sensors

Article
An Intelligent Parking Management System for
Urban Areas
Juan A. Vera-Gómez 1 , Alexis Quesada-Arencibia 2, *, Carmelo R. García 2 , Raúl Suárez Moreno 1
and Fernando Guerra Hernández 1
1 Edosoft Factory, S.L. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 35011, Spain;
juan.vera@edosoft.es (J.A.V.-G.); raul.suarez@edosoft.es (R.S.M.); fernando.guerra@edosoft.es (F.G.H.)
2 Instituto Universitario de Ciencias y Tecnologías Cibernéticas, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 35017, Spain; rgarcia@dis.ulpgc.es
* Correspondence: alexis.quesada@ulpgc.es; Tel.: +34-928-457-108

Academic Editor: Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Received: 28 April 2016; Accepted: 15 June 2016; Published: 21 June 2016
Abstract: In this article we describe a low-cost, minimally-intrusive system for the efficient
management of parking spaces on both public roads and controlled zones. This system is based on
wireless networks of photoelectric sensors that are deployed on the access roads into and out of these
areas. The sensors detect the passage of vehicles on these roads and communicate this information
to a data centre, thus making it possible to know the number of vehicles in the controlled zone and
the occupancy levels in real-time. This information may be communicated to drivers to facilitate
their search for a parking space and to authorities so that they may take steps to control traffic when
congestion is detected.

Keywords: intelligent transport systems; parking; wireless sensor network (WSN); traffic;
sensor; infrared

1. Introduction
Human mobility is a necessity in today’s world. It has a significant impact on both quality of life
and the economy of modern societies. Transport systems are, therefore, a key element in developed or
developing countries. Zhang [1], in his survey of Intelligent Transportation Systems, indicated that
40% of the world’s population spend at least one hour on the road every day. Of all the different modes
of transport, the one that is used on a massive scale is land transport by road. Such large-scale use of
this type of transport has led to congestion problems in densely populated metropolitan areas, with all
the concomitant negative consequences. According to Shawe-Taylor [2], these negative consequences
include pollution and its harmful effects on the environment and human health. Too much time on
the road means an increase in energy consumption, which has a negative impact on both individual
and national economies, as well as on the environment. Several medical studies [3] have confirmed
that road transport congestion results in a deterioration of public health because it increases the risk of
heart and respiratory diseases. Moreover, according to the WHO, over 7 million people die every year
from health problems caused by pollution.
One of the causes of this excessive amount of time spent on the road in private road transport is
the need to spend time looking for free parking spaces. Pineda [4] studied the costs generated by the
extra distance vehicles have to travel to find a parking space in the cities of Madrid and Barcelona. The
costs in consumption for the extra distance and time spent on the road are approximately 347 million
and 268 million euros per year, respectively. Public transport authorities and the operators of parking
spaces are evaluating various solutions to improve parking space management. Solutions based on
infrastructure investment are expensive and implementation is slow. Technology-based solutions have
been proposed as an alternative with lower costs and faster implementation.

Sensors 2016, 16, 931; doi:10.3390/s16060931 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2016, 16, 931 2 of 16

In this article we describe a low-cost, minimally-intrusive system for the efficient management of
parking spaces on both public roads and controlled zones. This system is based on wireless networks
of photoelectric sensors that are deployed on the access roads into and out of these areas. The sensors
detect the passage of vehicles on these roads and communicate this information to a data centre, thus
making it possible to know the number of vehicles in the controlled zone and the occupancy levels in
real-time. This information may be communicated to drivers to facilitate their search for a parking
space and to authorities so that they may take steps to control traffic when congestion is detected.
The article is structured as follows: a selection of related studies is described in the second section,
to provide context for our proposed system. The third section describes the system, explaining its
general architecture, its main constituent elements, and the method developed to detect the passage
of vehicles. Tests to verify system operation are described in the fourth section and, finally, the main
conclusions are presented in section five.

2. Related Studies
Various authors have looked at developing sensor-based technological solutions to improve the
use of parking spaces. According to Bagula [5], intelligent vehicle parking space management systems
may be classified according to the type of sensor detection. He distinguishes the systems that only
monitor the entry or exit of vehicles from the parking area from the systems that are able to detect
whether each parking space is occupied or free. Systems belonging to the first type are easier to deploy
and less expensive, appropriate for monitoring the occupancy levels of large outdoor parking areas.
Systems belonging to the second type provide more useful and more detailed information to users and
may be combined with positioning and guidance services to help locate the available spaces. This type
of system is used in indoor parking spaces and is more complex and expensive than the entry and
exit monitoring systems, as it requires that each parking space is equipped with sensors and a more
sophisticated communications infrastructure. Various parking space management system proposals
are described below.
Tang [6] proposed a wireless sensor network deployed in indoor car parks that shows the
occupancy status of each parking space. Motes (sensor nodes) equipped with acoustic and light
sensors are located in each space, and periodically notify whether the space is occupied or available.
Benson [7] also proposed a network-based wireless sensor system. A communication link is established
by ZigBee and the electromagnetic sensors were developed specifically for this system. Lin [8] proposed
a vision-based parking management system to manage an outdoor car park using cameras set up
around the parking space, sending information, including real-time display, to the ITS centre database.
A scientific solution based on a GPS-based vehicle navigation system and the past and current status
of the car park was proposed by Pullola [9], who modelled the availability of a car park using the
Poisson process. The author also proposed an intelligent algorithm which helps the driver choose
the parking space with the highest probability of being vacant. Lee [10] proposed a combination of
magnetic and ultrasonic sensors to control car parks. This system is based on a modified version of the
min-max algorithm for detection of vehicles using magnetometers and an algorithm for ultrasonic
sensors. Srikanth [11] proposed an intelligent parking management system, consisting of a wireless
network that uses different types of sensors to detect the presence of a vehicle in every one of the
parking spaces; moreover, the system informs users and guides them to the location of the available
space. The network’s sensor nodes communicate by radio frequency. Yoo [12] described a system,
called S3, which is deployed in school zones, which is designed to detect and register vehicles driving
at excessive speeds or parked in prohibited zones. This system consists of a wireless sensor network
that is divided into two subnetworks: one to detect vehicles parked in prohibited zones and the other
to detect vehicles travelling at excessive speeds. The sensors used are Anisotropic Magneto-Resistive
(AMR) magnetic sensors, and the wireless communication link is established by ZigBee. Magrini [13]
proposed a vision sensors network to monitor available spaces in public car parks, using distributed
network nodes to perform the required processing and analysis of images. Chen [14] proposed a
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 3 of 16

