260 Int. J. Heavy Vehicle Systems, Vol. 24, No.

3, 2017

Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry

equipment

Novak Nedić and Dragan Pršić

Faculty of Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo,
University of Kragujevac,
Dositejeva 19, Kraljevo, 36000, Serbia
Email: nedic.n@mfkv.kg.ac.rs
Email: prsic.d@mfkv.kg.ac.rs

Cristiano Fragassa*
Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Bologna,
via Risorgimento 2,
Bologna, 40136, Italy
Email: cristiano.fragassa@unibo.it
*Corresponding author

Vladimir Stojanović
Faculty of Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo,
University of Kragujevac,
Dositejeva 19, Kraljevo, 36000, Serbia
Email: stojanovic.v@mfkv.kg.ac.rs

Ana Pavlovic
Department of Industrial Engineering,
University of Bologna,
via Risorgimento 2,
Bologna, 40136, Italy
Email: ana.pavlovic@unibo.it

Abstract: Modelling and simulating complex systems, such as forestry

equipment, are often the only way for their full analysis and design. This
problem may lead to a stiff set of equations that are followed by numerical
problems. In this paper two alternative approaches are investigated. The first
one refers to the use of a variable step of integration by continuous models
adjusted to the fastest processes. The second one refers to the approximation of
fast transitions by ideal instantaneous mode-transitions and hybrid models.
These two approaches are analysed in the framework of bond graph. The
classical bond graph is adopted for description of the continuous models, and
the switched bond graph is preferred for description of the hybrid models. The
model of check valve is used as a working example for illustration of results.
Matlab/Simulink tools are used for modelling and simulation.

Copyright © 2017 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 261

Keywords: simulation; check valve; hybrid model; bond graph; switched bond
graph.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Nedić, N., Pršić, D.,
Fragassa, C., Stojanović, V. and Pavlovic, A. (2017) ‘Simulation of hydraulic
check valve for forestry equipment’, Int. J. Heavy Vehicle Systems, Vol. 24,
No. 3, pp.260–276.

Biographical notes: Novak Nedić is a Full Professor, Head of Department of

Automatic Control, Robotics and Fluid Technique, and a former Dean, Faculty
of Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo, University of Kragujevac,
Serbia. He received his MS and PhD in Mechanical Engineering-Automatic
Control from the University of Belgrade. He has managed with more
international and national projects. He has published four books and over one
hundred scientific papers in journals and conferences. He was the Mentor of
four doctoral dissertations and eight MS thesis.

Dragan Pršić is an Associate Professor, Faculty of Mechanical and Civil

Engineering in Kraljevo, University of Kragujevac, Serbia. He received his MS
in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Belgrade in 1989 and PhD in
Automatic Controls from the University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Mechanical
and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo in 2006, where he is presently working in the
Department of Automatic Control, Robotics and Fluid Technique. His field of
interest includes modelling and simulation and automatic control system
programming. He has published many papers and reports in international
journals and conferences. He has taken part in several national and international
projects.

Cristiano Fragassa is an Assistant Professor at the University of Bologna with

teaching activity in topics of industrial engineering as engineering of industrial
products; advanced techniques for design of machines; elements of design
of machines; security and reliability of mechanical systems; functional and
aesthetical design of systems. He received his MSc in Nuclear Engineering and
PhD in Engineering of Materials, assumed several roles inside this and other
higher education institutions throughout Europe. He has been implementing
a constant and fruitful research activity focused on innovative materials,
both at the levels of scientific investigations and industrial innovation. He is the
author of more roughly 200 contributions as scientific papers and industrial
memories. He has participated in more than 60 congresses and workshops all
over the World, including 12 invited lectures. He is very active in Transfer of
Technology actions toward local and international enterprises, also holding
several training courses in specific industrial sectors.

Vladimir Stojanović obtained his MS in 2007 and PhD in 2013 in the field of
Mechanical Engineering, both from the University of Kragujevac, Faculty of
Mechanical and Civil Engineering in Kraljevo, Department for Automatic
Control, Robotics and Fluid Technique, Serbia. Until now, he has participated
in several national projects supported by the Serbian Ministry of Education,
Science and Technological Development and in two international projects
supported by EU. His research interest is in system identification, stochastic
systems, robotics, robust and optimal control.

