Module III MagneticProperties Notes-Final

Module III: Magnetic properties of materials
Module I: Magnetic Properties:

Introduction, fundamental definitions, classification of magnetic materials, Weiss theory of
ferromagnetism, domain theory of ferromagnetism, hysteresis, soft and hard magnetic
materials, eddy current losses, ferrites (structure and magnetic properties), Applications:
transformer cores, magneto-strictive sensors, data storage.
Introduction:
Greeks and Chinese discovered certain rare stones
referred as lodestones which were naturally
magnetized. These stones could attract small pieces of
iron (considered magic in olden times ) and were found
to always point in the same direction when allowed to
swing freely, suspended by a piece of string, or
floating on water. This property was used to navigate
or design of compass.
The name MAGNET comes from Magnesia, a district in Thessaly, Greece where it is
believed that the first lodestone was mined. Myth suggests that Greece navigated to
Troy using compass during Trojan War.
Over the years, magnets have evolved into the high

strength materials we have today. It was discovered
that by creating alloys of various materials we could
create similar effects to those found in the lodestone
rocks, and increase the level of magnetism.
It was not until the 18th century that the first man-
made magnets began to be created, and progress in
creating stronger magnetic alloys, which was very
slow until the 1920s when Alnico (an alloy of nickel, aluminum and cobalt) was
formulated.
Ferrites were created in the 1950s and the

Rare Earths in the 1970s. Since then, the
science of magnetism has exploded
exponentially, and extremely powerful
magnetic materials have made possible
miniature and powerful devices.
Dept. of Engineering Physics 1

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Fundamental Relationships
The Origins of Magnetism
All magnetic moments are produced by the angular momentum of electrons in the
atoms of solids, and there are two types of angular momentum for electrons in atoms:
orbital and spin.
An electron going round about the nucleus in an orbit produces a magnetic moment at
right angles to the plane of the orbit in the same way that an electric current flowing
in a closed loop of wire produces a magnetic moment at right angles to the plane of
the loop.
Electrons also have an intrinsic spin, which for simplicity can be thought of as
spinning about their own axes, as shown in below figure, and this adds to the total
magnetic moment of each electron.
MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF ELECTRONS
There are two kinds of electron motion, orbital and spin, and each has a magnetic
moment associated with it. The orbital motion of an electron around the nucleus may
be linked to a current in a loop of wire having no resistance; both are equivalent to a
circulation of charge. The magnetic moment of an electron, due to this motion, may
be calculated by an equation
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m = ( area of loop ) * ( current )
To evaluate m we must know the size and shape of the orbit and the electron velocity.
In the original (1913) Bohr theory of the atom, the electron moved with velocity v in a
circular orbit of radius r. In cgs units e is the charge on the electron in esu and c the
velocity of light, so e/c is the charge in emu. In SI units, the charge of the electron is
measured in coulombs. The current, or charge passing through a given point per unit
time, is then ev/2πr (SI). Therefore,
 ev  evr
=m ( orbit ) π= r2  
 2π r  2
An additional postulate of the theory was that the angular momentum of the electron
must be an integral multiple of h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant. Therefore,
m e vr = nh / 2π where m is the mass of the electron. Combining these relations, we
have
eh
m ( orbit ) =
4π m e
for the magnetic moment of the electron in the first (n = 1) Bohr orbit.
Bohr magneton: The Bohr magneton is defined as the intrinsic magnetic dipole
moment of an electron in the ground state, i.e. the state of lowest possible energy. It is
due to its inherent spin angular momentum.
eh
The Bohr magneton is defined in SI units by = mB = 9.27 ×10−24 A − m 2
4π m e
Electron spin magnetic moment:
The spin of the electron was postulated in 1925 in order to explain certain features of
the optical spectra of hot gases, particularly gases subjected to a magnetic field
(Zeeman effect), and it later found theoretical confirmation in wave mechanics. Spin
is a universal property of electrons in all states of matter at all temperatures. The
electron behaves as if it were in some sense spinning about its own axis, and
associated with this spin are definite amounts of magnetic moment and angular
momentum. It is found experimentally and theoretically that the magnetic moment
due to electron spin is equal to
The spin magnetic moment is intrinsic for an electron. It is given by

−g m S
m ( spin ) = s B

Here S is the electron spin angular momentum. The spin g-factor is approximately
two: gs ≈ 2. The magnetic moment of an electron is approximately twice what it
should be in classical mechanics. The factor of two implies that the electron appears
to be twice as effective in producing a magnetic moment as the corresponding
classical charged body.