system for locating available spaces in indoor car parks and a guidance system to locate the available
space. The architecture of this system is based on a wireless network of ultrasound sensors that detect
the presence of a vehicle in each of the parking spaces. The status of each space is transmitted by
a sensor node that sends this information via RFID to special routing nodes, which communicate
with each other to relay the data packets sent by the sensor nodes to the control centre. The network
has a tree topology. Assistance in locating the space is provided by LEDs that indicate the status
of the parking space. In the context of public parking space management based on image sensors,
Salvadori [15] described image-processing techniques, using threshold algorithms, to monitor parking
spaces, achieving high-performance detection of their occupancy status. Alessanderlli [16] proposed
the ScanTraffic architecture, which is used to develop a system to monitor traffic flow and parking
spaces at the International Airport of Pisa; this system is also based on a wireless image sensor network.
Liu [17] described the iParking system, which is designed to facilitate the location of available spaces in
an indoor car park. The system receives data from sensors located inside the car park, which indicate
the spaces that are free, and is able to guide the driver to a free space using a positioning system for
indoor spaces that is based on smartphone capabilities. Gu [18] proposed a system for managing
parking spaces on public roads. The system is called Street Parking System (SPS), and uses a three-axis
magnetic sensor to detect vehicles and ZigBee technology for wireless communications, achieving a
reliability rate close to 99% in vehicle detection. Reve [19] also proposed a similar system, based on a
wireless sensor network and LED display system that indicates the available spaces to drivers at the car
park access points. The sensors are infrared and communications are established by radio frequency
(RF). In the context of the Smart City paradigm, Giuffrè [20] proposed an IPA (Intelligent Parking
Assistant) conceptual architecture that aims to overcome current parking management problems.
Yang [21] presented a prototype Smart Parking Services system, based on Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs), for finding free parking spaces. The proposed scheme consists of wireless sensor networks, an
embedded web server, a central web server, and a mobile phone application. Each parking space has a
light sensor node that detects the status of the parking space, reporting periodically to the embedded
web server via the wireless sensor networks. Using a Wi-Fi network, this information is sent to the
central web server in real time, displaying the status of the parking spaces on the driver’s mobile device.
Geng [22] proposed a smart parking system for urban areas. The system’s functions include parking
detection, reservation guarantee and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) or Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V)
communication. Considering the requirements of the user, the system assigns and reserves an optimal
parking space combining proximity to destination and parking cost, ensuring that the overall parking
capacity is efficiently utilised. The system was tested in a garage of Boston University. Tian [23]
proposed an intelligent parking management system based on License Plate Recognition (LPR), which
recognises the licence plate automatically at the car park access point and provides vehicle information;
experimental results show that this parking management system can achieve 95% accuracy, and can be
applied to real-time implementation. Karunamoorthy [24] proposed an intelligent parking system that
uses image-processing techniques to solve the problem of unnecessary time consumption in finding
a parking space in commercial car parks. This parking management system provides information
about the available parking spaces, as well as an automated payment system for registered users.
Caballero-Gil [25] proposed a low-cost service to predict and manage indoor parking spaces. This
service is based on a central system that predicts the available spaces in the car park using cellular
automata and an application for smartphones that uses various technologies to help drivers find free
parking spaces.
In summary, this review of related studies shows that most of the proposed systems are designed
to be deployed in indoor car parks and to monitor individual parking spaces, and that they usually
include guidance services to locate the available space. From the point of view of the type of sensors
used, these systems mainly use infrared and electromagnetic sensors. As for wireless communications,
they use radio frequency, with ZigBee technology being the most used. In terms of network topology
the most widely used is a tree topology.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 4 of 16

The system proposed in this article is designed to monitor the entry and exit of vehicles into
and out of outdoor parking zones located on public roads, not to monitor every single car space
available, thus reducing the costs related to the deployment of technology. The system has been
tested in closed car parks. On public roads, the system would not account for every single slot, but
it is designed to provide estimations on real-time occupation levels. From a technological point of
view, it uses a wireless network of photoelectric sensors, and uses 6LoWPAN over IEEE 802.15.4 for
communications. It can be used across multiple communications platforms, using the IPv6 stack, which
is hugely important to enable the IoT. IPv6 provides a basic transport mechanism to produce complex
control systems and to communicate with other devices in a cost-effective manner using low-power
wireless network. The network topology adopted for this system is a tree topology. As a result of mass
production, the sensors used for the system have a very low cost in comparison with other sensors
used for parking management systems, such as electromagnetic or pressure sensors. Despite their low
cost, these sensors perform very well in detection applications; indeed, infrared sensors are widely
employed in industrial automation processes, having proven reliability. Furthermore, their compact
size makes it possible to enclose the whole node in a small box. In addition to this advantage, both
the sensors themselves and the controlling boards have very low power consumption, and for this
reason each sensor node is to be powered by a combination of batteries and solar power, minimising
the deployment efforts and costs, as no wiring is needed. Another advantage of this approach over
others is that it does not rely on the user’s involvement for the system to meet its purpose. There
is no need for the vehicles to be equipped with smart location systems, or for the users to employ
technological gadgets to access or update information about car park availability. The system is
non-intrusive too: it does not identify the vehicles or their drivers at all, nor does it have to record or
take pictures of them. Finally, this solution does not need more data processing than that done by the
mainboards, further reducing infrastructure and system costs. Although it has not yet been developed,
the system is intended to share parking availability data with the public authorities, contributing to
a reduction in both traffic and its carbon footprint. In conclusion, the system, as will be seen in this
article, is characterised by its ease of deployment, flexibility, and affordability when incorporating new
nodes to monitor the access roads to the parking areas, and even new sensor subnets to monitor new
parking areas.

3. Description of the System

To monitor the number of available spaces in the parking zones a low-cost, low-energy WSN will
be employed. This means that a complex roll-out or new cabling infrastructure will not be required
in the zone where the proposed system is deployed. The sensors will detect the passage of vehicles
on the roads into and out of the parking areas located on public roads in real-time. The authorities
and drivers will, therefore, know the occupancy levels of the parking zones at all times. The real-time
response is essential because the system would not be practicable if there was a considerable delay
in updating these data. Relaying pseudo real-time information to drivers avoids them having to
spend more time on the road searching for a parking space, which hinders the circulation of other
vehicles and increases fuel consumption, emissions, and noise pollution. Therefore, the proposed
system will enable transport regulators to manage public parking zones sustainably. In addition, to
facilitate a scalable and flexible roll-out in large urban areas, the system can make use of virtualisation
and computing paradigms to obtain the processing and storage resources required by the system
architecture. This will enable comprehensive, centralised handling of the data provided by the sensor
network in a control centre.
Figure 1 shows the system being deployed on a public road and in a controlled parking area. The
scheme represents the sensors and their direction on the access points and their communication with
the gateway that relays the signal to the data centre. This gateway system may also provide in situ
information on the occupancy level of both areas through an LED system.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 5 of 16
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 5 of 16

Figure
Figure 1.
1. System
System architecture
architecture in
in aa closed
closed car
car park
park and on a public road.

