The Islamic University of Gaza- Environmental Engineering Department

Environmental Microbiology (EENV-2321)

Lecture 4: Biological Wastewater Treatment

Prepared by
Husam Al-Najar

1
 Wastewater Collection System

People excrete 100- 150 grams wet weight of feces

And 1- 1.3 liters of urine per person per day.
2
Wastewater: is simply that part of the water supply to the community or
to the industry which has been used for different purposes and has been
mixed with solids either suspended or dissolved.

Wastewater is 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. The main task in treating
the wastewater is simply to remove most or all of this 0.1% of solids.

3
 Type of wastewater from household

Type of Wastewater Source of wastewater

Gray water Washing water from the kitchen, bathroom,

laundry (without faeces and urine)

Black water Water from flush toilet (faeces and urine with flush
water)

Yellow water Urine from separated toilets and urinals

Brown water Black water without urine or yellow water

4
 Typical Wastewater Composition
Concentration

Contaminants Unit Weak Medium Strong

Solids, total (TS) mg/L 350 720 1200
Dissolved, total (TDS) mg/L 250 500 850
Fixed mg/L 145 300 525
Volatile mg/L 105 200 325
Settle able solids (SS) mg/L 100 220 350
Fixed mg/L 20 55 75
Volatile mg/L 80 165 275
Settle able Solids mg/L 5 10 20
Biochemical oxygen demand, mg/l:

5-day, 20ْ C (BOD5,20ْ C) mg/L 110 220 400

Total organic carbon (TOC) 80 160 290

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) mg/L 250 500 1000

5
Nitrogen (total as N) mg/L 20 40 85

Organic mg/L 8 15 35

Free ammonia mg/L 12 25 50

Nitrites mg/L 0 0 0

Nitrites mg/L 0 0 0

Phosphorus (total as P) mg/L 4 8 15

Organic mg/L 1 3 5

Inorganic mg/L 3 5 10

Chloridesa mg/L 30 50 100

Sulfatea mg/L 20 30 50

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/L 50 100 200

Grease mg/L 50 100 150

Total coliformb no/100 ml 106 - 107 107 – 108 107 – 109

Volatile organic compounds Mg/L <100 100 - 400 > 400

(VOCs)

6
 Typical characteristics of domestic wastewater
(Polprasert, 1996)

Parameter Concentration (mg/l)

Strong Medium weak
BOD 400 220 110
COD 1000 500 250
Org-N 35 15 8
NH3-N 50 25 12
Total N 85 40 20
Total P 15 8 4
Total Solids 1200 720 350
Suspended solids 350 220 100
7
Wastewater characteristics in Gaza Strip (PWA, 2003)

Parameter Wastewater characteristics

(mg/l)
North area Gaza Rafah

BOD 728 667 777

COD 1385 1306 1399

SS 663 617 540

8
Types and numbers of microorganisms typically found in untreated
domestic wastewater
Organism Concentration (per ml)
Total coliform 105 - 106
Fecal coliform 104 - 105
Fecal streptococci 103 - 104
Enterococci 102 - 103
Shigella present
Salmonella 100 - 102
Clostridium perfringens 101 - 103
Giardia cysts 10-1 - 102
Cryptosporidium cysts 10-1 - 101
Helminth ova 10-2 - 101
Enteric virus 101 - 102

9
 Why do we need to treat wastewater ?

• To prevent groundwater pollution

• To prevent sea shore
• To prevent soil
• To prevent marine life
• Protection of public health
• To reuse the treated effluent
For agriculture
For groundwater recharge
For industrial recycle

• Solving social problems caused by the accumulation of wastewater

10
• Protecting the public health:
Wastewater contains pathogenic microorganisms lead to dangerous
diseases to humans and animals
Hazardous matter such as heavy metals that are toxic
Produces odorous gases and bad smell
• Protecting the environment:
Raw Wastewater leads to septic conditions in the environment and
consequently leads to the deterioration of surface and groundwater quality
and pollutes the soil.
Raw wastewater is rich with nitrogen and phosphorus (N, P) and leads to
the phenomena of EUTROPHICATION.
EUTROPHICATION is the growth of huge amounts of algae and other
aquatic plants leading to the deterioration of the water quality.
Raw wastewater is rich with organic matter which consumes oxygen in
aquatic environment.
Raw wastewater may contains toxic gases and volatile organic matter 11
Measurements of organic matter:-

Many parameters have been used to measure the concentration of organic

matter in wastewater. The following are the most common used methods:

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

BOD5 is the oxygen equivalent of organic matter. It is determined by measuring

the dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms during the biochemical oxidation
of organic matter in 5 days at 20oC

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

It is the amount of oxygen necessary to oxidize all the organic carbon

completely to CO2 and H2O.

