Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
org/acer
Production of Biodiesel from Rapeseed Oil in
Greece
Mingyen Yu*1, Seyed Ali Hosseini 2, Nikolaos Spiliopoulos
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences
University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK
*1M.Yu@surrey.ac.uk; 2S.Hosseini@surrey.ac.uk
Abstract
This work provides a detailed technoeconomical, political
and environmental review of current Biodiesel production
trends in Europe and Greece. Furthurmore, detailed design
of a biodiesel plant in Greece with a production capacity of
60,000 tonnes per year, using rapeseed as the raw material, is
developed. The analysis includes finding a suitable region in
Greece and determining the best process for the plant that
minimises the overall cost. Detailed mathematical
computations for design and costing of all equipment using
the transesterification process are developed, which is then
used to determine the financial costs of equipment, utilities,
labour and the final product. By considering the price of
rapeseed oil to be around 0.7 €/kg, the cost price (before
taxation) for the proposed biodiesel comes to 0.715 €/litre,
and the entire investment is able to break-even in three years.
The analysis has also indicated that the cost price of
biodiesel is lower than the current Greek market price of
diesel. Moreover, recent Greek legislation (Law 3908/2011) is
likely to improve the profit margin even further. Overall,
based on the current economic downturn in Greece, such a
project will have positive social and economic influences on
society, in addition to its environmental advantages. The
results of this research can provide a basis for political and
industrial decision making.
Keywords
Biomass Technology; Renewable Energy; Cost-even Analysis
Introduction
Although the first “compression-ignition” engine fully
powered by peanut oil in 1900, however, during the
20th century, the relative high price of biofuels to fossil
fuels has resulted in the “disappearance” of vegetable
oils as a fuel alternative. Due to resource depletion and
the oil crisis in 1973 and 1979, interest in renewable
energy sources has returned to the limelight again
(Regnier., 2007). The first attempt at biodiesel
production after the Arab oil embargo was in 1977, by
the Brazilian scientist Expedito Parente, who managed
to produce biodiesel through transesterification with
ethanol. Following the same technique, engine-tested
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biodiesel was patented in South Africa in 1983 (Bisen
et al., 2010). Lateron, Austrian company Gaskoks
managed to erect the first biodiesel plant in 1987.
Currently, based on the sourcing of feedstock, there
are four generations of biodiesel, which are described
in Table 1.
TABLE 1 DIFFERENT GENERATIONS OF BIODIESEL BASED ON FEEDSTOCK
TYPES AND MODE OF PRODUCTION
Generation Feedstock and mode of production
Relies on crops giving sugars, starches and oil as
their feedstock, such as rapeseed, cotton, corn, palm
First etc. The production of biodiesel is obtained by
fermenting the sugars or with transesterification of
fatty oils.
Uses lignocellulosic biomass as feedstock and is
Second produced through thermochemical routes or by
breaking down cellulose with enzymes biodiesel.
Produced from algae. Algae is produced from
photosynthetic organisms and grown in the water by
Third
taking up light, CO2 and other nutrients. The algae
oil can be used for producing biodiesel (alkyl esters)
Either created using petroleum-like hydroprocessing,
Fourth advanced bio-chemistry, or revolutionary processes
like Joule’s "solar-to-fuel" method.
Biodiesel has a golden or dark brown colour
(depending on the feedstock). It is immiscible in water,
has a high boiling point with low vapour pressure and
is non-flammable under ambient pressure. It is even
claimed that biodiesel contains 3.2 times the amount of
energy it takes to produce (US Department of Energy.,
2012). Generally, biodiesel can be legally blended with
petroleum diesel and the most popular blends are
shown in Fig. 1 (US Department of Energy., 2012).
FIG. 1 MOST POPULAR BIODIESEL BLENDS a
The higher the amount of biodiesel in the blend is, the
a US Department of Energy, 2012
79
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lower the emissions in the air with the exception of
NOx is, which increases as the ratio of biodiesel
increases. Although B100 provides the best emission
reductions compared with petroleum diesel, lower
blends are also environmentally beneficial; for
instance, B20 is able to reduce PM emissions by 10%,
CO by 11%, and unburned HC by 21% (US
Environmental Protection Agency, 2002; U.S.
Department of energy, 2012).
FIG 2. AVERAGE EMISSIONS IMPACT OF BIODIESEL FOR
HEAVY-DUTY HIGHWAY ENGINES b
Moreover, compared to petroleum diesel, using
biodiesel in a conventional petroleum diesel engine
substantially reduces tailpipe emissions of unburned
hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphates,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (PM)
(US Department of Energy., 2012).
Europe is a powerful biodiesel producer, providing a
total of 9.5 million tonnes of biodiesel in 2010. The
European Union supports biofuels in order to reduce
carbon footprint, replace fossil fuels, decrease imports
of foreign fuels and boost rural areas. Top three EU
biodiesel producers are Germany, France and Spain
(shown in Fig. 3). From this figure, it is evident that
there has been a rapid increase in annual production
of Europe (Skarlis et al., 2007; Karagiannidis et al.,
2007, EBB.Stastics, 2010).
FIG. 3 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION IN EU 2002-2010 c
b US Environmental Protection Agency, 2002
c European Biodiesel Board, 2010
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Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
Directive 2003/30/EC or the ‘Biofuel Directive’ was
adopted in 2003 by the European Parliament in order
to promote biofuels for transport issues, and it set
targets of 2% and 5.75% market share of biofuels by
2005 and 2010 respectively. The European
Commission, in order to promote the cultivation of
energy crops, introduced a 45€ per hectare programme
for farmers in 2003, providing them with the
motivation to grow the raw materials for biofuels
production. All of the European countries have
adopted the EU Directives, where tax exemptions and
biofuel obligations are the basic principles for the
European countries to implement with the legal
framework objectives (Karagiannidis et al., 2007).