3.1. System
System Architecture
Architecture
The
The proposal
proposal consists
consists of of aa network
network of of wireless
wireless sensors
sensors located
located on on roads
roads in and out of public
parking areas.
areas. These
Thesesensors
sensorsdetect
detectthe theentry
entryand and exit of vehicles into and outout
exit of vehicles into and of the
of the parking
parking areas,areas,
and
and transmit
transmit this information
this information via thevianetwork.
the network. The sensors
The sensors are connected
are connected to network
to network nodes thatnodes that
receive
receive
the datathe data provided
provided by the sensors
by the sensors and transmit
and transmit them across themthe across the network;
network; this typethis type of
of node node isa
is called
called
sensor node. In the network topology there is a node that enables the exchange of data betweendata
a sensor node. In the network topology there is a node that enables the exchange of the
between the sensor
sensor nodes and thenodes and thethis
data centre; data
nodecentre; this anode
is called gatewayis called
node. a Data
gateway node.from
obtained Datathe obtained
sensor
from
networktheare
sensor
storednetwork are stored
and managed in theand
datamanaged
centre, whichin the datawhere
is also centre,thewhich is also
operation where
of each the
sensor
operation
node is controlled. The data obtained by the data centre enable the provision of services that reportthe
of each sensor node is controlled. The data obtained by the data centre enable on
provision of services
the occupancy levels that
of thereport
parking on the occupancy
spaces on public levels
roads.of the parking spaces on public roads.
Each
Each sensor
sensor node
node on on the network
network will will be developed
developed on a proprietary platform platform that
that will
will be
responsible
responsible for for collecting
collecting thethe data
data obtained
obtained by by the
the sensor
sensor or or sensors
sensors associated
associated with with that
that node,
node,
interpreting
interpreting and packaging
packaging information
information and transmitting it over the network. network. The The sensor
sensor nodes
must have
havelow lowconsumption
consumption levels,
levels, although
although when whenplacedplaced in outdoor
in outdoor parking parking
areas itareas
will beit possible
will be
possible
to add a to addphotovoltaic
small a small photovoltaic
panel. panel.
The gateway
gateway node links the sensor nodes and the data centre. The sensor nodes notify the data
centre when
whena vehicle
a vehicle enters
enters or the
or exits exits the monitored
monitored parking areaparking area and
and receives receives
orders orders that
that development
development
or maintenance or engineers
maintenance wish engineers
to transmit wish to to
thetransmit
networktofrom the network
the data from
centre,thevia
data
thecentre,
gateway. via the
gateway.
The data centre controls the sensor network and manages the data provided by it. To carry out
theseThe data centre
procedures, thiscontrols
component the sensor network andhas
of the architecture manages the data provided
two subsystems: the sensorbynetwork
it. To carry out
control
these procedures,
subsystem this component
that allows technical staff of the architecture
to configure andhas two subsystems:
supervise the sensor
the operations of thenetwork control
sensor network;
subsystem that allows
and the subsystem technicaldata
for recording staff to configure
provided and supervise
by the sensors, the operations
which stores and processesof the sensor
the data in
network; and theinformation
order to provide subsystem for recording
services data
to users provided by
(authorities andthe sensors,
drivers) which
about the stores
status and
of theprocesses
parking
the data
areas in order by
monitored to provide
the system.information
To achieve services to users
scalability and(authorities
flexibility inandthe drivers)
data centreabout the statusand
computing of
the parking areas monitored by the system. To achieve scalability and
storage resources, we propose using cloud virtualisation and computing paradigms in the system. flexibility in the data centre
computing and storage resources, we propose using cloud virtualisation and computing paradigms
in the system.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 6 of 16

3.1.1. Sensor Nodes

The sensor nodes send data packets that notify the entry or exit of a vehicle into or out of the
monitored parking area. These packets include the identification number of the network6 ofand
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 16
of the
node to identify the parking area in question. Each sensor node interprets the messages received from
the data3.1.1. Sensor
centre. TheseNodespackets contain the same fields as those sent by the node, but the identification
fields of theThenetwork
sensor nodesnode
and send will
data correspond in this
packets that notify thecase
entrytoorthe
exitterminal or terminals
of a vehicle into or out to which the
of the
messagemonitored
is directed, and the
parking area.data
Thesefield will include
packets containthe theidentification
order sent number
by the data of thecentre
network to the
and sensor
of the nodes.
Fornode to identify components
the hardware the parking area in question.
of the nodes two Each sensor
circuit node were
boards interprets
used: thea messages
mainboard received
and a sensor
from the data centre. These packets contain the same fields as those sent by the node, but the
board. The mainboard includes the components responsible for data processing and communication
identification fields of the network and node will correspond in this case to the terminal or terminals
between nodes, while the sensor board is connected to the sensor. These two circuit boards, the batteries
to which the message is directed, and the data field will contain the order sent by the data centre to
and a solar panel
the sensor are housed in a box with IP67 protection measuring 82 mm ˆ 80 mm ˆ 85 mm.
nodes.
The batteriesFor arethelithium
hardware polymer
components1900 mAh, with atwo
of the nodes nominal voltagewere
circuit boards of 3.7 V, and
used: the solarand
a mainboard panel
a has a
sensor board.
power output of 0.4 W The (5 mainboard
V/80 mA).includes the components responsible for data processing and
Thecommunication
main component between nodes,
of the while the is
mainboard sensor board is connected
the CC2530 system-on-chip to the sensor. These two
from Texas circuit
Instruments [26],
boards, the batteries and a solar panel are housed in a box with IP67 protection measuring 82 mm ×
a system that includes a microcontroller and a radio module in the integrated circuit. The
80 mm × 85 mm. The batteries are lithium polymer 1900 mAh, with a nominal voltage of 3.7 V, and
microcontroller is the 16-bit Intel 8051 and has 8 KB of RAM and a programmable flash memory
the solar panel has a power output of 0.4 W (5 V/80 mA).
of 256 KB. The radio module is
The main component of athe
transceiver
mainboard is that
the operates in the 2.4 GHz
CC2530 system-on-chip fromband
Texas and is compatible
Instruments
with the[26],
IEEE 802.15.4
a system thatprotocol,
includes a with programmable
microcontroller output
and a radio power
module of up
in the to 4.5 circuit.
integrated dBm, allowing
The a
maximum microcontroller
transmission is the 16-bit of
speed Intel 8051
250 and has
Kbps. 8 KB of component
Another RAM and a programmable
that has been flash memory ofinto the
integrated
256 KB.
mainboard TheCC2591
is the radio module is a transceiver
amplifier, that operates
also manufactured byinTexas
the 2.4Instruments,
GHz band andwhich is compatible with
is compatible with
the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol, with programmable output power of up to 4.5 dBm, allowing a
the proposed radio system because it also operates in the 2.4 GHz band. This amplifier extends the
maximum transmission speed of 250 Kbps. Another component that has been integrated into the
range ofmainboard
communicationsis the CC2591by providing a power
amplifier, also amplifier
manufactured by that
Texasincreases
Instruments, output
which power and improves
is compatible
receiverwith
sensitivity.
the proposed radio system because it also operates in the 2.4 GHz band. This amplifier extends
Onetheofrange
the of main characteristics
communications of the mainboard
by providing is its small
a power amplifier size (50
that increases ˆ 70power
output mm).andWireless
improves receiver sensitivity.
communication is established using the 6LoWPAN standard that enables the use of IPv6 over the IEEE
One of the main characteristics of the mainboard is its small size (50 × 70 mm). Wireless
802.15.4 standard. The main objective of using this standard is to be able to use IPv6 on a low-energy
communication is established using the 6LoWPAN standard that enables the use of IPv6 over the
WSN, thereby enabling small devices, with limited processing power, to achieve broad connectivity
IEEE 802.15.4 standard. The main objective of using this standard is to be able to use IPv6 on a
(interoperability)
low-energy and WSN,tothereby
maximise the battery
enabling life (Mulligan
small devices, with limited [27]).
processing power, to achieve broad
Theconnectivity
mainboard also has an and
(interoperability) RS-232 interface,
to maximise JTAG,life
the battery and a number
(Mulligan [27]). of expansion connectors
The mainboard with
allowing communication also has an RS-232
external interface, JTAG, and a number of expansion connectors
devices.
As allowing
shown in communication with external
Figure 2, in addition devices.
to these devices, a 3 V DC/DC converter has been added to the
As shown in Figure 2, in addition to these devices, a 3 V DC/DC converter has been added to
mainboard to adapt the voltage supplied by the battery to that required by the integrated circuits. This
the mainboard to adapt the voltage supplied by the battery to that required by the integrated
is necessary because
circuits. the nominal
This is necessary becausebattery voltagebattery
the nominal is 3.7voltage
V. is 3.7 V.