Is measured by oxidation with potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in the presence

of sulfuric acid and silver and expressed in milligram per liter.

12
Total organic carbon (TOC)

This method measures the organic carbon existing in the wastewater

by injecting a sample of the WW in special device in which the carbon
is oxidized to carbon dioxide then carbon dioxide is measured and
used to quantify the amount of organic matter in the WW. This method
is only used for small concentration of organic matter.

Theoretical oxygen (ThOD)

If the chemical formula of the organic matter existing in the WW is

known the ThOD may be computed as the amount of oxygen needed
to oxidize the organic carbon to carbon dioxide and a other end
products.

13
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

DOi − DO f
BODt = = (DOi − DO f )DF
Vs
Vb

• BODt = BOD at t days (mg/L)

• DOi = initial dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
• DOf = final dissolved oxygen (mg/L)
• Vs= sample volume (mL)
• Vb = bottle volume (mL)
• DF = dilution factor
14
 Example

10 mL of a wastewater sample are placed in a 300-mL

BOD bottle. The initial DO of the sample is 8.5 mg/L.
The DO is 3 mg/L after 5 days. What is the 5-day
BOD?

165
15
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
The following are the theoretical equations used to calculate the BOD.
The Figure shown is used to describe the change of BOD with time. From the
figure the following correlations are derived:

L 0 → or (BOD ultimate ) or UBOD.

Yt = BODt (BOD exerted).
Lt = L0 e-kt (BOD remain).
BODt = L0 - Lt = L0 – L0e-kt = L 0(1-e-kt)
BOD5 = L0 (1-e-k5)
K = 0.23d-1 usually, k T = k20 θ T-20 , θ = 1.047 or as given

16
Example

Determine the 1-day BOD and ultimate BOD for a wastewater whose 5-
day 20 °C BOD is 200 mg/L. The reaction constant K= 0.23d-1 what would
have been the 5-day BOD if it had been conducted at 25°C?

Solution:-
• BODt = UBOD – BODr = UBOD (1-e-kt) =L 0(1-e-kt)
200 = L0 (1-e-0.23x5)
L0 = 293 mg/L (this is UBOD)
• Determine the 1-day BOD:-
BODt = L0 (l-e-kt)
BOD1 = 293 (l-e-0.23x1) = 60.1 mg/L
• Determine the 5-day BOD at 25°C:-
KT = K20 (1.047)T-20 ⇒ K25 = 0.23 (1.047)25-20
BOD5 = L0 (l-e –kt ) = 293 (l-e-0.29x5) = 224 mg/L

17
BOD and COD concentration in the influent of Gaza
Wastewater treatment plant with day time

18
Periodic Table of Elements

19
Theoretical Oxygen demand (ThOD): Example

Calculate the Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) for sugar C12 H22 O11
dissolved in water to a concentration of 100 mg/L. Calculate "TOC".
Solution:-
C12 H22 O11 + 12O2 → 12 CO2 + 11 H2O

12 × 32 gO2
ThOD =
= 1.123gO2 / g sugar
342 g sugar
ThOD = 100mg sugar 1.123gO2 10 3 mgO2 1g sugar
∗ ∗ ∗ 3
L g sugar 1gO2 10 mg sugar

ThOD = 112.3 mg O2 / L
TOC = 144 g carbon/ 342g sugar = 0.42 gc/ gs
TOC = 0.42 x 100 = 42 mg carbon/L

20
Biological Characteristics:-

The environmental engineer must have considerable knowledge of the

biological of waste water because it is a very important characteristics
factor in wastewater treatment.

The Engineer should know:-

1. The principal groups of microorganisms found in wastewater.

2. The pathogenic organisms.
3. Indicator organisms (indicate the – presence of pathogens).
4. The methods used to amount the microorganisms.
5. The methods to evaluate the toxicity of treated wastewater

21
 Treatment Process

O2

Primary Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment

treatment • Aerobic, anaerobic lagoons • Nitrate removal
• screening • Trickling filter- activated • Phosphorus removal
• grit removal sludge-oxidation ditch
• Disinfection
• removal of oil • Mostly BOD removal
technology
• sedimentation

22
 Biological waste water treatment
It is a type of waste water treatment in which microorganisms such as bacteria are
used to remove pollutants from waste water through bio-chemical reaction.