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The spin magnetic dipole moment is approximately one mB because g ≈ 2 and the

mB
electron is a spin one-half particle: S = ħ/2. So, m ( spin ) ≈ 2 2=mB

The Concept of Magnetic Poles
Poles are fictitious points near the end of a magnet where one might consider all the
magnetic forces on the magnet to be concentrated.
Magnetic Dipole
A dipole consists of two magnetic poles of opposite polarity and equal strength,
separated by a small distance.
Magnetic dipole moment:
Isolated magnetic poles have never been observed in nature, but occur instead in
pairs, one pole being positive, the other negative. Such a pair is called a dipole. The
magnetic moment of a dipole is defined as m = pl
where m is a vector directed from the negative pole to the positive pole.
Its unit is A-m2
The magnetic moment of a current carrying circular loop is given as m = nia .

Where n - number of turns; i- current in the loop, a- area of cross-section of the loop.
Magnetic field intensity H:
Magnetic field H is defined as the force the pole exerts on a unit positive pole, or
 µ p
H = o 2 rˆ
4π r
In general magnetic fields are produced by currents so, based on Biot-Savart’s law or
Ampere’s law the intensity of magnetic field can be defined.
The magnetic field generated by an electrical circuit is given by Ampere’s circuital

law
 
∫ .dl = i
H
That is, the total current, i, is equal to the line integral of the magnetic field, H, around
a closed path containing the current. Its unit is A/m.
Magnetic Induction, B
The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density in magnitude is defined as the

magnetic flux Φ B per unit area, i.e.,

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B = ΦB / A
Magnetization
Magnetization M is decribed as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume, and
given by the following expression M = m / V .
Saturation magnetization:
If a material has n elementary atomic magnetic dipoles per unit volume each of
magnetic moment m then the magnetic moment per unit volume of the material when
all these moments are aligned parallel is termed the saturation magnetization Mo. This
is equal to the product of n and m.
Susceptibility: The magnetization produced in the material per unit applied magnetic
field.
It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization produced in the sample to
the magnetic field which produced the magnetization.
χ = M/ H
Materials having high susceptibility are easily magnetized.
Permeability
Permeability, also called magnetic permeability, is a constant of proportionality that
exists between magnetic induction and magnetic field intensity.
It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic induction in the sample to the magnetic field
intensity.
B
µ=
H
Where μ is called magnetic permeability
Relative permeability ( μr ):
It is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability of free
space.
If µo represents the permeability of free space (that is, 1.257 x 10-6 H/m) and µ
represents the permeability of the substance in question (also specified in henrys per
meter), then the relative permeability, µr, is given by: µr = µ / µo = µ (7.958 x 105)
Units SI system
o in SI, for force of 1 Newton and 1 unit pole strength: A/m (H), or Tesla (B)
B magnetic induction tesla T
H magnetic field amperes per meter A/m
M magnetic dipole moment per unit volume amperes per meter A/m
Relation between M, H and B

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Let us consider a bar magnet with flux density Φ at the center, dipole length l, and
with cross sectional area A has magnetic moment given by m= φl/μo.
The magnetization of the bar magnet is therefore :

M=m/Al
and
So,
M= φ/ μo A = B/μo.
In this case there are conventional currents present to generate magnetic fields.
The magnetic induction in free space is μo H.
If external magnetic field H is also present, then the total magnetic induction in the
material is given by
B= μo H+ μoM
where
B is in tesla,
H and M are in amps per metre.
The above equation which relates these three basic magnetic quantities is true under
all circumstances.
The magnetic field H is generated by electrical currents outside the material either
from a solenoid or electromagnet, or from a permanent magnet. The magnetization M
is generated by the resultant (uncompensated) spin and orbital angular momentum of
electrons within the solid.
From,
B= μo H+ μoM
and
M = χ H,
we can write
B= μo H+ μo χ H
It leads to B= μo (1+ χ ) H.
From the relation between magnetic induction and magnetic field, i.e. B=μ. H,
We can write permeability μ= μo (1+ χ ) and relative permeability µr = µ / µo=1+ χ

