TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

ABSTRACT
Transformer less AC power supplies accept wall-outlet AC voltage (such as 120VAC)
input and produce a low voltage DC (such as 3VDC) output. The low voltage DC is typically
low current output, on the order of tens of milliamps. This Design note explains how
Transformer less power supply work and examines tradeoffs to consider when designing them.
The options described herein can be implemented with the Proto Power Switch, a circuit for
prototyping products that control AC voltage and are powered by AC voltage.

The Proto Power Switch can be ordered pre-populated or as a bare board. Beyond the
prototyping stage, Designer Circuits, LLC can support transition to production by designing and
sourcing custom circuit boards specific to your application.

Transformer less AC power supply theory is not generally taught at the university level,
yet the use of such power supplies is prevalent in consumer goods. Online whitepapers and
websites provide example circuits and equations to aid the design process, yet these sources
emphasize the math without explaining the fundamental principles of operation. The aim of this
DesignNote is familiarize the reader with the basic concepts, such that the equations can be
derived, constructed, and manipulated intuitively.

The scope of this document addresses circuits which accept single phase AC voltage (e.g.
120VAC, 240VAC) and output low, fixed DC voltage.

Described simply, Voltage division ensures that only a small fraction of the input voltage
shows up across the output capacitor. The AC voltage is rectified to ensure that the capacitor is
only charged and not discharged by the mains. The AC input voltage charges up an output filter
capacitor. Lastly, a Zener diode in parallel with the output capacitor performs basic voltage
regulation. Thus finally desired DC output voltage is obtained.

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

INTRODUCTION
There are several ways to convert an AC voltage at a all receptacle into the DC voltage
required by a microcontroller. Traditionally, this has been done with a transformer and rectifier
circuit. There are also switch- ing power supply solutions, however, in applications that involve
providing a DC voltage to only the microcontroller and a few other low-current devices,
transformer-based or switcher-based power supplies may not be cost effective. The reason is
that the transformers in transformer-based solutions, and the inductor/MOSFET/controller in
switch-based solutions, are expensive and take up a considerable amount of space. This is
especially true in the appliance market, where the cost and size of the components surrounding
the power supply may be significantly less than the cost of the power supply alone. Transformer
less power supplies provide a low-cost alternative to transformer-based and switcher-based
power supplies. The two basic types of Transformer less power supplies are

 Resistive Transformer less power supply and

 Capacitive Transformer less power supply.

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

RESISTIVE TRANSFORMER LESS AC SUPPLY

The lowest-cost, physically-smallest component we can use for input impedance 𝑍1 is a

resistor, which we will refer to as 𝑅1 . All load and Zener diode current flows through 𝑅1 . Large
peak voltages (as high as 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , peak - 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) will exist across R1, so it must be rated to handle high
voltage. The combination of high voltage and current flow (equal to the total load + Zener
current) results in significant power lost as heat in resistor 𝑅1 . A resistive Transformer less
power supply is typically sized to deliver relatively small amounts of current (a few mA) so as to
limit the heat generated by resistor 𝑅1 . The power dissipated by resistor 𝑅1 for a full-wave
rectifier is the RMS voltage across 𝑅1 squared, divided by the resistance𝑅1 . We can approximate
the RMS voltage across 𝑅1 from the RMS of the input voltage minus the DC output voltage.

2
(𝑉𝑖𝑛,𝑅𝑀𝑆 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 =
R1

For a half-wave rectifier with the blocking diode pre-zener, the effective input RMS voltage is
reduced.

𝑉𝑖𝑛,𝑅𝑀𝑆 2
( − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
√2
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑅1 =
R1

All current that flows through R1 has the potential to become output current. It is only
when the Zener diode conducts current that the current is lost as heat in the Zener. Otherwise, the
output capacitor effectively stores R1 current, allowing loads to draw current from the output
capacitor as needed. Based on capacitor charge (amp-second) balance principles, we know that
the output capacitor will provide as many amp-seconds to the load as it receives from R1 . Thus,

the average current through R1 represents the maximum average output current that the resistive
Transformer less power supply can generate. The word “maximum” is used here because less
current can always be delivered to the output (down to 0A), in which case the Zener consumes
the unused current.