Classification of biological Waste water methods

Suspended and attached treatment Aerobic and anaerobic

Suspended growth process is a Aerobic: biological treatment is a

biological w.w.t in which
microorganisms are maintained in
suspension while converting organic
matter to gases and cell tissue
(Activated sludge).
Attached growth is a biological w.w.t
in which microorganisms responsible
for the conversion of organic matter
to gases and cell tissue are attached
to some innert material such as
rocks, sand, or plastic (Trickling filter).
process in which the pollutants in the
waste water (organic matter) are
stabilized by microorganisms in the
presence of molecular oxygen
Anaerobic: biological treatment is a
process in which the pollutants in the
waste water (organic matter) are
stabilized by microorganisms in the
absence of molecular oxygen
23
 Anaerobic lagoon
Design Criteria:
• Depth 2.5 to 5m
• Hydraulic retention time 1-20 days
• Design Loading for BOD removals in anaerobic lagoon (Horan, 1990)

Design Volumetric Loading (VL) BOD Removal

Temperature (oC) (g BOD/m3/day) (%)
< 10 100 40
10-20 20T-100 2T+20
> 20 300 60
BOD influent * Flow
Area =
VL * Depth
24
Anaerobic lagoon

25
 Aerobic lagoon
Design Criteria:
• Depth 2 to 5m
• The European standard is considered (>5KW/103m3)
• Hydraulic retention time R = 3-5 days
• Considering the kinetic and rate of cell synthesis equation:
Li
Le =
(1 + K T R)

Le and Li are the effluent and influent BOD respectively.

KT reaction rate where KT= K20 OT T-20 where K20=1.4/day

OT =1.056 when T ranges between 20-30oC

1.135 when T ranges between 4-20oC
26
Aerobic lagoon/ aerators

27
Example:
The North Governorate (Jabalia, Beithanoun, Beit lahya) has a total
population of 115,000 inhabitants. Design the treatment
plant (anaerobic and aerobic ponds) to treat a wastewater
of 600 mg/L to 30 mg/L.
Knowing that:
1. The wastewater production is 100 L/C/d
2. The average wastewater temperature is 23 oC
3. The treatment process is anaerobic lagoons followed by
aerated lagoons.

28
facultative ponds

29
facultative ponds in Nature

30
 Suspended growth
Many treatment systems based on suspended microorganisms have been
developed and still used till now.
Some of these systems are aerobic and other are anaerobic.
Some of the most commonly used systems are:
• Conventional activated sludge system
• Oxidation ditches
• Sequential batch reactor (SBR)
• Aerated lagoons
• Waste stabilization ponds
• Up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB)

31
Conventional activated sludge system
The first version of activated sludge systems are called conventional
activated sludge system.
This system is composed of two parts:
a. Aeration tank:
b. Final sedimentation tank

Influent
Aeration tank Treated flow
TTTTTTTTTTTTTT

Waste
Sludge

32
Conventional activated sludge process

33
Effluent from primary treatment is pumped into a tank and mixed with a bacteria-
rich slurry known as activated sludge.
Air or pure oxygen pump through the mixture active bacterial growth and
decomposition of the organic material.
The material then goes to a secondary settling tank, where water at the top of the
tank and sludge is removed from the bottom.
The concentration of the pathogens is reduced in the activated sludge process by
antagonistic microorganisms as well as by adsorption to or incorporation in the
secondary sludge
An important characteristic of the activated sludge process is the recycling of a
large proportion of the biomass. This results in a large number of microorganisms
that oxidize organic matter in a relatively short time.
The content of the aeration tank is referred to as the mixed- liquor suspended
solids (MLSS).
The organic part of MLSS is called Mixed- liquor volatile suspended solids
(MLVSS), which is the nonmicrobial organic matter as well as dead and living
microorganisms and cell debris.
34
The activated sludge process must be controlled to maintain a proper ratio of
substrate (organic load) to microorganisms or food to microorganisms ratio (F/M)

F Q * BOD
=
M MLSS *V

Where,
Q = flow rate of sewage
BOD = biological oxygen demand
MLSS = mixed- liquor suspended solids
V= volume of the aeration tank

35
PRIMARY AERATION TANK
36
CRYOGENIC AIR SEPARATION FACILITY (HYPERION TREATMENT PLANT)
37
The important parameters controlling the operation of the activated sludge process
are organic loading rate, oxygen supply, and controll and operation of the final
settling tank.
For routine operation, sludge settleability is determined by use of the sludge
volume index (SVI)