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On the basis of their magnetic properties different materials are classified as:
Nature Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic Anti-ferromagnetic
Definition It is a material in which It is a materials in which It is a material in which It is very special case of Spins alignment in an
there is no permanent there is permanent dipole there enormous ferromagnetic or antiparallel manner in
dipole moment or moment or magnetic permanent dipole antiferromagnetic in which neighboring magnetic
magnetic moment in moment in each atom. The moment or magnetic antiparallel moments are of ions resulting in zero
each atom. The induced induced magnetic moment moment in each atom. different magnetiude and a magnetization
magnetic moment produced in these materials The induced magnetic large magnetization arises.
produced in these during the application of the moment produced during
materials during the external magnetic field the application of the
application of the increases the magnetic external magnetic field is
external magnetic field induction present in the very large and it
decreases the magnetic specimen. increases the magnetic
induction present in the induction present in the
specimen. specimen.
Susceptibility It is always negative and It is always positive and It is always positive and Magnitude of susceptibility is Magnitude of
and it is negative and it is small and it is inversely large and it depends very large and positive. susceptibility is small
temperature independent of the proportional to absolute upon temperature in a Temperature dependence of and positive. At T=0, the
dependence temperature and temperature of the material. complex manner. susceptibility : At T > TN net spin magnetic
strength of applied moment of an A site
magnetic field also. atoms is equal and
C
χ= opposite to the net spin
T ±θ magnetic moment of B
site atoms. Therefore,
χ=0. As the temperature
increases, current

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increases leads to
positive small value of
susceptibility for these
materials. Susceptibility
varies with temperature.
C
χ=
T +θ
Behavior of the The magnetic lines of Magnetic lines of force are Magnetic lines of force These are composed of two or Opposite alignment of
material in the force are repelled attracted towards the centre are highly attracted more sets of different tranition adjacent magnetic
presence of of the material towards the centre of the metal ions. There are different moments in a solid is
magnetic field. material number of ions in each set. produced by an
Due to that, unlike exchange interaction
antiferromagnetics, there is a which is unfavorable.
net large magnetization
Spin or No Spin align magnetic All spins or magnetic All spins or magnetic Antiparallel alignment of spins Antiparallel alignment of
magnetic moment moments are randomly moments are oriented. but donot cancel spins
moment oriented further classification are
alignment based on spin alignment
causes thus further
differentiating for
antiferro magnetic
,ferrimagnetic are special
cases

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Origin Arises from the Larmor Arises from the magnetic Arises from the Arises due to indirect Arises due to indirect
precession of the moment orientation along spontaneous exchange interaction between exchange interaction
electronic orbits in the the external magnetic field magnetization due to ions having net spin moment between ions having net
presence of applied direction and magnetic local molecular magnetic spin moment
magnetic field moments orientation is field which arises from
largely determined by exchange interaction
temperature and applied between unpaired
magnetic field. electrons of adjacent
atoms.
Magnetic phase At low temperatures the When the temperature of When the temperature of When the temperature of Neel temperature is the
transitions superconductors are material is less than its material is greater than material is greater than its Neel temperature at which
prefect diamagnetic. curie temperature it is its curie temperature it is temperature it is converted into susceptibility of the
When we increase it converted into diamagnetic converted into paramagnetic. material maximum.
temperature beyond its substance. But paramagnetic. The Initially susceptibility
critical temperature paramagnetic Curie ferromagnetic Curie increases slightly as the
beyond its critical temperature is very low temperature is very high. temperature increase
temperature (100K) and beyond Neel
diamagnetism suddenly temperature the
disappears and then it susceptibility decreases
behaves like a normal with the temperature.
material.

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Weiss theory of Ferromagnetism

Weiss postulated that the elementary moments do interact with one another and
suggested that this interaction could be expressed in terms of a fictitious internal field
which he called the “molecular field” Hm and which acted in addition to the applied
field H.
In the ferromagnetic material, there will be regions where the moments are
magnetized spontaneously, which give rise to internal magnetic field.
Weiss assumed that the intensity of the molecular field was directly proportional to
the magnetization: H m = λM
where λ is called the molecular field constant. Internal magnetic field acts to align
magnetic moments inside the domain.
In the presence of external magnetic field, the total field acting on the material is
H=
t H + Hm
In case of paramagnetic substances, the theory of Langevin gives Curie law which
nµ m 2 H
written as M = o
3kT
But in the ferromagnetic material, magnetic field H in this expression must now be
replaced by H=
t H + Hm and so the magnetization is given by
nµ o m 2 ( H + H m )
M=
3kT
M
The relation between magnetic field and magnetization is χ =
H
C
Solving for M and susceptibility χ we get χ=
(T −θ )
Therefore, θ (= Cλ) is a measure of the strength of the interaction because it is
C
proportional to the molecular field constant γ. Curie–Weiss law, χ = which
(T −θ )
many paramagnetic materials obey.
If θ is positive, so is λ, which means that Hm and M are in the same direction or that
the molecular field aids the applied field in magnetizing the substance.
Above its Curie temperature Tc a ferromagnet becomes paramagnetic, and its