Figure 2. Block diagram of the mainboard.

Figure 2. Block diagram of the mainboard.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 7 of 16
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 7 of 16
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 7 of 16
As
As shown
shownininFigure
Figure3, the sensor
3, the boardboard
sensor is composed of a series
is composed of aofseries
interfaces and voltage
of interfaces converters
and voltage
to As
allow shown in
connection Figure
to a wide3, the
rangesensor
of board
sensors. is
It composed
has two of
DC/DC a series
voltage of interfaces
converters,
converters to allow connection to a wide range of sensors. It has two DC/DC voltage converters, and
12 voltage
V and 5 V,
12 V
converters
an
andSDI-12, to SDI-12,
and
5 V, an allow connection
a 4–20 mA interface.
and a 4–20 to amA
wide
This range of
circuit
interface. sensors.
board
This also It has two
features
circuit board DC/DC
a also
battery voltage
charging
features converters, 12 V
systemcharging
a battery through
and
an
system5 V,
externalansolar
SDI-12,
through an and
panel, a solar
thus
external 4–20 mA interface.
increasing
panel, the This circuit
autonomy
thus increasingofthe board alsooffeatures
the autonomy
nodes. a battery charging
the nodes.
system through an external solar panel, thus increasing the autonomy of the nodes.

Figure 3. Block diagram of the sensor board.

Figure 3. Block diagram of the sensor board.
Figure 3. Block diagram of the sensor board.
The photoelectric sensor used is a SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F (Sharp Corporation, Osaka, Japan)
The photoelectric
photoelectric
[28], shown sensor
in Figure 4.sensorused
usedis is
a SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F (Sharp
a SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F Corporation,
(Sharp Osaka,
Corporation, Japan)
Osaka, [28],
Japan)
shown in Figure
[28], shown 4. 4.
in Figure

Figure 4. SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F sensor alongside a standard AA battery to give an idea of its size.
Figure
Figure 4.
4. SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F
SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F sensor
sensor alongside
alongside aa standard
standard AA
AA battery
battery to
to give
give an idea of
an idea of its
its size.
size.
This photoelectric sensor allows detection by the three types of standard sensing modes listed
This1.photoelectric sensor allows detection by the three types of standard sensing modes listed
in Table
This photoelectric sensor allows detection by the three types of standard sensing modes listed in
in Table 1.
Table 1.
Table 1. Standard sensing modes of the sensor.
The chosen sensing mode is the
Table diffuse mode,
1. Standard sensingjustified
modes ofbytheits simple installation requirements,
sensor.
Sensing Mode
with no calibration Advantages During the experimental
needed, and its detection performance. Disadvantages
process, sensors
Sensing
were deployed Mode bumps. However, future
in speed Advantages
deployments could - be
The Disadvantages
altered
range and makeon
depends use
theof
street furniture like bollards, street lights, or traffic lights. When those - The range
are not depends
available,
characteristics onmost
the
of the the
straightforward installation is to deploy sensors on the ground, avoiding characteristics
the need
object of the
for retro-reflective
(colour, reflectivity,
DIFFUSE
or through-beam sensors. - Ideal for short-range object
etc.). (colour, reflectivity,
DIFFUSE - Ideal for short-range etc.).
To count vehicles entering and leaving the car
applications. park, two - Asensors
photoelectric highlywere used to avoid
reflective
false positives. If a person or an object applications.
- Does
othernot
than a vehicle
need - A
interrupts the
a reflector. highly reflective
sensor IR beam,
background it could
may cause
be incorrectly counted, but using two-- sensors
Does not
andneed a reflector.
debugged background
controlling software,
Easy installation/alignment. themay
false triggering ofcause
count will not
the
- Easy installation/alignment.
increase unless the pair of sensors actually detect a vehicle. This pair ofsensor. false triggering of the
sensors is fitted on speed
bumps located on the entry and exit roads to the parking zones, as shown - sensor.
in Figure 5.
Relatively short sensing
- Relatively
range. short sensing
RETROREFLECTIVE range.
RETROREFLECTIVE - Moderate sensing range. - Shorter sensing range
-- Moderate sensing range.
Easy to align. - Shorter sensing range
than through-beam.
-- Easy to align.
Requires assembly and - than
May through-beam.
detect reflections
- Requires assembly
wiring of only one and - May detect reflections
from shiny objects.
wiring of only one
emitter/receiver unit. from shiny objects.
- Requires reflector.
emitter/receiver unit. - Requires reflector.
 Figure 4. SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F sensor alongside a standard AA battery to give an idea of its size.

Figure 4. SHARP-GP2Y0D02YK0F sensor alongside a standard AA battery to give an idea of its size.
This photoelectric sensor allows detection by the three types of standard sensing modes listed
in Table 1.
This photoelectric sensor allows detection by the three types of standard sensing modes listed
Sensors
in Table 1.16, 931
2016, 8 of 16
Table 1. Standard sensing modes of the sensor.

Sensing Mode Table 1. Standard sensing modes of the sensor.