Greece is one of the first EU countries that provided
tax exemptions policy for biofuels. According to the
the Hellenic Republic Ministry of Development in 2006,
Greece’s most popular biomass raw materials for the
industrial sector were waste wood, straw and cotton
residues. The total annual consumption was estimated
at around 150k tonnes of oil equivalent (toe), whereas
Greek households used to use a total of 0.7 M toe of
wood annually for heating and cooking purposes.
Table 2 provides a typical summary of Greece’s energy
profile.
TABLE 2 GREECE COUNTRY AND ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION
PROFILE IN 2012 de
Electricity Production
Country Profile
Profile (2001)
Population 10.8 Million(2011) Fossil Fuel 94.5%
Area 131,957 km2 Hydro 3.8%
Total Primary
Energy 29M toe (2009) Nuclear 0%
Supply
Electricity 58.79 billion kWh Other
1.7%
Production (2011) renewables
On December 13th 2005, the Greek constitution voted
through and adopted Act 3423/2005 for the
“Introduction of biofuels and other renewable fuels in the
Greek market”. Next, a programme for the allocation of
biofuel quantities was set up and linked with the
establishment of the Biofuels Distribution License.
This was for companies that wished to be involved in
the production and selling of biofuels in Greece.
Finally, the national target of 5.75% for 2010 was set
for national biofuel usage, as shown in Table 3.
(Myrsini Christou., 2011). Under Act 3423/2005, each
participant has the right and the obligation to
distribute specific quantities of pure biofuels and
d Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook, 2012
e International Energy Agency, 2012
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blends on the Greek market. A provision incorporated Ekkokistiria-klostiria

Voreiou Komotini 6,600
in Article 34 of Act 3340/2005 provides full excise
VertOil S.A.
duties exemption from the following quantities of Mil Oil Hellas S.A. Kilkis 10,450
pure biodiesel: First call: 51,000 m³ (in 2005), second NEWENERGY S.A. Thessaloniki 9,900
call: 91,000 m³ (published by the end of 2005) and third GF ENERGY S.A. Serres 21,000
ΜΑΝΟS S.A. Korinthos 99,000
call: 114,000 m³ (published in December 2006). Under
Volos 33,000
the 1st call, 2,500 tonnes of pure biodiesel were
allocated to Hellenic Biopetroleum S.A. Under the 2nd
call, 16 companies submitted applications for tender.
The quantities were allocated to 12 biodiesel
producers and 2 biodiesel traders. The last call for
114,000 tonnes biodiesel was published in 2006 by the
Greek Ministry of Development.
TABLE 3 ESTIMATION OF BIODIESEL REQUIRED FROM 2005 TO 2010 f

Estimated Automotive Biodiesel

Year Diesel Consumption Biodiesel used (%) Required
(thousands of tonnes) (tonnes)
2005 3,707 2.00 120,442
2006 3,800 2.50 154,329
2007 3,892 3.00 189,678 FIG. 5 BIODIESEL PLANTS ALLOCATION h
2008 3,984 4.00 258,883
2009 4,077 5.00 331,157 Rapeseed is considered the third most important oil
2010 4,169 5.75 389,424 producing plant after soybeans and palm oil in Greece.
According to National Reports on the promotion of Table 5 compares the efficiency of the five most
the use of biofuels or other renewable fuels for popular energy crops in Greece. It can be concluded
transport in Greece for the period 2005-2010, Greece’s that rapeseed and sunflower have the highest
most promising future investments will be biodiesel efficiency in biodiesel production which is between 50
and bioethanol. The first attempt at the production to 100 kg/stremma (unit for measuring the land area in
and distribution of biodiesel in Greece was made in Greece; equal to 0.1 hectare) (Intelligent Energy
December 2005 and no biofuels had been distributed Europe a).
or consumed before this time (Hellenic Republic TABLE 5 FEEDSTOCK FOR PRODUCING BIODIESEL PER YEAR i

Ministry of Development, 2006b). During this trial, Crop Biodiesel Biodiesel

Raw
biodiesel was blended with automotive diesel from Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency
Material
refineries and industries to produce petroleum kg/stremma* kg/stremma litres/stremma
Sunflower 150 – 300 50 – 100 58 – 116
products. The biodiesel produced was around 3000
Rapeseed 150 – 300 50 – 100 58 – 116
tonnes and by 2007 this had increased to 100,000 Cynara 100 – 150 24 – 36 28 – 41
tonnes. Currently, there are thirteen biodiesel plants in Cardunculus
Greece (shown in Table 4 and Fig 5). Soy-bean 120 – 160 17 – 23 20 – 27
Cotton 160 - 240 27 – 41 32 – 48
TABLE 4 BIODIESEL COMPANIES IN GREECE 2010 g
* 10 stremma = 1 hectre
Origin of quantity of pure Capacity
Company
biodiesel (tonnes)
Cultivation of the rapeseed plant generates two
Pavlos N. Pettas S.A. Patra Industrial Area 99,000 products: rapeseed oil (from the seed) and rapeseed
Biodiesel Ltd. Mygdonia Park Municipal 21,000 flour (from the residue). The rapeseed oil is the only
District, Thessaloniki type of oil that meets 100% EU specifications for
Agroinvest S.A. Achladi Municipal District, 230,000
Fthiotida
biodiesel production. Rapeseed flour is a product rich
ELVI Kilkis 79,000 in proteins (34%) and can be used as an animal food as
Staff Colour Energy S.A. Larissa Industrial Area 11,000 well, partial replacing soybeans, and hence reducing
ELIN Biofuels S.A. the cost of animal food production. On average 30-37
Vioenergeia Papantoniou Volos Industrial Area 73,300
S.A. Chalkidiki 9,000
kg of rapeseed can be produced by cultivating one

f Myrsini Christous, 2011 h Myrsini Christous, 2011

g Hellenic Republic, Ministry of Development, 2010 i Greece Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, 2000-2006

81
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hectare of land, which corresponds to the production
of 10-13 kg of biodiesel (Intelligent Energy Europe a;
CRES, 2000-2006; Rigalos et al., 2008).
