TOPOGRAPHY

 Topography is the graphic representation of an area’s surface

features. It is synonymous with landform or the shape of the ground.

 It may encompass mountains, rolling hills, prairies, and plains, while

at a different scale, it may include mounds, ramps, berms, and even
ripples in a sand dune.

 Topography has great environmental significance, since it affects the

aesthetic character of an area, its microclimate, drainage, views, and
the setting for structures.

 A topographic map allows one to understand the pattern of the land,

since it indicates slopes, ridges, valleys, summits, stream beds, and
drainage patterns.

 Topographic information always influences and frequently determines

site use, site circulation, and distribution of utilities, placement of
buildings, and the disposition of open spaces.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

 Topographic maps are developed either from aerial photographs or

surveys, where smaller parcels are involved.

 Larger area – satellite images

 Aerial photos have the inherent advantage of depicting the land with
a high degree of detail. Individual photos can be interpreted
separately; however, they are most useful when combined in pairs
and viewed stereoscopically.

 With the use of special equipment, aerial photos may be scanned to

determine lines of equal ground elevation, that is, contours.

 Topographic surveying consists of obtaining field data, from which a

map is plotted showing the configuration of the ground surface.
Chain survey, Plane table, Theodolite, compass surveying etc.
 Topographic maps also generally show property lines, roads,
structures, trees, etc., in addition to ground surface elevations.

 Surveys that extend over a relatively small area ignore the earth’s
curvature and assume the ground surface to be a flat plane.
Horizontal distances, therefore, are considered to be straight and are
measured along a flat plane.

 Vertical distances, or elevations, are designated as the distance

above sea level or above any other bench mark, that is, any
permanent point of known elevation.
CONTOURS

Contour Lines
 The shape of the ground surface is most often represented on
drawings by contour lines. Contours are imaginary lines that connect
all points of equal elevation.

 Each contour line may be thought of as the intersection of a level

plane with the ground surface, such as a horizontal slice through a
mountain

 The contour interval is the uniform difference in elevation between

two adjacent contours. This interval is typically 1, 2, 5, or 10 feet,
depending on the purpose and scale of the map and the character of
the terrain represented.
Contour Standards

1. Existing contours are shown by a dashed line.

2. Every fifth contour is shown slightly darker for legibility.

3. Proposed (or modified) contours are shown by a solid line on the same
drawing that shows existing contours.

4. Contour lines - labeled with number within or on high side of the line.
5. The contour interval is small for relatively flat areas, while for rough
terrain, the contour interval is large.
6. The smaller the scale of the map, the larger the contour interval.
Contour Patterns -

1. Uniform slopes are indicated by parallel contours- are evenly spaced.

2. Convex slopes are shown by parallel contours spaced at increasing

intervals going uphill. The closer contours are at the lower elevations.
3. Concave slopes are shown by parallel contours spaced at decreasing
intervals going uphill. In this case, the closer contours are at the higher
elevations.

4. Valleys are indicated by contours which point uphill.

5. Ridges are indicated by contours which point downhill.

6. Summits and depressions - represented by concentric closed contours.

Both forms, spot elevations should be included – at highest or lowest
point.

Contour Characteristics
A. All points on a contour have the same elevation.
B. Contour lines never split, although two identically numbered contours
may appear side by side, at the top of a ridge or bottom of a valley.
C. Contour lines never cross, except where there is an overhanging cliff, a
cave, or similar configuration.
D. Equally spaced contours indicate a uniform sloping surface.
E. Contours spaced close together indicate a steep slope.
F. Contours spaced far apart indicate a slight grade.
G. Contours spaced at increasing intervals (further apart) going uphill
indicate a convex slope.
H. Contours spaced at decreasing intervals (closer together) going uphill
indicate a concave slope.
I. Valleys are indicated by contours pointing uphill.
J. Ridges are indicated by contours pointing downhill.
K. A contour that closes on itself within the map area is either a summit or
a depression.
L. Contours that run in straight parallel lines indicate a plane surface.
M. Drainage always occur perpendicular to the contours, because this is
the shortest distance and hence the steepest route of travel.

Representing Topography

Spot elevations:
 A spot elevation is a number corresponding to the exact elevation at
a key point on the ground.
  Spot elevations are designated by an arrow pointing to the exact spot
where the elevation is located, and they are used to indicate high or
low points, tops of curbs, bottoms of walls, bases of trees, floor levels
of structures, building corners, etc.

 Contours may be determined from spot elevation grids through

interpolation.

Shading:

 Shading the slopes in proportion to their degree of steepness.

 Shallow slopes are lighter with the shading lines further apart, while
steep slopes are made darker by placing the shading lines closer
together.

 The most common shading system employs hachure, which is short,

disconnected lines drawn perpendicular to the slope, or in the
direction of water flow.

 Layer Shading

 Layer Tinting

Models:
 One of the best ways of studying the general form of the terrain is
through the use of relief scale models (cardboard, polystyrene, etc.).

 Computer generated models using software’s – Arc GIS, Surfer,

AutoCAD, PLS-CADD, etc.
Slope Analysis

• Slope (%) = [elevation gain (v)/ horizontal distance (h)] x 100

Ground slopes over 25% are subject to erosion and are difficult to build on.
• Ground slopes over 10% are challenging to use for outdoor activities and
are more expensive to build on.
• Ground slopes from 5% to 10% are suitable for informal outdoor activities
and can be built on without too much difficulty.
• Ground slopes up to 5% are usable for most outdoor activities and
relatively easy to build on.

For aesthetic and economic, as well as ecological reasons, the general

intent in developing a site should be to minimize the disturbance of
existing landforms and features while taking advantage of natural ground
slopes and the microclimate of the site.
• Site development and construction should minimize disrupting the natural
drainage patterns of the site and adjacent properties.

• When modifying landforms, include provisions for the drainage of surface

water and groundwater.

• Attempt to equalize the amount of cut and fill required for construction of
a foundation and site development.

• Avoid building on steep slopes subject to erosion or slides.

• Wetlands and other wildlife habitats may require protection and limit the
buildable area of a site.

• Pay particular attention to building restrictions on sites located in or near

a flood plain.

• Elevating a structure on poles or piers minimizes disturbance of the

natural terrain and existing vegetation.
• Terracing or stepping a structure along a slope requires excavation and
the use of retaining walls or bench terracing.

• Cutting a structure into a slope or locating it partially underground

moderates temperature extremes and minimizes exposure to wind, and
heat loss in cold climates.

The microclimate of a site is influenced by the ground elevation, the nature

and orientation of landforms, and the presence of bodies of water.

• Solar radiation warms southern slopes, creating a temperate zone.

• Daytime breezes, which replace updrafts of warm air over land, can have
a cooling effect of up to 10°F (5.6°C).

• Grass and other ground covers tend to lower ground temperatures by

absorbing solar radiation and encouraging cooling by evaporation.

• Hard surfaces tend to elevate ground temperatures.

• Light-colored surfaces reflect solar radiation; dark surfaces absorb and

retain the radiation.

Large bodies of water:

• Act as heat reservoirs and moderate variations in local temperature;

• Are generally cooler than land during the day and warmer at night,
generating offshore breezes;

• Are generally warmer than land in winter and cooler in summer.

• In hot-dry climates, even small bodies of water are desirable, both
psychologically and physically, for their evaporative cooling effect.

• The temperature in the atmosphere decreases with altitude –

approximately 1°F (0.56°C) for every 400' (122 m) in elevation.

• Warm air rises.

• Heavier cool air settles into low-lying areas