Q1) OD MATRIX

Origin-destination (O-D) trip matrices can be estimated by methods that use traffic volume counts.
Assuming that we know the proportionate usage of each link by the interzonal traffic, a system of linear
equations combining the O-D flow and the observed volumes can be formulated. This system is, in general,
underspecified. To obtain a unique solution, additional information, often a target trip matrix, has to be
used. The estimation problem can be interpreted as a problem that has two types of objectives, one of
which is to satisfy the traffic counts constraints and the other to search for a solution as “close” as possible
to the target matrix. Errors are normally present in the input data, and it is therefore reasonable to allow
for solutions where the observed traffic volumes are not reproduced exactly. Depending on his/her
degree of uncertainty or belief in the available information, the planner can choose to give more or less
weight to the different objectives. To satisfy all the constraints to equality is only one extreme case in a
continuum of possibilities.

Q2) MODEL SPLIT

• The third stage in travel demand modeling is modal split. The trip matrix or O-D matrix obtained
from the trip distribution is sliced into number of matrices representing each mode.

• The choice of transport mode is probably one of the most important classic models in transport
planning. This is because of the key role played by public transport in policy making. Public transport
modes make use of road space more efficiently than private transport.

• The choice of transport mode is probably one of the most important classic models in transport
planning. This is because of the key role played by public transport in policy making. Public transport
modes make use of road space more efficiently than private transport.

Types of modal split models

Trip-end modal split models

Traditionally, the objective of transportation planning was to forecast the growth in demand for car trips
so that investment could be planned to meet the demand. When personal characteristics were thought
to be the most important determinants of mode choice, attempts were made to apply modal-split models
immediately after trip generation. Such a model is called trip-end modal split model. In this way different
characteristics of the person could be preserved and used to estimate modal split. The modal split models
of this time related the choice of mode only to features like income, residential density and car ownership.

The advantage is that these models could be very accurate in the short run, if public transport is available
and there is little congestion. Limitation is that they are insensitive to policy decisions example: Improving
public transport, restricting parking etc. would have no effect on modal split according to these trip-end
models.

Trip-interchange modal split models

This is the post-distribution model; that is modal split is applied after the distribution stage. This has the
advantage that it is possible to include the characteristics of the journey and that of the alternative modes
available to undertake them. It is also possible to include policy decisions. This is beneficial for long term
modeling.

Aggregate and disaggregate models

Mode choice could be aggregate if they are based on zonal and inter-zonal information. They can be called
disaggregate if they are based on household or individual data.

Q4) INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) is the application of computer, electronics, communication

technologies and management strategies in an integrated manner to provide traveler, information to
increase the safety and efficiency of the road transportation system.

• Traffic congestion

• Insufficient road development

• Growing number of vehicles.

• Low speed

• Increased accident rates,

• Increased fuel consumption, and

• Increased pollution.

• Impossible to build enough new roads or to meet the demand.

The goal of I T S is to improve the transportation system to make it more efficient

and safer by use of information, communications and control technologies.\

India is going through a period of drastic change in the transportation area due to:

Rapidly growing economy.

Insufficient and inadequate public transportation system.

Rising vehicle ownership levels.

Q5) PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES IN TRAFFIC SURVEY

• The different methods involving the principle of photography in traffic studies are:

1. Continuous stereoscopic strip photography from moving aero planes or helicopters.

2. Stereo-camera photos from a stationary object on the ground

3. Conventional air photography, from aeroplanes, or helicopters.

4. Time-lapse photography from aeroplanes, balloons or helicopters

5. Video system.
6. Time-lapse photography from fixed position of the ground

• Photographic methods for traffic studies offer a number of advantages.

• They present more accurate data, use limited manpower and provide a permanent record of
traffic conditions on which a variety of analyses can be performed without returning to the field.

• On the other hand, aerial photographic surveys can be expensive, inspite of the fact that they
require less manpower

• The greatest difficulty is in analysis of the film which is complicated, time consuming and at times
expensive.

• Some of these disadvantages, however, do

not apply to time-lapse photography which uses simple instruments.

Q6) BUS BAY DESIGN

Bus Bay/Turnout • The bus bay or turnout is a location off-line with respect to the travel lanes, with a
special curbed pull-out for buses. • The bus bay allows general traffic to pass around a loading bus and
interferes less with right-turning vehicles at the intersection. • It can be effectively incorporated into a
site design . • Advantages in using this configuration are where an intersection presents a particular
hazard or conflict with transit operations. • It is most effectively used where traffic speeds are more than
35 mph, when long dwell times are common, or as a system layover stop.

