terms
due to lack of knowledge to choose solutions they of economic and landscape maintainability. It accounted
have seen in internet or somewhere else or some for various roads cutting through it and imparted
design companies suggested without being aware of exciting vignettes along these paths of movement. The
the local constraints and options, wetlands are scenery spots with plants and
usually for cost reasons copy not holistic designs or entertainment facilities and retention areas of storm
only parts of holistic designs, water in the high-dense city of Mumbai (Figure 26).
rely on computer simulation results without having
checked the validity of the data used ,
frequently take actions focusing on local acute
problems without considering their spatial and
temporal effects,
choose costly solutions involving lot of
construction and concrete work the share of
corruption money being larger than with low cost
solution, i.e. open surface water sensitive urban
designs, which under appropriate guidance could be
done by the people themselves,
not being corruptive themselves have not the
appropriate education to deal with the situation. Fig. 26 Design layers of City Park
So planning at times gets a matter of coincidence: who (http://www.landscapeindia.net/projects.html)
has seen what, who knows whom or who has which SindhuBaug (Public Park) in Ahmedabad, India
benefit. This not only is costly, but also risky for
The site is located in Gandhidham. In contrary to
societies.
Mumbai Gandhidham falls in the “hot and arid” region
Examples of WSUD concepts of India receiving less than 200mm of rainfall annually.
Water is scarce and where present has high total
dissolved solids (TDS). Given the constraints of climate creates a storm water filtrating and cleansing buffer
and site, it was essential that waste water could be zone for the core wetland, and a pleasant landscape
reused for the park. Therefore park design integrates a filter between nature and city. Storm water from the
wastewater treatment system (DSTS) that receives the newly built urban area is collected by a pipe around the
available waste water from nearby residences, by circumference of the wetland, and then is evenly
tapping the sewer line. The wastewater is treated distributed into the wetland after filtration and particle
biologically on site and stored in underground tanks for settling through the ponds. Native wetland grasses and
irrigation and operating fountains. The water channel is meadow are grown in the ponds of various depths and a
the central feature of the park as all stormwater drains natural evolution process is initiated. Groves of native
into it. The channel also functions as a conduit for silver birch trees (Betula) are grown on the mounds of
transporting treated wastewater to a pond and pump various heights that create a dense forest setting.
sump (Figure 27).
both privacy and connection in the community. 200 year integrated living and transportation concept with high
old orchard trees were retained, which gives the site a comfort and low energy consumption.
lively maturity. The whole development is equipped with SUDS
This ecological concept is vital to prevent brackish (Sustainable Drainage Systems). Run-off from public
water pushing in from the sea. The Feng Chang River land is directed to infiltration drainage swales located
has been restored from a 30 m wide polluted irrigation within the main public green spaces. Run-off from
canal back into a beautiful, clean, natural river. The private land is required to be retained on the place of
banks are softly shaped and planted - a flourishing origin, either by rainwater harvesting or through
ecology has rebalanced the natural biology of the water infiltration drainage swales. Figure 31 sketches the
making the Feng Chang River a community asset for public street storm drains leading to a central landscape
leisure and socializing, as well as safeguarding water step, under which storm water storage and infiltration
resources. components are installed.
Abhishree Ecostead in Ahmedabad, India
The project designs high end homes on the outskirts of
Ahmedabad, with lot sizes varying from two thousand
to seven thousand square meters spread over an area of
sixty three hectares. Balancing the aspirations of the
potential clients as well as creating an ecologically
sound environment, agricultural fields and orchards are
used as main space making elements. There is extensive
rain water harvesting. The water is stored and recharged
through an artificial lake that gives additional real estate
value to the place. The artificial lake acts as retention
area for storm water and offers scenery spots under dry
situations with beautiful natural banks (Figures 30)
removing litter and cleaning up rivers and floodplains vulnerability of a water resource system. Water
should be a first step, followed by removal of illegal Resources Research 39(8).
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