Ana Pavlovic received degree in Mechanical Engineering in 2005, from the

University of Kragujevac, in the field of the Applied Mechanics. PhD thesis
was realised at the University of Bologna in 2011 in the field of Reliability and
Safety of Industrial System and Products. In the period from 2007 till now,
she had a huge experience in the application of the finite element analysis on
262 N. Nedić et al.

the practical industrial applications. She has published more than 100 papers in
the international journals and conference proceedings. In the last five years,
she taught: product engineering, machine elements, finite element structural
analysis and practical application of using modelling and simulation tools
for the industrial engineering problem solving. Currently, she is working as
Contract Professor in the University of Bologna, Department of the Industrial
Engineering.

1 Introduction

Hydraulic power systems are commonly used for heavy-duty machines with large power
consumptions and flexible controls. The use of hydraulic power transmission for forestry
vehicles has a long tradition. Hydraulic systems are practically irreplaceable in harvester,
wood chipper, tree spade, feller buncher, grapple skidders, forwarder, etc. Working
performances of forestry equipment, high power and moderate speeds, provide
opportunities for the effective application of the hydrostatic transmission. But,
considering that this equipment is commonly used in arduous and quite isolated working
environments, inadequate for frequent maintenance, each technical solution has to
provide the highest level of reliability. At the same time, it is quite complex to export to
the ground motion vehicles the same strategies that permitted to obtain incredible results
of total quality in the automotive sector (Lucisano et al., 2016; Fragassa et al., 2014).
Systems with pump controlled motors have significantly higher efficiency and
reliability in comparison to systems with the valve controlled motors. A schematic view
of a closed hydrostatic transmission is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 A schematic representation of a closed hydrostatic transmission

The greatest opportunities for improvement in hydraulic system design are seen in the
area of automatic control. A combination of hydraulic power and flexibility of
programmable controllers led to many new applications. However, the control of such
systems is difficult because of their high nonlinearities. In order to solve the problem of
high-precision tracking control of those systems, it is necessary to have a better
understanding of their nonlinear characteristics. One way to better understand the
dynamic behaviour is the mathematical modelling and computer simulation. A particular
challenge for simulation is a hybrid model that combines continuous and discrete
behaviour. In this paper, we deal with the modelling and simulation of the check valve
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 263

which is an integral part of each hydraulic transmission (Figure 1). The model of this
component has a hybrid structure.
Modelling the dynamics of physical systems basically represents modelling of energy
processes and energy flows in a system. In that sense, the bond graph (BG) approach is
particularly suitable because it is based on the lumped parameter approach and on the
principles of conservation of energy (Karnopp et al., 1976; Borutzky, 2002, 2004).
The system is described as a network of domain-independent energy primitives each of
which represents an ideal physical process. At the lowest level, the nodes in BG represent
the main energy processes, and the edges among them represent the paths along which
energy is exchanged. Classical bond graphs have fixed structure and causality, and they
are intended, before all, for modelling systems of time-invariant energy structure.
However, in engineering practice, there are frequent phenomena that result in changes of
energy flows within a system. For example, the energy structure changes when the piston
in a hydraulic cylinder hits a stop, when the water level reaches the edge or the bottom of
the tank or when water in a boiler starts to evaporate. In addition, many engineering
devices are designed intentionally to cause a change in energy flows: hydraulic valves,
mechanical clutches, diodes, etc.
From the aspect of simulation, in modelling systems of variable energy structure,
there are essentially two different approaches (Mosterman and Biswas, 1998; Söderman
et al., 1993; Söderman, 1995; Söderman and Strömberg 2007). The first one is based on
the continuous transition between two modes of operation. The structure and causality of
the models remain unchanged, and transition from one mode into the other is defined by
means of logical and relational operators. The background of this approach is the fact that
all changes in the structure of energy flows, at the microscopic level, have a continuous
character in space and time (Edström et al., 1996). Transitions between different modes
of operation always need a finite amount of time and never happen instantaneously. The
problem is that the time scale of structural changes is an order of magnitude smaller than
the time scale of the energy processes which make that structure. In other words, the time
constant of transition is an order of magnitude smaller than the time constant of the
processes between which that transition occurs. For instance, when the piston in a
hydraulic valve moves from the open position into the closed one, the change in velocity
from |v| > 0 to v = 0 occurs continuously, but for a short period of time. The introduction
of processes with the time scales, which are different by their order of magnitude, may
lead to a stiff set of equations that are followed by numerical problems. It can drastically
reduce the efficiency of simulation. The problem is particularly pronounced in real time
simulation.
In order to eliminate the weakness of the first approach, fast transient processes
related to the change of structure can be approximated by ideal instantaneous
mode-transitions. In modelling real, physical systems it is necessary to make a
compromise between the accuracy of the model and its practical usability. The
introduction of side (parasitic) effects may considerably complicate the model without
any significant influence on the accuracy of the model. Therefore, it is justifiable to make
a priority list and include some more important phenomena in the model, and neglect the
less important ones.
The second approach is directly based on the abstraction of continuous transition by
discrete one. Instantaneous mode-transitions are introduced instead of the transition with
a small time constant. A hybrid model is thus accomplished in the sense that there are
continuous changes within a mode and discrete changes among modes. Since the
264 N. Nedić et al.