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

R1 will pass an average current based on the average voltage applied across it. For a full
wave rectified AC input, this means the output current will be based on the average of the
absolute value of the AC waveform. Looking back at Figure 1 for the full wave output, we see
that simply calculating the average AC voltage for the positive ½ of one sine wave period will
provide the average AC voltage for the entire waveform.

𝜋
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
(0 )
𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋−𝑐𝑜𝑠0)
(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) 𝜋
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

(1−(−1))
(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) 𝜋
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

2
(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) 𝜋
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

2
(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 ) 𝜋
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637
𝑅1

For a half wave rectified AC input instead, this means the output current will be based
half of the average of the positive part of the AC waveform (because the other half of the
waveform will be 0V). This effectively reduces the average output current by half compared to
the full wave rectified configuration.

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.318
𝑅1

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Advanced calculation:
As a technical matter, the voltage across the resistor in both cases is reduced by the
output voltage. For small output voltages (less than 10V) it is reasonable to use 𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟

whereas for large output voltages >10V, simulation is preferred because the voltage across R1
begins looking less and less like a normal sinusoidal. The complete equation for full wave
rectified current is:

𝑉
𝜋−𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
−1 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
( )
𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

Note that the equation above neglects any pre and post blocking diode voltage drop for
simplicity, but this can be lumped into 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 if desired. For half wave rectification, the only
change is that denominator 𝜋 − 0 becomes 2𝜋 − 0

𝑉
𝜋−𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
−1 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
( )
2𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

In all cases, the worst-case heat generated by a Zener diode is

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠,𝑍𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑍𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥

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Device tolerances and safety margin (typically reducing power ratings of components by
50% should be considered when sizing components for power loss. Further guidance for worst-
case power sizing is provided in the notes of the accompanying spreadsheet.

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CAPACITIVE TRANSFORMER LESS AC SUPPLY

INTRODUCTION:
This 5 Volts transformer less power supply take advantage of the fact that a Zener diode
is also a normal diode that conducts current in the forward direction. During one half wave, the
current flows via 𝐷1 through the load and back via 𝐷4 , while during the other half wave it flows
via 𝐷3 and 𝐷2 . Bear in mind that with this circuit (and with the bridge rectifier version), the zero
voltage reference of the DC voltage is not directly connected to the neutral line of the 230V
circuit.

Fig: Transformer less Supply Circuit Schematic

This means that it is usually not possible to use this sort of supply to drive a TRIAC,
which normally needs such a connection. However, circuits that employ relays can benefit from
full-wave rectification. The value of the supply voltage depends on the specifications of the
Zener diodes that are used, which can be freely chosen. 𝐶2 must be able to handle at least this
voltage.

The amount of current that can be delivered depends on the capacitance of 𝐶1 . With the
given value of 220nF, the current is approximately 15mA. A final warning: this sort of circuit is
directly connected to mains voltage, which can be lethal. You must never come in contact with
this circuit! It is essential to house this circuit safely in a suitable enclosure.

It is clearly explained in various following steps:

 Voltage Reduction
 Rectification

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 Smoothing ripples
 Regulation

VOLTAGE REDUCTION
Typically a capacitive Transformer less supply is used to delivery larger amounts of
current (tens of milliamps) than resistive Transformer less supplies, specifically because the
improved efficiency enables it without additional cooling concerns. If we use a capacitor (𝐶1 or
𝐶𝑖𝑛 ) for input impedance 𝑍1 , the efficiency improves because we are no longer “losing to heat”
the current that was flowing through it as 𝑅1 . Rather, the amp-seconds are stored in the
capacitance of 𝐶1 without loss, and then 𝐶1 is discharged without loss. Instead of the output
𝑉𝑝𝑘
current being related to is related to 𝐶(𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑡).
𝑅1