Open Bus Bay • The open bus bay is a variation on the bus bay which provides more maneuverability
toward the upstream side of traffic flow. • When used within a transportation center or depot setting, a
“sawtoothed” arrangement is typical. • In this far-side example , the intersection is used as the
deceleration zone.

Q7) TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT MEASURES

The Transportation Systems Management (TSM) approach to congestion mitigation seeks to identify
improvements to enhance the capacity of existing system of an operational nature. Through better
management and operation of existing transportation facilities, these techniques are designed to improve
traffic flow, air quality, and movement of vehicles and goods, as well as enhance system accessibility and
safety.

Transportation systems management strategies are low-cost but effective in nature, which include, but
are not limited to:

• Intersection and signal improvements

• Freeway bottleneck removal programs

• Data collection to monitor system performance

• Special events management strategies

Traffic signal and intersection improvements include such elements as:

• signal timing optimization

• controller/cabinet and signal head upgrades

• vehicle detectors repair/replacement

• communication with a central system

• turning lanes

• grade separations

• pavement striping

• lane assignment changes

• signage and lighting

Freeway and arterial bottleneck removal consists of identifying congested locations and improving such
elements as:

• insufficient acceleration/deceleration lanes and ramps

• weaving sections

• sharp horizontal/vertical curves

• narrow lanes and shoulders

• inadequate signage and pavement striping

• other geometric deficiencies

Q8) OD SURVEY

The O-D survey is an initiative to collect current and reliable information about trip patterns and travel
choices of residents

• The O-D survey asks questions about each trip that is made on a specific day—such as:

– where the trip begins and ends

– the purpose of the trip

– the time of day, and the vehicle involved (auto or transit)

– about the person making the trip—age, sex, income, vehicle owner, and so on.

• Uses of OD survey

• To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicles

• For the location of new proposed roads

• For the location of parking palaces

• To locate expressway

• To regulate movement of heavy vehicles

• To locate new bridge as per traffic demands

Methods of OD survey

• Road side interview surveys

• Home-interview surveys

• Telephone surveys

• Taxi surveys

• Post card questionnaire surveys

Q9) SYSTEM APPROACH IN TRAFFIC PLANNING

The essence of the systems approach, as outlined by its early exponents, was the ability to compare and
evaluate alternative ‘packages’ of transport and land use policies against pre-determined goals and
objectives (McLoughlin 1969). This compared with the earlier approach of simply evaluating different
transport (generally road) responses to a predetermined land use pattern.

need

Address Equity along with Efficiency Provision of facilities for pedestrian and Non-motorized vehicles
Integration between transport and land use in preparation ofTransportation Plan

Provision of Good Institutional Management with mechanism of fund generation

Formulation of Objectives to be defined in a manner so that it

ensures people’s mobility for large for sections of the society & free from biases from western countries’
concepts and values.

Q10) HOME QUESTIONAIRE SURVEY

• In this method random sample of 0.5 to 10% of the population is selected and the residence are
visited by the trained person who collect the travel data from each member of the household.

• Detailed information regarding the trips made by the members is obtained on the spot.

• The data collected may be useful either for planning the road network and other roadway
facilities.

ADVANTAGES:

• The problem of stopping of vehicles and consequent difficulties are avoided

• The present travel needs are clearly known and the analysis is also simple.

• Additional data including socioeconomic and other details may be collected so as to be useful for
forecasting traffic and transportation growth.
Q11) DESIRE LINE CHART

Desire lines = a straight line on a map representing the movement of people and goods from region to
region. Also shows strength of desire to move with lines of proportional thickness. They are very similar
to flow lines except they group movement, showing movement only directly from A to B whilst flow lines
follow the exact path of movement.

- often used to show the number of people travelling from each part of the catchment area of a central
point.

advantage

• Shows movement of people, goods, transport etc.

• Can also show volume and direction of movement

• Scale/width of lines proportional to value

• Can be superimposed onto a base

Disadvantage

• In order to achieve a clear image, the real distance and direction may be distorted

LONG ANSWER QUESTION

Q1) TRAVEL DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Transportation demand management, traffic demand management or travel demand management (all
TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to reduce travel demand, or to redistribute this demand
in space or in time.