classical bond graph is not supported for discrete changes, the switched bond graph and
the corresponding solver-independent mathematical structure are used for modelling
(Richard et al., 2008; Nacusse and Junco, 2015).
The paper analyses these two approaches through the simulation of spool
displacement in a check valve.

2 Check valve

The check valve (CV) is frequently found in hydraulic circuits, where it performs various
functions either independently or in combination with other devices (Scheidl et al., 2011).
Figure 2 schematically presents the conical check valve.
Regardless of its design, the basic purpose of the check valve is to permit flow in one
direction (A → B) and block it in the opposite direction (A ← B). In this paper, CV is
primarily used as an example of the system with a variable structure model. Thus, the
goal is not to include all the processes that refer to continuous behaviour but, before all,
those phenomena which influence the change in the structure of energy flows.
Depending on the level of complexity, at a conceptual level, the CV model can be
presented as in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Schematic view of the check valve

Figure 3 A conceptual model of the check valve

The model consists of two subsystems connected in parallel with the same pressure drop.
The hydraulic subsystem represents the modulated resistive element (R-element) with the
non-linear constitutive relation:
Q = Q( xsp , ∆p ). (1)

Equation (1) can be chosen in the form which provides efficient numerical integration
regardless of the flow regime (Borutzky et al., 2002). In addition, the structure of the
hydraulic subsystem model and its causality remain invariant even during the change of
energy flows (e.g., when the valve is closed).
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 265

The mechanical subsystem models the valve spool dynamics. The valve spool
displacement xsp represents the modulating signal for the hydraulic subsystem. Since the
changes in the energy structure appear in the model of spool valve (mechanical
subsystem), the next part of the paper deals exclusively with its dynamics.
There are three distinguishable modes of operation of the valve spool: mode m1- end
left position (xsp = 0, Figure 4(a)), mode m2- mid-position (0 < xsp < xspmax, Figure 4(b))
and mode m3- end right position (xsp = xspmax, Figure 4(c)).

Figure 4 Distinguishable modes of operation and the corresponding bond graph models:
(a) mode m1-end left position; (b) mode m2- mid-position and (c) mode m3- end right
position

In principle, the models of behaviour in these three modes differ from one another.
For instance, in the end positions, the spool and the valve housing constitute one body at
rest, while the piston moves freely in the mid-position (mode m2).

3 Variable structure model with continuous transition

In the continuous transition between two modes of operation, it is usual that the contact
between the rigid body and the stop is modelled by means of a spring-dumper pair
(Karnopp et al., 1976; Dasgupta and Watton, 2005; Gad, 2013). For example, Simscape®
uses the Translational Hard Stop block for modelling a double-sided mechanical
translational hard stop. The models of the behaviour of the valve spool for all three
modes of operation are shown in Figure 4.
Explicit presentation of different modes at the global level can be cumbersome. It is
often desirable to reduce the change of the mode of behaviour to the level of a bond
graph node. The modularity of the model is thus increased, and the mode changes
correspond to changes in the structure of the model. Two solutions are found (Borutzky,
2004): extending characteristics of the existing BG elements and introduction of the
modulated transformer (MTF), which can be viewed as an ideal switch that connects or
disconnects the two sub-models.
From the previous figure, it can be seen that the basic structure of the model is the
same in all three cases, the difference being only in the values of parameters of
constitutive relations. Also, causality remains invariant in all three modes. It means that it
is possible to form valve spool translational motion design patterns with a double-sided
hard stop. Depending on the mode of operation, R and C elements obtain concrete
instances. The unified model of valve spool behaviour is presented in Figure 5.
266 N. Nedić et al.

The change of the mode of operation is localised to the change of parameters of two
elements (R, C). Logical conditions of these changes are determined by means of the
power variable xsp which is present at their energy port so that there is no need for
introducing a new signal port.

