Numpy-Ref-1 14 2

NumPy Reference
Release 1.14.2
Written by the NumPy community
April 16, 2018

CONTENTS
1 Array objects 3
1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.3 Data type objects (dtype) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.5 Iterating Over Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.6 Standard array subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.7 Masked arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
1.8 The Array Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
1.9 Datetimes and Timedeltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
2 Universal functions (ufunc) 361

2.1 Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
2.2 Output type determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
2.3 Use of internal buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
2.4 Error handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
2.5 Casting Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
2.6 Overriding Ufunc behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
2.7 ufunc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
2.8 Available ufuncs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
3 Routines 383
3.1 Array creation routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
3.2 Array manipulation routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
3.3 Binary operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
3.4 String operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
3.5 C-Types Foreign Function Interface (numpy.ctypeslib) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
3.6 Datetime Support Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
3.7 Data type routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
3.8 Optionally Scipy-accelerated routines (numpy.dual) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
3.9 Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
3.10 Floating point error handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
3.11 Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
3.12 Financial functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
3.13 Functional programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
3.14 NumPy-specific help functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
3.15 Indexing routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
3.16 Input and output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
3.17 Linear algebra (numpy.linalg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
3.18 Logic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
i
3.19 Mathematical functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
3.20 Matrix library (numpy.matlib) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
3.21 Miscellaneous routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
3.22 Padding Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
3.23 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
3.24 Random sampling (numpy.random) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
3.25 Set routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
3.26 Sorting, searching, and counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
3.27 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1123
3.28 Test Support (numpy.testing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
3.29 Window functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
4 Packaging (numpy.distutils) 1185

4.1 Modules in numpy.distutils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185
4.2 Building Installable C libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
4.3 Conversion of .src files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
5 NumPy C-API 1199

5.1 Python Types and C-Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
5.2 System configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
5.3 Data Type API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
5.4 Array API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219
5.5 Array Iterator API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
5.6 UFunc API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
5.7 Generalized Universal Function API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
5.8 NumPy core libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
5.9 C API Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
6 NumPy internals 1291

6.1 NumPy C Code Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1291
6.2 Internal organization of numpy arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1298
6.3 Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299
7 NumPy and SWIG 1301

7.1 Testing the numpy.i Typemaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316
8 Acknowledgements 1319
Bibliography 1321
Python Module Index 1331
Index 1333
ii
NumPy Reference, Release 1.14.2
Release 1.14
Date April 16, 2018
This reference manual details functions, modules, and objects included in NumPy, describing what they are and what
they do. For learning how to use NumPy, see also user.
CONTENTS 1
2 CONTENTS
CHAPTER
ONE
ARRAY OBJECTS
NumPy provides an N-dimensional array type, the ndarray, which describes a collection of “items” of the same type.
The items can be indexed using for example N integers.
All ndarrays are homogenous: every item takes up the same size block of memory, and all blocks are interpreted in
exactly the same way. How each item in the array is to be interpreted is specified by a separate data-type object, one
of which is associated with every array. In addition to basic types (integers, floats, etc.), the data type objects can also
represent data structures.
An item extracted from an array, e.g., by indexing, is represented by a Python object whose type is one of the array
scalar types built in NumPy. The array scalars allow easy manipulation of also more complicated arrangements of
data.
Fig. 1.1: Figure Conceptual diagram showing the relationship between the three fundamental objects used to describe
the data in an array: 1) the ndarray itself, 2) the data-type object that describes the layout of a single fixed-size element
of the array, 3) the array-scalar Python object that is returned when a single element of the array is accessed.
1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray)
An ndarray is a (usually fixed-size) multidimensional container of items of the same type and size. The number
of dimensions and items in an array is defined by its shape, which is a tuple of N positive integers that specify
the sizes of each dimension. The type of items in the array is specified by a separate data-type object (dtype), one of
which is associated with each ndarray.
As with other container objects in Python, the contents of an ndarray can be accessed and modified by indexing or
slicing the array (using, for example, N integers), and via the methods and attributes of the ndarray.
3
Different ndarrays can share the same data, so that changes made in one ndarray may be visible in another. That
is, an ndarray can be a “view” to another ndarray, and the data it is referring to is taken care of by the “base” ndarray.
ndarrays can also be views to memory owned by Python strings or objects implementing the buffer or array
interfaces.
Example
A 2-dimensional array of size 2 x 3, composed of 4-byte integer elements:
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], np.int32)

>>> type(x)
<type 'numpy.ndarray'>
>>> x.shape
(2, 3)
>>> x.dtype
dtype('int32')
The array can be indexed using Python container-like syntax:
>>> # The element of x in the *second* row, *third* column, namely, 6.

>>> x[1, 2]
For example slicing can produce views of the array:
>>> y = x[:,1]
>>> y
array([2, 5])
>>> y[0] = 9 # this also changes the corresponding element in x
>>> y
array([9, 5])
>>> x
array([[1, 9, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
1.1.1 Constructing arrays
New arrays can be constructed using the routines detailed in Array creation routines, and also by using the low-level
ndarray constructor:
ndarray(shape[, dtype, buffer, offset, . . . ]) An array object represents a multidimensional, homoge-

neous array of fixed-size items.
class numpy.ndarray(shape, dtype=float, buffer=None, offset=0, strides=None, order=None)

An array object represents a multidimensional, homogeneous array of fixed-size items. An associated data-type
object describes the format of each element in the array (its byte-order, how many bytes it occupies in memory,
whether it is an integer, a floating point number, or something else, etc.)
Arrays should be constructed using array, zeros or empty (refer to the See Also section below). The
parameters given here refer to a low-level method (ndarray(. . . )) for instantiating an array.
For more information, refer to the numpy module and examine the methods and attributes of an array.
Parameters (for the __new__ method; see Notes below)
shape : tuple of ints
4 Chapter 1. Array objects

Shape of created array.

dtype : data-type, optional
Any object that can be interpreted as a numpy data type.
buffer : object exposing buffer interface, optional
Used to fill the array with data.
offset : int, optional
Offset of array data in buffer.
strides : tuple of ints, optional
Strides of data in memory.
order : {‘C’, ‘F’}, optional
Row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-style) order.
See also:
array Construct an array.

zeros Create an array, each element of which is zero.
empty Create an array, but leave its allocated memory unchanged (i.e., it contains “garbage”).
dtype Create a data-type.
Notes
There are two modes of creating an array using __new__:

1. If buffer is None, then only shape, dtype, and order are used.
2. If buffer is an object exposing the buffer interface, then all keywords are interpreted.
No __init__ method is needed because the array is fully initialized after the __new__ method.
Examples
These examples illustrate the low-level ndarray constructor. Refer to the See Also section above for easier
ways of constructing an ndarray.
First mode, buffer is None:
>>> np.ndarray(shape=(2,2), dtype=float, order='F')

array([[ -1.13698227e+002, 4.25087011e-303],
[ 2.88528414e-306, 3.27025015e-309]]) #random
Second mode:
>>> np.ndarray((2,), buffer=np.array([1,2,3]),

... offset=np.int_().itemsize,
... dtype=int) # offset = 1*itemsize, i.e. skip first element
array([2, 3])
1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 5

Attributes
T Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if

self.ndim < 2.
data Python buffer object pointing to the start of the array’s
data.
dtype Data-type of the array’s elements.
flags Information about the memory layout of the array.
flat A 1-D iterator over the array.
imag The imaginary part of the array.
real The real part of the array.
size Number of elements in the array.
itemsize Length of one array element in bytes.
nbytes Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
ndim Number of array dimensions.
shape Tuple of array dimensions.
strides Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when travers-
ing an array.
ctypes An object to simplify the interaction of the array with
the ctypes module.
base Base object if memory is from some other object.
ndarray.T
Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if self.ndim < 2.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4.]])
>>> x.T
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 2., 4.]])
>>> x = np.array([1.,2.,3.,4.])
>>> x
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
>>> x.T
array([ 1., 2., 3., 4.])
ndarray.data
Python buffer object pointing to the start of the array’s data.
ndarray.dtype
Data-type of the array’s elements.
Parameters None
Returns d : numpy dtype object
See also:
numpy.dtype

Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype('int32')
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type 'numpy.dtype'>
ndarray.flags
Information about the memory layout of the array.
Notes
The flags object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in a.flags['WRITEABLE']), or by using low-
ercased attribute names (as in a.flags.writeable). Short flag names are only supported in dictionary
access.
Only the WRITEBACKIFCOPY, UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be changed
by the user, via direct assignment to the attribute or dictionary entry, or by calling ndarray.setflags.
The array flags cannot be set arbitrarily:
• UPDATEIFCOPY can only be set False.
• WRITEBACKIFCOPY can only be set False.
• ALIGNED can only be set True if the data is truly aligned.
• WRITEABLE can only be set True if the array owns its own memory or the ultimate owner of the
memory exposes a writeable buffer interface or is a string.
Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional
arrays, but can also be true for higher dimensional arrays.
Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension arr.strides[dim] may be arbitrary
if arr.shape[dim] == 1 or the array has no elements. It does not generally hold that self.
strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] ==
self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.

Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, C-style contiguous segment.
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, Fortran-style contiguous segment.
(F)
OWN- The array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
DATA
(O)
WRITE-
The data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks the data, making it read-only. A view
ABLE (slice, etc.) inherits WRITEABLE from its base array at creation time, but a view of a writeable
(W) array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains writeable. (The opposite is not
true, in that a view of a locked array may not be made writeable. However, currently, locking
a base object does not lock any views that already reference it, so under that circumstance it is
possible to alter the contents of a locked array via a previously created writeable view onto it.)
Attempting to change a non-writeable array raises a RuntimeError exception.
ALIGNED
The data and all elements are aligned appropriately for the hardware.
(A)
WRITE-
This array is a copy of some other array. The C-API function
BACK-PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy must be called before deallocating to the base array
IF- will be updated with the contents of this array.
COPY
(X)
UP- (Deprecated, use WRITEBACKIFCOPY) This array is a copy of some other array. When this
DATEIF-
array is deallocated, the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
COPY
(U)
FNC F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
FORC F_CONTIGUOUS or C_CONTIGUOUS (one-segment test).
BE- ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
HAVED
(B)
CAR- BEHAVED and C_CONTIGUOUS.
RAY
(CA)
FAR- BEHAVED and F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
RAY
(FA)
ndarray.flat
A 1-D iterator over the array.
This is a numpy.flatiter instance, which acts similarly to, but is not a subclass of, Python’s built-in
iterator object.
See also:
flatten Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
flatiter

Examples
>>> x = np.arange(1, 7).reshape(2, 3)

>>> x
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> x.flat[3]
4
>>> x.T
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> x.T.flat[3]
5
>>> type(x.flat)
<type 'numpy.flatiter'>
An assignment example:
>>> x.flat = 3; x
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x.flat[[1,4]] = 1; x
array([[3, 1, 3],
[3, 1, 3]])
ndarray.imag
The imaginary part of the array.
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])

>>> x.imag
array([ 0. , 0.70710678])
>>> x.imag.dtype
dtype('float64')
ndarray.real
The real part of the array.
See also:
numpy.real equivalent function
Examples
>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])

>>> x.real
array([ 1. , 0.70710678])
>>> x.real.dtype
dtype('float64')
ndarray.size
Number of elements in the array.

Equivalent to np.prod(a.shape), i.e., the product of the array’s dimensions.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3, 5, 2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x.size
30
>>> np.prod(x.shape)
30
ndarray.itemsize
Length of one array element in bytes.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)

>>> x.itemsize
8
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
>>> x.itemsize
16
ndarray.nbytes
Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
Notes
Does not include memory consumed by non-element attributes of the array object.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3,5,2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x.nbytes
480
>>> np.prod(x.shape) * x.itemsize
480
ndarray.ndim
Number of array dimensions.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.ndim
1
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.ndim
3

ndarray.shape
Tuple of array dimensions.
The shape property is usually used to get the current shape of an array, but may also be used to reshape the
array in-place by assigning a tuple of array dimensions to it. As with numpy.reshape, one of the new
shape dimensions can be -1, in which case its value is inferred from the size of the array and the remaining
dimensions. Reshaping an array in-place will fail if a copy is required.
See also:
numpy.reshape similar function

ndarray.reshape similar method
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
ValueError: total size of new array must be unchanged
>>> np.zeros((4,2))[::2].shape = (-1,)
AttributeError: incompatible shape for a non-contiguous array
ndarray.strides
Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing an array.
The byte offset of element (i[0], i[1], ..., i[n]) in an array a is:
offset = sum(np.array(i) * a.strides)
A more detailed explanation of strides can be found in the “ndarray.rst” file in the NumPy reference guide.
See also:
numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided
Notes
Imagine an array of 32-bit integers (each 4 bytes):
x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)

This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other (known as a contiguous block of memory).
The strides of an array tell us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position
along a certain axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to move to the next column, but 20
bytes (5 values) to get to the same position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array x will be
(20, 4).
Examples
>>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(2*3*4), (2,3,4))

>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
>>> offset=sum(y.strides * np.array((1,1,1)))
>>> offset/y.itemsize
17
>>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(5*6*7*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)

>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> offset = sum(i * x.strides)
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
>>> offset / x.itemsize
813
ndarray.ctypes
An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the ctypes module.
This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays when calling shared libraries with the
ctypes module. The returned object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see Notes
below) which themselves return ctypes objects that can be used as arguments to a shared library.
Parameters None
Returns c : Python object
Possessing attributes data, shape, strides, etc.
See also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented in “Guide to NumPy” (we have
omitted undocumented public attributes, as well as documented private attributes):

• data: A pointer to the memory area of the array as a Python integer. This memory area may contain
data that is not aligned, or not in correct byte-order. The memory area may not even be writeable.
The array flags and data-type of this array should be respected when passing this attribute to arbitrary
C-code to avoid trouble that can include Python crashing. User Beware! The value of this attribute is
exactly the same as self._array_interface_[‘data’][0].
• shape (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the C-integer
corresponding to dtype(‘p’) on this platform. This base-type could be c_int, c_long, or c_longlong
depending on the platform. The c_intp type is defined accordingly in numpy.ctypeslib. The ctypes
array contains the shape of the underlying array.
• strides (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the same as for
the shape attribute. This ctypes array contains the strides information from the underlying array.
This strides information is important for showing how many bytes must be jumped to get to the next
element in the array.
• data_as(obj): Return the data pointer cast to a particular c-types object. For example, calling
self._as_parameter_ is equivalent to self.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p). Perhaps you want to use the data
as a pointer to a ctypes array of floating-point data: self.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)).
• shape_as(obj): Return the shape tuple as an array of some other c-types type. For example:
self.shape_as(ctypes.c_short).
• strides_as(obj): Return the strides tuple as an array of some other c-types type. For example:
self.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong).
Be careful using the ctypes attribute - especially on temporary arrays or arrays constructed on the fly. For
example, calling (a+b).ctypes.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p) returns a pointer to memory that
is invalid because the array created as (a+b) is deallocated before the next Python statement. You can avoid
this problem using either c=a+b or ct=(a+b).ctypes. In the latter case, ct will hold a reference to
the array until ct is deleted or re-assigned.
If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute of array objects still returns something useful,
but ctypes objects are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular, the object will still have
the as parameter attribute which will return an integer equal to the data attribute.
Examples
>>> import ctypes

>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long))
<ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x01F01300>
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long)).contents
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_longlong)).contents
c_longlong(4294967296L)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
<numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FFD580>
>>> x.ctypes.shape_as(ctypes.c_long)
<numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FCE620>
>>> x.ctypes.strides
>>> x.ctypes.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong)
<numpy.core._internal.c_longlong_Array_2 object at 0x01F01300>

ndarray.base
Base object if memory is from some other object.
Examples
The base of an array that owns its memory is None:
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True
Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:
>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
Methods
all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

any([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
argmax([axis, out]) Return indices of the maximum values along the given
axis.
argmin([axis, out]) Return indices of the minimum values along the given
axis of a.
argpartition(kth[, axis, kind, order]) Returns the indices that would partition this array.
argsort([axis, kind, order]) Returns the indices that would sort this array.
astype(dtype[, order, casting, subok, copy]) Copy of the array, cast to a specified type.
byteswap([inplace]) Swap the bytes of the array elements
choose(choices[, out, mode]) Use an index array to construct a new array from a set
of choices.
clip([min, max, out]) Return an array whose values are limited to [min,
max].
compress(condition[, axis, out]) Return selected slices of this array along given axis.
conj() Complex-conjugate all elements.
conjugate() Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
copy([order]) Return a copy of the array.
cumprod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the elements along the
given axis.
cumsum([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the
given axis.
diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2]) Return specified diagonals.
dot(b[, out]) Dot product of two arrays.
dump(file) Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file.
dumps() Returns the pickle of the array as a string.
fill(value) Fill the array with a scalar value.
flatten([order]) Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
getfield(dtype[, offset]) Returns a field of the given array as a certain type.
Continued on next page

Table 1.3 – continued from previous page

item(*args) Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar
and return it.
itemset(*args) Insert scalar into an array (scalar is cast to array’s dtype,
if possible)
max([axis, out, keepdims]) Return the maximum along a given axis.
mean([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given
axis.
min([axis, out, keepdims]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
newbyteorder([new_order]) Return the array with the same data viewed with a dif-
ferent byte order.
nonzero() Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
partition(kth[, axis, kind, order]) Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that
value of the element in kth position is in the position it
would be in a sorted array.
prod([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis
ptp([axis, out]) Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a
given axis.
put(indices, values[, mode]) Set a.flat[n] = values[n] for all n in indices.
ravel([order]) Return a flattened array.
repeat(repeats[, axis]) Repeat elements of an array.
reshape(shape[, order]) Returns an array containing the same data with a new
shape.
resize(new_shape[, refcheck]) Change shape and size of array in-place.
round([decimals, out]) Return a with each element rounded to the given number
of decimals.
searchsorted(v[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in
a to maintain order.
setfield(val, dtype[, offset]) Put a value into a specified place in a field defined by a
data-type.
setflags([write, align, uic]) Set array flags WRITEABLE, ALIGNED, (WRITE-
BACKIFCOPY and UPDATEIFCOPY), respectively.
sort([axis, kind, order]) Sort an array, in-place.
squeeze([axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
std([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements
along given axis.
sum([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 inter-
changed.
take(indices[, axis, out, mode]) Return an array formed from the elements of a at the
given indices.
tobytes([order]) Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in
the array.
tofile(fid[, sep, format]) Write array to a file as text or binary (default).
tolist() Return the array as a (possibly nested) list.
tostring([order]) Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in
the array.
trace([offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
transpose(*axes) Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
var([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the variance of the array elements, along given
axis.


view([dtype, type]) New view of array with the same data.
ndarray.all(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.
Refer to numpy.all for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.all equivalent function
ndarray.any(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
Refer to numpy.any for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.any equivalent function
ndarray.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
Return indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
Refer to numpy.argmax for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.argmax equivalent function
ndarray.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
Return indices of the minimum values along the given axis of a.
Refer to numpy.argmin for detailed documentation.
See also:
numpy.argmin equivalent function
ndarray.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

Returns the indices that would partition this array.
Refer to numpy.argpartition for full documentation.
New in version 1.8.0.
See also:
numpy.argpartition equivalent function
ndarray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

Returns the indices that would sort this array.
Refer to numpy.argsort for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.argsort equivalent function

ndarray.astype(dtype, order=’K’, casting=’unsafe’, subok=True, copy=True)

Copy of the array, cast to a specified type.
Parameters dtype : str or dtype
Typecode or data-type to which the array is cast.
order : {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’, ‘K’}, optional
Controls the memory layout order of the result. ‘C’ means C order, ‘F’ means Fortran
order, ‘A’ means ‘F’ order if all the arrays are Fortran contiguous, ‘C’ order otherwise,
and ‘K’ means as close to the order the array elements appear in memory as possible.
Default is ‘K’.
casting : {‘no’, ‘equiv’, ‘safe’, ‘same_kind’, ‘unsafe’}, optional
Controls what kind of data casting may occur. Defaults to ‘unsafe’ for backwards com-
patibility.
• ‘no’ means the data types should not be cast at all.
• ‘equiv’ means only byte-order changes are allowed.
• ‘safe’ means only casts which can preserve values are allowed.
• ‘same_kind’ means only safe casts or casts within a kind, like float64 to float32, are
allowed.
• ‘unsafe’ means any data conversions may be done.
subok : bool, optional
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through (default), otherwise the returned array
will be forced to be a base-class array.
copy : bool, optional
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated array. If this is set to false, and the
dtype, order, and subok requirements are satisfied, the input array is returned instead
of a copy.
Returns arr_t : ndarray
Unless copy is False and the other conditions for returning the input array are satisfied
(see description for copy input parameter), arr_t is a new array of the same shape as
the input array, with dtype, order given by dtype, order.
Raises ComplexWarning
When casting from complex to float or int. To avoid this, one should use a.real.
astype(t).
Notes
Starting in NumPy 1.9, astype method now returns an error if the string dtype to cast to is not long enough
in ‘safe’ casting mode to hold the max value of integer/float array that is being casted. Previously the
casting was allowed even if the result was truncated.

Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])

>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
ndarray.byteswap(inplace=False)
Swap the bytes of the array elements
Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by returning a byteswapped array, option-
ally swapped in-place.
Parameters inplace : bool, optional
If True, swap bytes in-place, default is False.
Returns out : ndarray
The byteswapped array. If inplace is True, this is a view to self.
Examples
>>> A = np.array([1, 256, 8755], dtype=np.int16)

>>> map(hex, A)
['0x1', '0x100', '0x2233']
>>> A.byteswap(inplace=True)
array([ 256, 1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
['0x100', '0x1', '0x3322']
Arrays of strings are not swapped
>>> A = np.array(['ceg', 'fac'])

>>> A.byteswap()
array(['ceg', 'fac'],
dtype='|S3')
ndarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of choices.
Refer to numpy.choose for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.choose equivalent function
ndarray.clip(min=None, max=None, out=None)

Return an array whose values are limited to [min, max]. One of max or min must be given.
Refer to numpy.clip for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.clip equivalent function

ndarray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)

Return selected slices of this array along given axis.
Refer to numpy.compress for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.compress equivalent function
ndarray.conj()
Complex-conjugate all elements.
Refer to numpy.conjugate for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.conjugate equivalent function
ndarray.conjugate()
Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
See also:
ndarray.copy(order=’C’)
Return a copy of the array.
Parameters order : {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’, ‘K’}, optional
Controls the memory layout of the copy. ‘C’ means C-order, ‘F’ means F-order, ‘A’
means ‘F’ if a is Fortran contiguous, ‘C’ otherwise. ‘K’ means match the layout of a
as closely as possible. (Note that this function and numpy.copy are very similar, but
have different default values for their order= arguments.)
See also:
numpy.copy, numpy.copyto
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])

>>> y.flags['C_CONTIGUOUS']
True
ndarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of the elements along the given axis.
Refer to numpy.cumprod for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.cumprod equivalent function
ndarray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the given axis.
Refer to numpy.cumsum for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.cumsum equivalent function
ndarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

Return specified diagonals. In NumPy 1.9 the returned array is a read-only view instead of a copy as in
previous NumPy versions. In a future version the read-only restriction will be removed.
Refer to numpy.diagonal for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.diagonal equivalent function
ndarray.dot(b, out=None)
Dot product of two arrays.
Refer to numpy.dot for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.dot equivalent function
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])
This array method can be conveniently chained:
>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
ndarray.dump(file)
Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file. The array can be read back with pickle.load or numpy.load.
Parameters file : str

A string naming the dump file.

ndarray.dumps()
Returns the pickle of the array as a string. pickle.loads or numpy.loads will convert the string back to an
array.
Parameters None
ndarray.fill(value)
Fill the array with a scalar value.
Parameters value : scalar
All elements of a will be assigned this value.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
ndarray.flatten(order=’C’)
Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
‘C’ means to flatten in row-major (C-style) order. ‘F’ means to flatten in column-major
(Fortran- style) order. ‘A’ means to flatten in column-major order if a is Fortran con-
tiguous in memory, row-major order otherwise. ‘K’ means to flatten a in the order the
elements occur in memory. The default is ‘C’.
Returns y : ndarray
A copy of the input array, flattened to one dimension.
See also:
ravel Return a flattened array.

flat A 1-D flat iterator over the array.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten('F')
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
ndarray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
Returns a field of the given array as a certain type.
A field is a view of the array data with a given data-type. The values in the view are determined by the
given type and the offset into the current array in bytes. The offset needs to be such that the view dtype fits

in the array dtype; for example an array of dtype complex128 has 16-byte elements. If taking a view with
a 32-bit integer (4 bytes), the offset needs to be between 0 and 12 bytes.
The data type of the view. The dtype size of the view can not be larger than that of the
array itself.
offset : int
Number of bytes to skip before beginning the element view.
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
>>> x.getfield(np.float64)
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])
By choosing an offset of 8 bytes we can select the complex part of the array for our view:
>>> x.getfield(np.float64, offset=8)

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
ndarray.item(*args)
Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar and return it.
Parameters *args : Arguments (variable number and type)
• none: in this case, the method only works for arrays with one element (a.size == 1), which
element is copied into a standard Python scalar object and returned.
• int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into the array, specifying which ele-
ment to copy and return.
• tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument, except that the argument
is interpreted as an nd-index into the array.
Returns z : Standard Python scalar object
A copy of the specified element of the array as a suitable Python scalar
Notes
When the data type of a is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns a scalar array object because there is
no available Python scalar that would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for item(),
unless fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
item is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar, a standard Python scalar is returned.
This can be useful for speeding up access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the
array using Python’s optimized math.

Examples
>>> x = np.random.randint(9, size=(3, 3))

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
ndarray.itemset(*args)
Insert scalar into an array (scalar is cast to array’s dtype, if possible)
There must be at least 1 argument, and define the last argument as item. Then, a.itemset(*args) is
equivalent to but faster than a[args] = item. The item should be a scalar value and args must select
a single item in the array a.
Parameters *args : Arguments
If one argument: a scalar, only used in case a is of size 1. If two arguments: the last
argument is the value to be set and must be a scalar, the first argument specifies a single
array element location. It is either an int or a tuple.
Notes
Compared to indexing syntax, itemset provides some speed increase for placing a scalar into a particular
location in an ndarray, if you must do this. However, generally this is discouraged: among other
problems, it complicates the appearance of the code. Also, when using itemset (and item) inside a
loop, be sure to assign the methods to a local variable to avoid the attribute look-up at each loop iteration.
Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
ndarray.max(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the maximum along a given axis.
Refer to numpy.amax for full documentation.
See also:

numpy.amax equivalent function
ndarray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
Refer to numpy.mean for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.mean equivalent function
ndarray.min(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the minimum along a given axis.
Refer to numpy.amin for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.amin equivalent function
ndarray.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)
Return the array with the same data viewed with a different byte order.
Equivalent to:
arr.view(arr.dtype.newbytorder(new_order))
Changes are also made in all fields and sub-arrays of the array data type.
Parameters new_order : string, optional
Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications below. new_order codes
can be any of:
• ‘S’ - swap dtype from current to opposite endian
• {‘<’, ‘L’} - little endian
• {‘>’, ‘B’} - big endian
• {‘=’, ‘N’} - native order
• {‘|’, ‘I’} - ignore (no change to byte order)
The default value (‘S’) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a
case-insensitive check on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For
example, any of ‘B’ or ‘b’ or ‘biggish’ are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns new_arr : array
New array object with the dtype reflecting given change to the byte order.
ndarray.nonzero()
Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
Refer to numpy.nonzero for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.nonzero equivalent function

ndarray.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that value of the element in kth position is in the position
it would be in a sorted array. All elements smaller than the kth element are moved before this element and
all equal or greater are moved behind it. The ordering of the elements in the two partitions is undefined.
Parameters kth : int or sequence of ints
Element index to partition by. The kth element value will be in its final sorted position
and all smaller elements will be moved before it and all equal or greater elements behind
it. The order all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with a sequence of
kth it will partition all elements indexed by kth of them into their sorted position at once.
axis : int, optional
Axis along which to sort. Default is -1, which means sort along the last axis.
kind : {‘introselect’}, optional
Selection algorithm. Default is ‘introselect’.
order : str or list of str, optional
When a is an array with fields defined, this argument specifies which fields to compare
first, second, etc. A single field can be specified as a string, and not all fields need be
specified, but unspecified fields will still be used, in the order in which they come up in
the dtype, to break ties.
See also:
numpy.partition Return a parititioned copy of an array.

argpartition Indirect partition.
sort Full sort.
Notes
See np.partition for notes on the different algorithms.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])

>>> a.partition(3)
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> a.partition((1, 3))

array([1, 2, 3, 4])
ndarray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the product of the array elements over the given axis
Refer to numpy.prod for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.prod equivalent function

ndarray.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a given axis.
Refer to numpy.ptp for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.ptp equivalent function
ndarray.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

Set a.flat[n] = values[n] for all n in indices.
Refer to numpy.put for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.put equivalent function
ndarray.ravel([order ])
Return a flattened array.
Refer to numpy.ravel for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.ravel equivalent function

ndarray.flat a flat iterator on the array.
ndarray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
Repeat elements of an array.
Refer to numpy.repeat for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.repeat equivalent function
ndarray.reshape(shape, order=’C’)
Returns an array containing the same data with a new shape.
Refer to numpy.reshape for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.reshape equivalent function
Notes
Unlike the free function numpy.reshape, this method on ndarray allows the elements of the shape
parameter to be passed in as separate arguments. For example, a.reshape(10, 11) is equivalent to
a.reshape((10, 11)).
ndarray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Change shape and size of array in-place.
Parameters new_shape : tuple of ints, or n ints
Shape of resized array.

refcheck : bool, optional

If False, reference count will not be checked. Default is True.
Returns None
Raises ValueError
If a does not own its own data or references or views to it exist, and the data memory
must be changed. PyPy only: will always raise if the data memory must be changed,
since there is no reliable way to determine if references or views to it exist.
SystemError
If the order keyword argument is specified. This behaviour is a bug in NumPy.
See also:
resize Return a new array with the specified shape.
Notes
This reallocates space for the data area if necessary.

Only contiguous arrays (data elements consecutive in memory) can be resized.
The purpose of the reference count check is to make sure you do not use this array as a buffer for another
Python object and then reallocate the memory. However, reference counts can increase in other ways so if
you are sure that you have not shared the memory for this array with another Python object, then you may
safely set refcheck to False.
Examples
Shrinking an array: array is flattened (in the order that the data are stored in memory), resized, and re-
shaped:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
Enlarging an array: as above, but missing entries are filled with zeros:
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> b.resize(2, 3) # new_shape parameter doesn't have to be a tuple
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])
Referencing an array prevents resizing. . .

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...
ValueError: cannot resize an array that has been referenced ...
Unless refcheck is False:
>>> a.resize((1, 1), refcheck=False)

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
ndarray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
Return a with each element rounded to the given number of decimals.
Refer to numpy.around for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.around equivalent function
ndarray.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in a to maintain order.
For full documentation, see numpy.searchsorted
See also:
numpy.searchsorted equivalent function
ndarray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)

Put a value into a specified place in a field defined by a data-type.
Place val into a’s field defined by dtype and beginning offset bytes into the field.
Parameters val : object
Value to be placed in field.
dtype : dtype object
Data-type of the field in which to place val.
The number of bytes into the field at which to place val.
Returns None
See also:
getfield
Examples

>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
>>> x.setfield(3, np.int32)
>>> x.getfield(np.int32)
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000]])
>>> x.setfield(np.eye(3), np.int32)
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
ndarray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Set array flags WRITEABLE, ALIGNED, (WRITEBACKIFCOPY and UPDATEIFCOPY), respectively.
These Boolean-valued flags affect how numpy interprets the memory area used by a (see Notes below). The
ALIGNED flag can only be set to True if the data is actually aligned according to the type. The WRITE-
BACKIFCOPY and (deprecated) UPDATEIFCOPY flags can never be set to True. The flag WRITEABLE
can only be set to True if the array owns its own memory, or the ultimate owner of the memory exposes a
writeable buffer interface, or is a string. (The exception for string is made so that unpickling can be done
without copying memory.)
Parameters write : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a can be written to.
align : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a is aligned properly for its type.
uic : bool, optional
Describes whether or not a is a copy of another “base” array.
Notes
Array flags provide information about how the memory area used for the array is to be interpreted. There
are 7 Boolean flags in use, only four of which can be changed by the user: WRITEBACKIFCOPY, UP-
DATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED.
WRITEABLE (W) the data area can be written to;
ALIGNED (A) the data and strides are aligned appropriately for the hardware (as determined by the com-
piler);
UPDATEIFCOPY (U) (deprecated), replaced by WRITEBACKIFCOPY;
WRITEBACKIFCOPY (X) this array is a copy of some other array (referenced by .base). When the C-API
function PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called, the base array will be updated with the contents of
this array.
All flags can be accessed using the single (upper case) letter as well as the full name.

Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
F_CONTIGUOUS : False
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
WRITEBACKIFCOPY : False
UPDATEIFCOPY : False
>>> y.setflags(write=0, align=0)
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
>>> y.setflags(uic=1)
ValueError: cannot set WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag to True
ndarray.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

Sort an array, in-place.
Parameters axis : int, optional
kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, optional
Sorting algorithm. Default is ‘quicksort’.
See also:
numpy.sort Return a sorted copy of an array.

argsort Indirect sort.
lexsort Indirect stable sort on multiple keys.
searchsorted Find elements in sorted array.
partition Partial sort.

Notes
See sort for notes on the different sorting algorithms.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])

>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])
Use the order keyword to specify a field to use when sorting a structured array:
>>> a = np.array([('a', 2), ('c', 1)], dtype=[('x', 'S1'), ('y', int)])

>>> a.sort(order='y')
>>> a
array([('c', 1), ('a', 2)],
dtype=[('x', '|S1'), ('y', '<i4')])
ndarray.squeeze(axis=None)
Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
Refer to numpy.squeeze for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.squeeze equivalent function
ndarray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along given axis.
Refer to numpy.std for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.std equivalent function
ndarray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
Refer to numpy.sum for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.sum equivalent function
ndarray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 interchanged.
Refer to numpy.swapaxes for full documentation.
See also:

numpy.swapaxes equivalent function
ndarray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)

Return an array formed from the elements of a at the given indices.
Refer to numpy.take for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.take equivalent function
ndarray.tobytes(order=’C’)
Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in the array.
Constructs Python bytes showing a copy of the raw contents of data memory. The bytes object can be
produced in either ‘C’ or ‘Fortran’, or ‘Any’ order (the default is ‘C’-order). ‘Any’ order means C-order
unless the F_CONTIGUOUS flag in the array is set, in which case it means ‘Fortran’ order.
Parameters order : {‘C’, ‘F’, None}, optional
Order of the data for multidimensional arrays: C, Fortran, or the same as for the original
array.
Returns s : bytes
Python bytes exhibiting a copy of a’s raw data.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x01\x00\x00\x00\x02\x00\x00\x00\x03\x00\x00\x00'
>>> x.tobytes('C') == x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
ndarray.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")

Write array to a file as text or binary (default).
Data is always written in ‘C’ order, independent of the order of a. The data produced by this method can
be recovered using the function fromfile().
Parameters fid : file or str
An open file object, or a string containing a filename.
sep : str
Separator between array items for text output. If “” (empty), a binary file is written,
equivalent to file.write(a.tobytes()).
format : str
Format string for text file output. Each entry in the array is formatted to text by first
converting it to the closest Python type, and then using “format” % item.