Table 1. Standard Advantages
sensing modes of the sensor. Disadvantages
Sensing Mode Advantages - The range depends on the
Disadvantages
Sensing Mode Advantages characteristics of the
- TheDisadvantages
range depends on the
object (colour, reflectivity,
Sensors 2016, 16,DIFFUSE
931 - characteristics
The range depends of the
on the
8 of 16
- Ideal for short-range etc.).
object (colour,ofreflectivity,
characteristics the object
DIFFUSE
DIFFUSE - - applications.
Ideal for - A(colour,
highly reflective etc.).
Ideal for short-range etc.). reflectivity,
- Requires proper
- Does not need
short-range a reflector.
applications. - - A background may cause
THROUGH-Beam applications.
- High margin for A highly
highlyreflective
alignment. reflective
-- Easy Doesinstallation/alignment.
not need a reflector. false triggering
background mayofcause
the false
- Does not needenvironments.
a reflector. - Notbackground may cause
- contaminated
Easy installation/alignment. sensor.
recommended
triggering of the sensor.for
- Easy installation/alignment.
- Longer sensing range than false
detectiontriggering
Relatively of
-- Relatively of
transparent
short the
short sensing
other technologies. sensor. range.
objects.
sensing
range.
- Most reliable sensing mode -- Requires
Relatively shorttosensing
space mount
RETROREFLECTIVE range.
-- Moderate objects. -- Shorter
RETROREFLECTIVE for highlysensing
reflectiverange. and wire the emitter
sensing rangethanand
Moderate sensing range. Shorter sensing range
RETROREFLECTIVE -- Easy to align.
Easy to align. receiver
than individually.
through-beam.
through-beam.
- Moderate sensing range. - Shorter sensing range
-- Requires
Requiresassembly
assembly and and -- May Maydetect reflectionsfrom
detect reflections
- Easy to align. than through-beam.
shiny objects.
SensorsThe
2016,chosen
16, 931 sensing mode is the -diffuse wiring
wiring mode,of only one
of onlyjustified
one by its simple installation
from shiny objects.requirements,
Requires assembly
emitter/receiver unit.and - Requires
May detect reflections8 of 16
with no calibration needed, and its detection performance.
emitter/receiver unit. During the--experimental reflector.
process, sensors
Requires reflector.
wiring of only one from shiny objects.
were deployed in speed bumps. However, future deployments could - be alteredproper
Requires and make use of
emitter/receiver unit. - Requires reflector.
street furniture
THROUGH-Beamlike bollards, street -lights,
High or traffic
margin lights.
for When those
- are not
alignment.
Requires available,
proper the most
alignment.
THROUGH-Beam - High margin for
straightforward installation is to deploy sensors
contaminated on environments. - Not recommended for
the ground,
contaminated environments. avoiding
- the
Not need for
recommended retro-reflective
for
detection of
or through-beam sensors. -- Longer
Longersensing rangethan
sensing range than detection of transparent
transparent objects.
To count vehicles entering and leaving the car park, two photoelectric
othertechnologies.
other technologies. objects. sensors were used to
- Requires space to mount and
avoid false positives. If a person or--anMost Mostreliable
object reliable sensing
other sensing mode
than a vehicle - Requires
mode interrupts theemitter
wire the sensorto
space IRmount
and beam, it
for highly reflective objects.
could be incorrectly counted, but using fortwo sensors
highly and debugged
reflective objects. controlling
and wiresoftware,
receiver the emitter
individually. theandcount
will not increase unless the pair of sensors actually detect a vehicle. Thisreceiver pair of individually.
sensors is fitted on
speed bumps located on the entry and exit roads to the parking zones, as shown in Figure 5.
The chosen sensing mode is the diffuse mode, justified by its simple installation requirements,
with no calibration needed, and its detection performance. During the experimental process, sensors
were deployed in speed bumps. However, future deployments could be altered and make use of
street furniture like bollards, street lights, or traffic lights. When those are not available, the most
straightforward installation is to deploy sensors on the ground, avoiding the need for retro-reflective
or through-beam sensors.
To count vehicles entering and leaving the car park, two photoelectric sensors were used to
avoid false positives. If a person or an object other than a vehicle interrupts the sensor IR beam, it
could be incorrectly counted, but using two sensors and debugged controlling software, the count
will not increase unless the pair of sensors actually detect a vehicle. This pair of sensors is fitted on
speedFigure
bumps
Figure 5. located
5. on of
Installation
Installation the entry
ofthe
the and
sensors
sensors in exit
in
two roads
two speed
speed to the
bumps
bumps parking
(left)
(left) zones, assensor
shown
photoelectric
photoelectric sensorin located
located Figure
at the 5.
at the
centre
centre of the bump;
of the speed speed bump;
(Right)(Right)
Pair ofPair
speedof bumps
speed bumps with
with the the photoelectric
photoelectric sensors.
sensors.

To develop the software for the sensor nodes we used the Contiki [29] operating system and the
To develop the software for the sensor nodes we used the Contiki [29] operating system and the
specific library for the CC2530 system-on-chip. Contiki is an open-source operating system geared
specific library for the CC2530 system-on-chip. Contiki is an open-source operating system geared
towards the Internet of Things. It enables communication with microcontrollers via the Internet and
towards the Internet of Things. It enables communication with microcontrollers via the Internet and
can run on a wide range of wireless low-power devices, providing mechanisms to estimate the total
can run on a wide range of wireless low-power devices, providing mechanisms to estimate the total
energy consumption of the system and to identify the units that consume the most. In addition,
energy consumption of the system and to identify the units that consume the most. In addition,
Contiki is designed for small systems with only a few kilobytes of memory available; it is very
Contiki is designed for small systems with only a few kilobytes of memory available; it is very efficient
efficient at memory management and provides different memory allocation mechanisms. With
at memory management and provides different memory allocation mechanisms. With regard to
regard to communications, Contiki is fully compatible with the IPv6 and IPv4 standards, providing a
communications, Contiki is fully compatible with the IPv6 and IPv4 standards, providing a full IP
full IP network
Figure stack, with
5. Installation standard
of the sensorsprotocols
insuch
two as suchbumps
speed as User Datagram
(left) Protocol
photoelectric (UDP),
sensor Transmission
located at the
network stack, with standard protocols User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control
Control Protocol
centre (TCP),
of the speed bump;and Hypertext
(Right) Pair of Transfer Protocol
speed bumps (HTTP).
with the Furthermore,
photoelectric sensors. it also supports
Protocol (TCP), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Furthermore, it also supports low-power
low-power wireless communications on the 6LoWPAN, Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy
wireless communications on the 6LoWPAN, Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks
Networks (RPL)the
To develop andsoftware
CoAP standards.
for the sensor nodes we used the Contiki [29] operating system and the
(RPL) and CoAP standards.
specific library for the CC2530 system-on-chip. Contiki is an open-source operating system geared
3.1.2. Gateway
towards the Internet of Things. It enables communication with microcontrollers via the Internet and
can runTheongateway
a wide range of wireless
node receives the low-power
packets sentdevices, providing
by the sensor mechanisms
nodes and sendsto estimate
them on tothe
thetotal
data
energy consumption of the system and to identify the units that consume the most.
centre. It also links communications in the opposite direction. From the hardware point of view, this In addition,
Contiki
elementisisdesigned
composed forofsmall systems with
a mainboard only
similar to athat
fewused
kilobytes of memory
for the available;
sensor nodes. it is very
Therefore, the
efficient at memory management and provides different memory allocation mechanisms. With
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 9 of 16

3.1.2. Gateway
The gateway node receives the packets sent by the sensor nodes and sends them on to the data
centre. It also links communications in the opposite direction. From the hardware point of view, this
element is composed of a mainboard similar to that used for the sensor nodes. Therefore, the gateway
software will have characteristics and functionalities similar to that used for the sensor nodes without
having to perform data packing or unpacking.
The gateway will communicate with the sensor nodes using the 6LoWPAN communication
protocol. If there is a node in the data centre acting as a border router, communication between the
base station and the gateway will be done by 6LoWPAN. However, if the gateway is located very close
to the data centre, a RS-232 serial connection will be used.

3.1.3. Data Centre

The data centre will receive information transmitted by the gateway and from the sensor nodes
of the network, giving readings which indicate the passage of vehicles. It will also send the relevant
instructions to the sensor network and store system data.
A server component will be installed to read and send data to the wireless sensor network while,
for storing system information, a registration component will be used in the data centre.
The server component for reading and sending data to the sensor network was developed as
a web service, using Play Framework with Java technology. This framework is inspired by Ruby
on Rails and Django, and enables flexible web applications to be built. It is a modular framework
with integrated unit testing (it includes support for JUnit and Selenium) that allows static methods,
non-blocking asynchronous communication, and simple corrective maintenance.
The registration component consists of a database which will store information on registered
users, the sensor networks deployed, the number of parking spaces available, etc. Specifically, we used
PostgreSQL to set up the database. PostgreSQL functions include transactions, referential integrity,
views and a multitude of features. It also incorporates Multiversion Currency Control—MVCC—which
allows other clients to access it while a process is being written in a table without the need for locking.
These features are suitable for systems that need to handle large amounts of data and a high number
of concurrent users accessing the system simultaneously, as will be required by the proposed system.