Input Resistance for Inrush Limiting

Despite the naturally reduced losses for the capacitive Transformer less supply, resistive
loss is still added back in intentionally. If a capacitor is connected directly to the mains at an
instant when the AC voltage is at a peak value, the large voltage will rapidly charge up the
capacitor, which appears to be a short circuit. The high current that charges up the capacitance
can potentially exceed upstream circuit breaker current limits, causing them to trip and generate
localized power outages. Additionally, the high inrush current can cause undesirable arcing at the
moment the device is plugged in. To prevent high inrush currents, a small resistance is usually
placed in series with 𝐶1 .

The resistance should be small enough that it does not generate much heat, but should be
large enough that it limits short circuit currents to acceptable levels. Common 120 𝑉𝐴𝐶 household
circuit breakers in the US are typically rated for 15A. If 5A is an acceptable maximum short
circuit current, then the resistance should be not less than

𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑅1 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥

170
=
5

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= 34Ω

For the inrush current to remain less than 0.4A, then 𝑅1 = 470Ω will do nicely.

𝑉𝑝𝑘
𝑖𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅1

The steady state power loss (as heat) incurred by this additional resistance will based on
be the maximum output current of the supply

2
𝑃𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅1

For capacitive Transformer less power supplies, there is a tradeoff between reducing
inrush current and reducing power consumed by the resistor.

If the Transformer less power supply is designed for a maximum output current of 30mA,
then 𝑅1 = 34Ω (for 5A max inrush current) will generate 0.03W of heat, while inrush current will
be limited to . Likewise, 𝑅1 = 470Ω (for 0.4A max inrush current) will generate just under 0.5W
of heat.

Sizing the Input Capacitor

The input capacitor size determines how much output current available will be available
from the capacitive Transformer less power supply. The capacitor must be capable of handling
positive and negative voltage (so no aluminum electrolytic). To meet UL safety requirements,
the capacitor must be rated for use in series with the mains, which is typically a X-rated
capacitor.

The larger the input capacitor, the greater the output current, according to the well-known
relationship:

𝑖 = 𝐶(𝑑𝑣⁄𝑑𝑡).

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or for this application:

𝑑𝑉𝑐1 (𝑡)
𝑖𝑐1 = 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡

However, the inrush-limiting input resistance 𝑅1 also provides some impedance which
effectively reduces the voltage presented to the capacitor. To calculate the maximum output
current, a method very similar to the resistive power supply is used, but 𝑅1 is replaced by with
the combined impedance of the resistor and capacitor, 𝑍1 . The equation to calculate output
current for a full wave-rectified capacitive Transformer less power supply is:

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637
𝑧1

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.637
1
√(𝑅1 )2 + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶1 )2

As before, feel free to use the more comprehensive version of the equation with more
accurate integration limits and including the voltage drop of blocking diodes. Be aware that
designs which require too much accuracy likely has too little design margin to operate robustly
in a real world full of device tolerances, temperature variability, and line voltage sags.

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𝑉
𝜋−𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑝𝑘 )
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
−1 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑉 )
𝑝𝑘
( )
𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
1
√(𝑅1 )2 + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶1)2

The equation for a half wave rectified capacitive Transformer less power supply is also
very similar, having only half the output current of the full wave version:

(𝑉𝑝𝑘 − 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 0.318
2 1 2
√(𝑅1 ) + (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 )
1

and the more comprehensive version:

𝑉
𝜋−𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
∫ (𝑉𝑝𝑘 −𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑉
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 )
𝑉𝑝𝑘
( )
2𝜋−0
𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝑅1

Sizing the Input Resistance

The input resistance will limit inrush current, but will also consume power.
Unfortunately, the added impedance also reduces the available output current. The “Input
Resistor Tradeoff” worksheet in the spreadsheet that accompanies this document helps to
compare these competing objectives