In transport, as in any network, managing demand can be a cost-effective alternative to increasing

capacity. A demand management approach to transport also has the potential to deliver better
environmental outcomes, improved public health, stronger communities, and more prosperous citiesTDM
techniques link with and support community movements for sustainable transport.

transportation demand management (TDM) is the use of policies, programs, services and products to
influence whether, why, when, where and how people travel.

TDM measures can motivate people to: » shift modes — walk, cycle, take transit or rideshare instead of
driving. » make fewer trips — telework, shop online or use the telephone.

• » drive more efficiently — shop locally, do several things on each trip, and avoid peak traffic
periods and congested routes.

• the benefits of tDM for communities

• » greater return on investments in transit, walking, cycling and carpooling facilities

• » cleaner air

• » less traffic congestion » lower healthcare costs for employers

• » easier employee recruitment

• » better employee retention

• » lower parking costs for individuals » greater choice and convenience

• » time and cost savings

• » better health and fitness

Q4) DIFFERENT STAGES OF TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

The four main stages of the transportation planning process are:

(i) Transportation survey, data collection and analysis;

(ii) Use of transportation model

(iii) Future land use forecasts and alternative policy strategies; and

(iv) Policy evaluation.

Survey and Data Collection:

The entire planning process of transportation, may be local, regional or national, is based on survey and
data collection. This includes all types of literature and data (both government and non-government)
available on transportation, journey behaviour patterns, nature and intensity of traffic, freight structure,
cost and benefits, i.e., income, employment estimates, etc.

The comprehensive knowledge of traffic flows and patterns within a defined area is essential. In addition
to traffic data, planners also require land use and population data for their study area. In this connection
West Midlands Transportation Study (1968) provides a format, which is useful for transport survey and
data collection (Figure 9.2).

The survey should be well defined and be divided in ‘zones’ so that origins and destinations of trips can
be geograph¬ically monitored. The data collection regarding existing travel patterns is time consuming as
well as a costly affair. It involves both ‘road¬side-interview’ and ‘home-interview’. The variables for both
types of interviews are given in the Table 9.1

The details-of existing transport network are an important source of information. In some cases, a very
detailed description of links and nodes in terms of vehicle speed, carriage-way width and nodal type is
collected. Travel times and network characteristics of public transport networks are simultaneously
collected. Finally, data processing should be done. When this has been completed, planners can begin
their data analysis.

The Transportation Model:

The second stage of the transportation planning process is to use the collected data to build up a
transportation model. This model is the key to predicting future travel demands and network needs and
is derived in four recognised stages, i.e., trip generation, trip distribution, traffic assignment and model
split.
Trip Generation:

The first stage of model building process is that of trip gener¬ation. Trips are made for a variety of
purposes and for various land uses. For convenience, trips are often split into two groups:

(i) Home-based trips:

Such trips have one trip end at the home of the person making the trip, which may be either the origin or
destination of the given trip.

(ii) Non-home-based trips:

These have neither origin nor desti¬nation trip-end at the home of the person making the trip.

This initial part of the transport model expresses trip-making relationships in a mathematical form so that
ultimately we can calculate the total number of trips-ends origi¬nating from the defined survey zones.

Consequently, a more recent approach to trip generation has been to use a technique known as ‘category
analysis’. The trip-generation stage of the planning process estimates the total number of trips originating
in the survey area at one or more future dates.

Trip Distribution:

This is the next stage in the transportation model, it involves on analysis of trips between zones. Lane
(1971) states the function of this stage of the model:

It is the function of trip distribution to calculate the number of trips between one zone and another, given
the previously deter¬mined numbers of trip ends in each zone together with further information on the
transport facilities available between these zones.

For example, given that in zone I, gi trip ends are generated and that in zone j, ai trip ends are attracted,
it is the purpose of the trip distribution model to determine the number of trips (tij) which would go from
zone i to zone j. That is, the trip distri-bution model calculates the proportion of trip ends generated in
zone i which would travel between i and j and so take up a certain proportion of the available attractions
in zone j.

Overall, the distribution stage of the transportation model has received considerable attention and has
been the main source of research over the last quarter of a century.

Evaluation:

The final stage of the transportation planning process is one of evaluating the alternative policies, which
have been suggested. The evaluation stage is probably the most important of all, yet has received only
limited research attention. An economic evaluation of transport proposals is necessary because vehicle-
km and road space are commodities, which are not directly bought and sold.