Notes
This is a convenience function for quick storage of array data. Information on endianness and precision
is lost, so this method is not a good choice for files intended to archive data or transport data between
machines with different endianness. Some of these problems can be overcome by outputting the data as
text files, at the expense of speed and file size.
ndarray.tolist()
Return the array as a (possibly nested) list.
Return a copy of the array data as a (nested) Python list. Data items are converted to the nearest compatible
Python type.
Parameters none
Returns y : list
The possibly nested list of array elements.
Notes
The array may be recreated, a = np.array(a.tolist()).
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
ndarray.tostring(order=’C’)
This function is a compatibility alias for tobytes. Despite its name it returns bytes not strings.
array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples

>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
ndarray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
Refer to numpy.trace for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.trace equivalent function
ndarray.transpose(*axes)
Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
For a 1-D array, this has no effect. (To change between column and row vectors, first cast the 1-D ar-
ray into a matrix object.) For a 2-D array, this is the usual matrix transpose. For an n-D array, if axes
are given, their order indicates how the axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided
and a.shape = (i[0], i[1], ... i[n-2], i[n-1]), then a.transpose().shape =
(i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
Parameters axes : None, tuple of ints, or n ints
• None or no argument: reverses the order of the axes.
• tuple of ints: i in the j-th place in the tuple means a’s i-th axis becomes a.transpose()’s j-th
axis.
• n ints: same as an n-tuple of the same ints (this form is intended simply as a “convenience”
alternative to the tuple form)
View of a, with axes suitably permuted.
See also:
ndarray.T Array property returning the array transposed.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
>>> a.transpose((1, 0))
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
>>> a.transpose(1, 0)
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])

ndarray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Returns the variance of the array elements, along given axis.
Refer to numpy.var for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.var equivalent function
ndarray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
New view of array with the same data.
Parameters dtype : data-type or ndarray sub-class, optional
Data-type descriptor of the returned view, e.g., float32 or int16. The default, None,
results in the view having the same data-type as a. This argument can also be specified
as an ndarray sub-class, which then specifies the type of the returned object (this is
equivalent to setting the type parameter).
type : Python type, optional
Type of the returned view, e.g., ndarray or matrix. Again, the default None results in
type preservation.
Notes
a.view() is used two different ways:

a.view(some_dtype) or a.view(dtype=some_dtype) constructs a view of the array’s memory
with a different data-type. This can cause a reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
a.view(ndarray_subclass) or a.view(type=ndarray_subclass) just returns an instance
of ndarray_subclass that looks at the same array (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinter-
pretation of the memory.
For a.view(some_dtype), if some_dtype has a different number of bytes per entry than the pre-
vious dtype (for example, converting a regular array to a structured array), then the behavior of the view
cannot be predicted just from the superficial appearance of a (shown by print(a)). It also depends on
exactly how a is stored in memory. Therefore if a is C-ordered versus fortran-ordered, versus defined as a
slice or transpose, etc., the view may give different results.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([(1, 2)], dtype=[('a', np.int8), ('b', np.int8)])
Viewing array data using a different type and dtype:
>>> y = x.view(dtype=np.int16, type=np.matrix)

>>> y
matrix([[513]], dtype=int16)
>>> print(type(y))
<class 'numpy.matrixlib.defmatrix.matrix'>
Creating a view on a structured array so it can be used in calculations

>>> x = np.array([(1, 2),(3,4)], dtype=[('a', np.int8), ('b', np.int8)])

>>> xv = x.view(dtype=np.int8).reshape(-1,2)
>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]], dtype=int8)
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
Making changes to the view changes the underlying array

>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
Using a view to convert an array to a recarray:

>>> z = x.view(np.recarray)
>>> z.a
array([1], dtype=int8)
Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
Views that change the dtype size (bytes per entry) should normally be avoided on arrays defined by slices,
transposes, fortran-ordering, etc.:
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], dtype=np.int16)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> y.view(dtype=[('width', np.int16), ('length', np.int16)])
ValueError: new type not compatible with array.
>>> z = y.copy()
>>> z.view(dtype=[('width', np.int16), ('length', np.int16)])
array([[(1, 2)],
[(4, 5)]], dtype=[('width', '<i2'), ('length', '<i2')])
1.1.2 Indexing arrays
Arrays can be indexed using an extended Python slicing syntax, array[selection]. Similar syntax is also used
for accessing fields in a structured array.
See also:
Array Indexing.
1.1.3 Internal memory layout of an ndarray
An instance of class ndarray consists of a contiguous one-dimensional segment of computer memory (owned by
the array, or by some other object), combined with an indexing scheme that maps N integers into the location of an

item in the block. The ranges in which the indices can vary is specified by the shape of the array. How many bytes
each item takes and how the bytes are interpreted is defined by the data-type object associated with the array.
A segment of memory is inherently 1-dimensional, and there are many different schemes for arranging the items of
an N-dimensional array in a 1-dimensional block. NumPy is flexible, and ndarray objects can accommodate any
strided indexing scheme. In a strided scheme, the N-dimensional index (𝑛0 , 𝑛1 , ..., 𝑛𝑁 −1 ) corresponds to the offset
(in bytes):
𝑁
∑︁−1
𝑛offset = 𝑠𝑘 𝑛𝑘
𝑘=0
from the beginning of the memory block associated with the array. Here, 𝑠𝑘 are integers which specify the strides
of the array. The column-major order (used, for example, in the Fortran language and in Matlab) and row-major order
(used in C) schemes are just specific kinds of strided scheme, and correspond to memory that can be addressed by the
strides:
𝑘−1
∏︁ 𝑁
∏︁−1
𝑠column
𝑘 = itemsize 𝑑𝑗 , 𝑠row
𝑘 = itemsize 𝑑𝑗 .
𝑗=0 𝑗=𝑘+1
where 𝑑𝑗 = self.shape[j].
Both the C and Fortran orders are contiguous, i.e., single-segment, memory layouts, in which every part of the memory
block can be accessed by some combination of the indices.
While a C-style and Fortran-style contiguous array, which has the corresponding flags set, can be addressed with the
above strides, the actual strides may be different. This can happen in two cases:
1. If self.shape[k] == 1 then for any legal index index[k] == 0. This means that in the formula for
the offset 𝑛𝑘 = 0 and thus 𝑠𝑘 𝑛𝑘 = 0 and the value of 𝑠𝑘 = self.strides[k] is arbitrary.
2. If an array has no elements (self.size == 0) there is no legal index and the strides are never used. Any
array with no elements may be considered C-style and Fortran-style contiguous.
Point 1. means that self and self.squeeze() always have the same contiguity and aligned flags value. This
also means that even a high dimensional array could be C-style and Fortran-style contiguous at the same time.
An array is considered aligned if the memory offsets for all elements and the base offset itself is a multiple of
self.itemsize.
Note: Points (1) and (2) are not yet applied by default. Beginning with NumPy 1.8.0, they are applied consistently
only if the environment variable NPY_RELAXED_STRIDES_CHECKING=1 was defined when NumPy was built.
Eventually this will become the default.
You can check whether this option was enabled when your NumPy was built by looking at the value of np.
ones((10,1), order='C').flags.f_contiguous. If this is True, then your NumPy has relaxed strides
checking enabled.
Warning: It does not generally hold that self.strides[-1] == self.itemsize for C-style contiguous
arrays or self.strides[0] == self.itemsize for Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.
Data in new ndarrays is in the row-major (C) order, unless otherwise specified, but, for example, basic array slicing
often produces views in a different scheme.
Note: Several algorithms in NumPy work on arbitrarily strided arrays. However, some algorithms require single-
segment arrays. When an irregularly strided array is passed in to such algorithms, a copy is automatically made.

1.1.4 Array attributes
Array attributes reflect information that is intrinsic to the array itself. Generally, accessing an array through its at-
tributes allows you to get and sometimes set intrinsic properties of the array without creating a new array. The exposed
attributes are the core parts of an array and only some of them can be reset meaningfully without creating a new array.
Information on each attribute is given below.
Memory layout
The following attributes contain information about the memory layout of the array:
ndarray.flags Information about the memory layout of the array.

ndarray.shape Tuple of array dimensions.
ndarray.strides Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing
an array.
ndarray.ndim Number of array dimensions.
ndarray.data Python buffer object pointing to the start of the array’s data.
ndarray.size Number of elements in the array.
ndarray.itemsize Length of one array element in bytes.
ndarray.nbytes Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
ndarray.base Base object if memory is from some other object.
Data type
See also:
Data type objects
The data type object associated with the array can be found in the dtype attribute:
ndarray.dtype Data-type of the array’s elements.
Other attributes
ndarray.T Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if

self.ndim < 2.
ndarray.real The real part of the array.
ndarray.imag The imaginary part of the array.
ndarray.flat A 1-D iterator over the array.
ndarray.ctypes An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the
ctypes module.
Array interface
See also:
The Array Interface.
__array_interface__ Python-side of the array interface

__array_struct__ C-side of the array interface

ctypes foreign function interface
ndarray.ctypes An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the

ctypes module.
1.1.5 Array methods
An ndarray object has many methods which operate on or with the array in some fashion, typically returning an
array result. These methods are briefly explained below. (Each method’s docstring has a more complete description.)
For the following methods there are also corresponding functions in numpy: all, any, argmax, argmin,
argpartition, argsort, choose, clip, compress, copy, cumprod, cumsum, diagonal, imag,
max, mean, min, nonzero, partition, prod, ptp, put, ravel, real, repeat, reshape, round,
searchsorted, sort, squeeze, std, sum, swapaxes, take, trace, transpose, var.
Array conversion
ndarray.item(*args) Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar

and return it.
ndarray.tolist() Return the array as a (possibly nested) list.
ndarray.itemset(*args) Insert scalar into an array (scalar is cast to array’s dtype, if
possible)
ndarray.tostring([order]) Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in the
array.
ndarray.tobytes([order]) Construct Python bytes containing the raw data bytes in the
array.
ndarray.tofile(fid[, sep, format]) Write array to a file as text or binary (default).
ndarray.dump(file) Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file.
ndarray.dumps() Returns the pickle of the array as a string.
ndarray.astype(dtype[, order, casting, . . . ]) Copy of the array, cast to a specified type.
ndarray.byteswap([inplace]) Swap the bytes of the array elements
ndarray.copy([order]) Return a copy of the array.
ndarray.view([dtype, type]) New view of array with the same data.
ndarray.getfield(dtype[, offset]) Returns a field of the given array as a certain type.
ndarray.setflags([write, align, uic]) Set array flags WRITEABLE, ALIGNED, (WRITEBACK-
IFCOPY and UPDATEIFCOPY), respectively.
ndarray.fill(value) Fill the array with a scalar value.
Shape manipulation
For reshape, resize, and transpose, the single tuple argument may be replaced with n integers which will be interpreted
as an n-tuple.
ndarray.reshape(shape[, order]) Returns an array containing the same data with a new
shape.
ndarray.resize(new_shape[, refcheck]) Change shape and size of array in-place.
ndarray.transpose(*axes) Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
ndarray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 inter-
changed.
ndarray.flatten([order]) Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.


ndarray.ravel([order]) Return a flattened array.
ndarray.squeeze([axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
Item selection and manipulation
For array methods that take an axis keyword, it defaults to None. If axis is None, then the array is treated as a 1-D
array. Any other value for axis represents the dimension along which the operation should proceed.
ndarray.take(indices[, axis, out, mode]) Return an array formed from the elements of a at the given
indices.
ndarray.put(indices, values[, mode]) Set a.flat[n] = values[n] for all n in indices.
ndarray.repeat(repeats[, axis]) Repeat elements of an array.
ndarray.choose(choices[, out, mode]) Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of
choices.
ndarray.sort([axis, kind, order]) Sort an array, in-place.
ndarray.argsort([axis, kind, order]) Returns the indices that would sort this array.
ndarray.partition(kth[, axis, kind, order]) Rearranges the elements in the array in such a way that
ndarray.argpartition(kth[, axis, kind, order]) Returns the indices that would partition this array.
ndarray.searchsorted(v[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in a to
maintain order.
ndarray.nonzero() Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
ndarray.compress(condition[, axis, out]) Return selected slices of this array along given axis.
ndarray.diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2]) Return specified diagonals.
Calculation
Many of these methods take an argument named axis. In such cases,

• If axis is None (the default), the array is treated as a 1-D array and the operation is performed over the entire
array. This behavior is also the default if self is a 0-dimensional array or array scalar. (An array scalar is
an instance of the types/classes float32, float64, etc., whereas a 0-dimensional array is an ndarray instance
containing precisely one array scalar.)
• If axis is an integer, then the operation is done over the given axis (for each 1-D subarray that can be created
along the given axis).
Example of the axis argument

A 3-dimensional array of size 3 x 3 x 3, summed over each of its three axes
>>> x
array([[[ 0, 1, 2],
[ 3, 4, 5],
[ 6, 7, 8]],
[[ 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14],
[15, 16, 17]],
[[18, 19, 20],
[21, 22, 23],
[24, 25, 26]]])

>>> x.sum(axis=0)
array([[27, 30, 33],
[36, 39, 42],
[45, 48, 51]])
>>> # for sum, axis is the first keyword, so we may omit it,
>>> # specifying only its value
>>> x.sum(0), x.sum(1), x.sum(2)
(array([[27, 30, 33],
[36, 39, 42],
[45, 48, 51]]),
array([[ 9, 12, 15],
[36, 39, 42],
[63, 66, 69]]),
array([[ 3, 12, 21],
[30, 39, 48],
[57, 66, 75]]))
The parameter dtype specifies the data type over which a reduction operation (like summing) should take place. The
default reduce data type is the same as the data type of self. To avoid overflow, it can be useful to perform the reduction
using a larger data type.
For several methods, an optional out argument can also be provided and the result will be placed into the output array
given. The out argument must be an ndarray and have the same number of elements. It can have a different data
type in which case casting will be performed.
ndarray.argmax([axis, out]) Return indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
ndarray.min([axis, out, keepdims]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
ndarray.argmin([axis, out]) Return indices of the minimum values along the given axis
of a.
ndarray.ptp([axis, out]) Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a given
axis.
ndarray.clip([min, max, out]) Return an array whose values are limited to [min, max].
ndarray.conj() Complex-conjugate all elements.
ndarray.round([decimals, out]) Return a with each element rounded to the given number
of decimals.
ndarray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
ndarray.sum([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
ndarray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the elements along the given
axis.
ndarray.mean([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
ndarray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the variance of the array elements, along given
axis.
ndarray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along
given axis.
ndarray.prod([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given axis
ndarray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the elements along the
given axis.
ndarray.all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.
ndarray.any([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.

1.1.6 Arithmetic, matrix multiplication, and comparison operations
Arithmetic and comparison operations on ndarrays are defined as element-wise operations, and generally yield
ndarray objects as results.
Each of the arithmetic operations (+, -, *, /, //, %, divmod(), ** or pow(), <<, >>, &, ^, |, ~) and the
comparisons (==, <, >, <=, >=, !=) is equivalent to the corresponding universal function (or ufunc for short) in
NumPy. For more information, see the section on Universal Functions.
Comparison operators:
ndarray.__lt__($self, value, /) Return self<value.

ndarray.__le__($self, value, /) Return self<=value.
ndarray.__gt__($self, value, /) Return self>value.
ndarray.__ge__($self, value, /) Return self>=value.
ndarray.__eq__($self, value, /) Return self==value.
ndarray.__ne__($self, value, /) Return self!=value.
ndarray.__lt__($self, value, / )
Return self<value.
ndarray.__le__($self, value, / )
Return self<=value.
ndarray.__gt__($self, value, / )
Return self>value.
ndarray.__ge__($self, value, / )
Return self>=value.
ndarray.__eq__($self, value, / )
Return self==value.
ndarray.__ne__($self, value, / )
Return self!=value.
Truth value of an array (bool):
ndarray.__nonzero__
Note: Truth-value testing of an array invokes ndarray.__nonzero__, which raises an error if the number of
elements in the array is larger than 1, because the truth value of such arrays is ambiguous. Use .any() and .all()
instead to be clear about what is meant in such cases. (If the number of elements is 0, the array evaluates to False.)
Unary operations:
ndarray.__neg__($self, /) -self
ndarray.__pos__($self, /) +self
ndarray.__abs__(self)
ndarray.__invert__($self, /) ~self
ndarray.__neg__($self, / )
-self
ndarray.__pos__($self, / )

+self
ndarray.__abs__(self )
ndarray.__invert__($self, / )
~self
Arithmetic:
ndarray.__add__($self, value, /) Return self+value.

ndarray.__sub__($self, value, /) Return self-value.
ndarray.__mul__($self, value, /) Return self*value.
ndarray.__div__
ndarray.__truediv__($self, value, /) Return self/value.
ndarray.__floordiv__($self, value, /) Return self//value.
ndarray.__mod__($self, value, /) Return self%value.
ndarray.__divmod__($self, value, /) Return divmod(self, value).
ndarray.__pow__($self, value[, mod]) Return pow(self, value, mod).
ndarray.__lshift__($self, value, /) Return self<<value.
ndarray.__rshift__($self, value, /) Return self>>value.
ndarray.__and__($self, value, /) Return self&value.
ndarray.__or__($self, value, /) Return self|value.
ndarray.__xor__($self, value, /) Return self^value.
ndarray.__add__($self, value, / )
Return self+value.
ndarray.__sub__($self, value, / )
Return self-value.
ndarray.__mul__($self, value, / )
Return self*value.
ndarray.__truediv__($self, value, / )
Return self/value.
ndarray.__floordiv__($self, value, / )
Return self//value.
ndarray.__mod__($self, value, / )
Return self%value.
ndarray.__divmod__($self, value, / )
Return divmod(self, value).
ndarray.__pow__($self, value, mod=None, / )
Return pow(self, value, mod).
ndarray.__lshift__($self, value, / )
Return self<<value.
ndarray.__rshift__($self, value, / )
Return self>>value.
ndarray.__and__($self, value, / )
Return self&value.
ndarray.__or__($self, value, / )
Return self|value.

ndarray.__xor__($self, value, / )
Return self^value.
Note:
• Any third argument to pow is silently ignored, as the underlying ufunc takes only two arguments.
• The three division operators are all defined; div is active by default, truediv is active when __future__
division is in effect.
• Because ndarray is a built-in type (written in C), the __r{op}__ special methods are not directly defined.
• The functions called to implement many arithmetic special methods for arrays can be modified using
set_numeric_ops.
Arithmetic, in-place:
ndarray.__iadd__($self, value, /) Return self+=value.

ndarray.__isub__($self, value, /) Return self-=value.
ndarray.__imul__($self, value, /) Return self*=value.
ndarray.__idiv__
ndarray.__itruediv__($self, value, /) Return self/=value.
ndarray.__ifloordiv__($self, value, /) Return self//=value.
ndarray.__imod__($self, value, /) Return self%=value.
ndarray.__ipow__($self, value, /) Return self**=value.
ndarray.__ilshift__($self, value, /) Return self<<=value.
ndarray.__irshift__($self, value, /) Return self>>=value.
ndarray.__iand__($self, value, /) Return self&=value.
ndarray.__ior__($self, value, /) Return self|=value.
ndarray.__ixor__($self, value, /) Return self^=value.
ndarray.__iadd__($self, value, / )
Return self+=value.
ndarray.__isub__($self, value, / )
Return self-=value.
ndarray.__imul__($self, value, / )
Return self*=value.
ndarray.__itruediv__($self, value, / )
Return self/=value.
ndarray.__ifloordiv__($self, value, / )
Return self//=value.
ndarray.__imod__($self, value, / )
Return self%=value.
ndarray.__ipow__($self, value, / )
Return self**=value.
ndarray.__ilshift__($self, value, / )
Return self<<=value.
ndarray.__irshift__($self, value, / )
Return self>>=value.

ndarray.__iand__($self, value, / )
Return self&=value.
ndarray.__ior__($self, value, / )
Return self|=value.
ndarray.__ixor__($self, value, / )
Return self^=value.
Warning: In place operations will perform the calculation using the precision decided by the data type of the
two operands, but will silently downcast the result (if necessary) so it can fit back into the array. Therefore, for
mixed precision calculations, A {op}= B can be different than A = A {op} B. For example, suppose a =
ones((3,3)). Then, a += 3j is different than a = a + 3j: while they both perform the same computa-
tion, a += 3 casts the result to fit back in a, whereas a = a + 3j re-binds the name a to the result.
Matrix Multiplication:
ndarray.__matmul__($self, value, /) Return self@value.
ndarray.__matmul__($self, value, / )
Return self@value.
Note: Matrix operators @ and @= were introduced in Python 3.5 following PEP465. NumPy 1.10.0 has a preliminary
implementation of @ for testing purposes. Further documentation can be found in the matmul documentation.
1.1.7 Special methods
For standard library functions:
ndarray.__copy__() Used if copy.copy is called on an array.

ndarray.__deepcopy__((memo, . . . ) Used if copy.deepcopy is called on an array.
ndarray.__reduce__() For pickling.
ndarray.__setstate__(state, /) For unpickling.
ndarray.__copy__()
Used if copy.copy is called on an array. Returns a copy of the array.
Equivalent to a.copy(order='K').
ndarray.__deepcopy__(memo, / ) → Deep copy of array.
Used if copy.deepcopy is called on an array.
ndarray.__reduce__()
For pickling.
ndarray.__setstate__(state, / )
For unpickling.
The state argument must be a sequence that contains the following elements:
Parameters version : int
optional pickle version. If omitted defaults to 0.

shape : tuple
dtype : data-type
isFortran : bool
rawdata : string or list
a binary string with the data (or a list if ‘a’ is an object array)
Basic customization:
ndarray.__new__($type, *args, **kwargs) Create and return a new object.