Figure 5 Unified bond graph model of the valve spool and related equations

Besides the fact that there is no need for introducing a new BG element, the advantage of
such a model is that the mathematical model has the same structure for all three modes of
operation. It can significantly simplify the formal analysis of such a system.
The weakness of the model from Figure 5 is that the presented BG does not reflect
the change in the mode of operation. Those changes are hidden in the properties
of certain elements. They are not explicitly seen as BG elements. The problem of
modelling different structures of the model is transferred to the mathematical level and
that is why the conceptual character of BG is lost. The introduction of a new layer of
abstraction into the modelling process is one of the main advantages of the bond graph.
If there is a wish for modelling the change of the mode at the conceptual level, too,
one of the solutions is to use the modulated transformer (Figure 6) (Borutzy, 2004;
Söderman et al., 1993).

Figure 6 Modelling the valve spool dynamics by means of MTF

The valve dynamics is described by means of the static structure which permanently
contains descriptions of all three modes of operation. The models of certain modes are
structurally connected by the MTF modulated by the Boolean variables (mhse, mhst). Their
values, depending on the mode of operation, are presented in Table 1.
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 267

Table 1 Boolean variables for different modes of operation

Mode of operation mhse mhst

m1 : xsp ≤ 0 1 0
m2 : 0 < xsp < xsp max 0 0
m3 : xsp ≥ xsp max 0 1

If the modulus has the value 1, the link is established between two sub-models, i.e., when
the value is 0, the connection is interrupted. In both cases, the structure of the model of
the whole system remains unchanged. The potential problem with such an approach is in
the invariant causality of the model. Namely, the modulating parameters change only the
structure of run time connections, but the causality of the model remains the same in all
modes.
In real systems with the change in the mode, there may occur a change in physical
causality, i.e., the order of the system. As a consequence, the actual and preferred
computational causality may be different (Edström, 1996). Therefore, modelling of
certain systems may require ad hoc work. In the model from Figure 6, this problem does
not exist because the R element can have arbitrary causality. Nevertheless, it should be
noted that in both models (Figures 5 and 6) there are attempts to model different modes
by means of static energy structures. At the mathematical level, the models from
Figures 5 and 6 can be reduced to the same model. The accuracy of simulation results
depends on a lot of factors: validity of the model itself, type of solver and its adjustments,
simulation step size, etc. In order to decide which solver to use, it is necessary first to
establish whether the model is stiff or non-stiff.
The explicit, variable-step solver ode45 (Dormand-Prince) from Simulink®
environment was the starting point here. It is a default integrator for the systems
described by ordinary differential equations. The results of simulation of such a model,
for two values of the parameter bsp, are shown in Figure 7. MathWorks tool Simscape was
used for the creation of the model as well as the library of bond graph elements
developed in that environment.
Although the minimum step size of 1e-25 [s] and the relative tolerance of 1e-5 are
allowed, the results do not correspond to our expectations regarding the beginning of
valve closing. In the first case (bsp = 100 [Ns/m]), the piston will return to the initial
position only at ∆p = 0 [bar], and in the second case (bsp = 50 [Ns/m]), the piston will
remain permanently open even when ∆p = 0 [bar]. It shows either that the model is not
valid and/or that the process of numerical integration is not correct.
The presence of oscillations of high frequency and small amplitude for t > π/5
indicates that the mathematical model of the valve is numerically very stiff. The same is
also indicated by the small time step of simulation (Figure 8).
Every change of working parameters or working conditions may lead to the instability
of numerical integration. For instance, responses for two values of the parameter bsp
differ qualitatively. Working parameters must be carefully chosen, and trial and error
methods may also be frequently required. In combination with the long period of time
necessary for simulation, the whole process is very time demanding. The moment when
the solver abruptly reduces the step size indicates that the solver is trying to accurately
identify a zero crossing event.
268 N. Nedić et al.

