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The respiratory
system consists of all the
organs involved in
breathing. These include
the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi and
lungs. The respiratory
system does two very
important things: it brings
oxygen into our bodies,
which we need for our
cells to live and function
properly; and it helps us
get rid of carbon dioxide,
which is a waste product
of cellular function. The
nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea and bronchi all
work like a system of
pipes through which the
air is funneled down into
our lungs. There, in very small air sacs called alveoli, oxygen is brought into the
bloodstream and carbon dioxide is pushed from the blood out into the air. When
something goes wrong with part of the respiratory system, such as an infection
like pneumonia, it makes it harder for us to get the oxygen we need and to get rid
of the waste product carbon dioxide. Common respiratory symptoms include
breathlessness, cough, and chest pain.
Nose
A nose is a protuberance in
vertebrates that houses the nostrils, or
nares, which admit and expel air for
respiration in conjunction with the
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mouth. Behind the nose are the olfactory mucosa and the sinuses. Behind the
nasal cavity, air next passes through the pharynx, shared with the digestive
system, and then into the rest of the respiratory system. In humans, the nose is
located centrally on the face; on most other mammals, it is on the upper tip of the
snout.
In cetaceans, the nose has been reduced to the nostrils, which have
migrated to the top of the head, producing a more streamlined body shape and
the ability to breathe while mostly submerged. Conversely, the elephant's nose
has elaborated into a long, muscular, manipulative organ called the trunk.
Mouth
The mouth is normally moist, and is lined with a mucous membrane. The
lips mark the transition from mucous membrane to skin, which covers most of the
body.
Pharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the neck and throat
situated immediately posterior to (behind) the mouth and nasal cavity, and
cranial, or superior, to the esophagus, larynx, and trachea. The pharynx is part of
the digestive system and respiratory system of many organisms.Because both
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food and air pass through the pharynx, a flap of connective tissue called the
epiglottis closes over the trachea when food is swallowed to prevent choking or
aspiration. In humans the pharynx is important in vocalization.
Epiglottis
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
The trachea
(windpipe) divides into
two main bronchi (also
mainstem bronchi), the
left and the right, at the
level of the sternal
angle at the anatomical
point known as the
carina. The right main
bronchus is wider,
shorter, and more
vertical than the left main bronchus. The right main bronchus subdivides into
three lobar bronchi while the left main bronchus divides into two. The lobar
bronchi divide into tertiary bronchi, also known as segmental bronchi, each of
which supplies a bronchopulmonary segment. A bronchopulmonary segment is a
division of a lung that is separated from the rest of the lung by a connective
tissue septum. This property allows a bronchopulmonary segment to be
surgically removed without affecting other segments. There are ten segments per
lung, but due to anatomic development, several segmental bronchi in the left lung
fuse, giving rise to eight. The segmental bronchi divide into many primary
bronchioles which divide into terminal bronchioles, each of which then gives rise
to several respiratory bronchioles, which go on to divide into 2 to 11 alveolar
ducts. There are 5 or 6 alveolar sacs associated with each alveolar duct. The
alveolus is the basic anatomical unit of gas exchange in the lung.
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Alveoli
Each human lung contains about 150 million alveoli. Each alveolus is
wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries covering about 70% of its area. An adult
alveolus has an average diameter of 0.2–0.3 mm, with an increase in diameter
during inhalation.
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of blood through the capillaries prevents saturation of the blood with O2 and
allows maximal transfer across the membrane.
THE PERITONEUM
The peritoneum is a serosal membrane,
which is composed of a single layer of flat
mesothelial cells supported by
submesothelial connective tissue.
In this subserosal tissue there are fat cells,
lymphatics, blood vessels and
inflammatory cells like lymphocytes and
plasma cells.
Peritoneal circulation
These compartments enable the peritoneal cavity to have a normal circulation for
peritoneal fluid. In the normal abdomen without intraperitoneal disease, there is a small
amount of peritoneal fluid that continuously circulates. The movement of fluid in this
circulatory pathway is produced by the movement of the diaphram and peristalsis of
bowel. It predominantly flows up the right paracolic gutter which is deeper and wider than
the left and is partially cleared by the subphrenic lymphatics. There are watershed
regions in the peritoneal cavity that are areas of fluid stasis:
• Ileocolic region
• Root of the sigmoid mesentery
• Pouch of Douglas
When you are staging a patient for gastrointestinal malignancy you have
to look for disease in these areas of stasis. Clearly the surgeons do better in
finding subtle disease in these areas.90% of peritoneal fluid is cleared at the
subphrenic space by the submesothelial lymphatics.These lymphatics are
connected with lymphatics at the other side of the diafragm.The peritoneum is
continuous in the male pelvis.In women the peritoneum is discontinuous at the
ostia of the oviducts.Through this opening disease can spread from the
extraperitoneal pelvis into the peritoneal cavity. For example, pelvic
inflammatory disease (PID).
Ovaries
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The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are the two ovaries.
Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure about the size and shape of an almond,
about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick. The ovaries are located in
shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on each side of the uterus, in the
lateral walls of the pelvic cavity.
They are held loosely in place by
peritoneal ligaments.
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Ovulation
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