ndarray.__array__(. . . ) Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given
or a new array of provided data type if dtype is different
from the current dtype of the array.
ndarray.__array_wrap__(. . . )
ndarray.__new__($type, *args, **kwargs)

Create and return a new object. See help(type) for accurate signature.
ndarray.__array__(|dtype) → reference if type unchanged, copy otherwise.
Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array of provided data type if dtype is
different from the current dtype of the array.
ndarray.__array_wrap__(obj) → Object of same type as ndarray object a.
Container customization: (see Indexing)
ndarray.__len__($self, /) Return len(self).

ndarray.__getitem__($self, key, /) Return self[key].
ndarray.__setitem__($self, key, value, /) Set self[key] to value.
ndarray.__contains__($self, key, /) Return key in self.
ndarray.__len__($self, / )
Return len(self).
ndarray.__getitem__($self, key, / )
Return self[key].
ndarray.__setitem__($self, key, value, / )
Set self[key] to value.
ndarray.__contains__($self, key, / )
Return key in self.
Conversion; the operations complex, int, long, float, oct, and hex. They work only on arrays that have one
element in them and return the appropriate scalar.
ndarray.__int__(self)
ndarray.__long__
ndarray.__float__(self)
ndarray.__oct__
ndarray.__hex__
ndarray.__int__(self )
ndarray.__float__(self )

String representations:
ndarray.__str__($self, /) Return str(self).

ndarray.__repr__($self, /) Return repr(self).
ndarray.__str__($self, / )
Return str(self).
ndarray.__repr__($self, / )
Return repr(self).
1.2 Scalars
Python defines only one type of a particular data class (there is only one integer type, one floating-point type, etc.).
This can be convenient in applications that don’t need to be concerned with all the ways data can be represented in a
computer. For scientific computing, however, more control is often needed.
In NumPy, there are 24 new fundamental Python types to describe different types of scalars. These type descriptors
are mostly based on the types available in the C language that CPython is written in, with several additional types
compatible with Python’s types.
Array scalars have the same attributes and methods as ndarrays.1 This allows one to treat items of an array partly
on the same footing as arrays, smoothing out rough edges that result when mixing scalar and array operations.
Array scalars live in a hierarchy (see the Figure below) of data types. They can be detected using the hierarchy:
For example, isinstance(val, np.generic) will return True if val is an array scalar object. Alternatively,
what kind of array scalar is present can be determined using other members of the data type hierarchy. Thus, for
example isinstance(val, np.complexfloating) will return True if val is a complex valued type, while
isinstance(val, np.flexible) will return true if val is one of the flexible itemsize array types (string,
unicode, void).
1.2.1 Built-in scalar types
The built-in scalar types are shown below. Along with their (mostly) C-derived names, the integer, float, and complex
data-types are also available using a bit-width convention so that an array of the right size can always be ensured (e.g.
int8, float64, complex128). Two aliases (intp and uintp) pointing to the integer type that is sufficiently
large to hold a C pointer are also provided. The C-like names are associated with character codes, which are shown in
the table. Use of the character codes, however, is discouraged.
Some of the scalar types are essentially equivalent to fundamental Python types and therefore inherit from them as
well as from the generic array scalar type:
Array scalar type Related Python type

int_ IntType (Python 2 only)
float_ FloatType
complex_ ComplexType
bytes_ BytesType
unicode_ UnicodeType
The bool_ data type is very similar to the Python BooleanType but does not inherit from it because Python’s
BooleanType does not allow itself to be inherited from, and on the C-level the size of the actual bool data is not the
same as a Python Boolean scalar.
1 However, array scalars are immutable, so none of the array scalar attributes are settable.
1.2. Scalars 47
Fig. 1.2: Figure: Hierarchy of type objects representing the array data types. Not shown are the two integer types
intp and uintp which just point to the integer type that holds a pointer for the platform. All the number types can
be obtained using bit-width names as well.

Warning: The bool_ type is not a subclass of the int_ type (the bool_ is not even a number type). This is
different than Python’s default implementation of bool as a sub-class of int.
Warning: The int_ type does not inherit from the int built-in under Python 3, because type int is no longer
a fixed-width integer type.
Tip: The default data type in NumPy is float_.
In the tables below, platform? means that the type may not be available on all platforms. Compatibility with
different C or Python types is indicated: two types are compatible if their data is of the same size and interpreted in
the same way.
Booleans:
Type Remarks Character code

bool_ compatible: Python bool '?'
bool8 8 bits
Integers:
byte compatible: C char 'b'

short compatible: C short 'h'
intc compatible: C int 'i'
int_ compatible: Python int 'l'
longlong compatible: C long long 'q'
intp large enough to fit a pointer 'p'
int8 8 bits
int16 16 bits
int32 32 bits
int64 64 bits
Unsigned integers:
ubyte compatible: C unsigned char 'B'

ushort compatible: C unsigned short 'H'
uintc compatible: C unsigned int 'I'
uint compatible: Python int 'L'
ulonglong compatible: C long long 'Q'
uintp large enough to fit a pointer 'P'
uint8 8 bits
uint16 16 bits
uint32 32 bits
uint64 64 bits
Floating-point numbers:
1.2. Scalars 49
half 'e'
single compatible: C float 'f'
double compatible: C double
float_ compatible: Python float 'd'
longfloat compatible: C long float 'g'
float16 16 bits
float32 32 bits
float64 64 bits
float96 96 bits, platform?
float128 128 bits, platform?
Complex floating-point numbers:
csingle 'F'
complex_ compatible: Python complex 'D'
clongfloat 'G'
complex64 two 32-bit floats
complex128 two 64-bit floats
complex192 two 96-bit floats, platform?
complex256 two 128-bit floats, platform?
Any Python object:
object_ any Python object 'O'
Note: The data actually stored in object arrays (i.e., arrays having dtype object_) are references to Python objects,
not the objects themselves. Hence, object arrays behave more like usual Python lists, in the sense that their contents
need not be of the same Python type.
The object type is also special because an array containing object_ items does not return an object_ object on
item access, but instead returns the actual object that the array item refers to.
The following data types are flexible. They have no predefined size: the data they describe can be of different length
in different arrays. (In the character codes # is an integer denoting how many elements the data type consists of.)
bytes_ compatible: Python bytes 'S#'

unicode_ compatible: Python unicode/str 'U#'
void 'V#'
Warning: See Note on string types.

Numeric Compatibility: If you used old typecode characters in your Numeric code (which was never recom-
mended), you will need to change some of them to the new characters. In particular, the needed changes are c
-> S1, b -> B, 1 -> b, s -> h, w -> H, and u -> I. These changes make the type character convention
more consistent with other Python modules such as the struct module.

1.2.2 Attributes
The array scalar objects have an array priority of NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY (-1,000,000.0). They also do
not (yet) have a ctypes attribute. Otherwise, they share the same attributes as arrays:
generic.flags integer value of flags

generic.shape tuple of array dimensions
generic.strides tuple of bytes steps in each dimension
generic.ndim number of array dimensions
generic.data pointer to start of data
generic.size number of elements in the gentype
generic.itemsize length of one element in bytes
generic.base base object
generic.dtype get array data-descriptor
generic.real real part of scalar
generic.imag imaginary part of scalar
generic.flat a 1-d view of scalar
generic.T transpose
generic.__array_interface__ Array protocol: Python side
generic.__array_struct__ Array protocol: struct
generic.__array_priority__ Array priority.
generic.__array_wrap__ sc.__array_wrap__(obj) return scalar from array
generic.flags
integer value of flags
generic.shape
tuple of array dimensions
generic.strides
tuple of bytes steps in each dimension
generic.ndim
number of array dimensions
generic.data
pointer to start of data
generic.size
number of elements in the gentype
generic.itemsize
length of one element in bytes
generic.base
base object
generic.dtype
get array data-descriptor
generic.real
real part of scalar
generic.imag
imaginary part of scalar
generic.flat
a 1-d view of scalar
1.2. Scalars 51
generic.T
transpose
generic.__array_interface__
Array protocol: Python side
generic.__array_struct__
Array protocol: struct
generic.__array_priority__
Array priority.
generic.__array_wrap__()
sc.__array_wrap__(obj) return scalar from array
1.2.3 Indexing
See also:
Indexing, Data type objects (dtype)
Array scalars can be indexed like 0-dimensional arrays: if x is an array scalar,
• x[()] returns a copy of array scalar
• x[...] returns a 0-dimensional ndarray
• x['field-name'] returns the array scalar in the field field-name. (x can have fields, for example, when it
corresponds to a structured data type.)
1.2.4 Methods
Array scalars have exactly the same methods as arrays. The default behavior of these methods is to internally convert
the scalar to an equivalent 0-dimensional array and to call the corresponding array method. In addition, math operations
on array scalars are defined so that the same hardware flags are set and used to interpret the results as for ufunc, so that
the error state used for ufuncs also carries over to the math on array scalars.
The exceptions to the above rules are given below:
generic Base class for numpy scalar types.

generic.__array__ sc.__array__(|type) return 0-dim array
generic.__array_wrap__ sc.__array_wrap__(obj) return scalar from array
generic.squeeze Not implemented (virtual attribute)
generic.byteswap Not implemented (virtual attribute)
generic.__reduce__
generic.__setstate__
generic.setflags Not implemented (virtual attribute)
class numpy.generic
Base class for numpy scalar types.
Class from which most (all?) numpy scalar types are derived. For consistency, exposes the same API as
ndarray, despite many consequent attributes being either “get-only,” or completely irrelevant. This is the
class from which it is strongly suggested users should derive custom scalar types.

Attributes
T transpose
base base object
data pointer to start of data
dtype get array data-descriptor
flags integer value of flags
flat a 1-d view of scalar
imag imaginary part of scalar
itemsize length of one element in bytes
nbytes length of item in bytes
ndim number of array dimensions
real real part of scalar
shape tuple of array dimensions
size number of elements in the gentype
strides tuple of bytes steps in each dimension
Methods
all Not implemented (virtual attribute)

any Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argmax Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argmin Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argsort Not implemented (virtual attribute)
astype Not implemented (virtual attribute)
byteswap Not implemented (virtual attribute)
choose Not implemented (virtual attribute)
clip Not implemented (virtual attribute)
compress Not implemented (virtual attribute)
conj
conjugate Not implemented (virtual attribute)
copy Not implemented (virtual attribute)
cumprod Not implemented (virtual attribute)
cumsum Not implemented (virtual attribute)
diagonal Not implemented (virtual attribute)
dump Not implemented (virtual attribute)
dumps Not implemented (virtual attribute)
fill Not implemented (virtual attribute)
flatten Not implemented (virtual attribute)
getfield Not implemented (virtual attribute)
item Not implemented (virtual attribute)
itemset Not implemented (virtual attribute)
max Not implemented (virtual attribute)
mean Not implemented (virtual attribute)
min Not implemented (virtual attribute)
newbyteorder([new_order]) Return a new dtype with a different byte order.
nonzero Not implemented (virtual attribute)
prod Not implemented (virtual attribute)
ptp Not implemented (virtual attribute)
1.2. Scalars 53

put Not implemented (virtual attribute)
ravel Not implemented (virtual attribute)
repeat Not implemented (virtual attribute)
reshape Not implemented (virtual attribute)
resize Not implemented (virtual attribute)
round Not implemented (virtual attribute)
searchsorted Not implemented (virtual attribute)
setfield Not implemented (virtual attribute)
setflags Not implemented (virtual attribute)
sort Not implemented (virtual attribute)
squeeze Not implemented (virtual attribute)
std Not implemented (virtual attribute)
sum Not implemented (virtual attribute)
swapaxes Not implemented (virtual attribute)
take Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tobytes
tofile Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tolist Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tostring Not implemented (virtual attribute)
trace Not implemented (virtual attribute)
transpose Not implemented (virtual attribute)
var Not implemented (virtual attribute)
view Not implemented (virtual attribute)
generic.all()
Not implemented (virtual attribute)
Class generic exists solely to derive numpy scalars from, and possesses, albeit unimplemented, all the
attributes of the ndarray class so as to provide a uniform API.
See also:
The
generic.any()
See also:
The
generic.argmax()
See also:
The
generic.argmin()

See also:
The
generic.argsort()
See also:
The
generic.astype()
See also:
The
generic.byteswap()
See also:
The
generic.choose()
See also:
The
generic.clip()
See also:
The
generic.compress()
See also:
The
generic.conj()
1.2. Scalars 55
generic.conjugate()
See also:
The
generic.copy()
See also:
The
generic.cumprod()
See also:
The
generic.cumsum()
See also:
The
generic.diagonal()
See also:
The
generic.dump()
See also:
The
generic.dumps()
See also:

The
generic.fill()
See also:
The
generic.flatten()
See also:
The
generic.getfield()
See also:
The
generic.item()
See also:
The
generic.itemset()
See also:
The
generic.max()
See also:
The
generic.mean()
1.2. Scalars 57
See also:
The
generic.min()
See also:
The
generic.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)
Return a new dtype with a different byte order.
Changes are also made in all fields and sub-arrays of the data type.
The new_order code can be any from the following:
Parameters new_order : str, optional

Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications above. The default value
(‘S’) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a case-insensitive check
on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For example, any of ‘B’ or ‘b’
or ‘biggish’ are valid to specify big-endian.
Returns new_dtype : dtype
New dtype object with the given change to the byte order.
generic.nonzero()
See also:
The
generic.prod()
See also:
The
generic.ptp()

See also:
The
generic.put()
See also:
The
generic.ravel()
See also:
The
generic.repeat()
See also:
The
generic.reshape()
See also:
The
generic.resize()
See also:
The
generic.round()
See also:
The
1.2. Scalars 59
generic.searchsorted()
See also:
The
generic.setfield()
See also:
The
generic.setflags()
See also:
The
generic.sort()
See also:
The
generic.squeeze()
See also:
The
generic.std()
See also:
The
generic.sum()
See also:

The
generic.swapaxes()
See also:
The
generic.take()
See also:
The
generic.tobytes()
generic.tofile()
See also:
The
generic.tolist()
See also:
The
generic.tostring()
See also:
The
generic.trace()
See also:
The
generic.transpose()
1.2. Scalars 61
See also:
The
generic.var()
See also:
The
generic.view()
See also:
The
generic.__array__()
sc.__array__(|type) return 0-dim array
generic.__reduce__()
generic.__setstate__()
1.2.5 Defining new types
There are two ways to effectively define a new array scalar type (apart from composing structured types dtypes from
the built-in scalar types): One way is to simply subclass the ndarray and overwrite the methods of interest. This
will work to a degree, but internally certain behaviors are fixed by the data type of the array. To fully customize the
data type of an array you need to define a new data-type, and register it with NumPy. Such new types can only be
defined in C, using the NumPy C-API.
1.3 Data type objects (dtype)
A data type object (an instance of numpy.dtype class) describes how the bytes in the fixed-size block of memory
corresponding to an array item should be interpreted. It describes the following aspects of the data:
1. Type of the data (integer, float, Python object, etc.)
2. Size of the data (how many bytes is in e.g. the integer)
3. Byte order of the data (little-endian or big-endian)
4. If the data type is structured, an aggregate of other data types, (e.g., describing an array item consisting of an
integer and a float),
(a) what are the names of the “fields” of the structure, by which they can be accessed,
(b) what is the data-type of each field, and
(c) which part of the memory block each field takes.

5. If the data type is a sub-array, what is its shape and data type.
To describe the type of scalar data, there are several built-in scalar types in NumPy for various precision of integers,
floating-point numbers, etc. An item extracted from an array, e.g., by indexing, will be a Python object whose type is
the scalar type associated with the data type of the array.
Note that the scalar types are not dtype objects, even though they can be used in place of one whenever a data type
specification is needed in NumPy.
Structured data types are formed by creating a data type whose fields contain other data types. Each field has a name
by which it can be accessed. The parent data type should be of sufficient size to contain all its fields; the parent is
nearly always based on the void type which allows an arbitrary item size. Structured data types may also contain
nested structured sub-array data types in their fields.
Finally, a data type can describe items that are themselves arrays of items of another data type. These sub-arrays must,
however, be of a fixed size.
If an array is created using a data-type describing a sub-array, the dimensions of the sub-array are appended to the
shape of the array when the array is created. Sub-arrays in a field of a structured type behave differently, see Field
Access.
Sub-arrays always have a C-contiguous memory layout.
Example
A simple data type containing a 32-bit big-endian integer: (see Specifying and constructing data types for details on
construction)
>>> dt = np.dtype('>i4')
>>> dt.byteorder
'>'
>>> dt.itemsize
4
>>> dt.name
'int32'
>>> dt.type is np.int32
True
The corresponding array scalar type is int32.
Example
A structured data type containing a 16-character string (in field ‘name’) and a sub-array of two 64-bit floating-point
number (in field ‘grades’):
>>> dt = np.dtype([('name', np.unicode_, 16), ('grades', np.float64, (2,))])

>>> dt['name']
dtype('|U16')
>>> dt['grades']
dtype(('float64',(2,)))
Items of an array of this data type are wrapped in an array scalar type that also has two fields:
>>> x = np.array([('Sarah', (8.0, 7.0)), ('John', (6.0, 7.0))], dtype=dt)

>>> x[1]
('John', [6.0, 7.0])
>>> x[1]['grades']
array([ 6., 7.])
1.3. Data type objects (dtype) 63

>>> type(x[1])
<type 'numpy.void'>
>>> type(x[1]['grades'])
1.3.1 Specifying and constructing data types
Whenever a data-type is required in a NumPy function or method, either a dtype object or something that can be
converted to one can be supplied. Such conversions are done by the dtype constructor:
dtype(obj[, align, copy]) Create a data type object.
class numpy.dtype(obj, align=False, copy=False)

Create a data type object.
A numpy array is homogeneous, and contains elements described by a dtype object. A dtype object can be
constructed from different combinations of fundamental numeric types.
Parameters obj
Object to be converted to a data type object.
Add padding to the fields to match what a C compiler would output for a similar C-
struct. Can be True only if obj is a dictionary or a comma-separated string. If a struct
dtype is being created, this also sets a sticky alignment flag isalignedstruct.
Make a new copy of the data-type object. If False, the result may just be a reference
to a built-in data-type object.
See also:
result_type
Examples
Using array-scalar type:
>>> np.dtype(np.int16)
dtype('int16')
Structured type, one field name ‘f1’, containing int16:
>>> np.dtype([('f1', np.int16)])

dtype([('f1', '<i2')])
Structured type, one field named ‘f1’, in itself containing a structured type with one field:
>>> np.dtype([('f1', [('f1', np.int16)])])

dtype([('f1', [('f1', '<i2')])])
Structured type, two fields: the first field contains an unsigned int, the second an int32:

>>> np.dtype([('f1', np.uint), ('f2', np.int32)])

dtype([('f1', '<u4'), ('f2', '<i4')])
Using array-protocol type strings:
>>> np.dtype([('a','f8'),('b','S10')])
dtype([('a', '<f8'), ('b', '|S10')])
Using comma-separated field formats. The shape is (2,3):
>>> np.dtype("i4, (2,3)f8")

dtype([('f0', '<i4'), ('f1', '<f8', (2, 3))])
Using tuples. int is a fixed type, 3 the field’s shape. void is a flexible type, here of size 10:
>>> np.dtype([('hello',(int,3)),('world',np.void,10)])
dtype([('hello', '<i4', 3), ('world', '|V10')])
Subdivide int16 into 2 int8’s, called x and y. 0 and 1 are the offsets in bytes:
>>> np.dtype((np.int16, {'x':(np.int8,0), 'y':(np.int8,1)}))

dtype(('<i2', [('x', '|i1'), ('y', '|i1')]))
Using dictionaries. Two fields named ‘gender’ and ‘age’:
>>> np.dtype({'names':['gender','age'], 'formats':['S1',np.uint8]})

dtype([('gender', '|S1'), ('age', '|u1')])
Offsets in bytes, here 0 and 25:
>>> np.dtype({'surname':('S25',0),'age':(np.uint8,25)})
dtype([('surname', '|S25'), ('age', '|u1')])
Attributes
base
descr PEP3118 interface description of the data-type.
fields Dictionary of named fields defined for this data type, or
None.
hasobject Boolean indicating whether this dtype contains any
reference-counted objects in any fields or sub-dtypes.
isalignedstruct Boolean indicating whether the dtype is a struct which
maintains field alignment.
isbuiltin Integer indicating how this dtype relates to the built-in
dtypes.
isnative Boolean indicating whether the byte order of this dtype
is native to the platform.
metadata
name A bit-width name for this data-type.
names Ordered list of field names, or None if there are no
fields.


ndim Number of dimensions of the sub-array if this data type
describes a sub-array, and 0 otherwise.
shape Shape tuple of the sub-array if this data type describes a
sub-array, and () otherwise.
str The array-protocol typestring of this data-type object.
subdtype Tuple (item_dtype, shape) if this dtype de-
scribes a sub-array, and None otherwise.
dtype.descr
PEP3118 interface description of the data-type.
The format is that required by the ‘descr’ key in the PEP3118 __array_interface__ attribute.
Warning: This attribute exists specifically for PEP3118 compliance, and is not a datatype description
compatible with np.dtype.
dtype.fields
Dictionary of named fields defined for this data type, or None.
The dictionary is indexed by keys that are the names of the fields. Each entry in the dictionary is a tuple
fully describing the field:
(dtype, offset[, title])
If present, the optional title can be any object (if it is a string or unicode then it will also be a key in
the fields dictionary, otherwise it’s meta-data). Notice also that the first two elements of the tuple can be
passed directly as arguments to the ndarray.getfield and ndarray.setfield methods.
See also:
ndarray.getfield, ndarray.setfield
Examples
>>> dt = np.dtype([('name', np.str_, 16), ('grades', np.float64, (2,))])

>>> print(dt.fields)
{'grades': (dtype(('float64',(2,))), 16), 'name': (dtype('|S16'), 0)}
dtype.hasobject
Boolean indicating whether this dtype contains any reference-counted objects in any fields or sub-dtypes.
Recall that what is actually in the ndarray memory representing the Python object is the memory address
of that object (a pointer). Special handling may be required, and this attribute is useful for distinguishing
data types that may contain arbitrary Python objects and data-types that won’t.
dtype.isbuiltin
Integer indicating how this dtype relates to the built-in dtypes.
Read-only.
0 if this is a structured array type, with fields

1 if this is a dtype compiled into numpy (such as ints, floats etc)
2 if the dtype is for a user-defined numpy type A user-defined type uses the numpy C-API machin-
ery to extend numpy to handle a new array type. See user.user-defined-data-types in the NumPy
manual.

Examples
>>> dt = np.dtype('i2')
>>> dt.isbuiltin
1
>>> dt = np.dtype('f8')
>>> dt.isbuiltin
1
>>> dt = np.dtype([('field1', 'f8')])
>>> dt.isbuiltin
0
dtype.isnative
Boolean indicating whether the byte order of this dtype is native to the platform.
dtype.name
A bit-width name for this data-type.
Un-sized flexible data-type objects do not have this attribute.
dtype.names
Ordered list of field names, or None if there are no fields.
The names are ordered according to increasing byte offset. This can be used, for example, to walk through
all of the named fields in offset order.
Examples
>>> dt = np.dtype([('name', np.str_, 16), ('grades', np.float64, (2,))])

>>> dt.names
('name', 'grades')
dtype.shape
Shape tuple of the sub-array if this data type describes a sub-array, and () otherwise.
dtype.str
The array-protocol typestring of this data-type object.
dtype.subdtype
Tuple (item_dtype, shape) if this dtype describes a sub-array, and None otherwise.
The shape is the fixed shape of the sub-array described by this data type, and item_dtype the data type of
the array.
If a field whose dtype object has this attribute is retrieved, then the extra dimensions implied by shape are
tacked on to the end of the retrieved array.
Methods
dtype.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)


Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications below. The default value
(‘S’) results in swapping the current byte order. new_order codes can be any of:
The code does a case-insensitive check on the first letter of new_order for these alterna-
tives. For example, any of ‘>’ or ‘B’ or ‘b’ or ‘brian’ are valid to specify big-endian.
Notes
Examples
>>> import sys

>>> sys_is_le = sys.byteorder == 'little'
>>> native_code = sys_is_le and '<' or '>'
>>> swapped_code = sys_is_le and '>' or '<'
>>> native_dt = np.dtype(native_code+'i2')
>>> swapped_dt = np.dtype(swapped_code+'i2')
>>> native_dt.newbyteorder('S') == swapped_dt
True
>>> native_dt.newbyteorder() == swapped_dt
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder('S')
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder('=')
True
>>> native_dt == swapped_dt.newbyteorder('N')
True
>>> native_dt == native_dt.newbyteorder('|')
True
>>> np.dtype('<i2') == native_dt.newbyteorder('<')
True
>>> np.dtype('<i2') == native_dt.newbyteorder('L')
True
>>> np.dtype('>i2') == native_dt.newbyteorder('>')
True
>>> np.dtype('>i2') == native_dt.newbyteorder('B')
True
What can be converted to a data-type object is described below:

dtype object

Used as-is.
None
The default data type: float_.
Array-scalar types
The 24 built-in array scalar type objects all convert to an associated data-type object. This is true for their
sub-classes as well.
Note that not all data-type information can be supplied with a type-object: for example, flexible data-types
have a default itemsize of 0, and require an explicitly given size to be useful.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype(np.int32) # 32-bit integer

>>> dt = np.dtype(np.complex128) # 128-bit complex floating-point number
Generic types
The generic hierarchical type objects convert to corresponding type objects according to the associations:
number, inexact, floating float

complexfloating cfloat
integer, signedinteger int_
unsignedinteger uint
character string
generic, flexible void
Built-in Python types

Several python types are equivalent to a corresponding array scalar when used to generate a dtype object:
int int_
bool bool_
float float_
complex cfloat
bytes bytes_
str bytes_ (Python2) or unicode_ (Python3)
unicode unicode_
buffer void
(all others) object_
Note that str refers to either null terminated bytes or unicode strings depending on the Python version.
In code targeting both Python 2 and 3 np.unicode_ should be used as a dtype for strings. See Note on
string types.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype(float) # Python-compatible floating-point number

>>> dt = np.dtype(int) # Python-compatible integer
>>> dt = np.dtype(object) # Python object

Types with .dtype

Any type object with a dtype attribute: The attribute will be accessed and used directly. The attribute
must return something that is convertible into a dtype object.
Several kinds of strings can be converted. Recognized strings can be prepended with '>' (big-endian), '<' (little-
endian), or '=' (hardware-native, the default), to specify the byte order.
One-character strings
Each built-in data-type has a character code (the updated Numeric typecodes), that uniquely identifies it.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype('b') # byte, native byte order

>>> dt = np.dtype('>H') # big-endian unsigned short
>>> dt = np.dtype('<f') # little-endian single-precision float
>>> dt = np.dtype('d') # double-precision floating-point number
Array-protocol type strings (see The Array Interface)

The first character specifies the kind of data and the remaining characters specify the number of bytes
per item, except for Unicode, where it is interpreted as the number of characters. The item size must
correspond to an existing type, or an error will be raised. The supported kinds are
'?' boolean
'b' (signed) byte
'B' unsigned byte
'i' (signed) integer
'u' unsigned integer
'f' floating-point
'c' complex-floating point
'm' timedelta
'M' datetime
'O' (Python) objects
'S', 'a' zero-terminated bytes (not recommended)
'U' Unicode string
'V' raw data (void)
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype('i4') # 32-bit signed integer

>>> dt = np.dtype('f8') # 64-bit floating-point number
>>> dt = np.dtype('c16') # 128-bit complex floating-point number
>>> dt = np.dtype('a25') # 25-length zero-terminated bytes
>>> dt = np.dtype('U25') # 25-character string
Note on string types

For backward compatibility with Python 2 the S and a typestrings remain zero-terminated bytes and np.
string_ continues to map to np.bytes_. To use actual strings in Python 3 use U or np.unicode_.
For signed bytes that do not need zero-termination b or i1 can be used.

String with comma-separated fields

A short-hand notation for specifying the format of a structured data type is a comma-separated string of
basic formats.
A basic format in this context is an optional shape specifier followed by an array-protocol type string.
Parenthesis are required on the shape if it has more than one dimension. NumPy allows a modification
on the format in that any string that can uniquely identify the type can be used to specify the data-type
in a field. The generated data-type fields are named 'f0', 'f1', . . . , 'f<N-1>' where N (>1) is the
number of comma-separated basic formats in the string. If the optional shape specifier is provided, then
the data-type for the corresponding field describes a sub-array.
Example
• field named f0 containing a 32-bit integer
• field named f1 containing a 2 x 3 sub-array of 64-bit floating-point numbers
• field named f2 containing a 32-bit floating-point number
>>> dt = np.dtype("i4, (2,3)f8, f4")
• field named f0 containing a 3-character string

• field named f1 containing a sub-array of shape (3,) containing 64-bit unsigned integers
• field named f2 containing a 3 x 4 sub-array containing 10-character strings
>>> dt = np.dtype("a3, 3u8, (3,4)a10")
Type strings
Any string in numpy.sctypeDict.keys():
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype('uint32') # 32-bit unsigned integer

>>> dt = np.dtype('Float64') # 64-bit floating-point number
(flexible_dtype, itemsize)
The first argument must be an object that is converted to a zero-sized flexible data-type object, the second
argument is an integer providing the desired itemsize.
Example
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.void, 10)) # 10-byte wide data block

>>> dt = np.dtype(('U', 10)) # 10-character unicode string
(fixed_dtype, shape)
The first argument is any object that can be converted into a fixed-size data-type object. The second
argument is the desired shape of this type. If the shape parameter is 1, then the data-type object is
equivalent to fixed dtype. If shape is a tuple, then the new dtype defines a sub-array of the given shape.

Example
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32, (2,2))) # 2 x 2 integer sub-array

>>> dt = np.dtype(('U10', 1)) # 10-character string
>>> dt = np.dtype(('i4, (2,3)f8, f4', (2,3))) # 2 x 3 structured sub-array
[(field_name, field_dtype, field_shape), ...]

obj should be a list of fields where each field is described by a tuple of length 2 or 3. (Equivalent to the
descr item in the __array_interface__ attribute.)
The first element, field_name, is the field name (if this is '' then a standard field name, 'f#', is as-
signed). The field name may also be a 2-tuple of strings where the first string is either a “title” (which
may be any string or unicode string) or meta-data for the field which can be any object, and the second
string is the “name” which must be a valid Python identifier.
The second element, field_dtype, can be anything that can be interpreted as a data-type.
The optional third element field_shape contains the shape if this field represents an array of the data-type
in the second element. Note that a 3-tuple with a third argument equal to 1 is equivalent to a 2-tuple.
This style does not accept align in the dtype constructor as it is assumed that all of the memory is
accounted for by the array interface description.
Example
Data-type with fields big (big-endian 32-bit integer) and little (little-endian 32-bit integer):
>>> dt = np.dtype([('big', '>i4'), ('little', '<i4')])
Data-type with fields R, G, B, A, each being an unsigned 8-bit integer:
>>> dt = np.dtype([('R','u1'), ('G','u1'), ('B','u1'), ('A','u1')])
{'names': ..., 'formats': ..., 'offsets': ..., 'titles': ...,

'itemsize': ...}
This style has two required and three optional keys. The names and formats keys are required. Their
respective values are equal-length lists with the field names and the field formats. The field names must
be strings and the field formats can be any object accepted by dtype constructor.
When the optional keys offsets and titles are provided, their values must each be lists of the same length
as the names and formats lists. The offsets value is a list of byte offsets (integers) for each field, while the
titles value is a list of titles for each field (None can be used if no title is desired for that field). The titles
can be any string or unicode object and will add another entry to the fields dictionary keyed by the
title and referencing the same field tuple which will contain the title as an additional tuple member.
The itemsize key allows the total size of the dtype to be set, and must be an integer large enough so all the
fields are within the dtype. If the dtype being constructed is aligned, the itemsize must also be divisible
by the struct alignment.
Example
Data type with fields r, g, b, a, each being an 8-bit unsigned integer:

>>> dt = np.dtype({'names': ['r','g','b','a'],

... 'formats': [uint8, uint8, uint8, uint8]})
Data type with fields r and b (with the given titles), both being 8-bit unsigned integers, the first at byte
position 0 from the start of the field and the second at position 2:
>>> dt = np.dtype({'names': ['r','b'], 'formats': ['u1', 'u1'],

... 'offsets': [0, 2],
... 'titles': ['Red pixel', 'Blue pixel']})
{'field1': ..., 'field2': ..., ...}

This usage is discouraged, because it is ambiguous with the other dict-based construction method. If you
have a field called ‘names’ and a field called ‘formats’ there will be a conflict.
This style allows passing in the fields attribute of a data-type object.
obj should contain string or unicode keys that refer to (data-type, offset) or (data-type,
offset, title) tuples.
Example
Data type containing field col1 (10-character string at byte position 0), col2 (32-bit float at byte posi-
tion 10), and col3 (integers at byte position 14):
>>> dt = np.dtype({'col1': ('U10', 0), 'col2': (float32, 10),

'col3': (int, 14)})
(base_dtype, new_dtype)
In NumPy 1.7 and later, this form allows base_dtype to be interpreted as a structured dtype. Arrays
created with this dtype will have underlying dtype base_dtype but will have fields and flags taken from
new_dtype. This is useful for creating custom structured dtypes, as done in record arrays.
This form also makes it possible to specify struct dtypes with overlapping fields, functioning like the
‘union’ type in C. This usage is discouraged, however, and the union mechanism is preferred.
Both arguments must be convertible to data-type objects with the same total size. .. admonition:: Example
32-bit integer, whose first two bytes are interpreted as an integer via field real, and the fol-
lowing two bytes via field imag.
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32,{'real':(np.int16, 0),'imag':(np.int16,

˓→2)})
32-bit integer, which is interpreted as consisting of a sub-array of shape (4,) containing 8-bit
integers:
>>> dt = np.dtype((np.int32, (np.int8, 4)))
32-bit integer, containing fields r, g, b, a that interpret the 4 bytes in the integer as four
unsigned integers:
>>> dt = np.dtype(('i4', [('r','u1'),('g','u1'),('b','u1'),('a','u1

˓→')]))

1.3.2 dtype
NumPy data type descriptions are instances of the dtype class.
Attributes
The type of the data is described by the following dtype attributes:
dtype.type The type object used to instantiate a scalar of this data-type.

dtype.kind A character code (one of ‘biufcmMOSUV’) identifying the
general kind of data.
dtype.char A unique character code for each of the 21 different built-in
types.
dtype.num A unique number for each of the 21 different built-in types.
dtype.str The array-protocol typestring of this data-type object.
dtype.type
The type object used to instantiate a scalar of this data-type.
dtype.kind
A character code (one of ‘biufcmMOSUV’) identifying the general kind of data.
b boolean
i signed integer
u unsigned integer
f floating-point
c complex floating-point
m timedelta
M datetime
O object
S (byte-)string
U Unicode
V void
dtype.char
A unique character code for each of the 21 different built-in types.
dtype.num
A unique number for each of the 21 different built-in types.
These are roughly ordered from least-to-most precision.
Size of the data is in turn described by:
dtype.name A bit-width name for this data-type.

dtype.itemsize The element size of this data-type object.
dtype.itemsize
The element size of this data-type object.
For 18 of the 21 types this number is fixed by the data-type. For the flexible data-types, this number can be
anything.
Endianness of this data:

dtype.byteorder A character indicating the byte-order of this data-type ob-

ject.
dtype.byteorder
A character indicating the byte-order of this data-type object.
One of:
‘=’ native
‘<’ little-endian
‘>’ big-endian
‘|’ not applicable
All built-in data-type objects have byteorder either ‘=’ or ‘|’.
Examples
>>> dt = np.dtype('i2')
>>> dt.byteorder
'='
>>> # endian is not relevant for 8 bit numbers
>>> np.dtype('i1').byteorder
'|'
>>> # or ASCII strings
>>> np.dtype('S2').byteorder
'|'
>>> # Even if specific code is given, and it is native
>>> # '=' is the byteorder
>>> import sys
>>> sys_is_le = sys.byteorder == 'little'
>>> native_code = sys_is_le and '<' or '>'
>>> swapped_code = sys_is_le and '>' or '<'
>>> dt = np.dtype(native_code + 'i2')
>>> dt.byteorder
'='
>>> # Swapped code shows up as itself
>>> dt = np.dtype(swapped_code + 'i2')
>>> dt.byteorder == swapped_code
True
Information about sub-data-types in a structured data type:
dtype.fields Dictionary of named fields defined for this data type, or

None.
dtype.names Ordered list of field names, or None if there are no fields.
For data types that describe sub-arrays:
dtype.subdtype Tuple (item_dtype, shape) if this dtype describes

a sub-array, and None otherwise.


