Int J Ment Health Addiction (2017) 15:350–355

DOI 10.1007/s11469-017-9730-6

B R I E F R E P O RT

University Student Attitudes Toward Illicit Drug Use

and Trafficking in Russia

Valentina Gritsenko 1 & Yulia Gavronova 2 &

Olga Khalepo 3 & Alexander Reznik 4 & Richard Isralowitz 4

Published online: 9 January 2017

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2017

Abstract This article deals with research of Russian university student attitudes toward drug
use. Research was conducted in 2015; and, 150 students from Smolensk universities took part.
The sample consists of three age groups of students: 17–18, 19, and 20 years and older. Study
results show students view people with addiction in a negative context - weak, stupid,
unreliable, and unhappy. Also, attitudes reflect support for extreme punishment of drug
traffickers for drug distribution blaming Roma BGypsies.^ Age of the student respondents
was a significant factor affecting attitudes – older students have a more negative attitude about
people with addiction and are more inclined to call for harsh punishment. Study results provide
usable information for drug policy, education and prevention efforts in Russia.

Keywords Drug use . Addiction . Attitudes . Drug trafficking . Russian university students

Drug abuse is a serious problem in modern Russia. According to estimates, there are 8.5
million drug addicts or nearly 6% of the country’s total population (Sputnik 2013). Russia is a
consumer of cheap heroin particularly coming from Afghanistan (UNODC 2016). The
principal method of heroin and opiate use is through injection. Russia and the Ukraine
dominate the world in the number of injecting drug users (UNODC 2016). This has signifi-
cantly contributed to the growth of HIV-infected people. The HIV-infected population in
Russia is estimated to be about 1 to 1.5 million people. This is more than 1% of the country’s
total population that is higher than in any other country in Europe, except Estonia that has a
percentage of 1.2% (Broomfield 2016).

* Valentina Gritsenko
gritsenko2006@yandex.ru

1
Smolensk University for Humanities, Smolensk, Russia
2
Smolensk State University, Smolensk, Russia
3
Smolensk State Medical University, Smolensk, Russia
4
Regional Alcohol and Drug Abuse Research Center, Ben Gurion University, Beer Sheva, Israel
Int J Ment Health Addiction (2017) 15:350–355 351

In spite of wide spread government recognition, drug use policy and intervention efforts are
recognized as ineffective (Galeotti 2015). Recognition of this situation has resulted in the
abolishment of the Federal Drug Control Service of the Russian Federation responsible for
addressing the problem for the past decade (The President of Russia 2016).
In many countries, the drug problem receives detailed research and open discussion
(Hanson et al. 2009; Isralowitz and Myers 2011; Maisto et al. 2011). This makes it possible
to identify trends and address policy and intervention needs (Center for Behavioral Health
Statistics and Quality 2015; EMCDDA 2016; Johnston et al. 2016; Miech et al. 2016).
However, this is not the case in Russia where there is a dearth of research and no national
surveys. Available publications, including those of a scientific nature appearing in international
journals, tend to be limited to statistics of people with addiction receiving medical treatment
(Ivanova et al. 2012; Krupitsky et al. 2013).
This present study focuses on Russian university student attitudes and perceptions of people
with addiction, drug distributors and punishment. The students involved in the study cohort are
those from Smolensk – a city of about 330,000 people located about 400 km west of Moscow.

Methods

Participants

This cross sectional study was conducted in 2015. University students (n = 150) from
Smolensk University for Humanities; Smolensk State University and Smolensk State
Medical University participated. The study cohort included of 74 (49.3%) men and 76
(50.7%) women. Participation in this study was voluntary and anonymous; and, the research
was approved by the ethics committee of the participating universities.

Data Collection

Multiple, valid and reliable, instruments were used for data collection. The BSemantic
Differential^ instrument (Osgood 1952) was used to determine student attitudes toward the
Btypical^ drug addict. This method included a set of 12 positive and negative characteristics
(e.g., Bstrong-weak^, Bsmart-stupid^, Bkind-cruel^) used to describe an addict on a 7-point
Likert scale. The BSemantic Differential^ instrument used for the study was found reliable
(Cronbach alpha = 0.92).
Other questionnaires, developed at Smolensk University for Humanities, were used to
determine students’ attitudes toward punishment for drug dealers and those responsible for
drug distribution. Demographic information was collected on the gender, age and academic
study area of the student respondents. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS version 22 and
included the use of t-test, χ2 test and one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA).

Results

The average age among study participants is 19.1 years (SD = 1.1) with no significant
difference among males and females. For analysis purposes, respondents were divided into
three age groups: 17–18 years (n = 47); 19 years (n = 51), 20 years and older (n = 52).
352 Int J Ment Health Addiction (2017) 15:350–355

Strong 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Weak
Smart 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stupid
Reliable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unreliable
Rich 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Poor
Active 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Passive
Kind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cruel
Hopeful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Despairing
Brave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Coward
Authoritative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rejected
Masterful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Submissive
Happy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unhappy
Sociable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unsociable
Fig. 1 University student perception Bsemantic profile^ of a drug addict