In this paper, we will analyse a 60,000 tonnes per year
biodiesel production plant in Greece assuming local
production of raw material. The analysis includes
detailed mathematical computations on the technical
equipment of the industrial plant and also contains
cost analyses for the technical equipment, utilities, by-
products and the final product. The results of this
research can provide a basis for political and industrial
decision making.
Methodology
The first step for this research is to find a suitable area
for the plant’s facilities. One of the most critical factors
we consider at this point is the accessibility of the
arable land for the cultivation of rapeseed, which is
the raw material. The capacity of the biodiesel plant,
the amounts of utilities and raw materials used and
any other quantities such as the catalyst were
calculated using the commercial software package,
Aspen Hysys. The production process through
transesterification was studied and explained in this
work. The total cost of the installation was calculated.
For the purpose of the computations, data will be
extracted from Aspen Hysys. Distillation columns will
be examined separately by using the McCabe-Thiele
method in order to calculate the number of trays. Due
to the presence of the highly polar components,
methanol and glycerol, both the non-random two
liquid (NRTL) and universal quasi-chemical
(UNIQUAC) thermodynamic/activity models were
recommended to predict the activity coefficients of the
components in a liquid phase (Hyprotech Ltd., 2000).
Detailed descriptions of these models were provided
by Gess et al. (1991). The total cost of the installation
and the payback periods will be evaluated to
determine if this is going to be a good and lucrative
investment in general.
Modelling and Design
The modelling section was divided into three sub-
sections: location-allocation, the chemical process and
the production process of biodiesel. In the first sub-
section the region of Greece that is most suitable for
the cultivation of the required rapeseeds was allocated.
In the second sub-section, the chemical process for
producing biodiesel was studied. Finally, the
simulation results were presented.
82
Location Allocation
Traditionally, the location-allocation problem has been
a well-established research area within the field of
Operation Research (OR). Melo et al. (2009) conducted
an extensive review of the role of facility location
models within the supply chain. The authors divided
the investigation into two objectives: namely, facility
location and supply chain management. There are
many papers found addressing the topic of single
location layer with single commodity. (Sahin and Süral,
2007; Melkote and Daskin, 2001; Barahona and Jensen,
1998). Thus for this research, we will start by finding a
suitable area in Greece for the installation of the
biodiesel plant.
Large (around 45,000 ha) and easily accessible
quantities of raw materials are important requirements
for this area, as this will reduce the cost of
transportation from the cultivation site to the plant.
Similarly, other raw materials such as methanol, acid
and base catalysts should be readily available near the
site of the plant as well. Finally, the biodiesel
produced should be accessible for distribution, and
lack of competition in the area is essential for
establishing this new industry. Taking all these criteria
into account, the region of Southwest Greece (shown
in Fig.6) is the most suitable region for the investment.
This part of Greece is called Aitoloacarnania and it
consists of mountains (Acarnanian Mountains), rivers
(Acheloos, Evinos and Ermitsa etc.) and rich fertile
valley for cultivation. According to the national
Statistic Department of Greece around 500,000
stremma of unused land is readily and easily available
for rapeseed cultivation in Aitolia-Acarnania.
FIG. 6 GREECE, AITOLOACARNANIA
Based on land availability, in this research it was
assumed that the capacity of the biodiesel plant will be
60,000 tonnes per yea, that the average number of
working days for any industry in Greece is 344 days
and that the plant operates for 24 hours a day. Thus,
the total number of hours is 8,256 hours per year.
Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
Qbiodiesel = 7.267 tonnes /hour = 7,267 kg/hour
Using the average biodiesel efficiency of 70
kg/stremma summarised in Table 5 above, it can be
computed that:
Required stremma = 85,714.3 ha/year
Since rapeseed produces double crops per year, the
required hectares are divided into 42,857.14 ha or
428,571.4 stremma, which is a bit less than the
available 500,000 stermma; it is reasonable to use a
number less than 500,000 stermma to account for any
error in the assumptions.
Chemistry of Biodiesel Production
Transesterification is the main chemical reaction for
the production of biodiesel. Currently, it is considered
to be the most efficient process because of the low
temperature (65oC) and pressure (20psi) requirements
for the process, as well as the high and direct
conversion rate (98%) of methyl ester (Skarlis et al.,
2007). The overall process is made up of a sequence of
three consecutive and reversible reactions. During the
first reaction, a triglyceride which is the main content
of the vegetable oil and animal fats, reacts with an
alcohol in the presence of a catalyst, producing a
mixture of fatty alkyl esters and glycerol.