dtype.shape Shape tuple of the sub-array if this data type describes a
sub-array, and () otherwise.
Attributes providing additional information:
dtype.hasobject Boolean indicating whether this dtype contains any

reference-counted objects in any fields or sub-dtypes.
dtype.flags Bit-flags describing how this data type is to be interpreted.
dtype.isbuiltin Integer indicating how this dtype relates to the built-in
dtypes.
dtype.isnative Boolean indicating whether the byte order of this dtype is
native to the platform.
dtype.descr PEP3118 interface description of the data-type.
dtype.alignment The required alignment (bytes) of this data-type according
to the compiler.
dtype.flags
Bit-flags describing how this data type is to be interpreted.
Bit-masks are in numpy.core.multiarray as the constants ITEM_HASOBJECT, LIST_PICKLE,
ITEM_IS_POINTER, NEEDS_INIT, NEEDS_PYAPI, USE_GETITEM, USE_SETITEM. A full explanation of
these flags is in C-API documentation; they are largely useful for user-defined data-types.
dtype.alignment
The required alignment (bytes) of this data-type according to the compiler.
More information is available in the C-API section of the manual.
Methods
Data types have the following method for changing the byte order:
dtype.newbyteorder([new_order]) Return a new dtype with a different byte order.
The following methods implement the pickle protocol:
dtype.__reduce__
dtype.__setstate__
dtype.__reduce__()
dtype.__setstate__()
1.4 Indexing
ndarrays can be indexed using the standard Python x[obj] syntax, where x is the array and obj the selection.
There are three kinds of indexing available: field access, basic slicing, advanced indexing. Which one occurs depends
on obj.
Note: In Python, x[(exp1, exp2, ..., expN)] is equivalent to x[exp1, exp2, ..., expN]; the

latter is just syntactic sugar for the former.
1.4.1 Basic Slicing and Indexing
Basic slicing extends Python’s basic concept of slicing to N dimensions. Basic slicing occurs when obj is a slice
object (constructed by start:stop:step notation inside of brackets), an integer, or a tuple of slice objects and
integers. Ellipsis and newaxis objects can be interspersed with these as well. In order to remain backward
compatible with a common usage in Numeric, basic slicing is also initiated if the selection object is any non-ndarray
sequence (such as a list) containing slice objects, the Ellipsis object, or the newaxis object, but not for
integer arrays or other embedded sequences.
The simplest case of indexing with N integers returns an array scalar representing the corresponding item. As in
Python, all indices are zero-based: for the i-th index 𝑛𝑖 , the valid range is 0 ≤ 𝑛𝑖 < 𝑑𝑖 where 𝑑𝑖 is the i-th element of
the shape of the array. Negative indices are interpreted as counting from the end of the array (i.e., if 𝑛𝑖 < 0, it means
𝑛𝑖 + 𝑑𝑖 ).
All arrays generated by basic slicing are always views of the original array.
The standard rules of sequence slicing apply to basic slicing on a per-dimension basis (including using a step index).
Some useful concepts to remember include:
• The basic slice syntax is i:j:k where i is the starting index, j is the stopping index, and k is the step (𝑘 ̸= 0).
This selects the m elements (in the corresponding dimension) with index values i, i + k, . . . , i + (m - 1) k where
𝑚 = 𝑞 + (𝑟 ̸= 0) and q and r are the quotient and remainder obtained by dividing j - i by k: j - i = q k + r, so
that i + (m - 1) k < j.
Example
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])

>>> x[1:7:2]
array([1, 3, 5])
• Negative i and j are interpreted as n + i and n + j where n is the number of elements in the corresponding
dimension. Negative k makes stepping go towards smaller indices.
Example
>>> x[-2:10]
array([8, 9])
>>> x[-3:3:-1]
array([7, 6, 5, 4])
• Assume n is the number of elements in the dimension being sliced. Then, if i is not given it defaults to 0 for k >
0 and n - 1 for k < 0 . If j is not given it defaults to n for k > 0 and -n-1 for k < 0 . If k is not given it defaults to
1. Note that :: is the same as : and means select all indices along this axis.
Example
>>> x[5:]
array([5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
1.4. Indexing 77
• If the number of objects in the selection tuple is less than N , then : is assumed for any subsequent dimensions.
Example
>>> x = np.array([[[1],[2],[3]], [[4],[5],[6]]])

>>> x.shape
(2, 3, 1)
>>> x[1:2]
array([[[4],
[5],
[6]]])
• Ellipsis expand to the number of : objects needed to make a selection tuple of the same length as x.ndim.
There may only be a single ellipsis present.
Example
>>> x[...,0]
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
• Each newaxis object in the selection tuple serves to expand the dimensions of the resulting selection by one
unit-length dimension. The added dimension is the position of the newaxis object in the selection tuple.
Example
>>> x[:,np.newaxis,:,:].shape
(2, 1, 3, 1)
• An integer, i, returns the same values as i:i+1 except the dimensionality of the returned object is reduced by 1.
In particular, a selection tuple with the p-th element an integer (and all other entries :) returns the corresponding
sub-array with dimension N - 1. If N = 1 then the returned object is an array scalar. These objects are explained
in Scalars.
• If the selection tuple has all entries : except the p-th entry which is a slice object i:j:k, then the returned
array has dimension N formed by concatenating the sub-arrays returned by integer indexing of elements i, i+k,
. . . , i + (m - 1) k < j,
• Basic slicing with more than one non-: entry in the slicing tuple, acts like repeated application of slicing using
a single non-: entry, where the non-: entries are successively taken (with all other non-: entries replaced by
:). Thus, x[ind1,...,ind2,:] acts like x[ind1][...,ind2,:] under basic slicing.
Warning: The above is not true for advanced indexing.
• You may use slicing to set values in the array, but (unlike lists) you can never grow the array. The size of the
value to be set in x[obj] = value must be (broadcastable) to the same shape as x[obj].
Note: Remember that a slicing tuple can always be constructed as obj and used in the x[obj] notation. Slice objects
can be used in the construction in place of the [start:stop:step] notation. For example, x[1:10:5,::-1]

can also be implemented as obj = (slice(1,10,5), slice(None,None,-1)); x[obj] . This can be

useful for constructing generic code that works on arrays of arbitrary dimension.
numpy.newaxis
The newaxis object can be used in all slicing operations to create an axis of length one. newaxis is an alias
for ‘None’, and ‘None’ can be used in place of this with the same result.
1.4.2 Advanced Indexing
Advanced indexing is triggered when the selection object, obj, is a non-tuple sequence object, an ndarray (of data
type integer or bool), or a tuple with at least one sequence object or ndarray (of data type integer or bool). There are
two types of advanced indexing: integer and Boolean.
Advanced indexing always returns a copy of the data (contrast with basic slicing that returns a view).
Warning: The definition of advanced indexing means that x[(1,2,3),] is fundamentally different than
x[(1,2,3)]. The latter is equivalent to x[1,2,3] which will trigger basic selection while the former will
trigger advanced indexing. Be sure to understand why this occurs.
Also recognize that x[[1,2,3]] will trigger advanced indexing, whereas x[[1,2,slice(None)]] will
trigger basic slicing.
Integer array indexing
Integer array indexing allows selection of arbitrary items in the array based on their N-dimensional index. Each integer
array represents a number of indexes into that dimension.
Purely integer array indexing
When the index consists of as many integer arrays as the array being indexed has dimensions, the indexing is straight
forward, but different from slicing.
Advanced indexes always are broadcast and iterated as one:
result[i_1, ..., i_M] == x[ind_1[i_1, ..., i_M], ind_2[i_1, ..., i_M],

..., ind_N[i_1, ..., i_M]]
Note that the result shape is identical to the (broadcast) indexing array shapes ind_1, ..., ind_N.
Example
From each row, a specific element should be selected. The row index is just [0, 1, 2] and the column index
specifies the element to choose for the corresponding row, here [0, 1, 0]. Using both together the task can be
solved using advanced indexing:
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]])

>>> x[[0, 1, 2], [0, 1, 0]]
array([1, 4, 5])
To achieve a behaviour similar to the basic slicing above, broadcasting can be used. The function ix_ can help with
this broadcasting. This is best understood with an example.
1.4. Indexing 79
Example
From a 4x3 array the corner elements should be selected using advanced indexing. Thus all elements for which the
column is one of [0, 2] and the row is one of [0, 3] need to be selected. To use advanced indexing one needs to
select all elements explicitly. Using the method explained previously one could write:
>>> x = array([[ 0, 1, 2],

... [ 3, 4, 5],
... [ 6, 7, 8],
... [ 9, 10, 11]])
>>> rows = np.array([[0, 0],
... [3, 3]], dtype=np.intp)
>>> columns = np.array([[0, 2],
... [0, 2]], dtype=np.intp)
>>> x[rows, columns]
array([[ 0, 2],
[ 9, 11]])
However, since the indexing arrays above just repeat themselves, broadcasting can be used (compare operations such
as rows[:, np.newaxis] + columns) to simplify this:
>>> rows = np.array([0, 3], dtype=np.intp)

>>> columns = np.array([0, 2], dtype=np.intp)
>>> rows[:, np.newaxis]
array([[0],
[3]])
>>> x[rows[:, np.newaxis], columns]
array([[ 0, 2],
[ 9, 11]])
This broadcasting can also be achieved using the function ix_:
>>> x[np.ix_(rows, columns)]

array([[ 0, 2],
[ 9, 11]])
Note that without the np.ix_ call, only the diagonal elements would be selected, as was used in the previous example.
This difference is the most important thing to remember about indexing with multiple advanced indexes.
Combining advanced and basic indexing
When there is at least one slice (:), ellipsis (...) or np.newaxis in the index (or the array has more dimensions
than there are advanced indexes), then the behaviour can be more complicated. It is like concatenating the indexing
result for each advanced index element
In the simplest case, there is only a single advanced index. A single advanced index can for example replace a slice and
the result array will be the same, however, it is a copy and may have a different memory layout. A slice is preferable
when it is possible.
Example
>>> x[1:2, 1:3]

array([[4, 5]])

>>> x[1:2, [1, 2]]

array([[4, 5]])
The easiest way to understand the situation may be to think in terms of the result shape. There are two parts to
the indexing operation, the subspace defined by the basic indexing (excluding integers) and the subspace from the
advanced indexing part. Two cases of index combination need to be distinguished:
• The advanced indexes are separated by a slice, ellipsis or newaxis. For example x[arr1, :, arr2].
• The advanced indexes are all next to each other. For example x[..., arr1, arr2, :] but not x[arr1,
:, 1] since 1 is an advanced index in this regard.
In the first case, the dimensions resulting from the advanced indexing operation come first in the result array, and the
subspace dimensions after that. In the second case, the dimensions from the advanced indexing operations are inserted
into the result array at the same spot as they were in the initial array (the latter logic is what makes simple advanced
indexing behave just like slicing).
Example
Suppose x.shape is (10,20,30) and ind is a (2,3,4)-shaped indexing intp array, then result = x[...,ind,
:] has shape (10,2,3,4,30) because the (20,)-shaped subspace has been replaced with a (2,3,4)-shaped broadcasted
indexing subspace. If we let i, j, k loop over the (2,3,4)-shaped subspace then result[...,i,j,k,:] = x[.
..,ind[i,j,k],:]. This example produces the same result as x.take(ind, axis=-2).
Example
Let x.shape be (10,20,30,40,50) and suppose ind_1 and ind_2 can be broadcast to the shape (2,3,4). Then x[:,
ind_1,ind_2] has shape (10,2,3,4,40,50) because the (20,30)-shaped subspace from X has been replaced with the
(2,3,4) subspace from the indices. However, x[:,ind_1,:,ind_2] has shape (2,3,4,10,30,50) because there is no
unambiguous place to drop in the indexing subspace, thus it is tacked-on to the beginning. It is always possible to use
.transpose() to move the subspace anywhere desired. Note that this example cannot be replicated using take.
Boolean array indexing
This advanced indexing occurs when obj is an array object of Boolean type, such as may be returned from comparison
operators. A single boolean index array is practically identical to x[obj.nonzero()] where, as described above,
obj.nonzero() returns a tuple (of length obj.ndim) of integer index arrays showing the True elements of obj.
However, it is faster when obj.shape == x.shape.
If obj.ndim == x.ndim, x[obj] returns a 1-dimensional array filled with the elements of x corresponding to
the True values of obj. The search order will be row-major, C-style. If obj has True values at entries that are outside
of the bounds of x, then an index error will be raised. If obj is smaller than x it is identical to filling it with False.
Example
A common use case for this is filtering for desired element values. For example one may wish to select all entries from
an array which are not NaN:
>>> x = np.array([[1., 2.], [np.nan, 3.], [np.nan, np.nan]])

>>> x[~np.isnan(x)]
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
1.4. Indexing 81
Or wish to add a constant to all negative elements:

>>> x = np.array([1., -1., -2., 3])
>>> x[x < 0] += 20
>>> x
array([ 1., 19., 18., 3.])
In general if an index includes a Boolean array, the result will be identical to inserting obj.nonzero() into the
same position and using the integer array indexing mechanism described above. x[ind_1, boolean_array,
ind_2] is equivalent to x[(ind_1,) + boolean_array.nonzero() + (ind_2,)].
If there is only one Boolean array and no integer indexing array present, this is straight forward. Care must only be
taken to make sure that the boolean index has exactly as many dimensions as it is supposed to work with.
Example
From an array, select all rows which sum up to less or equal two:
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [1, 1], [2, 2]])
>>> rowsum = x.sum(-1)
>>> x[rowsum <= 2, :]
array([[0, 1],
[1, 1]])
But if rowsum would have two dimensions as well:

>>> rowsum = x.sum(-1, keepdims=True)
>>> rowsum.shape
(3, 1)
>>> x[rowsum <= 2, :] # fails
IndexError: too many indices
>>> x[rowsum <= 2]
array([0, 1])
The last one giving only the first elements because of the extra dimension. Compare rowsum.nonzero() to
understand this example.
Combining multiple Boolean indexing arrays or a Boolean with an integer indexing array can best be understood with
the obj.nonzero() analogy. The function ix_ also supports boolean arrays and will work without any surprises.
Example
Use boolean indexing to select all rows adding up to an even number. At the same time columns 0 and 2 should be
selected with an advanced integer index. Using the ix_ function this can be done with:
>>> x = array([[ 0, 1, 2],
... [ 3, 4, 5],
... [ 6, 7, 8],
... [ 9, 10, 11]])
>>> rows = (x.sum(-1) % 2) == 0
>>> rows
array([False, True, False, True])
>>> columns = [0, 2]
>>> x[np.ix_(rows, columns)]
array([[ 3, 5],
[ 9, 11]])

Without the np.ix_ call or only the diagonal elements would be selected.
Or without np.ix_ (compare the integer array examples):
>>> rows = rows.nonzero()[0]

>>> x[rows[:, np.newaxis], columns]
array([[ 3, 5],
[ 9, 11]])
1.4.3 Detailed notes
These are some detailed notes, which are not of importance for day to day indexing (in no particular order):
• The native NumPy indexing type is intp and may differ from the default integer array type. intp is the
smallest data type sufficient to safely index any array; for advanced indexing it may be faster than other types.
• For advanced assignments, there is in general no guarantee for the iteration order. This means that if an element
is set more than once, it is not possible to predict the final result.
• An empty (tuple) index is a full scalar index into a zero dimensional array. x[()] returns a scalar if x is zero
dimensional and a view otherwise. On the other hand x[...] always returns a view.
• If a zero dimensional array is present in the index and it is a full integer index the result will be a scalar and not
a zero dimensional array. (Advanced indexing is not triggered.)
• When an ellipsis (...) is present but has no size (i.e. replaces zero :) the result will still always be an array. A
view if no advanced index is present, otherwise a copy.
• the nonzero equivalence for Boolean arrays does not hold for zero dimensional boolean arrays.
• When the result of an advanced indexing operation has no elements but an individual index is out of bounds,
whether or not an IndexError is raised is undefined (e.g. x[[], [123]] with 123 being out of bounds).
• When a casting error occurs during assignment (for example updating a numerical array using a sequence of
strings), the array being assigned to may end up in an unpredictable partially updated state. However, if any
other error (such as an out of bounds index) occurs, the array will remain unchanged.
• The memory layout of an advanced indexing result is optimized for each indexing operation and no particular
memory order can be assumed.
• When using a subclass (especially one which manipulates its shape), the default ndarray.__setitem__
behaviour will call __getitem__ for basic indexing but not for advanced indexing. For such a subclass it
may be preferable to call ndarray.__setitem__ with a base class ndarray view on the data. This must be
done if the subclasses __getitem__ does not return views.
1.4.4 Field Access
See also:
Data type objects (dtype), Scalars
If the ndarray object is a structured array the fields of the array can be accessed by indexing the array with strings,
dictionary-like.
Indexing x['field-name'] returns a new view to the array, which is of the same shape as x (except when the field
is a sub-array) but of data type x.dtype['field-name'] and contains only the part of the data in the specified
field. Also record array scalars can be “indexed” this way.
1.4. Indexing 83
Indexing into a structured array can also be done with a list of field names, e.g. x[['field-name1',
'field-name2']]. Currently this returns a new array containing a copy of the values in the fields specified in
the list. As of NumPy 1.7, returning a copy is being deprecated in favor of returning a view. A copy will continue to be
returned for now, but a FutureWarning will be issued when writing to the copy. If you depend on the current behavior,
then we suggest copying the returned array explicitly, i.e. use x[[‘field-name1’,’field-name2’]].copy(). This will work
with both past and future versions of NumPy.
If the accessed field is a sub-array, the dimensions of the sub-array are appended to the shape of the result.
Example
>>> x = np.zeros((2,2), dtype=[('a', np.int32), ('b', np.float64, (3,3))])

>>> x['a'].shape
(2, 2)
>>> x['a'].dtype
dtype('int32')
>>> x['b'].shape
(2, 2, 3, 3)
>>> x['b'].dtype
dtype('float64')
1.4.5 Flat Iterator indexing
x.flat returns an iterator that will iterate over the entire array (in C-contiguous style with the last index varying
the fastest). This iterator object can also be indexed using basic slicing or advanced indexing as long as the selection
object is not a tuple. This should be clear from the fact that x.flat is a 1-dimensional view. It can be used for integer
indexing with 1-dimensional C-style-flat indices. The shape of any returned array is therefore the shape of the integer
indexing object.
1.5 Iterating Over Arrays
The iterator object nditer, introduced in NumPy 1.6, provides many flexible ways to visit all the elements of one
or more arrays in a systematic fashion. This page introduces some basic ways to use the object for computations on
arrays in Python, then concludes with how one can accelerate the inner loop in Cython. Since the Python exposure of
nditer is a relatively straightforward mapping of the C array iterator API, these ideas will also provide help working
with array iteration from C or C++.
1.5.1 Single Array Iteration
The most basic task that can be done with the nditer is to visit every element of an array. Each element is provided
one by one using the standard Python iterator interface.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a):
... print x,
...
0 1 2 3 4 5

An important thing to be aware of for this iteration is that the order is chosen to match the memory layout of the array
instead of using a standard C or Fortran ordering. This is done for access efficiency, reflecting the idea that by default
one simply wants to visit each element without concern for a particular ordering. We can see this by iterating over the
transpose of our previous array, compared to taking a copy of that transpose in C order.
Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a.T):
... print x,
...
0 1 2 3 4 5
>>> for x in np.nditer(a.T.copy(order='C')):

... print x,
...
0 3 1 4 2 5
The elements of both a and a.T get traversed in the same order, namely the order they are stored in memory, whereas
the elements of a.T.copy(order=’C’) get visited in a different order because they have been put into a different memory
layout.
Controlling Iteration Order
There are times when it is important to visit the elements of an array in a specific order, irrespective of the layout of the
elements in memory. The nditer object provides an order parameter to control this aspect of iteration. The default,
having the behavior described above, is order=’K’ to keep the existing order. This can be overridden with order=’C’
for C order and order=’F’ for Fortran order.
Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, order='F'):
... print x,
...
0 3 1 4 2 5
>>> for x in np.nditer(a.T, order='C'):
... print x,
...
0 3 1 4 2 5
Modifying Array Values
By default, the nditer treats the input array as a read-only object. To modify the array elements, you must specify
either read-write or write-only mode. This is controlled with per-operand flags.
Regular assignment in Python simply changes a reference in the local or global variable dictionary instead of modifying
an existing variable in place. This means that simply assigning to x will not place the value into the element of the
array, but rather switch x from being an array element reference to being a reference to the value you assigned. To
actually modify the element of the array, x should be indexed with the ellipsis.
1.5. Iterating Over Arrays 85

Example
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_flags=['readwrite']):
... x[...] = 2 * x
...
>>> a
array([[ 0, 2, 4],
[ 6, 8, 10]])
Using an External Loop
In all the examples so far, the elements of a are provided by the iterator one at a time, because all the looping logic is
internal to the iterator. While this is simple and convenient, it is not very efficient. A better approach is to move the
one-dimensional innermost loop into your code, external to the iterator. This way, NumPy’s vectorized operations can
be used on larger chunks of the elements being visited.
The nditer will try to provide chunks that are as large as possible to the inner loop. By forcing ‘C’ and ‘F’ order,
we get different external loop sizes. This mode is enabled by specifying an iterator flag.
Observe that with the default of keeping native memory order, the iterator is able to provide a single one-dimensional
chunk, whereas when forcing Fortran order, it has to provide three chunks of two elements each.
Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['external_loop']):
... print x,
...
[0 1 2 3 4 5]
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['external_loop'], order='F'):

... print x,
...
[0 3] [1 4] [2 5]
Tracking an Index or Multi-Index
During iteration, you may want to use the index of the current element in a computation. For example, you may want
to visit the elements of an array in memory order, but use a C-order, Fortran-order, or multidimensional index to look
up values in a different array.
The Python iterator protocol doesn’t have a natural way to query these additional values from the iterator, so we
introduce an alternate syntax for iterating with an nditer. This syntax explicitly works with the iterator object itself,
so its properties are readily accessible during iteration. With this looping construct, the current value is accessible by
indexing into the iterator, and the index being tracked is the property index or multi_index depending on what was
requested.