susceptibility then follows the Curie–Weiss law, with a value of θ approximately
equal to Tc. The value of χm is therefore large and positive (over 1000K for iron), and
so is the molecular field coefficient.
This fact led Weiss to make the bold and brilliant assumption that a molecular field
acts in a ferromagnetic substance below its Curie temperature as well as above, and
that this field is so strong that it can magnetize the substance to saturation even in the
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absence of an applied field. The substance is then self-saturating, or “spontaneously

magnetized.”
The resulting relationship Ms=Ms(T) behaves like in below figure.
The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred
to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material

while the magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been
previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed
line as H is increased.
As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger
the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic
domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce
very little increase in magnetic flux.
The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero,
the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some
magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This
is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or
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level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain
aligned but some have lost their alignment.)
As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has
been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed
magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the
material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the
material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H
to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal
to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will
return B to zero.
Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is
required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from
point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
Domain theory of ferromagnetism

Weiss proposed the concept of domains to explain the hysteresis effects observed in
ferromagnetic materials as well as to explain the properties of ferromagnetic
materials.
Domain: A region in a ferro or ferri magnetic material where all the magnetic
moments are aligned is called a domain.
So, a ferromagnetic material is divided up into these small regions, each of which is at
all times completely magnetized. The direction of magnetization, however varies from
domain to domain and thus the net macroscopic magnetization is zero in the absence
of external magnetic field.
Consider an unmagnetised specimen in which each domain is spontaneously

magnetized. The direction of magnetization is as shown in figure a

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When the external magnetic field is applied onto the ferromagnetic substance, in the
initial stages of magnetization the domains having moments parallel to the magnetic
field increase in area as shown if figure b.
If the magnetic field is further increased other domains are rotated parallel to the field
as shown in figure c.
Similarly if the material is demagnetized the regular domain arrangement is changed
and it is different from the original state. This creates the hysteresis in the
ferromagnetic substance.
Further this theory can explain the following:
1. if a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will be a magnet with a north
pole and south pole. This is because the domains continue to remain in broken
pieces.
2. Domains of soft iron are easily rotated with a comparatively small
magnetizing force and hence they get very easily magnetized or demagnetized.
In case of steel a large force is required for rotating the domains which
explains the high retentivity of that material.
3. The magnetostrictive effect seen when a material is magnetized is due to
alignment of domains inside the material.
Domain theory of hysteresis
The domain picture is a good one for ferromagnetic solids, when the domain size is
much greater than the domain wall width. Domain wall motion and domain rotation
are the two basic magnetization processes in any multidomain solid.
For small external fields, the domains that have a direction closest to that of the
applied field grow at the expense of the other domains. Such growth occurs by motion
of the domain walls. Initially domain wall motion is reversible, and if the applied field
is removed the magnetisation will return to the initial demagnetised state. In this
region the magnetisation curve is reversible and therefore does not show hysteresis.
If the field is further increased, the domains grow overcoming the crystal
imperfections and so turning the field of will not drive the walls back; the movement
is irreversible.

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Further increase in magnetisation can occur by this domain rotating away from the
easy direction to an orientation parallel to that of the externally applied field.
Finally, saturation is reached. All magnetic dipoles are fully oriented in field
direction, no further increase is possible.
‘Soft’ and ‘hard’ magnets
Soft Magnetic materials Hard Magnetic material
Magnetic materials which are easily Magnetic materials which are once
magnetized and demagnetized are known magnetized, are able to resist the
as soft magnetic materials demagnetization action of applied field.
They are characterized by thin hysteresis

Characterized by broad hysteresis loop,
loops
These materials posses high
High coercivity, high remanence, small
permeability, low coercivity, low
permeability.
retentivity.
Smaller area of hysteresis loop Larger area of hysteresis loop shows part
represents low amount energy lost as heat
of energy of the applied field is
during a cycle of magnetization and converted into potential energy which is
demagnetization. stored inside the material.
Higher coercivity (Hc) shows that the
Lower coercivity values shows easy
domain wall movement is difficult owing
movement of domain walls with respect
to crystal imperfection and is irreversible
to magnetic field.
in nature.
These materials are free from In these materials, the iregularties like
irregularities like impurities. mechanical strains will be more.
Magnetic potential energy of the hard
Lower power consumption makes soft
materials deliver magnetic flux into a
magnetic material, an effective material
region of space, with no expenditure of
to be used at high frequency applications.
energy
Output/power transformers, ferrites, Permanent magnets, loud speakers,
electromagnetic, power transformers, etc. microphones, Generators etc.
Materials: Soft iron, Ni-Fe(permalloy),