Figure 1 shows BSemantic Differential^ results. Few significant differences were found
based on gender status; however, females were inclined to portray people with addiction as
being stupid and unhappy (p < .05). Mean value for the 12 scales is 5.36 (SD = 0.84).
Tables 1 and 2 provide information on student attitudes about punishment for drug
traffickers. Based on their gender status and academic field of study, no significant differences
were found.
One-way ANOVA shows punishment type linked to student impression of people with
addiction (F2, 147 = 59.07; p < .001). More negative perceptions were linked to more severe
punishment attitudes (e.g., death penalty). Also, respondents’ age was linked to perception of
people with addiction. Older students had more negative perceptions (F2, 147 = 28.99; p < .001).
Test χ2 reveals choice of drug trafficker punishment linked to respondent age (χ2 = 40.66;
df = 4; p < 001). For example, the death penalty for drug traffickers was selected by 29.8% of
respondents aged 17–18 years; however, the rate was 80.8% among those 20 years and older.
Figure 2 shows the respondents’ beliefs about those responsible for illicit drug distribution
and sales. Respondent gender and age status did not affect their opinions about drug distribu-
tion and sales.

Discussion

There is a dearth of information about Russian university student attitudes toward the country’s
drug problem. The present study provides insight of their attitudes toward people with
addiction, sale/distribution of illicit drugs and punishment of drug traffickers.
A typical person with addiction, seen by the university student respondents, has many
negative characteristics and personality traits such as being weak, stupid, unreliable, and
unhappy. This is consistent with other study findings (Malikova 2000). The BSemantic

Table 1 Male and female attitudes of punishment toward drug traffickers

Punishment character Men Women Total

(n = 74) (n = 76) (n = 150)

A strict and very severe punishment (including death), % (n) 48.6 (36) 63.2 (48) 56.0 (84)
The punishment, which takes into account objective measures of the 18.9 (14) 15.8 (12) 17.3 (26)
committed crime (sales volume, duration of trade and others), % (n)
punishment that takes into account mitigating factors such as unemployment, 32.4 (24) 21.1 (16) 26.7 (40)
the need to support a family, etc. % (n)
Int J Ment Health Addiction (2017) 15:350–355 353

Table 2 Student attitudes of punishment toward drug traffickers: academic study area

Academic Study Area

Punishment character Law Pedagogy Medicine and Psychology

(n = 34) (n = 46) stomatology (n = 20)
(n = 50)

A strict and very severe punishment 50.0 (17) 60.9 (28) 54.0 (27) 60.0 (12)
(including death), % (n)
The punishment, which takes into account objective 14.7 (5) 15.2 (7) 22.0 (11) 15.0 (3)
measures of the committed crime (sales volume,
duration of trade and others), % (n)
punishment that takes into account mitigating factors such 35.3 (12) 23.9 (11) 24.0 (12) 25.0 (5)
as unemployment, the need to support a
family, etc. % (n)

Differential^ method showed respondents’ age linked to strong negative attitudes toward
people with addiction.
More than half of respondents (56%) favored severe punishment measures for drug
traffickers such as the death penalty. This finding is consistent with a report that shows nearly
half (46%) of the Russian population surveyed was in favor of the death penalty for drug
traffickers (Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM) 2014).
The number of present study respondents who supported severe punishment measures rose
with age. In some cases student answers were accompanied with commentaries about the
punishment of drug traffickers – for example, Bpublic execution in the square^ and Bcutting off
hands.^ Despite the fact that the study cohort included future lawyers, doctors, dentists,

1 Roma 2 Criminal 3 Migrants from 4 Representatives of

“Gypsies” groups Central Asia indigenous
population
5 Employees of 6 «New 7 Natives of 8 Foreigners
law Russians» North-Caucasus
enforcement (nouveau region
agency riche)
Fig. 2 Student perceptions of those guilty for drug trafficking
354 Int J Ment Health Addiction (2017) 15:350–355

psychologists and teachers, academic study profession did not significantly affect their
answers. Overall, present study results tend to mirror zero tolerance policies in Russia and
other countries such as the Philippines. (Galeotti 2015; Oakford 2016; Villamor and Paddocka
2016).
Roma BGypsies^ were identified as the primary group responsible for drug trafficking (see
Fig. 2). It is interesting to note that the Roma group is less than 1% of the total population of
Russia (Rosstat 2012). Such research tends to evidence the gap between perceptions and
reality about racial and ethnic factors, drug distribution, trafficking and use (Beckett et al.
2006; Isralowitz and Myers 2011; Mitchell and Caudy 2015; Paoli and Reuter 2008;
Rosenblum et al. 2014). For the most part, publications by Russian researchers do not contain
details about the ethnicity of drug dealers leading to supposition, misconception and myth
(Anisimov 2007; Morozova 2008; Pain 2002; Pokryshkin 2010; Sagitova 2015; Zelenskaya
and Samsonov 2010). Many times such biases are reflected by media reports about the drug
problem (Pain 2002).
The present study results contribute to debate and thought about further research of the drug
problem in Russia. Specifically, two issues deserve further attention. The first one is linked to
conditions that effect student negative and extreme attitudes toward people with addiction and
drug dealers. The second relates to debunking ethnic and racial stereotypes of people with
addiction and drug dealers.
On the whole, the results tend to provide Busable information^ for addiction policy and
prevention program decision makers as well as those responsible for university student
education and future research.

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