The Python interactive interpreter unfortunately prints out the values of expressions inside the while loop during each
iteration of the loop. We have modified the output in the examples using this looping construct in order to be more
readable.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=['f_index'])
>>> while not it.finished:
... print "%d <%d>" % (it[0], it.index),
... it.iternext()
...
0 <0> 1 <2> 2 <4> 3 <1> 4 <3> 5 <5>
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=['multi_index'])

... print "%d <%s>" % (it[0], it.multi_index),
... it.iternext()
...
0 <(0, 0)> 1 <(0, 1)> 2 <(0, 2)> 3 <(1, 0)> 4 <(1, 1)> 5 <(1, 2)>
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=['multi_index'], op_flags=['writeonly'])

... it[0] = it.multi_index[1] - it.multi_index[0]
... it.iternext()
...
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[-1, 0, 1]])
Tracking an index or multi-index is incompatible with using an external loop, because it requires a different index
value per element. If you try to combine these flags, the nditer object will raise an exception
Example
>>> a = np.zeros((2,3))
>>> it = np.nditer(a, flags=['c_index', 'external_loop'])
ValueError: Iterator flag EXTERNAL_LOOP cannot be used if an index or multi-index is
˓→being tracked
Buffering the Array Elements
When forcing an iteration order, we observed that the external loop option may provide the elements in smaller chunks
because the elements can’t be visited in the appropriate order with a constant stride. When writing C code, this is
generally fine, however in pure Python code this can cause a significant reduction in performance.
By enabling buffering mode, the chunks provided by the iterator to the inner loop can be made larger, significantly
reducing the overhead of the Python interpreter. In the example forcing Fortran iteration order, the inner loop gets to
see all the elements in one go when buffering is enabled.

Example
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['external_loop'], order='F'):
... print x,
...
[0 3] [1 4] [2 5]
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['external_loop','buffered'], order='F'):

... print x,
...
[0 3 1 4 2 5]
Iterating as a Specific Data Type
There are times when it is necessary to treat an array as a different data type than it is stored as. For instance, one
may want to do all computations on 64-bit floats, even if the arrays being manipulated are 32-bit floats. Except when
writing low-level C code, it’s generally better to let the iterator handle the copying or buffering instead of casting the
data type yourself in the inner loop.
There are two mechanisms which allow this to be done, temporary copies and buffering mode. With temporary copies,
a copy of the entire array is made with the new data type, then iteration is done in the copy. Write access is permitted
through a mode which updates the original array after all the iteration is complete. The major drawback of temporary
copies is that the temporary copy may consume a large amount of memory, particularly if the iteration data type has a
larger itemsize than the original one.
Buffering mode mitigates the memory usage issue and is more cache-friendly than making temporary copies. Except
for special cases, where the whole array is needed at once outside the iterator, buffering is recommended over tem-
porary copying. Within NumPy, buffering is used by the ufuncs and other functions to support flexible inputs with
minimal memory overhead.
In our examples, we will treat the input array with a complex data type, so that we can take square roots of negative
numbers. Without enabling copies or buffering mode, the iterator will raise an exception if the data type doesn’t match
precisely.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3) - 3
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_dtypes=['complex128']):
... print np.sqrt(x),
...
TypeError: Iterator operand required copying or buffering, but neither copying nor
˓→buffering was enabled
In copying mode, ‘copy’ is specified as a per-operand flag. This is done to provide control in a per-operand fashion.
Buffering mode is specified as an iterator flag.
Example

>>> a = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3) - 3
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, op_flags=['readonly','copy'],
... op_dtypes=['complex128']):
...
1.73205080757j 1.41421356237j 1j 0j (1+0j) (1.41421356237+0j)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['buffered'], op_dtypes=['complex128']):

...
1.73205080757j 1.41421356237j 1j 0j (1+0j) (1.41421356237+0j)
The iterator uses NumPy’s casting rules to determine whether a specific conversion is permitted. By default, it enforces
‘safe’ casting. This means, for example, that it will raise an exception if you try to treat a 64-bit float array as a 32-bit
float array. In many cases, the rule ‘same_kind’ is the most reasonable rule to use, since it will allow conversion from
64 to 32-bit float, but not from float to int or from complex to float.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6.)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['buffered'], op_dtypes=['float32']):
... print x,
...
TypeError: Iterator operand 0 dtype could not be cast from dtype('float64') to dtype(
˓→'float32') according to the rule 'safe'
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['buffered'], op_dtypes=['float32'],

... casting='same_kind'):
... print x,
...
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['buffered'], op_dtypes=['int32'], casting='same_kind

˓→'):
... print x,
...
TypeError: Iterator operand 0 dtype could not be cast from dtype('float64') to dtype(
˓→'int32') according to the rule 'same_kind'
One thing to watch out for is conversions back to the original data type when using a read-write or write-only operand.
A common case is to implement the inner loop in terms of 64-bit floats, and use ‘same_kind’ casting to allow the other
floating-point types to be processed as well. While in read-only mode, an integer array could be provided, read-write
mode will raise an exception because conversion back to the array would violate the casting rule.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(6)
>>> for x in np.nditer(a, flags=['buffered'], op_flags=['readwrite'],
... op_dtypes=['float64'], casting='same_kind'):

... x[...] = x / 2.0

...
TypeError: Iterator requested dtype could not be cast from dtype('float64') to dtype(
˓→'int64'), the operand 0 dtype, according to the rule 'same_kind'
1.5.2 Broadcasting Array Iteration
NumPy has a set of rules for dealing with arrays that have differing shapes which are applied whenever functions take
multiple operands which combine element-wise. This is called broadcasting. The nditer object can apply these
rules for you when you need to write such a function.
As an example, we print out the result of broadcasting a one and a two dimensional array together.
Example
>>> b = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> for x, y in np.nditer([a,b]):
... print "%d:%d" % (x,y),
...
0:0 1:1 2:2 0:3 1:4 2:5
When a broadcasting error occurs, the iterator raises an exception which includes the input shapes to help diagnose
the problem.
Example
>>> for x, y in np.nditer([a,b]):
... print "%d:%d" % (x,y),
...
ValueError: operands could not be broadcast together with shapes (2) (2,3)
Iterator-Allocated Output Arrays
A common case in NumPy functions is to have outputs allocated based on the broadcasting of the input, and addition-
ally have an optional parameter called ‘out’ where the result will be placed when it is provided. The nditer object
provides a convenient idiom that makes it very easy to support this mechanism.
We’ll show how this works by creating a function square which squares its input. Let’s start with a minimal function
definition excluding ‘out’ parameter support.
Example

>>> def square(a):

... it = np.nditer([a, None])
... for x, y in it:
... y[...] = x*x
... return it.operands[1]
...
>>> square([1,2,3])
array([1, 4, 9])
By default, the nditer uses the flags ‘allocate’ and ‘writeonly’ for operands that are passed in as None. This means
we were able to provide just the two operands to the iterator, and it handled the rest.
When adding the ‘out’ parameter, we have to explicitly provide those flags, because if someone passes in an array as
‘out’, the iterator will default to ‘readonly’, and our inner loop would fail. The reason ‘readonly’ is the default for input
arrays is to prevent confusion about unintentionally triggering a reduction operation. If the default were ‘readwrite’,
any broadcasting operation would also trigger a reduction, a topic which is covered later in this document.
While we’re at it, let’s also introduce the ‘no_broadcast’ flag, which will prevent the output from being broadcast.
This is important, because we only want one input value for each output. Aggregating more than one input value
is a reduction operation which requires special handling. It would already raise an error because reductions must
be explicitly enabled in an iterator flag, but the error message that results from disabling broadcasting is much more
understandable for end-users. To see how to generalize the square function to a reduction, look at the sum of squares
function in the section about Cython.
For completeness, we’ll also add the ‘external_loop’ and ‘buffered’ flags, as these are what you will typically want for
performance reasons.
Example
>>> def square(a, out=None):

... it = np.nditer([a, out],
... flags = ['external_loop', 'buffered'],
... op_flags = [['readonly'],
... ['writeonly', 'allocate', 'no_broadcast']])
... for x, y in it:
... y[...] = x*x
...
>>> square([1,2,3])
array([1, 4, 9])
>>> b = np.zeros((3,))
>>> square([1,2,3], out=b)
array([ 1., 4., 9.])
>>> b
array([ 1., 4., 9.])
>>> square(np.arange(6).reshape(2,3), out=b)

File "<stdin>", line 4, in square
ValueError: non-broadcastable output operand with shape (3) doesn't match the
˓→broadcast shape (2,3)

Outer Product Iteration
Any binary operation can be extended to an array operation in an outer product fashion like in outer, and the
nditer object provides a way to accomplish this by explicitly mapping the axes of the operands. It is also possible to
do this with newaxis indexing, but we will show you how to directly use the nditer op_axes parameter to accomplish
this with no intermediate views.
We’ll do a simple outer product, placing the dimensions of the first operand before the dimensions of the second
operand. The op_axes parameter needs one list of axes for each operand, and provides a mapping from the iterator’s
axes to the axes of the operand.
Suppose the first operand is one dimensional and the second operand is two dimensional. The iterator will have three
dimensions, so op_axes will have two 3-element lists. The first list picks out the one axis of the first operand, and is
-1 for the rest of the iterator axes, with a final result of [0, -1, -1]. The second list picks out the two axes of the second
operand, but shouldn’t overlap with the axes picked out in the first operand. Its list is [-1, 0, 1]. The output operand
maps onto the iterator axes in the standard manner, so we can provide None instead of constructing another list.
The operation in the inner loop is a straightforward multiplication. Everything to do with the outer product is handled
by the iterator setup.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer([a, b, None], flags=['external_loop'],
... op_axes=[[0, -1, -1], [-1, 0, 1], None])
>>> for x, y, z in it:
... z[...] = x*y
...
>>> it.operands[2]
array([[[ 0, 0, 0, 0],
[ 0, 0, 0, 0]],
[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7]],
[[ 0, 2, 4, 6],
[ 8, 10, 12, 14]]])
Reduction Iteration
Whenever a writeable operand has fewer elements than the full iteration space, that operand is undergoing a reduction.
The nditer object requires that any reduction operand be flagged as read-write, and only allows reductions when
‘reduce_ok’ is provided as an iterator flag.
For a simple example, consider taking the sum of all elements in an array.
Example
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape(2,3,4)
>>> b = np.array(0)
>>> for x, y in np.nditer([a, b], flags=['reduce_ok', 'external_loop'],
... op_flags=[['readonly'], ['readwrite']]):
... y[...] += x
...
>>> b
array(276)

>>> np.sum(a)
276
Things are a little bit more tricky when combining reduction and allocated operands. Before iteration is started, any
reduction operand must be initialized to its starting values. Here’s how we can do this, taking sums along the last axis
of a.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer([a, None], flags=['reduce_ok', 'external_loop'],
... op_flags=[['readonly'], ['readwrite', 'allocate']],
... op_axes=[None, [0,1,-1]])
>>> it.operands[1][...] = 0
>>> for x, y in it:
... y[...] += x
...
>>> it.operands[1]
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])
>>> np.sum(a, axis=2)
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])
To do buffered reduction requires yet another adjustment during the setup. Normally the iterator construction involves
copying the first buffer of data from the readable arrays into the buffer. Any reduction operand is readable, so it may
be read into a buffer. Unfortunately, initialization of the operand after this buffering operation is complete will not be
reflected in the buffer that the iteration starts with, and garbage results will be produced.
The iterator flag “delay_bufalloc” is there to allow iterator-allocated reduction operands to exist together with buffer-
ing. When this flag is set, the iterator will leave its buffers uninitialized until it receives a reset, after which it will be
ready for regular iteration. Here’s how the previous example looks if we also enable buffering.
Example
>>> it = np.nditer([a, None], flags=['reduce_ok', 'external_loop',
... 'buffered', 'delay_bufalloc'],
... op_axes=[None, [0,1,-1]])
>>> it.operands[1][...] = 0
>>> it.reset()
>>> for x, y in it:
... y[...] += x
...
>>> it.operands[1]
array([[ 6, 22, 38],
[54, 70, 86]])

1.5.3 Putting the Inner Loop in Cython
Those who want really good performance out of their low level operations should strongly consider directly using the
iteration API provided in C, but for those who are not comfortable with C or C++, Cython is a good middle ground with
reasonable performance tradeoffs. For the nditer object, this means letting the iterator take care of broadcasting,
dtype conversion, and buffering, while giving the inner loop to Cython.
For our example, we’ll create a sum of squares function. To start, let’s implement this function in straightforward
Python. We want to support an ‘axis’ parameter similar to the numpy sum function, so we will need to construct a list
for the op_axes parameter. Here’s how this looks.
Example
>>> def axis_to_axeslist(axis, ndim):
... if axis is None:
... return [-1] * ndim
... else:
... if type(axis) is not tuple:
... axis = (axis,)
... axeslist = [1] * ndim
... for i in axis:
... axeslist[i] = -1
... ax = 0
... for i in range(ndim):
... if axeslist[i] != -1:
... axeslist[i] = ax
... ax += 1
... return axeslist
...
>>> def sum_squares_py(arr, axis=None, out=None):
... axeslist = axis_to_axeslist(axis, arr.ndim)
... it = np.nditer([arr, out], flags=['reduce_ok', 'external_loop',
... 'buffered', 'delay_bufalloc'],
... op_axes=[None, axeslist],
... op_dtypes=['float64', 'float64'])
... it.operands[1][...] = 0
... it.reset()
... for x, y in it:
... y[...] += x*x
...
>>> sum_squares_py(a)
array(55.0)
>>> sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1)
array([ 5., 50.])
To Cython-ize this function, we replace the inner loop (y[. . . ] += x*x) with Cython code that’s specialized for
the float64 dtype. With the ‘external_loop’ flag enabled, the arrays provided to the inner loop will always be one-
dimensional, so very little checking needs to be done.
Here’s the listing of sum_squares.pyx:
import numpy as np
cimport numpy as np
cimport cython

def axis_to_axeslist(axis, ndim):

if axis is None:
return [-1] * ndim
else:
if type(axis) is not tuple:
axis = (axis,)
axeslist = [1] * ndim
for i in axis:
axeslist[i] = -1
ax = 0
for i in range(ndim):
if axeslist[i] != -1:
axeslist[i] = ax
ax += 1
return axeslist
@cython.boundscheck(False)
def sum_squares_cy(arr, axis=None, out=None):
cdef np.ndarray[double] x
cdef np.ndarray[double] y
cdef int size
cdef double value
axeslist = axis_to_axeslist(axis, arr.ndim)

it = np.nditer([arr, out], flags=['reduce_ok', 'external_loop',
'buffered', 'delay_bufalloc'],
op_flags=[['readonly'], ['readwrite', 'allocate']],
op_axes=[None, axeslist],
op_dtypes=['float64', 'float64'])
it.operands[1][...] = 0
it.reset()
for xarr, yarr in it:
x = xarr
y = yarr
size = x.shape[0]
for i in range(size):
value = x[i]
y[i] = y[i] + value * value
return it.operands[1]
On this machine, building the .pyx file into a module looked like the following, but you may have to find some Cython
tutorials to tell you the specifics for your system configuration.:
$ cython sum_squares.pyx
$ gcc -shared -pthread -fPIC -fwrapv -O2 -Wall -I/usr/include/python2.7 -fno-strict-
˓→aliasing -o sum_squares.so sum_squares.c
Running this from the Python interpreter produces the same answers as our native Python/NumPy code did.
Example
>>> from sum_squares import sum_squares_cy

>>> sum_squares_cy(a)
array(55.0)
>>> sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1)

array([ 5., 50.])
Doing a little timing in IPython shows that the reduced overhead and memory allocation of the Cython inner loop is
providing a very nice speedup over both the straightforward Python code and an expression using NumPy’s built-in
sum function.:
>>> a = np.random.rand(1000,1000)
>>> timeit sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1)

10 loops, best of 3: 37.1 ms per loop
>>> timeit np.sum(a*a, axis=-1)

>>> timeit sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1)

>>> np.all(sum_squares_cy(a, axis=-1) == np.sum(a*a, axis=-1))

True
>>> np.all(sum_squares_py(a, axis=-1) == np.sum(a*a, axis=-1))

True
1.6 Standard array subclasses
The ndarray in NumPy is a “new-style” Python built-in-type. Therefore, it can be inherited from (in Python or in
C) if desired. Therefore, it can form a foundation for many useful classes. Often whether to sub-class the array object
or to simply use the core array component as an internal part of a new class is a difficult decision, and can be simply a
matter of choice. NumPy has several tools for simplifying how your new object interacts with other array objects, and
so the choice may not be significant in the end. One way to simplify the question is by asking yourself if the object
you are interested in can be replaced as a single array or does it really require two or more arrays at its core.
Note that asarray always returns the base-class ndarray. If you are confident that your use of the array object can
handle any subclass of an ndarray, then asanyarray can be used to allow subclasses to propagate more cleanly
through your subroutine. In principal a subclass could redefine any aspect of the array and therefore, under strict
guidelines, asanyarray would rarely be useful. However, most subclasses of the array object will not redefine
certain aspects of the array object such as the buffer interface, or the attributes of the array. One important example,
however, of why your subroutine may not be able to handle an arbitrary subclass of an array is that matrices redefine
the “*” operator to be matrix-multiplication, rather than element-by-element multiplication.
1.6.1 Special attributes and methods
See also:
Subclassing ndarray
NumPy provides several hooks that classes can customize:
class.__array_ufunc__(ufunc, method, *inputs, **kwargs)
New in version 1.13.
Note: The API is provisional, i.e., we do not yet guarantee backward compatibility.