Cobalt, AlNiCo, SmCo5, NdFeB etc.
Ni-Zn ferrites, Mn-Zn ferrites,

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Eddy Current Losses:

Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing
magnetic field in the conductor, due to Faraday's law of induction. Eddy currents flow
in closed loops within conductors, in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field.
They can be induced within nearby stationary conductors by a time-varying magnetic

field created by an AC electromagnet or transformer, for example, or by relative
motion between a magnet and a nearby conductor.
The magnitude of the current in a given loop is proportional to the strength of the
magnetic field, the area of the loop, and the rate of change of flux, and inversely
proportional to the resistivity of the material.
By Lenz's law, an eddy current creates a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic
field that created it, and thus eddy currents react back on the source of the magnetic
field. For example, a nearby conductive surface will exert a drag force on a moving
magnet that opposes its motion, due to eddy currents induced in the surface by the
moving magnetic field.
The current flowing through the resistance of the conductor also dissipates energy as
heat in the material. Thus eddy currents are a cause of energy loss in alternating
current (AC) inductors, transformers, electric motors and generators, and other AC
machinery.
Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

We = K e f 2 t 2 B2m V watts
Where, Ke = Eddy current constant, Bm is the magnetic flux density inside the
material, f is the frequency of alternating magnetic field, t – thickness of the
lamination, V- volume of magnetic materials.
Eddy currents are the root cause of the skin effect in conductors carrying AC
current. Similarly, in magnetic materials of finite conductivity eddy currents cause the
confinement of the majority of the magnetic fields to only a couple skin depths of the
surface of the material. This effect limits the flux linkage in inductors and
transformers having magnetic cores.
In order to reduce the eddy current loss, the resistance of the core should be increased.
In devices like transformers, the core is made up of laminations of iron. ie,the core is
made up of thin sheets of steel, each lamination being insulated from others.
As the laminations are thin, they will have relatively high resistance. The eddy current
loss is proportional to f2. So at higher frequencies, the eddy current loss is very high.
Under such conditions, the use of lamination sheets are not enough.
For this type of application, ferrite cores or iron dust cores are used.
Using these materials, the eddy currents are limited to individual grains, so the eddy
current loss is reduced considerably.

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Among the possibilities to reduce eddy current losses ferrimagnetic materials prove to
be the best. They are mostly oxides having high electrical resistivity and good
magnetic permeability which is stable upto very high frequencies.
Ferrite (structure and magnetization)
Ferrimagnetic substances are often referred to as ferrites, are ionic oxide crystals
whose chemical composition is of the form MFe2O4, where M signifies divalent
metal. These crystallize into spinel structure as shown in figure.
Crystal structure of ferrite
The spinel lattice has been composed of eight molecules of AB2O4 with a close-
packed oxygen arrangement in which 32 oxygen ions form a unit cell leaving 96
interstitial sites.
Out of these 96 interstitial sites, 64 are tetrahedral (A) sites and 32 are octahedral [B]
sites.
Each tetrahedral site is coordinated with 4 nearest neighbouring oxygen ions whereas
each octahedral site is coordinated with 6 nearest neighbouring oxygen ions.

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Not all of the available sites are actually occupied by metal ions. Only one-eighth of
the A sites and one-half of the B sites are occupied, as shown in Table.
Ferrites can be divided into three kinds on the basis of occupancy of divalent and
trivalent ions between the tetrahedral and octahedral sites.
(i) Normal Ferrites
(ii) Inverse Ferrites
(iii) Mixed Ferrites
In normal ferrites, the tetrahedral sites have been occupied by only the divalent ions
and the octahedral sites are occupied by the trivalent ions only. In general, the
distribution of ions has been represented by (A2+) [B3+] O4. The parenthesis
represents the ions on A-sites and the closed bracket signs represents for ions on B-
sites.
Ex: Zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) and cadmium ferrite (CdFe2O4)
In inverse ferrites, eight out of sixteen trivalent ions (iron ions) have been occupied by
tetrahedral sites and the octahedral sites have been occupied by both eight divalent
ions and the remaining eight trivalent ions. Distribution for this type of ferrites has
been represented as (B3+) [A2+ B3+] O4.
Ex: Nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) and cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4)