The technique of cost benefit analysis has consequently evolved as an investment criterion in the public
sector. As such, it provides an economic evaluation. On the cost side of the calculation, estimates are
made for capital outlay, land purchase and maintenance.
The benefits are those accruing to users, e.g., savings in time, vehicle operation and accidents. The
individual costs and benefits are assessed over a particular number of years and discounted back to the
base year so that a rate of return can be calculated. On the basis of ‘transportation plan’, transport policies
should be formulated and implemented properly so that systematic ‘sustainable’ development of
transport can be done.

Transport Policy:

Nowadays every country is particular regarding the planned development of transport system, thus
formulate their own transport policy, which depends upon their needs and resources. The nature of
transport policy varies with time and space. In formulating transport policy, one should take into
consideration the ‘coordination’ and ‘competition’.

Q5) Land use means spatial distribution or geographical pattern of the city, residential area, industry,
commercial areas and the space set for governmental, institution or recreational purposes.

• Land use characteristics and transportation are mutually interrelated

• Land use typically refers to the changes we make to the natural environment to create homes,
subdivisions, offices, urban areas, etc.

• How we use our land, whether for residential, commercial or industrial development, affects our
transportation needs, such as roads, modes of travel [i.e., cars, buses, bicycles or walking) and services.

• Land use has a direct impact on the number of trips and the type of mode used for each trip.

The Land Use/Transportation Cycle

• Roads are often built or improved to allow greater access to new development.

• The road improvements make other land along the road more accessible and attractive
for further development.

• With more housing and services along the road, traffic volumes increase, resulting in more
congestion and decreased road capacity.

• Eventually the reduced efficiency of the road necessitates more roadway improvements
which can lead to additional development along the road and restart the land use-transportation cycle.

• When the land use-transportation cycle occurs over and over in a high-growth region, the
pressure on commuters, road capacity and jurisdiction finances can be intense.

The distribution of land uses, such as residential, industrial or commercial, over the urban area determines
the locations of human activities such as living, working, shopping, education or leisure.

The distribution of human activities in space requires spatial interactions or trips in the transport system
to overcome the distance between the locations of activities.

The distribution of infrastructure in the transport system creates opportunities for spatial interactions
and can be measured as accessibility.
 The distribution of accessibility in space co-determines location decisions and so results in changes of the
land use system.

10. What are the guidelines for planning in traffic islands? Explain traffic control aids being practiced now?

Shape and size: The shape & size of traffic island is determined on the basis of function it is meant to
serve. Like in case of median its much longer in length than width because its function is to divide the flow
of traffic. In case of a channalizer the function of traffic island is to channelize the flow of traffic in a
particular direction. These are sometimes elongated like in case of achannelizers. These can also be round
like in case or rotatory and round about which are used for giving a larger manoeuvring space to drivers.

Location: Traffic island can be present on the side of road, across the road or even in mid way along the
road. The functional classification of island is the most important determining factor of the location of an
island.

Island type: The decision of using a painted, concrete structure, traffic cone etc rests with the
transportation department and can be chosen as per the economics and the extent to which these fulfil
the requirement. However if the traffic volume is substantial, concrete structure is generally used as it
forces the user to follow it, painted lines work where people are law-abiding and the flow of traffic is
relatively less.

The various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic are:

1.Signs

There are three types of traffic signs :- 1)Regulatory or Mandatory signs 2)Warning signs 3)Informatory
signs

2.Signals

The main requirement of traffic signals is

1. To draw attention.

2. Maintain orderly flow of traffic.

3. Reduce certain types of accidents.

4. Improves safety and efficiency of movement of vehicles.

5. Pedestrians can cross the roads safety.

6. More economical than manual control. 6. Increase in speed along the major road traffic.

3.Markings

These are the lines, patterns, words of other devices for control, warning and guidance or information of
road users. Various types of markings are:-

1. Pavement markings
2. Kerb markings

3. Object markings

4. Reflector markings

5 Islands

9. What is need of the OD survey? Explain the main types of OD survey widely used now.

-To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicles -For the location of new proposed roads
-For the location of parking palaces -To locate expressway -To regulate movement of heavy vehicles -To
locate new bridge as per traffic demands

Types

1.Road side interview surveys

In this method interview stations are previously decided on the roadway. The vehicles are stopped at the
interview stations by a group of persons and the answers to prescribed questionnaire are collected on the
spot ADVANTAGES : -data is collected quickly in short duration DISADVANTAGES: -the vehicles are stopped
for interview and there is delay to the vehicular movement 2. Home-interview surveys

-In this method random sample of 0.5 to 10% of the population is selected and the residences are visited
by the trained person who collects the travel data from each member of the household. -Detailed
information regarding the trips made by the members is obtained on the spot. -The data collected may
be useful either for planning the road network and other roadway facilities.