CH2-OOC-R1 R1-OOC-R’ CH2-OH
| | | common acid catalysts for esterification: Hydrochloric
CH2-OOC-R2 + 3R’OH  R2-OOC-R’ + CH2-OH
| | | multiple feedstocks with little water use, and
CH2-OOC-R3 R3-OOC-R’ CH2-OH
Triglyceride Alcohol Fatty Acid Glycerol
Alkyl Esters
Triglyceride is also known as triacylglycerol,
triacylglyceride, or TAG. It is an ester composed of a
glycerol bound to three fatty acids with R1, R2, and R3
denoting long hydrocarbon chains. Methanol or
ethanol can be used as alcohols in the reaction but
methanol is predominant in commercial applications
because it is cheaper and offers greater ease of
downstream recovery of the unreacted alcohol. The
catalyst can be either acid or base depending on the
content of the feedstock. In the case where waste
cooking oils are going to be used as feedstock, high in
free fatty acids (FFA), the reaction of esterification will
take place in the presence of an acid catalyst in order
for the conversion into biodiesel to take place, as
shown.
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(1) RCOOH + R’OH  RCOOR’ + H2O
Since base catalysts are much more efficient for
transesterification than acids, they are the natural
choice when no esterification reaction is required to
convert FFA.
(2)
Free fatty acids and water always produce negative
impacts during the process as both of them together
can cause soap formation (increase viscosity,
difficulties in glycerol separation etc.). There are three
known base catalysts which can be used in the
transesterification: Sodium Hydroxide, Potassium
Hydroxide and Sodium Methoxide (also known as
Sodium Methylate). Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) has
much slower dissolution in Methanol compared to
Potassium Hydroxide and Sodium Methoxide.
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) is more expensive than
NaOH due to its higher potential yields for biodiesel
with lower waste disposal cost. Sodium Methoxide
(NaOCH3) is more expensive than the hydroxides but
a lower concentration of NaOCH3 is required to
achieve a good reaction. It is estimated that 70% of US
biodiesel production relies on Sodium Methoxide
(Thane., 2008).
An acid catalyst can be used in the pre-treatment stage
for esterification of FFA and then followed by
transesterification (with base catalyst). There are two
acid (HCl) which has the ability to access the sugar of
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) which is much cheaper than
the first one; HCL currently costs around 100€/ton (U.S.
Department of energy, 2012).
Process Description
At the beginning of the process, both methanol and
NaCOH3 are mixed together, and put with the
rapeseed oil to the reactor so the transesterification
reaction takes place. After the transesterification, the
biodiesel and glycerol should be separated and
methanol should be recovered. In this work Sodium
Methoxide (NaOCH3) and Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
(instead of H2SO4 and KOH) are used as catalysts. The
system produces biodiesel from an alcohol (methanol
or ethanol) and one or several different oil feedstocks.
H2SO4 is used to convert any FFA by esterification.
Such a commercial scale process can either operate in a
continuous mode or a semi-continuous mode.
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Methanol
Mixer
NaOCH3
Oil Transesterification Wash
Crude Glycerol
Neutralization with Phase
HCL HCL
separation
Fatty
acids
FIG. 7 GENERAL PROCESS STEPS FOR THE BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
Overall, the process consists of six major components.
1. The Acid-alcohol esterification pre-treatment
and water/acid removal units: Esterification
(complete conversion of FFA) where the molar
ratio of alcohol to oil is 6:1, catalyst to oil ratio
is 1 wt%, temperature is around 60-70°C,
reaction lasts up to 1.5 hours and water and
acid are to be removed-by washing with
glycerol-before entering the next step.
2. Base alcohol transesterification units:
Transesterification (90-98% conversion of TAG)
where the molar ratio of alcohol to oil is 6:1,
catalyst to oil ratio is 1 wt%, temperature is
around 45-60°C, reaction lasts up to 1 hour.
3. Biodiesel drying unit: for the product to meet
the quality standards, crude biodiesel needs to
be washed with water to remove the catalyst
and finally purified by distillation and drying.
4. Catalyst recovery unit: Catalyst has to be
neutralised by acid in this stage.
5. Alcohol recovery unit: Unreacted alcohol is
separated by distillation and then recycled.
6. Glycerol unit: Glycerol may be recovered at
different grades of purity depending on the
intended use and the accepted level of costs.
As can be seen from the process flowsheet (Fig. 8),
there are two sequential transesterification reactors, R-
501 and R-502. The reactions are both conducted at
60oC. The first one is continuously fed with rapeseed
oil, methanol and sodium methoxide.
The glycerol- rich product from the first reactor enters
84
Methanol
recycle
Methanol Quality
recovery control
Biodiesel
Methanol
recycle
Reneutralization with Methanol
NaOH
recovery
Glycerol
Glycerol
purification
a continuous centrifuge, FF-101, in order for the
glycerol to be removed and sent to the mixing tank, M-
101. Methanol, sodium methoxide and unreacted
substances coming from FF-101(stream 7) are the feed
for the second reactor. The mixture of methyl esters,
glycerol, unreacted substrates and catalyst coming out
of the bottom of R502 (stream 9) enters a second
continuous centrifuge FF-102. The glycerol-rich
bottom product from FF-102 goes to the glycerol
recovery section, whereas the top product is sent to
the biodiesel refining section in order to be purified
and dehydrated. The top product of FF-102 is washed
with water to neutralise the catalyst and convert any
soap to free fatty acids. Another centrifuge, FF-103, is
then employed to separate the biodiesel from the rest
of the liquid phase. The bottom output of FF-103 is
sent to the mixing tank, M-101. The top product,
which contains mostly water and biodiesel, enters a
vacuum dryer, VD-101, where water and biodiesel are
separated. The glycerol from the reactors and the
biodiesel wash are gathered in the process tank, V-202,
and treated with HCL to convert soaps to free fatty
acids; these are then removed with the centrifuge, FF-
104.