Figure 7 Simulation with the variable-step explicit solver

Figure 8 Step size for the variable-step explicit solver

For the models with a numerically stiff problem in the Simscape environment, it is
recommended to use ode15s and ode23t solvers (Miller and Wendlandt, 2015). The
simulation results for the same values of parameters as in the previous example, but with
the variable-step implicit solver, are given in Figure 9. The corresponding change of step
size is shown in Figure 10.
The results now correspond to the real behaviour of the valve, and the simulation
itself is considerably faster. The results are confirmed in several implicit solvers
and with iterative reduction of error tolerances until the simulation results remain
invariant.
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 269

Figure 9 Simulation with the variable-step implicit solver

Figure 10 Step size for the variable-step implicit solver

Despite using the implicit type of solver, in systems with stiff portions the problem may
arise in real-time simulation. Namely, the restriction of time simulation is that the fixed-
step (implicit or explicit) solver (Miller and Wendlandt, 2015) must be used. Figure 11
presents the results of the simulation with the fixed-step, implicit solver for two values of
fixed step size. If the step size is larger than 1e-6 [s], the results are not valid. On the
other hand, such a small step size can be insufficient in real-time simulation.
For real-time simulation, the time step must be larger than the execution time
increased by the processing output/input time. It is necessary to leave sufficient time
tolerance to avoid an overrun during the simulation. If the step size is small, as in the
270 N. Nedić et al.

case above, some measures should be taken in order to increase the real-time potential
(Miller and Wendlandt, 2015).

Figure 11 Simulation results with the fixed-step implicit solver

4 Variable structure model with discrete transition

In systems whose certain parts have a time constant at least an order of magnitude
smaller than the overall time-scale, one of the approaches is to approximate the fast
transitions by ideal, instantaneous mode-transitions (Mosterman and Biswas, 1998;
Richard et al., 2008). For example, when the piston reaches the end position, an energy
exchange takes place for a short period of time, which is negligible in relation to the
overall dynamics of the valve. From a macroscopic point of view, fast transitions are
appropriate to consider as discrete time events. A hybrid model is thus obtained in the
sense that there are both discrete and continuous behaviours. In the previous example,
the hybrid character is the consequence of large differences in time constants in the
dynamics.
In the next part of the paper, a hybrid model of the valve with instantaneous
transitions between continuous mode-models is introduced. The term mode-switching
systems (Söderman, 1995) is used for the systems described by such a model. For
modelling of this class of systems, at a conceptual level, switched bond graphs (Edström
et al., 1996; Söderman et al., 1993) are used. Switched bond graphs extend classical bond
graphs by introducing the primitive switch concept denoted by Sw. Discrete phenomena
in mode switching systems are modelled by means of this mechanism.
The switched bond graph for the check valve is presented in Figure 12.
The switching mechanism Sw1 is used for modelling behaviour when the valve spool
is in the end left position, and Sw2 for behaviour in the end right position. In contrast to
the classical bond graph when causality is a fixed property, in the switched bond graph it
is a time-varying property. The change of causality of the model is the consequence of
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 271

the change of causality of the primitive switch. Therefore, causality for I, Sw1 and Sw2
elements is not defined in advance in the above model. The causality of the valve model
in all three modes is presented in Figure 13.

Figure 12 The switched bond graph for the check valve

Figure 13 Causality of the model of valve piston in three modes of operation: (a) mode m1-end
left position; (b) mode m2- mid-position and (c) mode m3- end right position

The consequence of variable causality is that the model from Figure 12 cannot be
simulated in the Simscape environment. The Simscape solver constructs the system of
equations for the model only once before the beginning of the simulation. During the
run-time phase, the causality of the system of equations cannot be changed.
In addition, the primitive switch has no constitutive relation in the ordinary meaning.
Its state µ is determined by the switch control structure associated with each Sw element.
These structures, for primitive switches from the above model, are presented in terms of
the state transition graph, in Figure 14.

Figure 14 The switch control structure

The primitive switch transition systems for Swi (i = 1, 2) is three-tuple M i , Ti , Qi

(Edström et al., 1996) where:
272 N. Nedić et al.

Qi is a hybrid model structure Li , Z i , U i , M i , Gi where:

Li = {lE , lF }

Z i = {ei , f i , xsp , ∆p}

U i = {∆p}

M i = {{ei := 0} , { f i := 0}}

 i = 1 ⇒ { g EF = xsp ≤ 0, g FE = ∆p > Fsp 0 / Asp }


Gi = 
i = 2 ⇒ { g EF = xsp ≥ xsp max , g FE = ∆p < Fsp max / Asp }

Μ i = {mE , mF } ,

where

mE = ( lE , {ei := 0} )

mF = ( lF , { f i := 0} )

Ti = {τ EF i , τ FE i }

and

τ EF i = ( mE , mF ) , g EF i ( xsp , ∆p )

τ FE i = ( mF , mE ) , g FE i ( xsp , ∆p ) . (2)