V *1000
SVI = Where, V= volume of settled sludge after 30 minutes
MLSS

The microbial biomass produced in the aeration tank must settle properly from
suspension so that it may be wasted or returned to the aeration tank.
Good settling occurs when the sludge microorganisms are in the endogenous
phase, which occurs when carbon and energy sources are limited.
A common problem in the activated sludge process is filamentous bulking, this
caused when excessive growth of filamentous microorganisms. The filaments
produced by these bacteria interfere with sludge settling and compaction.
Filamentous bacteria are able to predominate under conditions of low dissolved
oxygen, low nutrients and high sulfide levels.
38
Sludge Volume Index (SVI)

1000 ml 1000 ml

30 Minute

SV
Sludge
Volume: ml

39
40
 Attached Growth
Introduction:

As mentioned previously, Attached Growth is a biological treatment

process in which microorganisms responsible for conversion of organic
matter or other constituents in wastewater are attached to some inert
material such as: rocks, sand or specially ceramic or plastic materials.
This process is also called fixed film process.

"Examples of Attached growth system:

Many types of this system has been developed:

• Trickling filters( biological tower ).
• Rotating biological contactors( RBC ).
• Packed bed reactors
• Fluidized bed biofilm reactors.

41
 Theory of attached growth treatment:
Liquid flow (Qin, S)

Organic matter + NH4+

Solid media
(rocks)
(plastic)
O2

End products
(CO2+H2O)
+ NO3-

(biomass layer)
( or fixed biofilm) (Qe , Se)

The film composed of bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa.

42
 Gaza wastewater treatment plant-cleaning of TF media

43
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

44
Useful information

45
 THE BIOLOGICAL COMPONENT OF THE ACTIVATED-SLUDGE SYSTEM

The biological component of the activated sludge system is comprised of

microorganisms.

The composition of these microorganisms is 70 to 90 percent organic matter and 10

to 30 percent inorganic matter.

Cell makeup depends on both the chemical composition of the wastewater and the
specific characteristics of the organisms in the biological community.

Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and rotifers constitute the biological component, or

biological mass, of activated sludge.

In addition, some metazoa, such as nematode worms, may be present. However,

the constant agitation in the aeration tanks and sludge recirculation are deterrents
to the growth of higher organisms.

The species of microorganism that dominates a system depends on environmental

conditions, process design, the mode of plant operation, and the characteristics of
the secondary influent wastewater.
46
The microorganisms that are of greatest numerical importance in activated sludge
are bacteria, which occur as microscopic individuals from one micron in size to
visible aggregations or colonies of individuals.

Some bacteria are strict aerobes (they can only live in the presence of oxygen),
whereas others are anaerobes (they are active only in the absence of oxygen).

The preponderance of bacteria living in activated sludge are facultative-able to live

in either the presence or absence of oxygen, an important factor in the survival of
activated sludge when dissolved oxygen concentrations are low or perhaps
approaching depletion.

While both heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria reside in activated sludge, the
former predominate.

Heterotrophic bacteria obtain energy from carbonaceous organic matter in influent

wastewater for the synthesis of new cells. At the same time, they release energy
via the conversion of organic matter into compounds such as carbon dioxide and
water.

Important genera of heterotrophic bacteria include Achromobacter, Alcaligenes,

Arthrobacter, Citromonas, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Zoogloea.
47
Autotrophic bacteria in activated sludge reduce oxidized carbon compounds such
as carbon dioxide for cell growth.
These bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing ammonia nitrogen to nitrate
nitrogen in a two-stage conversion process known as nitrification.
Due to the fact that very little energy is derived from these oxidization reactions,
and because energy is required to convert carbon dioxide to cellular carbon,
nitrifying bacteria represent a small percentage of the total population of
microorganisms in activated sludge.
In addition, autotrophic nitrifying bacteria have a slower rate of reproduction than
heterotrophic, carbon-removing bacteria.
Two genera of bacteria are responsible for the conversion of ammonia to nitrate in
activated sludge, Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas.

Nitrification generally occurs when the time that the sludge stays in the system
(called the mean cell residence time, or MCRT) is increased.

A longer mean cell residence time, therefore, allows an adequate population of

nitrifying bacteria to be built up. However, because the oxygen demand for
complete nitrification is high, both the necessary oxygen supply and power
requirements for the system will be increased.
48
Moreover, optimum pH for the growth of nitrifying bacteria is in the 8 to 9 range,
with pH levels below 7 causing a substantial reduction in nitrification activity.