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Their application note is incorrect not once, but twice in the very first equation. The
average voltage should be used (as in 0.637*Vpeak) instead of RMS voltage. Also, their method
to sum the impedances ignores that R and C impedances are orthogonal to each other, which
requires use of the Pythagorean Theorem. of resistor power consumption, output current, and
worst case inrush current. As a general rule of thumb, most applications achieve a reasonable
balance when the percentage of resistive impedance is around 10% of the input capacitor
impedance:

1 1
(𝑅1 )2 ≅ (2𝜋𝑓𝐶 )2
10 1

Input Capacitor Safe Discharge:

When a capacitive Transformer less power supply is disconnected from the AC mains,
there is no guarantee that the capacitor will be in a discharged state. This creates a high voltage
safety hazard on a circuit that would normally be presumed as safe when disconnected. To
mitigate this concern, a high value resistor is usually places in parallel with the capacitor. A
1MΩ will typically sufficient. The resistor needs to be rated to handle at least the peak voltage of
the circuit.

Other considerations one may make when designing Transformer less power supplies
include output voltage ripple, support for multiple output voltages, power loss in the Zener
diodes, and when to use full wave or half wave rectification

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X-RATED CAPACITOR SELECTION

Figure: X-rated capacitor

Before selecting the dropping capacitor, it is necessary to understand the working

principle and operation of the dropping capacitor. The X rated capacitor is designed for 250V,
400V, 600V AC. Higher voltage versions are also available. The Effective Impedance (Z),
Reactance (X) and the mains frequency (50–60Hz) are the important parameters to be considered
while selecting the capacitor. The reactance(X) of the capacitor (C)in the mains frequency (f) can
be calculated using the formula:
1
𝑋=
2𝜋𝑓𝑐

For example the reactance of a 0.22 uF capacitor running in the mains frequency 50Hz
will be
1
𝑋=
2𝜋 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.22 ∗ 10−6
=14475.976 ohms
=14.4 Kilo ohms.

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Reactance of the capacitor 0.22 uF is calculated as

1
𝑋=
2𝜋𝑓𝑐
To get current I divide mains Volt by the reactance in kilo ohm. That is
230
𝐼=
14.4
= 15.9 mA.
Effective impedance (Z) of the capacitor is determined by taking the load resistance ( R ) as an
important parameter. Impedance can be calculated using the formula
Z = V*R + X
Suppose the current in the circuit is I and Mains voltage is V then the equation appears like

𝑉
𝐼=
𝑋
The final equation thus becomes
230𝑉
𝐼=
14.4𝐾𝑜ℎ𝑚
= 15.9 mA.
Therefore if a 0.22 uF capacitor rated for 230 V is used, it can deliver around 15 mA
current to the circuit. But this is not sufficient for many circuits. Therefore it is recommended to
use a 470 nF capacitor rated for 400 V for such circuits to give required current.

X Rated AC capacitors – 250V, 400V, 680V AC

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Figure : X Rated AC capacitors – 250V, 400V, 680V AC

Table showing the X rated capacitor types and the output voltage and current without load

Fig: Table for various capacitors with rated voltage and current

RECTIFICATION

Diodes used for rectification should have sufficient Peak inverse voltage (PIV). The peak
inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand when it is reverse biased. 1N4007
diode can withstand up to 50 Volts and 1N4007 has a toleration of 1000 Volts. The important
characteristics of general purpose rectifier diodes are given in the table.

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Fig: Types of diodes

So a suitable option is a rectifier diode 1N4007. Usually a silicon diode has a Forward
voltage drop of 0.6 V. The current rating (Forward current) of rectifier diodes also vary. Most of
the general purpose rectifier diodes in the 1N series have 1 ampere current rating. Here for
rectification of power we are using Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers

Fig: Diode symbol and structure

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Single-Phase Full-Wave Rectifiers