Combining primitive switch transition systems for Sw1 and Sw2 with continuous mode –
models results in the mathematical structure referred to as the mode transition system
M , T , Q for the valve spool:
Q = L, Z , U , M , G where:

L = { l1 , l2 , l3 }

Z = { x1 = xsp , x2 = xsp , ∆p}

U = { ∆p }

M = {λ1 = { x1 := 0, x1 = 0 } , λ2 = { x1 = x2 ; x2 = − K sp / msp x1 − bsp / msp x2 + ∆pAsp / msp } ,

λ3 = { x1 := 0, x1 = xsp max } }

G= {{ g 12 = ∆p / Asp > F sp 0 } , { g 21 = x1 ≤ 0} , { g 23 = x1 ≥ xsp max } , { g 32 = ∆p / Asp < F sp max } }
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 273

M = {m1 , m2 , m3 } where

mi = ( li , λi ) , for i = 1, 2,3

T = {τ 12 , τ 21 ,τ 23 ,τ 32 } where

τ 12 = ( m1 , m2 ) , g12 ( ∆p ) , τ 21 = ( m2 , m1 ) , g12 ( x1 )

τ 23 = ( m2 , m3 ) , g 23 ( x1 ) , τ 32 = ( m3 , m2 ) , g32 ( ∆p ) . (3)

On the basis of the previously defined model, using the Stateflow environment, the
simulation model presented in Figure15 is obtained.

Figure 15 Simulation model of the hybrid model of the valve spool

It should be noted that in continuous transition, the simulation model follows the
structure of the BG model (Figures 5 and 6) thanks to the library of the basic BG
elements. In other words, there is no need for an additional midstep in the sense of
finding a mathematical model.
In a discrete approach, the structure of the simulation model (Figure 15) corresponds
to the changes in the mode of operation, but it does not follow the structure of the
conceptual model (Figure 12). The results of simulation of the hybrid model are
presented in Figure 16.
The results are the same as in Figure 10 for bhst / K hst = 1e − 3 [ s ]. The results are
certainly different for bhst / K hst = 100e − 3 [ s ] because those are the parameters which
refer to the transition process, and in the second case, it is approximated by the
instantaneous change. The change of parameters of the transition process in the hybrid
model can be taken into account through the value of initial conditions of each mode of
operation.
The advantage of the discrete approach over the continuous one is the step size
presented in Figure 17. The allowed step size now has the value TS = 1e − 3 [ s ], i.e., it is a
thousand times larger than the corresponding fixed step of integration in the continuous
model. This parameter can be of crucial importance in real-time simulation.
274 N. Nedić et al.

Figure 16 Results of simulation of the hybrid model

Figure 17 Step size for the hybrid model

5 Conclusion

The paper deals with modelling and simulation of dynamic systems which contain
subsystems (sub-models) with non-uniform time constants, for example, the hydraulic
systems used in forestry equipment. The problem is particularly pronounced when
differences between time constants are at least one or more orders of magnitude. Then
there are two available possibilities. The first one is to use a variable step size adjusted to
the fastest processes, and the second one is to approximate fast processes by ideal
 Simulation of hydraulic check valve for forestry equipment 275

instantaneous mode-transitions. In the first case, the model is continuous, and in the
second one, it is hybrid. The continuous model is simpler, it is based on physical laws
and it is easily translated into a simulation model. This approach is suitable for the
analysis of individual processes. Its weaknesses are small step size, difficulties in
determination of parameters of the transition process, and complex control structure for
change of the mode of operation. The hybrid model has an absolute advantage with
respect to simulation speed. That is why it is suitable for real-time simulation of more
complex systems. Its weaknesses are a more complex model, difficulties in determination
of initial conditions of each mode of operation, and additional effort in the translation of
the bond graph model into a simulation model.

Acknowledgements

This investigation has been realised inside the ‘AdriaHub’ collaborative project.
Details in Savoia et al. (2016).

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Nomenclature
Asp Cross-sectional area of the spool (m2)
bsp Damping coefficient of the spool (Ns/m)
bhse High damping coefficient of the spool seat (Ns/m)
bhst High damping coefficient of the stopper (Ns/m)
Ksp Stiffness of the main spring (N/m)
Khse High stiffness of the spool seat (N/m)
Khst High stiffness of the stopper (N/m)
msp Mass of the spool (kg)
Q Flow rate through the check valve (m3/s)
xsp Instantaneous spool displacement (m)
xspmax Maximum displacement of the valve spool (m)
∆p Pressure drop across the valve (Pa)