This fatty acid is disposed of as sewage for the whole
industry. The remaining glycerol is neutralisd with
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and then distilled in
alcohol recovery distillation, T-101, in order to reduce
its water content. Methanol is recovered by another
alcohol recovery distillation, and T-102, is recycled in
the transesterification process. The fraction of water in
the glycerol process is recycled in the wash operations
(Haas et al., 2006).
Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
FIG. 8 FLOWSHEET FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BIODIESEL FROM RAPESEED OIL
Result and Discussion
The result of the process simulation is presented in
Table 6 with details of stream characteristics which
enable a precise calculation of the operational
requirement. Again, due to the presence of the highly
polar components, methanol and glycerol, both the
non-random two liquid (NRTL) and universal quasi-
chemical (UNIQUAC) thermodynamic/activity models
were recommended to predict the activity coefficients
of the components in a liquid phase (Zhang et al., 2003;
Hyprotech Ltd., 2000). Some unavailable interaction
parameter coefficients, such as those for methanol/
methyl-oleate, glycerol/methyl-oleate and sulphuric
acid with any other component, were estimated using
the UNIQAC liquid–liquid equilibrium module in
HYSYS.
Cost Analysis
A provision of the biodiesel production cost is
presented in this section. The costs are broken down
into capital costs, which consists of the equipments to
be used in the plant (e.g. biodiesel tank, rapeseed tank,
methanol tank, centrifugal, mixer etc.), as well as
operation costs which are the raw material, catalyst,
steam, electricity and labour costs.
Raw Material and Catalyst Costs
In Europe, over the last decade, the price of rapeseed
oil decade has ranged from 0.4 €/kg to 1.1 €/kg
(International Monetary Fund, 2012). Thus for this
research, the price of rapeseed oil is set at 0.7 €/kg.
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From Table 4.1 (stream 2), the necessary amount of
rapeseed oil for production is 7,083 kg/h. As the
industry runs for 344 days per year and 24 hours per
day, the total cost of the rapeseed is 40,934,073.6€
annually. The base catalyst (NaOCH3) to oil ratio is 1
wt% (Haas et al., 2006). Thus 70.83 kg per hour of
NaOCH3, is required by the plant. That gives a total
annual cost of 3,192,695.97€ per year based on the cost
of the base catalyst being $6.71/kg. An acid catalyst
(HCL) is used to neutralise the base catalyst and to
breakdown fatty acids. HCL is added into the system
in streams 22 and 32. In stream 22, there is 1.11 kg-
mole HCL per hour, which gives rise to 19.98 kg and
70.83 kg per hour of HCL being needed for streams 22
and 32 respectively. Assuming the cost of HCL is 0.107
€/kg, the total cost of the acid catalyst required is
80,220.83€ per year.
Steam and Electricity Costs
Steam is required mainly in the reactors and
distillation columns. It is known from our simulation
that 1.4 GJ steam is needed to produce 1 tonne of
biodiesel. Thus 81,527.6 GJ of steam is required per
year for the plant. This comes to 403,317.04€ based on
a unit cost of 4.947€ per GJ of steam. Similarly,
electricity is required in the reactors and centrifugal
vessels. Again, it is known from process simulation
that 30 kW electricity is required to produce 1 tonne of
biodiesel, which gives a total amount of 1,747,020 kW
per year for electricity needs, which in turn costs
142,207.43€ per year, based on 0.0814€ per kW of unit
electricity cost.
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TABLE 6 STREAM CHARACTERISTICS

Temperature Pressure Mass flow Molar flow Waste

Stream Oil MeOH Biodiesel Glycerol H2 O HCL
(oC) (kPa) (kg/h) (kgmole/h) (Fatty acid)
1 60 140 1,538 48 48
2 60 140 7,083 8 8
3 60 140 1,230 38.4 38.4
5 60 140 308 9.6 9.6
6 60 140 8,314 46.4 0.8 16.8 21.6 7.2
7 60 140 7,429 32.5 0.8 10.1 21.6
9 60 140 7,737 42.1 0.1 17.5 23.7 0.7
10 60 140 7,439 34.3 0.1 10.5 23.7
12 60 140 8,560 104.3 0.1 1.1 23.7 79.4
13 60 140 8,870 113.7 0.1 10.5 23.7 79.4
14 11.5 1 8,560 104.3 0.1 1.1 23.7 79.4
15
100 1 7,083 23.8 0.1 0.0009 23.5 0.2
(biodiesel)
16 100 1 1,527 80.5 1.1 0.2 79.2
17 75 140 1,527 80.5 1.1 0.2 79.2
18 60 140 310 9.5 9.5 0.02
19 60 140 298 7.8 7 0.02 0.7
20 60 140 885 13.9 6.7 0.02 7.2
21 60 140 1,493 31.2 23.2 0.1 7.9
22 60 140 60 3.4 2.3 1.1
23 60 140 1,554 34.6 23.2 0.07 7.9 2.3 1.1 0.07
24 60 140 1,526 34.1 23.2 7.9 3
25 60 140 28 0.5 0.4 0.07
26 74 140 770 24.7 23.2 1.5
27 198 140 756 9.4 0.0046 7.9 1.5
28 36 30 742 23.2 23.2 0.0015
30 60 70 28 1.5 0.023 1.5
31 (H2O) 75 140 100 5.6 5.6
32 (HCL) 75 140 71 3.9 3.9
33
60 140 71 1.7
(NaCOH3)
However, the volume for the process tank needs to be
Storage Tank and Process Tank Costs
5 m3 ≤ Vtank ≤ 80 m3. Since the calculated volume is
According to the simulation results, stream 15 which lower than this constraint, we will use the lower limit
ends at the biodiesel storage tank has a Standard Ideal of 5 m3 instead. Using the correction factor for stainless
Liquid Volume Flow of 8.0148 m3 per hour. The tank steel of 2.4, the cost of the installed tank comes to be
must be able to store the produced biodiesel for four 22,546.98€. We calculate the costs of the other process
weeks, so the necessary volume of the individual tank tank, V-201 similarly (Koukous, 2008-2009).