In the process of converting ammonia to nitrate, mineral acidity is produced.

In instances when insufficient alkalinity exists, the pH in the system will drop,
potentially inhibiting nitrification.

Finally, though nitrification occurs over a wide range of temperatures, a reduction in

temperature produces a slower rate of reaction.

Some activated sludge systems have been designed specifically to promote the
higher growth rate of bacteria that remove carbon from influent wastewater, and
adding chemicals may suppress nitrification.

Other systems are operated to achieve nitrification in the second stage of a two-
stage activated-sludge system due to the longer mean cell residence time (MCRT)
necessary for nitrification.

Still other systems are designed to promote nitrification.

49
Fungi are also a constituent of activated sludge.

These multicellular organisms metabolize organic compounds and can successfully

compete with bacteria under certain environmental conditions in a mixed culture.

In addition, a small number of fungi are capable of oxidizing ammonia to nitrite, and
fewer still to nitrate.

The most common sewage fungus organisms are Sphaerotilus natans and
Zoogloea sp.

A number of species of protozoa have been identified in activated sludge. Protozoa

are single-celled organisms that can consume food such as bacteria and
particulate matter.

Ciliated protozoa are numerically the most common species in activated sludge,
but flagellated protozoa and amoebae may also be present.

The species of ciliated protozoa most commonly observed in wastewater treatment

processes include Aspidisca costata, Carchesium polypinum, Chilodonella
uncinata, Opercularia coarcta and O. microdiscum, Trachelophyllum
pusillum, Vorticella convallaria and V. microstoma. Protozoa are a useful
biological indicator of the condition of the activated sludge. 50
Being strict aerobes, these microorganisms prove to be excellent indicators of an
aerobic environment (though some protozoa are capable of surviving up to 12 hours
in the absence of oxygen).

Protozoa also act as indicators of a toxic environment, as they exhibit a greater

sensitivity to toxicity than bacteria.

A Further, ciliated protozoa play the dominant role in the removal in the removal of
Escherichia coli from wastewater by predation or flocculation.

The E. coli population is generally reduced by 91 to 99 percent in the activated-

sludge process.

Rotifers are multicellular aquatic microorganisms that look like rapidly revolving
wheels when they are in motion.

Rotifers are able to consume both microbes and particulate matter.

Like protozoa, these microorganisms are strict aerobes and are more sensitive to
toxic conditions than bacteria. Rotifers are found only in a very stable activated-
sludge environment.
51
Finally, viruses are also found in wastewater, particularly human viruses that are
excreted in large quantities in feces.

These human enteric viruses can be divided into six major subgroups: adenovirus,
coxsackievirus, echovirus, infectious hepatitus, poliovirus, and reovirus.

Viruses native to animals and plants exist in lesser quantities in wastewater, and
bacterial viruses may also be present.

There is a quantitative reduction of these viruses by the activated-sludge treatment

process, the mechanism by which they are removed or deactivated remains to be
clearly explained.

Different mechanisms indicated by the work of various researchers included

inactivation of viruses by biological antagonists in the sludge, adsorption, and
reduction in which suspended solids, colloidal material, aeration, and perhaps toxic
substances play a role.
52
PSEUDOMONAS SP NITROBACTER SP CARCHESIUM SP

OPERCULARIA SP VORTICELLA CONVALLARIA ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA

ESCHERICHIA COLI LECANE SP. (ROTIFER) POLIOVIRUS 53

 SOLIDS SEPARATION

Microorganisms play a second important role in the activated-sludge process beyond

removing carbonaceous organic material from and nitrifying ammonia in secondary
influent wastewater.

This is the process of solids separation in which activated-sludge solids separate by

flocculation and gravity sedimentation from treated wastewater in secondary
clarifers.

The goal of this process is to create a secondary effluent low in suspended solids in
the upper portion of a clarifier and a thickened activated sludge composed of flocs in
the bottom portion of a clarifier that will be recycled back into the system as return
activated sludge (RAS).

Activated sludge flocs, agglomerations of particles that may reach sizes of more than
1mm, are composed of the biological component discussed in the previous section
and a nonbiological component.

genera of heterotrophic bacteria, including Achromobacter, Alcaligenes,

Arthrobacter, Citromonas, Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Zoogloea,
appear to be the primary floc-forming microorganisms.
54
Two levels of structure exist in activated-sludge flocs: microstructure and
macrostructure.