3.2. Communications System

Communication between the sensor nodes and the gateway node will be performed using the
6LoWPAN protocol on the Contiki operating system. This protocol allows the use of IPv6 over wireless
networks implemented using the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. In the proposed system each sensor node is
assigned an IP address.
The transmission of packets using the IPv6 protocol requires an adaptation layer between IPv6
and the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. One of the functions of this adaptation layer is to compress the IP
header, as this header is too large for 802.15.4. It also handles the fragmentation and reconstruction of
packets because IPv6 supports a maximum transfer unit of 1280 bytes, while the maximum for the
IEEE 802.15.4 standard is 127 bytes. It also handles the routing of packets within the local IP network,
routing to external IP networks, readings of the status of neighbouring nodes, and support for multicast
transmission. In the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, node consumption during transmission varies between
10 and 30 mA, depending on the power level, and communication is performed with a maximum
transfer rate of 250 kbit/s. IEEE 802.15.4 uses the ISM band for industrial, scientific, and medical uses:
868 MHz in Europe, 915 MHz in the US, and 2.4 GHz worldwide. However, when designing devices
for wireless sensor networks, the 2.4 GHz band is usually chosen since it is not assigned.
It should be noted that the sensor network will be implemented following the ad hoc topology.
This network topology describes networks as flexible mesh. In these networks all of the nodes provide
routing services, so, in addition to functioning as end devices, they also perform packet retransmission
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 10 of 16

multi-hop functions. This way it is possible to transmit packets to nodes with which there is no direct
coverage. Thanks to this feature, the network can cover large areas. However, this topology requires
routing protocols to calculate the most efficient route to favour lower energy consumption in the nodes.
Figure 6 shows the payload of a 6LoWPAN packet structure used in the system for communicating
with the nodes. The payload consists of a custom header, IDs for each specific sensor node, the data
length and the data itself (a message determining whether a vehicle went in or out). These messages
Sensors
are sent
Sensors 2016, 16,
16, 931
using
2016, 6LoWPAN protocol under Contiki.
931 10
10 of
of 16
16

Figure
Figure 6. Structure of
6. Structure of data
data packet
packet sent
sent by
by the
the sensor
sensor nodes.
nodes.

3.3.
3.3. Detection
Detection of
of the
the Passage
Passage of
of Vehicles
Vehicles
This
This section describes
section describes
describesthethe method
themethod
methodusedused
usedtoto detect
todetect
detectthethe passage
passageofof
thepassage ofaaavehicle
vehicle
vehicleon on
ona aaroad
road into
intooror
roadinto out
orout ofof
out a
of
aa parking
parking area.
area. TheThe method
method is is designed
designed toto detect
detect cars,
cars, vans
vans oror larger
larger vehicles
vehicles of of
two
parking area. The method is designed to detect cars, vans or larger vehicles of two or more axles. two oror more
more axles.
axles.
The
The sensor
sensor node
node is connected to
is connected to two
two sensors
sensors that
that detect
detect the
the passage
passage of vehicles. Figure
of vehicles. Figure 77 shows
shows
the solution
solution proposed
proposed using
using the the GP2Y0D02YK0F
GP2Y0D02YK0F SHARP SHARP
(Sharp (Sharp Corporation,
Corporation,
the solution proposed using the GP2Y0D02YK0F SHARP (Sharp Corporation, Osaka, Japan) Osaka, Osaka,
Japan) Japan)
infrared
infrared
sensor. sensor.
infraredEach Each
of the
sensor. twoof
Each the
the two
twoS1sensors
ofsensors and S2 S1
sensors was
S1 and S2
S2 was
placed
and in aplaced
was speed in
placed aa speed
bump
in bump
bump for
for protection
speed protection
for and and
and as
as a deterrent
protection as
ato
a deterrent
encourage
deterrent to encourage
tothe vehicle’sthe
encourage vehicle’s
wheels
the wheels
to pass
vehicle’s to
to pass
on each
wheels sideon
pass ofeach
on side
side of
the speed
each the
the speed
ofbump. bump.
bump. The
The distance,
speed L, distance,
The between
distance,
L,
L, between
the two bumps
between the
the two
wasbumps
two fixed inwas
bumps was fixed
order to in
fixed in order
detect
order to
to detect
vehicles
detect vehicles
longer thanlonger
vehicles than
a certain
longer aa certain
thanlength.
certainThelength.
exit and
length. The
The exit
entry
exit
and entry
monitoring monitoring
process was
and entry monitoring process was
carriedwas
process carried
outcarried out by
by controlling controlling the
the activation
out by controlling activation
theand and
deactivation
activation deactivation
event of each
and deactivation event of
of the
event of
each of
sensors the sensors
(On/Off). (On/Off).
each of the sensors (On/Off).

Figure 7.
7. Deployment
Figure 7. Deployment of
of the
the sensors.
sensors.
Figure Deployment of the sensors.

Knowing
Knowing the the precise
precise situation
situation of of the
the two
two sensors
sensors andand thethe distance
distance between
between them,them, this
this
Knowing allows
configuration the precise situation of athe two sensors and the distance between them, thistoconfiguration
configuration allows the passage of a vehicle and its direction to be detected, thanks to the order
the passage of vehicle and its direction to be detected, thanks the order of
of
allows the andpassage of a vehicle and its direction to be2).detected,
activation
activation and deactivation
deactivation of
of the
the sensors
sensors (see
(see Table
Table 2). When aathanks
When car
car is to the order
is entering
entering or of activation
or exiting,
exiting, the and
the system
system
deactivation
starts
starts from
from an ofidle
an the state,
idle sensors in (see
state, in which
which Table
no 2).
no When
sensor
sensor is aactive.
car is Then,
is active. entering
Then, an or
an exiting,or
entering
entering orthe system
exiting
exiting startsactivates
vehicle
vehicle from an
activates
idle
the state,
the first
first in which
sensor,
sensor, S1 noS2
S1 or
or sensor
S2 is active.As
respectively.
respectively. AsThen,
the an entering
the vehicle
vehicle or exiting
continues
continues its vehicle activates
its movement,
movement, the the first
the second
second sensor
sensorsensor,
will
will
S1
be or S2 respectively.
be activated:
activated: S2S2 for As the
for entering vehicle
entering vehicles continues
vehicles and and S1 its
S1 for movement,
for exiting the
exiting vehicles. second
vehicles. In
In the sensor
the final will
final stage be
stage beforeactivated:
returningfor
before returning S2 to
to
entering
an idle vehicles
state, only and
one S1 for
sensor exiting
would vehicles.
be In
active: the
S2 final
for stage
entering before returning
vehicles and S1
an idle state, only one sensor would be active: S2 for entering vehicles and S1 for vehicles moving in to an
for idle state,
vehicles only
moving one
in
sensor
the woulddirection.
the opposite
opposite be active: S2 for entering vehicles and S1 for vehicles moving in the opposite direction.
direction.

Table
Table 2.
2. Map
Map of
of direction
direction vector
vector control
control events
events with
with two
two in-line
in-line sensors.
sensors.
Entry
Entry Exit
Exit
S1
S1 S2
S2 S2
S2 S1
S1
Off
Off Off
Off Off
Off Off
Off
On
On Off
Off On
On Off
Off
On
On On
On On
On On
On
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 11 of 16

Table 2. Map of direction vector control events with two in-line sensors.