ADVANTAGES: -The problem of stopping of vehicles and consequent difficulties are avoided -The present
travel needs are clearly known and the analysis is also simple. -Additional data including socioeconomic
and other details may be collected so as to be useful for forecasting traffic and transportation growth.
3.Telephone surveys

4.Taxi surveys

5.Post card questionnaire surveys

8. Give reasons for the need of survey in planning new transport facilities. What are the various techniques
by which surveys and investigations are conducted for a highway project?

Traffic studies are carried out to analyse the traffic characteristics. These studies help in deciding the
geometric design features traffic control for safe and efficient traffic movement.Transportation surveys
are carried out for the identification of current transportation system of particular area or region including
the points of future development, needs and priorities. Surveys are much essential for recording the facts
and finding out the ground realities of remote regions. In order to provide credible solutions to such
regions; surveys are required for recording the facts and judging the severity of various transport related
problems.
Highway surveying is a specialized type of land surveying generally conducted for government agencies
during the planning stages of a highway development project. During the construction process, a highway
construction survey can ensure that progress is occurring as it should, and that the highway is located
precisely where it should be.A construction surveyor is often involved in the placement process for the
highway. This requires a survey of the existing terrain to find the best route. Often the goal of this survey
is to determine the appropriate route where the least amount of land will need to be moved. An engineer
can use the survey data to determine where the dirt should be moved to reduce the total amount of dirt
relocation.Not only do surveyors determine how the land must be prepared before the highway can be
constructed, but they also assist engineers in the mapping of optimal routes. This includes grading
(slopes), curves and the creation of tunnels or other features along the highway route.

Once the dirt has been graded and levelled, a surveyor will again survey the area to ensure that the land
has been correctly prepared according to the plans. Before the advent of GPS technology, this involved
the use of surveying stakes to mark the road edges.

12. What is traffic inventory? How do you prepare an inventory for a transportation survey? Explain how
such data can be used for better planning.

Traffic inventories involve a description of the existing transportation services the available facilities and
their condition location of routes and schedules maintenance and operating costs system capacity and
existing traffic volumes, speed, and delay The types of data collected about the current system will depend
on the specifics of the problem To appreciate the physical characteristics of the identified road network
in terms of right of‐ way, carriage way, number of access points, surface type, etc. To identify physical
constraints and bottleneck points along the identified road network. To assess the capacity potential of
the identified road network To understand the existing transport situation in order to develop a rational
land use and transport plan and mobility improvement measures

13. Explain with examples the interdependence of land use and traffic with live examples.

Examples

1.Census information provides empirical confirmation of the significance of land use planning around
Metro stations in influencing the growth of Arlington and other places in Northern Virginia. Over the last
ten years, Arlington County’s growth has been overwhelmingly concentrated along the Metro corridors,
as has growth in Alexandria and some parts of Fairfax County. The densification of these areas is effectively
extending the inner-city core of the Washington, D.C. region and substituting sprawling development in
the exurbs with dense construction. This represents a change in trends compared to the period between
1990 and 2000.

2.In the case of the Rosslyn-Ballston Corridor, the Census Blocks within closest proximity of the five Metro
stations along the Orange Line absorbed more than 70% of Arlington County’s growth, increasing by
12,816 people compared to Arlington’s expansion by 18,174 people towards a total population of
207,627. These 1.47 square miles arrayed linearly — a small percentage of Arlington’s 26 square miles —
now represent more than 17% of the county’s population, compared to about 12% in 2000.

Q14) TYPES OF TRAFFIC SURVEY

• Traffic studies are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics.

• These studies helps in deciding the geometric design features traffic control for safe and efficient
traffic movement.

• The various traffic survey studies generally carried out are:

– Traffic & road inventory survey

– OD survey

– Parking surveys

– Classified vehicle volume count survey

– Occupancy surveys

INVENTORY SURVEY

• Transportation system inventories involve a description of the existing transportation services

– the available facilities and their condition

– location of routes and schedules

– maintenance and operating costs

– system capacity and existing traffic

– volumes, speed, and delay

• The types of data collected about the current system will depend on the specifics of the problem

ORIGIN DESTINATION SURVEY

• The O-D survey is an initiative to collect current and reliable information about trip patterns and
travel choices of residents

• The O-D survey asks questions about each trip that is made on a specific day—such as:

– where the trip begins and ends

– the purpose of the trip

– the time of day, and the vehicle involved (auto or transit)

– about the person making the trip—age, sex, income, vehicle owner, and so on.