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For mixed ferrites, both A and B sites have been occupied both by divalent and
trivalent ions. The ionic distribution in this case can be represented by the general
formula
( Ax2+ B13−+x )[ A12−+x B13++x ]O42−

Ex: Manganese-Zinc ferrites and Nickel-Zinc ferrites
Saturation Magnetization in ferrites:

Magnetization in ferrites is due to indirect exchange interaction between metal ions at
A and B – sites through oxygen ions. This indirect interaction makes the spins of A –
site metal ions to be antiparallel to that of the spins at B- sites.
We can calculate the saturation magnetization of a ferrite at 0K, knowing (a) the
moment on each ion, (b) the distribution of the ions between A and B sites, and (c) the
fact that the exchange interaction between A and B sites is negative. Actually, the AB,
AA, and BB interactions all tend to be negative, but they cannot all be negative
simultaneously. The AB interaction is usually the strongest, so that all the A moments
are parallel to one another and antiparallel to the B moments.
The net magnetic moment of spinel ferrite is given by Mnet = MB-MA.
Let us consider the example of nickel ferrite. The structure is inverse, with all the Ni2+
ions in B sites and the Fe3+ ions evenly divided between A and Bsites.
The moments of the Fe3+ ions therefore cancel, and the net moment is simply that of
the Ni2+ ion, which is 2μB.
Applications of magnetic materials
Transformer cores:
Transformers comprises number of parts working together for effective transmission
of energy. Magnetic core which forms bulk of the transformer is a piece of magnetic
material with high permeability used to confine and regulate the magnetic fields in
electrical devices.
Composition of the transformer core depends on the voltage, current and frequency
applied and usually made of ferromagnetic metals such as iron, or ferrimagnetic
material such as ferrites.
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The high magnetic permeability relative to the surrounding air, causes the magnetic
field lines to be concentrated in the core material. The magnetic field is often created
by a coil carrying current wounded around the core.
The presence of core increases the magnetic field of the coil by a factor of several
thousand over what without the core.
Steel Laminated cores:

A transformer whose core is constructed of laminated sheets of steel dissipates heat
readily; thus it provides for the efficient transfer of power.
These steel laminations are insulated with a non conducting material, such as varnish,
and then formed into a core.
It takes about 50 such laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose of the
laminations is to reduce certain losses which will be discussed later in this part.
An important point to remember is that the most efficient transformer core is one that
offers the best path for the most lines of flux with the least loss in magnetic and
electrical energy.
The most popular and efficient transformer core is the SHELL CORE, as illustrated in
figure. As shown, each layer of the core consists of E- and I-shaped sections of metal.
These sections are butted together to form the laminations. The laminations are
insulated from each other and then pressed together to form the core.

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Toroidal cores:
Toroidal transformers are built around a ring-shaped core, which, depending on
operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel or permalloy wound
into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.
A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctance. The closed
ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent in the construction of an E-I core.
The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire
surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed and provides screening
to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference.
Toroidal core are more efficient at handling the same energy kind of energy load then
steel laminated E – shaped cores and can be smaller, lighter and with a low magnetic
field. Winding tends to be more expensive for toroidal core.
Magnetostrictive sensors
Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change
their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization.
The variation of materials' magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes
the magnetostrictive strain until reaching its saturation value, λ.
Magnetostrictive materials convert magnetic energy to mechanical energy and vice-

versa. As a magnetostrictive material is magnetized, it strains.
If an external force produces a strain in a magnetostrictive material, the material’s

magnetic state will change. This bi-directional coupling between the magnetic and
mechanical states of the material provides a transduction capability that can be used in
a variety of ways to measure a property of interest.

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Passive sensors rely on magnetomechanical coupling to link a measurable change in

the magnetostrictive material to the external property or condition of interest.
A coil flux-linked to the magnetostrictive sample can be used to measure changes in

magnetic flux. Quantities such as external load, force, pressure, vibration, and flow
rates can then be measured.
Active sensors use an internal excitation of the magnetostrictive element to facilitate

some measurement of the magnetostrictive element that changes with the external
property of interest. The most common active sensor design is the noncontact torque
sensor.
Some of the advantages of noncontact magnetostrictive torque sensors include