Entry Exit
S1 S2 S2 S1
Off Off Off Off
On Off On Off
On On On On
Off On Off On
Off Off Off Off

Sensors 2016, 16, 931 11 of 16

However, this configuration of sensor pairs is not sufficient to avoid false positives. To decrease
the error
avoid falserate, two timers,
positives. T1 and T2,
False positives canwere added toby
be triggered the monitoring
a moving process,
object; one fora each
for instance, sensor,
person with
to avoid falsetrolley,
a shopping positives. Falsethrough
passing positives
thecan be triggered
sensor system,by oraifmoving
a vehicleobject; for instance,
reverses a personorwith
at the entrance, if a
avehicle
shopping
uses trolley, passing
the lane to through
perform thea sensor
manoeuvresystem,to or if a vehicle
change reverses
direction. at the entrance,
Therefore, or if a
the distance
vehicle uses between
parameters the lane to perform
the sensorsa and
manoeuvre
the timersto change direction.
monitoring Therefore,
the time the distance
of passage should parameters
be set with
between
precision.the sensors and the timers monitoring the time of passage should be set with precision.
The detection
detectionalgorithm
algorithm follows the the
follows sequence diagram
sequence shownshown
diagram in Figure
in 8. This diagram
Figure 8. This describes
diagram
how the T1 and T2 values are associated with each of the sensors to detect different
describes how the T1 and T2 values are associated with each of the sensors to detect different events:events: passage of
apassage
vehicle,ofvehicle reverses
a vehicle, when
vehicle passing
reverses whenthrough,
passing orthrough,
the vehicleor is
thestationary.
vehicle is stationary.

Figure 8. Vehicle
Figure 8. entry detection
Vehicle entry detection sequence
sequence diagram.
diagram.

As the diagram shows, it is necessary to check that the vehicle has been detected by the two
As the diagram shows, it is necessary to check that the vehicle has been detected by the two pairs
pairs of sensors. This avoids false positives in the event that the vehicle reverses and does not enter,
of sensors. This avoids false positives in the event that the vehicle reverses and does not enter, or leaves
or leaves the parking area.
the parking area.
As the vehicle enters, a reading is taken from both sensors every second. If sensor 1 is activated,
As the vehicle enters, a reading is taken from both sensors every second. If sensor 1 is activated,
timer T1 is initiated to verify that the sensor has been activated by a vehicle and not a person or other
timer T1 is initiated to verify that the sensor has been activated by a vehicle and not a person or other
object, and once the wait time has passed, a reading is taken from sensor 2.
object, and once the wait time has passed, a reading is taken from sensor 2.
If sensor 1 is still active but sensor 2 has not been activated, it means that the vehicle has
If sensor 1 is still active but sensor 2 has not been activated, it means that the vehicle has stopped.
stopped. If, however, sensor 1 is deactivated without sensor 2 having been activated the vehicle has
If, however, sensor 1 is deactivated without sensor 2 having been activated the vehicle has reversed.
reversed. If sensor 2 has been activated and sensor 1 remains active, timer T2 is initiated to verify
that sensor 2 has been activated by a vehicle.
If none of the sensors is then deactivated it may mean that the vehicle is stationary or that a long
vehicle is passing. Lastly, a reading of the status of both sensors is taken, in the expectation that
sensor 1 has been deactivated before sensor 2, which means that the vehicle has entered the parking
area.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 12 of 16

If sensor 2 has been activated and sensor 1 remains active, timer T2 is initiated to verify that sensor 2
has been activated by a vehicle.
If none of the sensors is then deactivated it may mean that the vehicle is stationary or that a long
vehicle is passing. Lastly, a reading of the status of both sensors is taken, in the expectation that sensor
1 has been deactivated before sensor 2, which means that the vehicle has entered the parking area.
To detect a vehicle leaving the parking area, the same process is followed in reverse: first sensor 2
has to be activated and then sensor 1.
In Figure 9 we can see the role that the timer plays in detecting vehicle entry; in this case Timer1
(T1), associated with Sensor1 (S1) has been activated after an Off signal from S1. Therefore, it is
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 12 of 16
not counted as an attempted entry since the vehicle would have had to reach a speed of more than
20 km/h.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 12 of 16

Figure
Figure 9. Sequencediagram
9. Sequence diagram showing
showing aafailed
failedattempt
attemptto to
enter.
enter.
Figure 9. Sequence diagram showing a failed attempt to enter.
The “vehicle detection” event, both at the entry and exit control points, is notified by sending a
The
The “vehicle
data“vehicle
frame from detection”
detection” event,
the sensorevent,
node to both
boththe at at the
the entry
gateway entrynode, and
andthenexit
exit control
on control points,
points,
to the data centre.is Following
is notified by
notified by sending
thesending
data aa
data frame
frame from the
structure sensor
described node
in to
Section the gateway
3.2 and shownnode, inthen
Figure on 6 to
for
data frame from the sensor node to the gateway node, then on to the data centre. Following the data the data centre.
notification of Following
entry or exit the
of a data
framevehicle,
frame the data
structure
structure packet in
described
described sent by the sensor
in Section
Section 3.2 and
3.2 and node
shown
shown will be instructured
in Figure 66 for
Figure as shown
for in Figure
notification
notification of10:
of a header
entry
entry or exit
or of of
exit of aa
six
vehicle, bytes
vehicle, the with
the data the
datapacket values
packetsent 53
sentbybythe
hex , 45
thesensor, 4E
sensornode
hex hex ,53 ,
nodewill
hex 4F , and 52
willbebestructured
hex structured
hex (the word
asas SENSOR)
shown
shown inin followed
Figure
Figure by
10:10: the
a header
a header of
of sixsensor
bytes node
with identifier,
the valuesthe53
sensor , identifier,
45 , 4E the,53 number, 4F of bytes
, and in52
the data
(the field
word of the frame, which
SENSOR) followed
six bytes with the values 53hex, hex 45hex, 4E hexhex ,53 hex, 4F
hex hex, and
hex hex52hex (thehex word SENSOR) followed by the
in this case is 1 and, finally, the data field containing the value 1hex if notifying vehicle entry or a 0hex
by the node
sensor sensoridentifier,
node identifier,
the the sensor
sensor identifier, identifier,
the numberthe number
of bytes ofinbytes
the in the
data data
field offield of the which
the frame, frame,
if notifying vehicle exit.
which
in this in thisiscase
case is 1finally,
1 and, and, finally, the field
the data data containing
field containing the value
the value 1hex if1hex if notifying
notifying vehicle
vehicle entryentry
or a or
0hexa
0
ifhex if notifying vehicle
notifying vehicle exit. exit.

Figure 10. Structure of data packet sent by the sensor nodes to notify vehicle entry or exit.

4. Tests
Figure 10. Structure of data packet sent by the sensor nodes to notify vehicle entry or exit.
Figure 10. Structure of data packet sent by the sensor nodes to notify vehicle entry or exit.
To test the proposed system under real conditions, it was installed in a parking area located on
the Tafira Campus of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. This parking area has a capacity
4. Tests
for 10 vehicles and has a single lane that is used both to enter and exit; the setup is shown in
Figure
To test 11.
theThe tests were
proposed conducted
system undertoreal
verify the behaviour
conditions, of installed
it was the following
in aaspects
parkingof area
the system:
located on
the Tafira Campus of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. This parking areafor
communications system; establishing the configuration parameters of the system hascorrect
a capacity
detection of the passage of a vehicle (distance between the two speed bumps fitted with a sensor and
for 10 vehicles and has a single lane that is used both to enter and exit; the setup is shown in
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 13 of 16

4. Tests
To test the proposed system under real conditions, it was installed in a parking area located on the
Tafira Campus of the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. This parking area has a capacity for
10 vehicles and has a single lane that is used both to enter and exit; the setup is shown in Figure 11. The
tests were conducted to verify the behaviour of the following aspects of the system: communications
system; establishing the configuration parameters of the system for correct detection of the passage
of a vehicle (distance between the two speed bumps fitted with a sensor and the time each sensor
indicating the presence of a vehicle must be active); and incorrect detection of the passage of a vehicle
due to2016,
Sensors a false positive.
16, 931 13 of 16

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Deployment
Deployment ofof prototype
prototype sensor
sensor system
system to
to monitor
monitor access
access to
to the
the parking
parking area.
area. The
The sensors
sensors
are installed in the speed bumps.
are installed in the speed bumps.