is 5,770.66 m3. In order to avoid overflow, an extra 20%
is added to this volume. The new volume of the Centrifugal and Pressure Viessel (Mixer) Costs
individual biodiesel tank therefore comes to 6,924.79 Stream 6 which ends at the continuous centrifuge, FF-
m3. Based on the new volume, the total cost comes to 101, has a Standard Ideal Liquid Volume Flow of
717,092.49€. This is the cost of the installed equipment 8.6090 m2/h and, similar to the process tank, the
as of 2012, with the correction factor for stainless steel centrifuges must comply with the restriction of 1 m3 ≤
being 2.4. In the same way, the costs of the oil, Q ≤ 50 m3. Thus the cost for the continuous centrifuge,
methanol, glycerol, catalyst and HCL tanks have been FF-101 comes to 75,049€. Using the same methodology,
calculated (Koukous, 2008-2009). the costs of FF-102, FF-103, FF-104 are calculated
The stream which ends at the process tank, V-202, has respectively (Koukous, 2008-2009). According to the
a Standard Ideal Liquid Volume Flow of 1.7718 m3/h. result from the simulation, the flow rate in mixer, M-
Thus the volume is 1.7718 m3, if the resident time in 101 is 1.65814 m3/h and because the resident time in
the tank is an hour. Again, in order to avoid the risk of the tank is 1 hour, the volume of the vessel is
overflow, the volume of the tank is increased by 20%. calculated to be 1.65814 m3. To avoid the risk of
The new volume of the tank comes to 2.13 m3. overflow, the volume of the tank is increased by 20%.

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Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
Thus the new volume is 1.9897 m3. Based on this, the
diameter of the vessel is 1.082 m and the height is
2.164 m. However, the diameter and height should
comply with the restrictions where 0.305 m ≤ D ≤ 3.05
m and 1.22 m ≤ H ≤ 30.5 m respectively. The cost of the
vessel comes to 7,525€. The cost of the installed
equipment is 31,830€, using FBM=4.23, FM=1, FP=1.
Vaccum Dryer Costs
The result of the simulation for the stream
characteristics of the vacuum dryer is shown in Table 7.
For the design of the vacuum dryer, which contains
gas and liquid, the required volume of the retained
liquid VL will be 1.44 m3, assuming the resident time t
equal to 10 minutes. Then the required diameter,
according to the speed of the gas and since the vessel
operates without a filter, uv is 11.14 m/s and the
diameter of the vacuum dryer is 2.28 m. The height of
the liquid, HL will be 0.23 m. Based on this result, the
height of the segment which is available for gas, HV, is
calculated taking into account the following
constraints.
HV > 1.67m
3 ≤ (HL+HV)/D ≤ 5
In this case study, since the ratio is less than 3, it is
assumed that Hv is increased until the ratio is equal to
3. Thus the value of Hv = 8.5 m is used. This will satisfy
both of the constraints in (3). The total height of the
vessel turns out to be 8.73 m, and the cost of the vessel
is 63,658€. Finally, the cost of the installed equipment
is 269,270€, where FBM=4.23, FM=1 and FP=1
TABLE 7 VACCUM DRYER DATA
Parameter Value
Liquid flow rate (L) 7,033 kg/h
Density of liquid (ρL) 815.26 kg/m3
Steam flow rate (V) 1,527 kg/h
Density of gas (ρV) 0.006115 kg/m3
Distallation Column Costs
The number of trays corresponding to the second
distillation column is calculated by using the McCabe-
Thiele method. From simulations, the following data is
obtained: (1) mole fraction of water in bottom product,
XR = 0.0153; (2) mole fraction of feed, XF = 0.9397; and (3)
mole fraction of methanol in distillate, XD=0.9999. The
minimum reflux ratio required to achieve the product
specification is 0.6665 and the real reflux ratio is
calculated as 0.54. Based on this result, we calculate
the surface area of the tray to be 0.9399 m2, and the
diameter of the column to be 1.17 m, using the data in
www.seipub.org/acer
Table 8. Based on the calculation, the real number of
trays needed for the distillation column is 11, the
distance between the trays is 0.6 m and the height of
the column is 6.6 m. The weight of the column comes
to 1,374.5 kg. Using the above result, the cost of the
installed equipment without trays is 85,240€ as of 2012,
where FBM=4.23, FM=1, FP=1. The cost of the tray is
15,880€. Thus the final total cost for the distillation
column T-101 is 101,120€. The same principle is
applied to calculate T-102 as well.
TABLE 8 DISTALLATION COLUMN DATA
Parameter Value
Steam flow rate (V) 8,324 kg/h
Density of gas (ρV) 1.5091 kg/m3
Speed of gas (μV) 1.63 m/s
λ 0.88
Reactor and Heat Exchanger Costs
The flow rate for the sequential transesterification
reactor, R-501 is 8.7350 m2/h. With a conservative
assumption of the resident time in the reactor being 1
hour; the volume comes to 8.7350 m3. In order to avoid
the risk of overflow, the volume of the tank is
increased by 20%, giving a new volume of 10.482 m3.
Putting these values together, the cost of the reactor
itself is 40,844€, and the cost of the installed equipment
is 169,900€ as of 2012, where FBM=4.16, FM=1, FP=1.