There are two types of single-phase full-wave rectifier, namely, full-wave rectifiers with
center-tapped transformer and bridge rectifiers. A full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped
transformer each diode, together with the associated half of the transformer, acts as a half-wave
rectifier. The outputs of the two half-wave rectifiers are combined to produce full-wave
rectification in the load. As far as the transformer is concerned, the dc currents of the two half-
wave rectifiers are equal and opposite, such that there is no dc current for creating a transformer
core saturation problem.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Working & Operation

The working & operation of a full wave bridge rectifier is pretty simple. The circuit
diagrams and wave forms we have given below will help you understand the operation of a
bridge rectifier perfectly. In the circuit diagram, 4 diodes are arranged in the form of a bridge.
The transformer secondary is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the bridge at
points A & C. The load resistance RL is connected to bridge through points B and D.

Fig: Full Wave Bridge Rectifier – Circuit Diagram with Input and Output Wave
Forms

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During the first half cycle

During first half cycle of the input voltage, the upper end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the lower end. Thus during the first half cycle diodes D1 and
D3 are forward biased and current flows through arm AB, enters the load resistance RL, and
returns back flowing through arm DC. During this half of each input cycle, the diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biased and current is not allowed to flow in arms AD and BC. The flow of current is
indicated by solid arrows in the figure above. We have developed another diagram below to help
you understand the current flow quickly. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the
circuit.

Fig: Flow of current in Bridge Rectifier

During the second half cycle

During second half cycle of the input voltage, the lower end of the transformer secondary
winding is positive with respect to the upper end. Thus diodes D2 and D4 become forward
biased and current flows through arm CB, enters the load resistance RL, and returns back to the
source flowing through arm DA. Flow of current has been shown by dotted arrows in the figure.
Thus the direction of flow of current through the load resistance RL remains the same during
both half cycles of the input supply voltage. See the diagram below – the green arrows indicate
beginning of current flow from source (transformer secondary) to the load resistance. The red
arrows indicate return path of current from load resistance to the source, thus completing the
circuit.

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Fig: Path of current in 2nd Half Cycle

Peak Inverse Voltage of a Full wave bridge rectifier:

Lets analyze peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a full wave bridge rectifier using the circuit
diagram. At any instant when the transformer secondary voltage attains positive peak value
Vmax, diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷3 will be forward biased (conducting) and the diodes𝐷2 and 𝐷4 will be
reverse biased (non conducting). If we consider ideal diodes in bridge, the forward biased diodes
𝐷1 and 𝐷3 will have zero resistance. This means voltage drop across the conducting diodes will
be zero. This will result in the entire transformer secondary voltage being developed across load
resistance 𝑅𝐿 .
Thus PIV of a bridge rectifier = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 (max of secondary voltage)

Bridge Rectifier Circuit Analysis

The only difference in the analysis between full wave and centre tap rectifier is that

 In a bridge rectifier circuit two diodes conduct during each half cycle and the forward
resistance becomes double (2RF).

 In a bridge rectifier circuit Vs,max is the maximum voltage across the transformer
secondary winding whereas in a centre tap rectifier Vs,max represents that maximum
voltage across each half of the secondary winding.

The different parameters are explained with equations below:

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1.PEAK CURRENT
Instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier is given as

𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑐,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡

If the diode is assumed to have a forward resistance of RF ohms and a reverse resistance
equal to infinity, then current flowing through the load resistance is given as 𝑖1 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 and
𝑖2 = 0 for the first half cycle and 𝑖1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 for second half cycle.

The total current flowing through the load resistance RL, being the sum of currents𝑖1 and 𝑖2 is
given as i=𝑖1 + 𝑖2 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡 for the whole cycle Where peak value of the current flowing
𝑉
through the load resistance RL is given as 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑅𝑠,𝑚𝑎𝑥
+𝑅 𝑓 𝑙

2. Output Current
Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of the ac
cycle, magnitude of dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac current, can be
obtained by integrating the current i1 between 0 and pi or current i2 between pi and 2pi.