Microbial aggregation, adhesion, and bioflocculation are the basis of the

microstructure.

Although the mechanism of bioflocculation is not well understood, it is felt to be the

result of bridging between extracellular microbial polymers functioning as
polyelectrolytes (a substance of high molecular weight, such as a protein, that is an
ionic conductor).

These extracellular microbial polymers form felt-like envelopes around cells and
groups of cells.

The macrostructure of activated sludge consists of filamentous organisms that form

the network within a floc onto which floc-forming bacteria cling.

This network of filamentous organisms provides activated-sludge flocs with

strength and the attainment of large size.

As a consequence, their integrity is preserved in the aeration basin, where

conditions of increasing shear occur in a turbulent environment.
55
Water is also contained within activated-sludge flocs, and the amount varies with
the size of the particles present.

The three types of water found in flocs are the water within the organisms, capillary
water within the particles, and stagnant water within the intertstices formed by the
collection of particles into a mass.

56
Effect of filamentous ‫ اﻟﺨﯿﻄﯿﺔ‬organisms in activated sludge on morphology and
settleability 57
The enteroviruses are a genus of (+)ssRNA viruses associated with several
human and mammalian diseases. Historically the most significant has been the
Poliovirus. Other types are coxsackievirus and echovirus.
Coxsackievirus is a virus that belongs to a family of non enveloped linear single-
stranded positive-sense ssRNA viruses, Picornaviridae and the genus Enterovirus,
which also includes poliovirus, echovirus and hepatitis A virus. Enteroviruses are
among the most common and important human pathogens and ordinarily its
members are transmitted by the fecal-oral route.
Coxsackieviruses share many characteristics with poliovirus. With control of
poliovirus infections in much of the world, more attention has been focused on
understanding the nonpolio enteroviruses such as coxsackievirus.
A picornavirus is a virus belonging to the family Picornaviridae. Picornaviruses
are non-enveloped, positive-stranded RNA viruses with an icosahedral capsid.
The name is derived from pico meaning small, and RNA referring to the
ribonucleic acid genome, so "picornavirus" literally means small RNA virus. The
diseases they cause are varied, ranging from acute "common-cold"-like illnesses
An echovirus is a type of RNA virus that belongs to the genus Enterovirus of the
Picornaviridae family. Echoviruses are found in the gastrointestinal tract (hence it
being part of the enterovirus genus) and exposure to the virus causes other
opportunistic infections and diseases. 58
Rotavirus is a genus of double-stranded RNA virus in the family Reoviridae. It is
the leading single cause of severe diarrhoea among infants and young children,
and is one of several viruses that cause infections commonly known as stomach
flu, despite having no relation to influenza. By the age of five, nearly every child in
the world has been infected with rotavirus at least once.
Poliovirus, the causative agent of poliomyelitis ‫ ﺷﻠﻞ اﻷﻃﻔﺎل‬, is a human enterovirus
and member of the family of Picornaviridae. Poliovirus is composed of a RNA
genome and a protein capsid. The genome is single-stranded positive-sense
RNA genome that is about 7500 nucleotides long. The viral particle is about 30
nanometres in diameter with icosahedral symmetry. Because of its short genome
and its simple composition-only RNA and a non-enveloped icosahedral protein
coat that encapsulates it-poliovirus is widely regarded as the simplest significant
virus

59
Palestinian Reclaimed Water Quality by Basic Indicators/Maximum Values
Indicator, mg/l Discharge to Groundwater Dry Green Gardens, Industrial Forest Fruit
the Sea, recharge by Fodders Fodders Play and Trees
500m far infiltration grounds, cereal
Parks crops
COD 200 150 200 150 150 200 200 150
DO >1 >1 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5 >0.5
TDS - 1500 1500 1500 1200 1500 1500 1500
pH 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9 6-9
Fat Oil &
10 0 5 5 5 5 5 5
Grease
Phenol 1 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002
MBAS 25 5 15 15 15 15 15 15
NO3 25 15 50 50 50 50 50 50
NH4 5 10 - - 50 - - -
OKN (Organic N) 10 10 50 50 50 50 50 50
Chloride - 600 500 500 350 500 500 400
SO4 1000 1000 500 500 500 500 500 500
Na - 230 200 200 200 200 200 200
Mg - 150 60 60 60 60 60 60
Ca - 400 400 400 400 400 400 400
Sources: EQA, 2006 /PWA, 2004 60