minimal target requirement, rapid response, good stability, good accuracy in
conjunction with high sensitivity, and capacity to withstand overloads. Noncontact
torque sensors are advantageous because implementation is simple and fast.
These torque sensors are traditionally based on the Villari effect, where a torque
induced change in stress in the target causes a change in the magnetization of a
magnetostrictive element in the sensor–target system.
This change in magnetization can be measured directly (passive), or as a change in

permeability measured under an active excitation.
(Villari effect: Inverse magnetostrictive effect- when a magnetized material is

stressed, then the magnetic field surrounding the material will change)
Noncontact torque sensor with excitation and detection coils around the legs of a C-
shaped ferromagnetic core
Data storage
Data storage devices are an integral part of modern electronic gadgets. There are two
kinds of data storage devices:
1. Semiconductor memories: These are volatile.
2. Magnetic memories: They are permanent and non volatile.

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Magnetic memories have been very common storage media. They are called disk or
cartridge. The process of storing data in a memory unit is called writing and process
of retrieving is reading.
Magnetic storage devices are coated with iron oxide which is ferromagnetic material.
These media are usually inserted into a mechanical device called drive, which
connects to the computer. The drive uses a motor to rotate the media at a high speed.
The stored information is accessed using small devices called heads.
Head consists of tiny electromagnet which is iron core wrapped with wire.
While writing, the signal is sent through the coil of wire. This magnetic flux generated
magnetizes the oxide on the media resulting in permanent storage. While reading,
head captures variations in magnetic signal, which are passed to the computer as
binary data.
Hard disk
A flat and circular magnetic disk called a platter, coated with magnetic iron
oxide particles is used to store information on hard disk. Platter also has a read-write
head that can hover over its surface.
A hard disk is one or more platters along with their read-write heads. Information is
recorded in the form of bands. A track refers to each band of information on a
particular disk. These tracks are divided into sectors. Tracks are arranged in
concentrated rings to speed up data access across well separated tracks or sectors.
The magnetic disk rotates while the head remains a fraction of millimeter above the
surface of the disk. The drive is sealed to prevent the dust particles from settling on
the magnetic disk.

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Questions for conceptual understanding:
1. Explain the terms:

a. Magnetic induction,
b. Magnetic susceptibility,
c. Permeability of a medium
d. Intensity of magnetization.
e. Diamagnetism
f. Paramagnetism
g. Ferromagnetism
2.Define the terms magnetic induction (B), magnetization (M) and magnetic field (H).
Obtain an expression relating to these quantities.
3. Explain the characteristics of Para magnetic, Dia magnetic and Ferro magnetic
substances with examples.
4.Explain in detail about Weiss theory of ferromagnetism.
5. Explain hysteresis curve in detail. Discuss about hard and soft magnetic materials.
6. What are ferrites? Describe the structure of Ferrites?
7.Give an account of the domain structure in magnetic materials? On the basis of the
domain theory, explain the properties of hysteresis loop.
8. What are ferromagnetic materials? Discuss the importance of hysteresis curve.

How would you use the hysteresis curve for selecting the material for the
construction of a permanent magnet?
9. Explain the significance of Curie temperature for a ferromagnetic material.
10. Explain the applications of magnetic materials: a) transformer cores; b)

magnetostrictive sensor; c) data storage.
11. What are eddy current losses? How these can be reduced?
12. Explain the domain theory of ferromagnetism.
Short Questions.
1. What is Bohr magneton? Give its value.

2. On the basis of spin how the magnetic materials are classified?
3. What is Dia magnetism?
4. What is para magnetism?
5. What is Ferro magnetism?
6. What is anti Ferro magnetism?
7. What are Ferrites?
8. What do you understand by the term magnetic domains?
9. What is magnetic hysteresis?
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10. Define coercivity and Retentivity.

11. What is domain theory of ferromagnetism?
12. Distinguish between soft and hard magnets.
Problems with Solutions:
1. Magnetic susceptibility of silicon is −0.4 ×10−5 . Calculate the flux density and
magnetic moment per unit volume when magnetic field of intensity
5 ×105 A is applied.
m
Sol: χ =−0.4 ×10−5
We need to use
= B µ ( H + M )
= µ H (1 + χ )
= ( 4π ×10 ) × 5 ×10 (1 − 0.4 ×10 )
−7 5 −5
= B 0.62 Wb ⋅ m −2
For Magnetic moment per unit volume which is magnetization, we use
M = χH
M =−0.4 ×10−5 × 5 ×105
−2 A ⋅ m −1
M=
2. Magnetic susceptibility of a medium is 940 ×10−4 . Calculate absolute and

relative permeability.
Soln.
Relative permeability is given as
µr = 1 + χ
µr =
1 + (940 ×10−5 )
µr = 1.094
Absolute permeability is given as
µ = µ µ r
µ=
 4π ×10−7
µ =( 4π ×10−7 ) ×1.094
µ =13.74 ×10−7 N ⋅ A −2
3. Find effective magnetic moment of the dipole at 200 K in a paramagnetic