Based on the simulation results, the exchanged heat in
the heat exchanger, HE-402, is equal to Q = 958.1 kW,
and ∆TLM = 55.6oC , where Th,i = 100oC, Th,o = 75oC, Tc,i =
25oC and Tc,o = 40oC. The rotation surface is calculated
as 12.58 m2 and the cost of the reactor alone is 9,799€
as of 2012. Finally, the cost of the installed equipment
is 32,239€, where FBM=3.29, FM=1, FP=0, Fd=1.
Labour Costs
Koukous, (2008-2009) provided an extensive list of the
workforce needed in a plant based on the type and
quantity of every unit of operation, using the same
principle. In total, 16 workers are required per shift,
and the total labour costs comes to 260,000€ per year
for the overall project (including maintenance). The
detail is listed in Table 9.
TABLE 9 WORKFORACE NEEDED FOR EACH UNIT OF
OPERATION
1 heat exchanger 1 x 0.1 = 0.1
2 distillation columns 2 x 0.5 = 1.0
4 centrifugal viessels 4 x 0.2 = 0.8
1mixer 1 x 0.3 = 0.3
1 vaccum dryer 1 x 0.2 = 0.2
2 reactors 2 x 0.5 = 1.0
Table 10 shows the summary of annual cost of
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materials, utilities and workforce. (Law 3299/2004). Under the new incentive scheme, the
TABLE 10 TOTAL ANNUAL COST OF RAW MATERIALS,
following incentives are available (Greece Ministry of
UTILITIES, AND WORKFORCE Development, 2012; KPMG, 2011):
Material Required Quantity Annual Cost € • Tax relief: Exemption from payment of income tax
Raw Materials on pre-tax profits.
Rapeseed Oil 58,477.3 ton/year 40,934,073
Methanol 6,571.8 ton/year 1,504,942 • Cash grants provided by the State that cover part of
Base Catalyst (NaOCH3) 584.8 ton/year 3,192,696 the expenses of the investment project.
Acid Catalyst (HCL) 753.2 ton/year 80,221
Water 11,095.4 ton/year 594.7
• Leasing subsidies provided by the State that cover
Total Cost: 45,712,526.7€ part of the payable instalments related to the leasing
Utilities of new equipment. However, the leasing subsidies
Steam 81,500 GJ/y 403,317 do not exceed a seven-year period.
Electricity 1,747,000 kW 142,208 Since there is no income tax on pre-tax profits, no
Total Cost: 545,525€ other costs (e.g. income tax) will be considered in the
Workforce break-even analysis. In this research, it is assumed that
Workers 16 260,000 the break-even periods are three years(i.e. the
Total Cost: 260,000€ biodiesel plant will start to make profit after three
years).
Break-even Analysis
Biodiesel Price vs. Diesel Price in Greece
In order to assess the economic feasibility of investing
in a 60,000 tonnes biodiesel plant, a break-even In order to compare the biodiesel price of the
analysis is conducted. This is a technique used to find proposed plant against the diesel price in Greece, the
cost price of the biodiesel is first calculated. The total
the break-even point (BEP), at which costs or expenses
cost for the first three years of operation is
are equal to revenue. A profit or a loss has not been
142,768,689€, and the proposed biodiesel plant is able
made, although opportunity costs have been “paid”,
to produce 199,728,061.5 litres of biodiesel (1 tonne
and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected
biodiesel = 1,143.25 litres) during this period. Based on
return (David and Boldrin., 2008). The objective of the
the above results, the cost price for producing the
analysis is to compare the cost price (before taxation)
biodiesel in our proposed plant is 0.715 €/litre.
of the biodiesel produced by the plant against the cost
price of diesel sold in Greece, to see the profitability of Fig. 9 shows the average Greece diesel cost price for
our biodiesel plant in the long run. The cost price of the period of 10 years (01/2002 – 12/2012). (European
the biodiesel is also compared against the WTI crude Comission, Statistics and Market observatory, 2012)
oil price, to see if the crude oil price gives availability The cost price of diesel in Greece is between 0.25€ to
for the investment of the biodiesel technology. 0.93€. Based on Fig. 9, the cost price of diesel has risen
above our proposed biodiesel price (0.715 €/litre) since
Currently in Greece, a number of taxes are imposed on the beginning of 2011. The price of diesel in Greece is
diesel that is to be sold in the market, and they are rising with respect to time. Thus it can be concluded
applied as follows (Greece Ministry of Development, that the use of biodiesel has great potential in Greece,
2012): and the deployment of such a biodiesel plant is
1. 412€ per 1000 litres of diesel fuel. profitable based on the proposed biodiesel cost price
and the incentives given by the government and the
2. Additional 0.5% of tax on the total amount in step 1. states.
3. 0.20 €/m3 of fuel tax on top of the total amount in
step 2.
4. 1.2% of the initial diesel cost (i.e. before step 1).
5. Finally, 23% of VAT is added to the total sum of
steps 3 and 4 before diesel is sold in the Greece
market.
In 2011, Greece passed the Investment Incentives (Law
3908/2011), which replaces the previous incentive Fig 9. UNIT COST PRICE vs. DATE FOR BIODIESEL IN GREECE

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Advanced Chemical Engineering Research Vol. 2 Iss. 4, December 2013
Fig. 10 shows the relationship between Greece diesel
cost price and the WTI crude oil price over the period
of 10 years (01/2002 – 12/2012). From the figure, it can
be concluded that the price of the diesel in Greece is
linearly proportional to the WTI crude oil price. Using
the proposed biodiesel cost price of 0.715 €/litre as
calculated in 5.1, we try to find the break-even point of
the crude oil price, which comes to 92.21 $/barrel.