METHODS

• Road side interview surveys

• Home-interview surveys

• Telephone surveys

• Taxi surveys
• Post card questionnaire surveys

TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT SURVEY

• This survey is carried out to understand the variety of vehicles that passes through a road over 24
hours a day/ to get Average Daily Traffic (ADT).

• Objectives:

– To appreciate traffic characteristics in terms of size, composition and variation – directional and
temporal (wrt time).

– To appreciate the spatial distribution of traffic

– To establish the level of service on the road network system Classified Volume Counts (CVC)

OBJECTIVE AND USES

• It is a measure of the relative importance of roads and in deciding the priority for improvement
and expansion.

• It is used in planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also for planning the
new facilities.

• It is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends.

• Useful in structural design of pavement

• Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side walk, cross walks, subway and pedestrian
signals.

TYPES

• Manual counting Method

• Video Photography

• Using automatic devices like Sensors

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION AND OCCUPANCY SURVEYS

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION

• The number of people involved in travel is an important measure in transportation planning

• When it is desired to find out the number of

people travelling in vehicles, an estimate of the average occupancy becomes necessary

• This data can be easily gathered by noting the number of occupants in each vehicle as the volume
count is being taken

OCCUPANCY SURVEY

• The average occupancy thus determined can be used for number of purposes.
• If the vehicle count is available, and the average persons travelling can be easily found out.

• The delay caused in terms of man-hours and in terms of monetary value can then be determined

PARKING SURVEY

• Parking is one of the serious problems that confront the urban planner and the traffic engineer.

• Before any measures for the betterment of the conditions can be formulated basic data pertaining
to the availability of parking space, extent of its usage and parking demand are essential.

• If it is proposed to implement a system of parking

charges it will also be necessary to know how much to charge and what will be the effect of the pricing
policy on parking.

• Parking surveys are intended to supply all this kind of information

In-out survey

• In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning. Then the
number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is counted.

• The number of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken.

• The final occupancy in the parking lot is also taken.

• Here the labor required is very less. Only one person may be enough.

Lisence plate survey

• This results in the most accurate and realistic data.

• In this case of survey, every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so
and the license plate number is noted down.

• This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking
bay.

• This will help in calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration for which the
vehicle was parked.

• If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing short-term parkers. But this
method is very labor intensive

Q15 The study begins with the definition of the study area, which can be at the national, regional or local
level.

• For planning at the city level, it is necessary that the area not only covers the existing city limits
but should include areas of possible future growth.

• The boundary of the study area is an imaginary line known as the “external cordon”, and should
be continuous and should intersect roads where it is safe and convenient to carry out traffic surveys
• The study area is then sub-divided into “zones”, so that the data from a zone reflects the same
land-use (for example: residential, industrial, commercial, educational, recreational etc) and the average
characteristics of individual households.

• The zones are later used for associating the origins and destinations of travel.

• Zones within the study area are called “internal zones” and those outside the study area where
trips can originate and terminate are called “external zones”.

• Guidance may be taken from the zoning adopted by other bodies, such as Population Census.

• The boundaries of zones should match with natural barriers such as canals, rivers etc.

Trip generation is the first step in the conventional four-step transportation forecasting process (followed
by trip distribution, mode choice, and route assignment), widely used for forecasting travel demands. It
predicts the number of trips originating in or destined for a particular traffic analysis zone.Guidelines for
trip generation analysis

Typically, trip generation analysis focuses on residences, and residential trip generation is thought of as a
function of the social and economic attributes of households. At the level of the traffic analysis zone,
residential land uses "produce" or generate trips. Traffic analysis zones are also destinations of trips, trip
attractors. The analysis of attractors focuses on nonresidential land uses.

Trip distribution (or destination choice or zonal interchange analysis) is the second component (after trip
generation, but before mode choice and route assignment) in the traditional four-step transportation
forecasting model. This step matches tripmakers’ origins and destinations to develop a “trip table”, a
matrix that displays the number of trips going from each origin to each destination. Historically, this
component has been the least developed component of the transportation planning model.