1 𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = ∫ [𝐼 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑡𝑑(𝑤𝑡)]
𝜋 0 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
𝜋

Output Current of Full Wave Rectifier

3. DC Output Voltage
Average or dc value of voltage across the load is given as

𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿

2
=
𝜋𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝐿

DC Output Voltage of Full Wave Rectifier

4. Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current

RMS or effective value of current flowing through the load resistance RL is given as

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

2
1 𝜋2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ 𝑖1 𝑑(𝑤𝑡)
𝜋 0

𝐼2
= 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
RMS Value of Current of Full Wave Rectifier

5. Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Output Voltage

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as

𝑉𝑙,𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝑙

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
=[ ]𝑅𝑙
√2
RMS Value of Output Voltage of Full Wave Rectifier

6. Rectification Efficiency

Power delivered to load,

2
𝑝𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
= (2 ) 𝑅𝐿
𝜋
4 2
=( )𝐼 𝑅
𝜋 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿
AC power input to the transformer,

𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎t𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐tion + Power dissipated in load resistance R L

2
2 2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝐹 + 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅𝐿 = { } [𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿 ]
2

So, rectification efficiency ,

4 2
(𝜋2 )𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝐿 𝟏
𝞰= 2 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑅
{ } [𝑅𝐹 + 𝑅𝐿 ] 1 + 𝐹⁄𝑅
2 𝐿

In case of bridge rectifier

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

𝟏
𝞰 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟐
2𝑅
1 + 𝐹⁄𝑅
𝐿

Rectification Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier

7. Ripple Factor

Form factor of the rectified output voltage of a full wave rectifier is given as

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝐾𝑓 =
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝐼
( 𝑚𝑎𝑥 )
= √2 ⁄ 2𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
( 𝜋 )

𝜋
= = 1.11
2√2

Ripple Factor of Full Wave Rectifier so, ripple factor, γ = 1.112 – 1) = 0.482

8. Regulation

The dc output voltage is given as

2 2𝑉𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝐿 2𝑉 𝑅
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑙 = = ⁄𝜋[𝑅 + 𝑅 ] = [ 𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐿⁄𝜋] − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐹
𝜋𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝑙 𝐹 𝐿

2𝑉𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅𝐿⁄

If it is bridge rectifier, 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = [ 𝜋] − 2𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐹

Regulation of Full Wave Rectifier

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Smoothing ripples

DC Smoothing Capacitor:

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

Figure Types of capacitors

A Smoothing Capacitor is used to generate ripple free DC. Smoothing capacitor is also
called Filter capacitor and its function is to convert half wave / full wave output of the rectifier
into smooth DC. The power rating and the capacitance are two important aspects to be
considered while selecting the smoothing capacitor. The power rating must be greater than the
off load output voltage of the power supply. The capacitance value determines the amount of
ripples that appear in the DC output when the load takes current.

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

Fig: Full Bridge Rectifier with smoothing Capacitor

With 50Hz AC input voltage, the output capacitor will have 50Hz ripple for a half wave rectified
circuit, and 120Hz ripple for a full wave rectified circuit. For the same rated output current, the
full wave rectified circuit will have half as much output ripple as the half wave rectified circuit.
The peak voltage of the ripple will be at the Zener voltage, which should be taken into
consideration when observing maximum and minimum voltage thresholds of the load.
The magnitude of voltage ripple will vary directly with the amount of load current; more load
current will result in a higher magnitude of voltage ripple. Simulation is recommended to
determine whether the expected ripple is acceptable.
For applications which generate greater-than-desired ripple, the output can be conditioned with
an LDO or small DC-DC power converter, both of which provide power supply ripple rejection
(PSRR). When using an LDO, the Zener should be about 1 to 2V above the LDO output voltage
to ensure that the minimum dropout limit is met.
When using a DC-DC converter on the output of the Transformer less power supply, there is an
opportunity to significantly vary the voltage being fed to the DC-DC converter, which allows for
greater output currents. With a Transformer less power supply, current is typically limited to a
few tens of mA because of resistive heat losses. The average maximum output current must flow

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

through a resistor (either input impedance resistor or inrush limiting resistor) with high voltage
across it, which can generate substantial heat on the order of watts.
If a step-down DC-DC converter is used on the output of a Transformer less power supply, a
higher output voltage (e.g. 24VDC ) can be reduced to the desired voltage (e.g. 3.0VDC)
efficiently, allowing more low voltage current to be available, even reasonably upwards of
100mA. In such applications, the heat generated by the Zener diode (under no-load conditions)
may then become the limiting constraint. This benefit, as well as the reduced output ripple,
should be considered against the higher cost of adding a DC-DC converter.