FIG 10. CORRELATION BETWEEN DIESEL COST PRICE, CRUDE
OIL PRICE IN GREECE AND TIME j
However, assuming that tax is implemented for
regular diesel but not biodiesel, the profit for biodiesel
can be further improved. Fig. 11 shows the
relationship between the Greece diesel market price
and the WTI crude oil price from 2005 to 2012. Based
on the plot, it can be concluded that the market prices
for diesel and crude oil are correlated. Using our
proposed biodiesel price, the break-even point of the
crude oil comes to 29.74 $/barrel.
FIG 11. CORRELATION BETWEEN DIESEL MARKET PRICE,
CRUDE OIL MARKET PRICE IN GREECE AND TIME k
Fig. 12 below shows how the WTI crude oil price has
changed over time, for the same period of 10 years (US
Energy Information Administration, 2012). From this
plot, it can be concluded that the crude oil price has
risen gradually since 2002. Based on the break-even
j Adopted from: European Comission, Statstic and Market
Observatory, 2012; US Energy Information Administration,
2012
k Adapted from: European Comission, Statstic and Market
Observatory, 2012; US Energy Information Administration,
2012
www.seipub.org/acer
analysis of 92.21 $/barrel for crude oil price,
investment in the biodiesel plant is still profitable in
the last two years (01/2011 – 12/2012), as the average
cost of crude oil is 94.49 $/barrel. However, looking at
the immediate future, the crude oil price is close to our
break-even point. With the incentives given by the
government and the state, investment in the biodiesel
plant will still be profitable in Greece.
FIG 12. CORRELATION BETWEEN WTI CRUDE OIL PRICE AND
TIME l
Conclusions
In this research, we looked closely at the EU policies
regarding biofuel production, and more specifically,
Greece’s potential in investing in a biodiesel plant.
Based on Greece’s geographical characteristics and its
feedstock production capability, we have investigated
a technoeconomic feasibility of a biodiesel plant with
tha capacity of 60,000 tonnes per year using rapeseed
oil as the feedstock. Based on the overall results, it can
be concluded that Greece has very good potential for
investing in rapeseed to produce biodiesel in the long
run. Although the expenses of the investment are high,
it is still profitable to invest in biodiesel technology in
Greece. Based on our simulation and calculation, the
current diesel as well as the crude oil market, the
proposed biodiesel plant is able to break-even in three
years. With the help of government and state
incentives, this investment is definitely profitable in
the long run, as the price of both diesel in Greece and
crude oil will be more expensive in future. The
investment also brings social benefits such as job
opportunities, directly and indirectly, economic
benefits based on the current correlation between the
diesel price in Greece and the crude oil price
internationally, and environment benefits, based on
the reduction in greenhouse gases .
At the same time, although rapeseed oil is the
lAdapted from: US Energy Information Administration,
2012
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www.seipub.org/acer
preferred energy crop in Greece, even higher biodiesel
yields can be achieved if cultivation of different seeds
such as sunflowers, cotton, etc. can be used. Since
waste cooking oils are generated by households every
day, it will further improve the biodiesel production
rate and quantity if these are used as well. Such
investments can be planned by multiple parties, with
the government and state as the promoters.
Due to the current economic status of the country,
such an investment may be withheld until the
situation improves. Government and policy are also
factors which will significantly influence the biodiesel
industry, to the extent that such an industry in Greece
will be policy driven. However, an industry project of
such scale will provide opportunities for improvement
for the nation as a whole.
The development of such industries requires major
breakthroughs in technologies, successful
commercialisation, and the development of
infrastructure. On the other hand, its clean emissions
profile and ease of use make biodiesel one of the
fastest growing alternative fuels in the world. With the
subsidies given by the government and the state, the
cost of biodiesel is competitive with that of petroleum
diesel in Greece. The future of biodiesel lies in the
world’s ability to produce renewable feedstocks such
as vegetable oils and fats to keep the cost of biodiesel
competitive with petroleum, without supplanting land
necessary for food production, or destroying natural
ecosystems in the process. Creating biodiesel in such a
manner will allow this clean, renewable, and cost
effective fuel to help ease the world through
increasing shortages of petroleum, while providing
economic and environmental benefits well into the 21st
century.
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Mingyen Yu earned his BSc degree in Electrical Engineering
facility
in 2006 from Purdue University (Indiana, USA). He then
moved to UK to continue his postgraduate study and
obtained his MSc in Information and Business Systems
Engineering from University of Surrey in 2007. In 2008, he
started working as an academic staff in Republic
Polytechnic, Singapore, specialising in supply chain and
logistics, unitil 2010.
Mingyen is now a PhD research student at Department of
Chemical Engineering, University of Surrey. His current
research interests include biomass supply chain modeling,
distribution and transportation optimization, as well as
sustainable systems design in terms of life cycle analysis.
405–427.
Seyed Ali Hosseini earned his BSc in Chemical Engineering
in 2005 from Sharif University of Technology (Tehran, Iran).
After graduating, he worked as a market analysis for
pharmaceutical products of Akzo Nobel in Iran. He then
moved to UK to continue his postgraduate studies. In 2007,
he was awarded his master’s in Advanced Chemical
Engineering from the University of Birmingham.
Immediately following, Ali joined the Centre for Process
Systems Engineering (CPSE) at Imperial College London to
complete his PhD. He attained a PhD in two years and
continued his research at Imperial College London as an
associate research fellow. At the same time, he did a master’s
in Finance at the London School of Economics (LSE).
Ali is now a lecturer at Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Surrey. His current research
interests cover a variety of topics relevant to mathematical
and modeling, including design and analysis of energy and
bioenergy systems, supply chain modeling and
optimization, design of sustainable systems for water and
resources recovery, and energy finance.
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