To check the communications system was functioning correctly, an automatic periodic

To check the communications system was functioning correctly, an automatic periodic verification
verification process was developed to check the status of each sensor node. Specifically, the sensor
process was developed to check the status of each sensor node. Specifically, the sensor nodes were
nodes were programmed, once they had been activated from the data processing centre, to send the
programmed, once they had been activated from the data processing centre, to send the status of their
status of their batteries every hour over a period of seven days. It was found that these were
batteries every hour over a period of seven days. It was found that these were correctly identified by
correctly identified by their IPv6 address and that the frames were sent correctly without errors and
their IPv6 address and that the frames were sent correctly without errors and correctly routed through
correctly routed through the gateway node to the central data processing system. One hundred
the gateway node to the central data processing system. One hundred sixty-eight packages of 168 were
sixty-eight packages of 168 were received, with an error rate of 0%. The weather conditions during
received, with an error rate of 0%. The weather conditions during the test were: clear sky, cloudy sky,
the test were: clear sky, cloudy sky, and light rain.
and light rain.
Bearing in mind the way that the method of detecting passing vehicles was designed, two
Bearing in mind the way that the method of detecting passing vehicles was designed, two values
values need to be correctly configured for the process to run reliably:
need to be correctly configured for the process to run reliably:
 The distance separating the sensors placed in each speed bump. This is a fixed value that we
‚ The
havedistance
called L.separating the sensors placed in each speed bump. This is a fixed value that we have
 called
The timeL. that each sensor of the pair controlled by a node sensor needs to be active, thus
‚ The time
indicating that
theeach sensorofofathe
presence pair controlled
moving byisa anode
object. This valuesensor
that needs
can beto be active,
varied thus indicating
by reprogramming
the
the presence of a moving
sensor nodes. We have object. This
called is a value
these valuesthat
T1 can be varied
(value by reprogramming
of sensor 1 timer) and T2the sensor
(value of
nodes.
sensor We have T1
2 timer); called these values T1 (value of sensor 1 timer) and T2 (value of sensor 2 timer);
= T2.
T1 = T2.
The distance separating the two sensors, each installed in a speed bump, is a fixed value and,
for aThe
correct setting,
distance the lengths
separating of the
the two different
sensors, eachtypes of vehicles
installed on the
in a speed market
bump, must value
is a fixed be taken
and,into
for
aaccount. For this,the
correct setting, we conducted
lengths of theadifferent
study oftypes
vehicle lengthson
of vehicles (see
theTable 3),must
market concluding
be takenthat
intothe most
account.
appropriate
For distance isa study
this, we conducted 2.6 m,of corresponding to the
vehicle lengths (see Tableshortest wheelbase,
3), concluding that but longer
the most than the
appropriate
wheelbase
distance is of
2.6other moving objects,
m, corresponding to such as a bicycle
the shortest or a motorcycle.
wheelbase, but longer than the wheelbase of other
moving objects, such as a bicycle or a motorcycle.
Table 3. Values of timers T1 and T2, depending on vehicle type, at a constant speed of 20 km/h.

Vehicle Type Wheelbase Value (s)

Bus 15 m 2.7
Articulated bus 18.75 m 3.24
Car Variable: 6.092 m max. 2.6 m min. 0.468–1.08
Bicycle 1.1 m 0.18

The time that each sensor must be active indicating the presence of a moving object, T1 for
sensor 1 and T2 for sensor 2, depends on the speed of the vehicle in the parking area access lane; the
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 14 of 16

Table 3. Values of timers T1 and T2, depending on vehicle type, at a constant speed of 20 km/h.

Vehicle Type Wheelbase Value (s)

Bus 15 m 2.7
Articulated bus 18.75 m 3.24
Car Variable: 6.092 m max. 2.6 m min. 0.468–1.08
Bicycle 1.1 m 0.18

The time that each sensor must be active indicating the presence of a moving object, T1 for sensor 1
and T2 for sensor 2, depends on the speed of the vehicle in the parking area access lane; the maximum
speed allowed in parking areas is 20 km/h. Table 3 shows these values for different types of vehicles
travelling at 20 km/h.
False positive situations are impossible to avoid, due to moving objects other than vehicles
entering the parking zone, or an intentional improper use of the deployed system. However, these
kinds of errors did not appear during the test period, although false negative values were detected.
These were caused by vehicles, generally short vehicles, not passing over both sensors situated on
the ground, but avoiding one of them when entering or leaving the parking zone. These tests were
performed using conventional passenger cars, not other types of vehicles, like trucks or buses, due to
parking size restrictions.

5. Conclusions
One way to mitigate the negative effects of heavy vehicle traffic in urban and metropolitan areas
is the effective management of vehicle parking spaces. Technology has been mooted as the basis
for solutions that will have the fastest impact and lowest cost. This article has described a scalable,
low-cost, and minimally-intrusive parking space monitoring system, using a wireless sensor network
based on IPv6, using the 6LoWPAN protocol, a cloud-based management system and photoelectric
sensors. The network sensors are located on speed bumps placed on the way in or out of the parking
areas; these sensors are connected to nodes capable of processing the signal sent by the sensors to
detect the entry or exit of vehicles into or out of the parking area. These nodes communicate wirelessly
with in situ signalling devices and gateway units that send the signal to the central management server
for processing or distribution via the Internet. The system architecture and the elements that configure
it facilitate deployment in parking zones located on public roads. The number of detection monitoring
units is low, and the system can, therefore, be scaled up to a city-wide level, monitoring entire areas,
as long as all the entry and exit points are controlled.
To check the system, it was tested under real conditions monitoring a car park on a university
campus. The tests showed that the system works correctly with an error rate of less than 1%.
For future research, we propose reducing installation impact by incorporating the solar power
system and the processing and communication node together with the sensors in the speed bump,
as this would further facilitate adoption of this monitoring technology. In addition, tests should be
conducted in traffic zones with higher speeds—50 and 60 km/h—in order to be able to implement the
system on fast lane exit points and, thus, monitor entire districts of a city.

Acknowledgments: This Project has been funded by code TSI-020601-2012-47 under AETySI—Competitividad
I+D programme of the Spanish Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism (sponsors). Thanks to Instituto
Universitario de Ciencias y Tecnologías Cibernéticas of ULPGC for the right for use its parking area for prototype
deployment. Thanks also to every member of Edosoft Factory Lab Team for their collaboration in the project.
Author Contributions: Juan A. Vera Gómez directed the research study; all authors contributed to the design of
the system architecture, the hardware selection and the tests; Alexis Quesada-Arencibia and Carmelo R. García
developed the data centre software module and the communication system. Juan A. Vera Gómez,
Raúl Suárez Moreno and Fernando Guerra Hernández developed the sensor nodes software module and the
gateway software module; all authors contributed to the preparation of this manuscript.
Sensors 2016, 16, 931 15 of 16

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
WHO World Health Organization
WSN Wireless Sensor Network
IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6
IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4
UDP User Datagram Protocol
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
6LoWPAN IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Networks
RPL IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks
CoAP Constrained Application Protocol
MVCC Multiversion Concurrency Control

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