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Regulation
Zener Voltage Regulation

Fig: Appearance and symbol of zener diode

Zener diode is used to generate a regulated DC output. A Zener diode is designed to
operate in the reverse breakdown region. If a silicon diode is reverse biased, a point reached
where its reverse current suddenly increases. The voltage at which this occurs is known as
"Avalanche or Zener “value of the diode. Zener diodes are specially made to exploit the
avalanche effect for use in ‘Reference voltage ‘regulators. A Zener diode can be used to generate
a fixed voltage by passing a limited current through it using the series resistor (R). The Zener
output voltage is not seriously affected by R and the output remains as a stable reference voltage.
But the limiting resistor R is important, without which the Zener diode will be destroyed. Even if
the supply voltage varies, R will take up any excess voltage. The value of R can be calculated
using the formula

𝑽𝒊𝒏 − 𝑽𝒁
𝑹=
𝑰𝒛

Where Vin is the input voltage, Vz output voltage and Iz current through the Zener.
In most circuits, Iz is kept as low as 5mA. If the supply voltage is 18V, the voltage that is
to be dropped across R to get 12V output is 6volts. If the maximum Zener current allowed is 100

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

mA, then R will pass the maximum desired output current plus 5 mA . So the value of R appears
as
18 − 12
R=
105 ∗ 10−3
= 57Ω

Power rating of the Zener is also an important factor to be considered while selecting the Zener
diode. According to the formula P = IV. P is the power in watts, I current in Amps and V, the
voltage. So the maximum power dissipation that can be allowed in a Zener is the Zener voltage
multiplied by the current flowing through it. For example, if a 12V Zener passes 12 V DC and
100 mA current, its power dissipation will be 1.2 Watts. So a Zener diode rated 1.3W should be
used.
Zener Power Dissipation:

Fig. zener voltage regulator and waveforms

Waveforms:
𝑉𝑑 - output of rectifier
𝑉𝑜 -regulated output

The Zener will dissipate power in this circuit. In the worst case-scenario (when the load
current is zero) the maximum current for the Transformer less supply is being passed through the
Zener diode. The power dissipation in the Zener will be the Zener voltage multiplied by the rated
output current of the Transformer less supply. Thus, the higher the Zener voltage and the higher
the power rating of the supply, the more heat the Zener will generate.

𝑃𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑜𝑢,𝑚𝑎𝑥

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

It is critical to note the thermal properties of the Zener diodes to ensure they will meet
desired performance at the temperature they will operate at. If necessary, per-Zener power
dissipation can be reduced by using multiple Zener diodes in series, but this comes at the cost of
increased part count and board space claim.

Advantages:
Significantly small size and less weight than transformer based power supplies.

Lesser Cost than Transformer or Switcher based power supplies.

Lesser Cost than Capacitor Power Supply.

Capacitor Power Supply is more efficient than Resistive Transformer Less Power Supply.

Disadvantages:
Higher Cost when compared to a Resistive Power Supply.

No isolation from AC Mains which introduces many safety issues.

Resistive Power supplies are less efficient as the excess energy is losted in the form of heat across the
Voltage Dropping Resistor.

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Simulation of Transformer less power supply

Simulation Circuit:

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

Simulation Output Waveforms

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TRANSFORMER LESS POWER SUPPLY

 Supply voltage V =-100v to 100v

 Reduced output V =-10v to 10v
 Rectified output V = 0v to 10v
 Regulated output V = 0v to 5v

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