2 ×105 A ⋅ m −1 .
material when it is kept in a magnetic field H =
Soln:

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Let the magnetic moment for the material with magnetization (M) with dipole
density (n) can be written as
M µ H µ B2
=
n kT
M ( 4π ×10 ) × ( 2 ×10 ) × ( 9.27 ×10 )
−7 5 −27 2
=
n (1.38 ×10−23 ) × 200
M
1.95 ×10−27 A ⋅ m −2
=
n
4. Saturation Value of magnetization of iron is 1.76 ×106 A ⋅ m −1 .Iron has body


centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 A .Calculate the
average number of Bohr magnetons contributed to the magnetization per atom.
Sol:
eh
1 Bohr magnetons = = 9.27 ×10−27 A ⋅ m 2
2m

Iron has body centered cubic structure with an elementary edge of 2.86 A ,
then
2
N=
( 2.86 ×10 −10 m )
3
Formula:
M=
s N ×µ
Ms
µ=
N
1.76 ×106 A ⋅ m −1
µ=
 
 2 
 ( 2.86 ×10 −10 m )3 
 
µ = 20.586 ×10−24 A ⋅ m 2
In terms of Bohr Magnetons,

20.586 ×10−24 A ⋅ m 2
µ=
9.27 ×10−27 A ⋅ m 2
µ = 2.22 µ B

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Module III MagneticProperties Notes-Final

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Module III: Magnetic properties of materials

Module I: Magnetic Properties:

Over the years, magnets have evolved into the high

Ferrites were created in the 1950s and the

Dept. of Engineering Physics 1

MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF ELECTRONS

m = ( area of loop ) * ( current )

Electron spin magnetic moment:

The spin magnetic moment is intrinsic for an electron. It is given by

Dept. of Engineering Physics 3

Magnetic dipole moment:

The magnetic moment of a current carrying circular loop is given as m = nia .

Magnetic field intensity H:

The magnetic field generated by an electrical circuit is given by Ampere’s circuital

The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density in magnitude is defined as the

Dept. of Engineering Physics 4

Relation between M, H and B

Dept. of Engineering Physics 5

The magnetization of the bar magnet is therefore :

The magnetic induction in free space is μo H.

H and M are in amps per metre.

Dept. of Engineering Physics 6

Nature Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic Anti-ferromagnetic

Dept. of Engineering Physics 7

Dept. of Engineering Physics 8

Dept. of Engineering Physics 9

Weiss theory of Ferromagnetism

Above its Curie temperature Tc a ferromagnet becomes paramagnetic, and its

absence of an applied field. The substance is then self-saturating, or “spontaneously

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material

Domain theory of ferromagnetism

Consider an unmagnetised specimen in which each domain is spontaneously

Dept. of Engineering Physics 12

Further this theory can explain the following:

Domain theory of hysteresis

Dept. of Engineering Physics 13

‘Soft’ and ‘hard’ magnets

Soft Magnetic materials Hard Magnetic material

They are characterized by thin hysteresis

Materials: Soft iron, Ni-Fe(permalloy),

Dept. of Engineering Physics 14

Eddy Current Losses:

They can be induced within nearby stationary conductors by a time-varying magnetic

Eddy current loss in transformer is denoted as,

Dept. of Engineering Physics 15

Ferrite (structure and magnetization)

Crystal structure of ferrite

Dept. of Engineering Physics 16

Dept. of Engineering Physics 17

( Ax2+ B13−+x )[ A12−+x B13++x ]O42−

Saturation Magnetization in ferrites:

Applications of magnetic materials

Steel Laminated cores:

Dept. of Engineering Physics 19

Magnetostrictive materials convert magnetic energy to mechanical energy and vice-

If an external force produces a strain in a magnetostrictive material, the material’s

Dept. of Engineering Physics 20

Passive sensors rely on magnetomechanical coupling to link a measurable change in

A coil flux-linked to the magnetostrictive sample can be used to measure changes in

Active sensors use an internal excitation of the magnetostrictive element to facilitate

Some of the advantages of noncontact magnetostrictive torque sensors include

This change in magnetization can be measured directly (passive), or as a change in