Any class, ndarray subclass or not, can define this method or set it to None in order to override the behavior of
NumPy’s ufuncs. This works quite similarly to Python’s __mul__ and other binary operation routines.
• ufunc is the ufunc object that was called.
• method is a string indicating which Ufunc method was called (one of "__call__", "reduce",
"reduceat", "accumulate", "outer", "inner").
• inputs is a tuple of the input arguments to the ufunc.
• kwargs is a dictionary containing the optional input arguments of the ufunc. If given, any out arguments,
both positional and keyword, are passed as a tuple in kwargs. See the discussion in Universal functions
(ufunc) for details.
The method should return either the result of the operation, or NotImplemented if the operation requested
is not implemented.
If one of the input or output arguments has a __array_ufunc__ method, it is executed instead of the
ufunc. If more than one of the arguments implements __array_ufunc__, they are tried in the order: sub-
classes before superclasses, inputs before outputs, otherwise left to right. The first routine returning something
other than NotImplemented determines the result. If all of the __array_ufunc__ operations return
NotImplemented, a TypeError is raised.
Note: We intend to re-implement numpy functions as (generalized) Ufunc, in which case it will become
possible for them to be overridden by the __array_ufunc__ method. A prime candidate is matmul, which
currently is not a Ufunc, but could be relatively easily be rewritten as a (set of) generalized Ufuncs. The same
may happen with functions such as median, min, and argsort.
Like with some other special methods in python, such as __hash__ and __iter__, it is possible to indi-
cate that your class does not support ufuncs by setting __array_ufunc__ = None. Ufuncs always raise
TypeError when called on an object that sets __array_ufunc__ = None.
The presence of __array_ufunc__ also influences how ndarray handles binary operations like arr +
obj and arr < obj when arr is an ndarray and obj is an instance of a custom class. There are two
possibilities. If obj.__array_ufunc__ is present and not None, then ndarray.__add__ and friends
will delegate to the ufunc machinery, meaning that arr + obj becomes np.add(arr, obj), and then
add invokes obj.__array_ufunc__. This is useful if you want to define an object that acts like an array.
Alternatively, if obj.__array_ufunc__ is set to None, then as a special case, special methods like
ndarray.__add__ will notice this and unconditionally raise TypeError. This is useful if you want to
create objects that interact with arrays via binary operations, but are not themselves arrays. For example, a units
handling system might have an object m representing the “meters” unit, and want to support the syntax arr * m
to represent that the array has units of “meters”, but not want to otherwise interact with arrays via ufuncs or oth-
erwise. This can be done by setting __array_ufunc__ = None and defining __mul__ and __rmul__
methods. (Note that this means that writing an __array_ufunc__ that always returns NotImplemented
is not quite the same as setting __array_ufunc__ = None: in the former case, arr + obj will raise
TypeError, while in the latter case it is possible to define a __radd__ method to prevent this.)
The above does not hold for in-place operators, for which ndarray never returns NotImplemented. Hence,
arr += obj would always lead to a TypeError. This is because for arrays in-place operations cannot
generically be replaced by a simple reverse operation. (For instance, by default, arr += obj would be
translated to arr = arr + obj, i.e., arr would be replaced, contrary to what is expected for in-place array
operations.)
Note: If you define __array_ufunc__:
1.6. Standard array subclasses 97

• If you are not a subclass of ndarray, we recommend your class define special methods like __add__
and __lt__ that delegate to ufuncs just like ndarray does. An easy way to do this is to subclass from
NDArrayOperatorsMixin.
• If you subclass ndarray, we recommend that you put all your override logic in __array_ufunc__
and not also override special methods. This ensures the class hierarchy is determined in only one place
rather than separately by the ufunc machinery and by the binary operation rules (which gives preference
to special methods of subclasses; the alternative way to enforce a one-place only hierarchy, of setting
__array_ufunc__ to None, would seem very unexpected and thus confusing, as then the subclass
would not work at all with ufuncs).
• ndarray defines its own __array_ufunc__, which, evaluates the ufunc if no arguments have
overrides, and returns NotImplemented otherwise. This may be useful for subclasses for which
__array_ufunc__ converts any instances of its own class to ndarray: it can then pass these on to
its superclass using super().__array_ufunc__(*inputs, **kwargs), and finally return the
results after possible back-conversion. The advantage of this practice is that it ensures that it is possible to
have a hierarchy of subclasses that extend the behaviour. See Subclassing ndarray for details.
Note: If a class defines the __array_ufunc__ method, this disables the __array_wrap__,
__array_prepare__, __array_priority__ mechanism described below for ufuncs (which may even-
tually be deprecated).
class.__array_finalize__(obj)
This method is called whenever the system internally allocates a new array from obj, where obj is a subclass
(subtype) of the ndarray. It can be used to change attributes of self after construction (so as to ensure a 2-d
matrix for example), or to update meta-information from the “parent.” Subclasses inherit a default implementa-
tion of this method that does nothing.
class.__array_prepare__(array, context=None)
At the beginning of every ufunc, this method is called on the input object with the highest array priority, or the
output object if one was specified. The output array is passed in and whatever is returned is passed to the ufunc.
Subclasses inherit a default implementation of this method which simply returns the output array unmodified.
Subclasses may opt to use this method to transform the output array into an instance of the subclass and update
metadata before returning the array to the ufunc for computation.
Note: For ufuncs, it is hoped to eventually deprecate this method in favour of __array_ufunc__.
class.__array_wrap__(array, context=None)
At the end of every ufunc, this method is called on the input object with the highest array priority, or the output
object if one was specified. The ufunc-computed array is passed in and whatever is returned is passed to the
user. Subclasses inherit a default implementation of this method, which transforms the array into a new instance
of the object’s class. Subclasses may opt to use this method to transform the output array into an instance of the
subclass and update metadata before returning the array to the user.
class.__array_priority__
The value of this attribute is used to determine what type of object to return in situations where there is more
than one possibility for the Python type of the returned object. Subclasses inherit a default value of 0.0 for this
attribute.

class.__array__([dtype ])
If a class (ndarray subclass or not) having the __array__ method is used as the output object of an ufunc,
results will be written to the object returned by __array__. Similar conversion is done on input arrays.
1.6.2 Matrix objects
matrix objects inherit from the ndarray and therefore, they have the same attributes and methods of ndarrays. There
are six important differences of matrix objects, however, that may lead to unexpected results when you use matrices
but expect them to act like arrays:
1. Matrix objects can be created using a string notation to allow Matlab-style syntax where spaces separate columns
and semicolons (‘;’) separate rows.
2. Matrix objects are always two-dimensional. This has far-reaching implications, in that m.ravel() is still two-
dimensional (with a 1 in the first dimension) and item selection returns two-dimensional objects so that sequence
behavior is fundamentally different than arrays.
3. Matrix objects over-ride multiplication to be matrix-multiplication. Make sure you understand this for func-
tions that you may want to receive matrices. Especially in light of the fact that asanyarray(m) returns a
matrix when m is a matrix.
4. Matrix objects over-ride power to be matrix raised to a power. The same warning about using power inside a
function that uses asanyarray(. . . ) to get an array object holds for this fact.
5. The default __array_priority__ of matrix objects is 10.0, and therefore mixed operations with ndarrays always
produce matrices.
6. Matrices have special attributes which make calculations easier. These are
matrix.T Returns the transpose of the matrix.

matrix.H Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
matrix.I Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
matrix.A Return self as an ndarray object.
matrix.T
Returns the transpose of the matrix.
Does not conjugate! For the complex conjugate transpose, use .H.
Parameters None
Returns ret : matrix object
The (non-conjugated) transpose of the matrix.
See also:
transpose, getH
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix('[1, 2; 3, 4]')

>>> m
matrix([[1, 2],

[3, 4]])
>>> m.getT()
matrix([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
matrix.H
Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
Equivalent to np.transpose(self) if self is real-valued.
Parameters None
complex conjugate transpose of self
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4)))
>>> z = x - 1j*x; z
matrix([[ 0. +0.j, 1. -1.j, 2. -2.j, 3. -3.j],
[ 4. -4.j, 5. -5.j, 6. -6.j, 7. -7.j],
[ 8. -8.j, 9. -9.j, 10.-10.j, 11.-11.j]])
>>> z.getH()
matrix([[ 0. +0.j, 4. +4.j, 8. +8.j],
[ 1. +1.j, 5. +5.j, 9. +9.j],
[ 2. +2.j, 6. +6.j, 10.+10.j],
[ 3. +3.j, 7. +7.j, 11.+11.j]])
matrix.I
Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
Parameters None
If self is non-singular, ret is such that ret * self == self * ret == np.
matrix(np.eye(self[0,:].size) all return True.
Raises numpy.linalg.LinAlgError: Singular matrix
If self is singular.
See also:
linalg.inv
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix('[1, 2; 3, 4]'); m

matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> m.getI()
matrix([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
>>> m.getI() * m
matrix([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])

matrix.A
Return self as an ndarray object.
Equivalent to np.asarray(self).
Parameters None
Returns ret : ndarray
self as an ndarray
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.getA()
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
Warning: Matrix objects over-ride multiplication, ‘*’, and power, ‘**’, to be matrix-multiplication and matrix
power, respectively. If your subroutine can accept sub-classes and you do not convert to base- class arrays, then
you must use the ufuncs multiply and power to be sure that you are performing the correct operation for all inputs.
The matrix class is a Python subclass of the ndarray and can be used as a reference for how to construct your own
subclass of the ndarray. Matrices can be created from other matrices, strings, and anything else that can be converted
to an ndarray . The name “mat “is an alias for “matrix “in NumPy.
matrix(data[, dtype, copy]) Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string
of data.
asmatrix(data[, dtype]) Interpret the input as a matrix.
bmat(obj[, ldict, gdict]) Build a matrix object from a string, nested sequence, or
array.
class numpy.matrix(data, dtype=None, copy=True)

Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string of data. A matrix is a specialized 2-D array that
retains its 2-D nature through operations. It has certain special operators, such as * (matrix multiplication) and
** (matrix power).
Parameters data : array_like or string
If data is a string, it is interpreted as a matrix with commas or spaces separating
columns, and semicolons separating rows.
dtype : data-type
Data-type of the output matrix.
copy : bool
If data is already an ndarray, then this flag determines whether the data is copied
(the default), or whether a view is constructed.
See also:

array
Examples
>>> a = np.matrix('1 2; 3 4')

>>> print(a)
[[1 2]
[3 4]]
>>> np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Attributes
A Return self as an ndarray object.

A1 Return self as a flattened ndarray.
H Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
I Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
T Returns the transpose of the matrix.
the ctypes module.
data.
ing an array.
Methods
all([axis, out]) Test whether all matrix elements along a given axis eval-
uate to True.
any([axis, out]) Test whether any array element along a given axis eval-
uates to True.
argmax([axis, out]) Indexes of the maximum values along an axis.
argmin([axis, out]) Indexes of the minimum values along an axis.


of choices.
max].
given axis.
given axis.
flatten([order]) Return a flattened copy of the matrix.
getA() Return self as an ndarray object.
getA1() Return self as a flattened ndarray.
getH() Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
getI() Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.
getT() Returns the transpose of the matrix.
and return it.
if possible)
max([axis, out]) Return the maximum value along an axis.
mean([axis, dtype, out]) Returns the average of the matrix elements along the
given axis.
min([axis, out]) Return the minimum value along an axis.
ferent byte order.
prod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis.
ptp([axis, out]) Peak-to-peak (maximum - minimum) value along the
given axis.
ravel([order]) Return a flattened matrix.
shape.


of decimals.
data-type.
squeeze([axis]) Return a possibly reshaped matrix.
std([axis, dtype, out, ddof]) Return the standard deviation of the array elements
along the given axis.
sum([axis, dtype, out]) Returns the sum of the matrix elements, along the given
axis.
changed.
given indices.
the array.
tolist() Return the matrix as a (possibly nested) list.
the array.
var([axis, dtype, out, ddof]) Returns the variance of the matrix elements, along the
given axis.
matrix.all(axis=None, out=None)
Test whether all matrix elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Parameters See ‘numpy.all‘ for complete descriptions
See also:
numpy.all
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.all, but it returns a matrix object.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> y = x[0]; y
matrix([[0, 1, 2, 3]])
>>> (x == y)

matrix([[ True, True, True, True],

[False, False, False, False],
[False, False, False, False]])
>>> (x == y).all()
False
>>> (x == y).all(0)
matrix([[False, False, False, False]])
>>> (x == y).all(1)
matrix([[ True],
[False],
[False]])
matrix.any(axis=None, out=None)
Test whether any array element along a given axis evaluates to True.
Axis along which logical OR is performed
out : ndarray, optional
Output to existing array instead of creating new one, must have same shape as expected
output
Returns any : bool, ndarray
Returns a single bool if axis is None; otherwise, returns ndarray
matrix.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
Indexes of the maximum values along an axis.
Return the indexes of the first occurrences of the maximum values along the specified axis. If axis is None,
the index is for the flattened matrix.
Parameters See ‘numpy.argmax‘ for complete descriptions
See also:
numpy.argmax
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.argmax, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.argmax would
return an ndarray.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.argmax()
11
>>> x.argmax(0)
matrix([[2, 2, 2, 2]])
>>> x.argmax(1)
matrix([[3],

[3],
[3]])
matrix.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
Indexes of the minimum values along an axis.
Return the indexes of the first occurrences of the minimum values along the specified axis. If axis is None,
the index is for the flattened matrix.
Parameters See ‘numpy.argmin‘ for complete descriptions.
See also:
numpy.argmin
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.argmin, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.argmin would
return an ndarray.
Examples
>>> x = -np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, -1, -2, -3],
[ -4, -5, -6, -7],
[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])
>>> x.argmin()
11
>>> x.argmin(0)
matrix([[2, 2, 2, 2]])
>>> x.argmin(1)
matrix([[3],
[3],
[3]])
matrix.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

See also:
matrix.argsort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:
matrix.astype(dtype, order=’K’, casting=’unsafe’, subok=True, copy=True)



Default is ‘K’.
patibility.
allowed.
of a copy.
astype(t).
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])

>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])

>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
matrix.byteswap(inplace=False)
Examples

>>> map(hex, A)
['0x1', '0x100', '0x2233']
array([ 256, 1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
['0x100', '0x1', '0x3322']

>>> A.byteswap()
dtype='|S3')
matrix.choose(choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

See also:
matrix.clip(min=None, max=None, out=None)

See also:
matrix.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)

See also:

matrix.conj()
See also:
matrix.conjugate()
See also:
matrix.copy(order=’C’)
See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
matrix.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)


See also:
matrix.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

See also:
matrix.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

See also:
matrix.dot(b, out=None)
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])
>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
matrix.dump(file)
matrix.dumps()
array.
Parameters None

matrix.fill(value)
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
matrix.flatten(order=’C’)
Return a flattened copy of the matrix.
All N elements of the matrix are placed into a single row.
(Fortran-style) order. ‘A’ means to flatten in column-major order if m is Fortran con-
tiguous in memory, row-major order otherwise. ‘K’ means to flatten m in the order the
Returns y : matrix
A copy of the matrix, flattened to a (1, N) matrix where N is the number of elements in
the original matrix.
See also:

flat A 1-D flat iterator over the matrix.
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> m.flatten()
matrix([[1, 2, 3, 4]])
>>> m.flatten('F')
matrix([[1, 3, 2, 4]])
matrix.getA()
Return self as an ndarray object.
Equivalent to np.asarray(self).
Parameters None
self as an ndarray

Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.getA()
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
matrix.getA1()
Return self as a flattened ndarray.
Equivalent to np.asarray(x).ravel()
Parameters None
self, 1-D, as an ndarray
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.getA1()
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11])
matrix.getH()
Returns the (complex) conjugate transpose of self.
Equivalent to np.transpose(self) if self is real-valued.
Parameters None
complex conjugate transpose of self
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4)))
>>> z = x - 1j*x; z
matrix([[ 0. +0.j, 1. -1.j, 2. -2.j, 3. -3.j],
[ 4. -4.j, 5. -5.j, 6. -6.j, 7. -7.j],
[ 8. -8.j, 9. -9.j, 10.-10.j, 11.-11.j]])
>>> z.getH()
matrix([[ 0. +0.j, 4. +4.j, 8. +8.j],
[ 1. +1.j, 5. +5.j, 9. +9.j],
[ 2. +2.j, 6. +6.j, 10.+10.j],
[ 3. +3.j, 7. +7.j, 11.+11.j]])
matrix.getI()
Returns the (multiplicative) inverse of invertible self.

Parameters None
If self is non-singular, ret is such that ret * self == self * ret == np.
matrix(np.eye(self[0,:].size) all return True.
Raises numpy.linalg.LinAlgError: Singular matrix
If self is singular.
See also:
linalg.inv
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix('[1, 2; 3, 4]'); m

matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> m.getI()
matrix([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
>>> m.getI() * m
matrix([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
matrix.getT()
Returns the transpose of the matrix.
Does not conjugate! For the complex conjugate transpose, use .H.
Parameters None
The (non-conjugated) transpose of the matrix.
See also:
transpose, getH
Examples
>>> m = np.matrix('[1, 2; 3, 4]')

>>> m
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> m.getT()
matrix([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
matrix.getfield(dtype, offset=0)


array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
matrix.item(*args)
Notes

Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
matrix.itemset(*args)
Notes
Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
matrix.max(axis=None, out=None)
Return the maximum value along an axis.
Parameters See ‘amax‘ for complete descriptions

See also:
amax, ndarray.max
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.max, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.max would return
an ndarray.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.max()
11
>>> x.max(0)
matrix([[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.max(1)
matrix([[ 3],
[ 7],
[11]])
matrix.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Returns the average of the matrix elements along the given axis.
See also:
numpy.mean
Notes
Same as ndarray.mean except that, where that returns an ndarray, this returns a matrix object.
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3, 4)))

>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.mean()
5.5
>>> x.mean(0)
matrix([[ 4., 5., 6., 7.]])
>>> x.mean(1)
matrix([[ 1.5],
[ 5.5],
[ 9.5]])

matrix.min(axis=None, out=None)
Return the minimum value along an axis.
Parameters See ‘amin‘ for complete descriptions.
See also:
amin, ndarray.min
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.min, but returns a matrix object where ndarray.min would return an
ndarray.
Examples
>>> x = -np.matrix(np.arange(12).reshape((3,4))); x
matrix([[ 0, -1, -2, -3],
[ -4, -5, -6, -7],
[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])
>>> x.min()
-11
>>> x.min(0)
matrix([[ -8, -9, -10, -11]])
>>> x.min(1)
matrix([[ -3],
[ -7],
[-11]])
matrix.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)
Equivalent to:
can be any of:

matrix.nonzero()
See also:
matrix.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

See also:

sort Full sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])

>>> a.partition(3)
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])

array([1, 2, 3, 4])

matrix.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the product of the array elements over the given axis.
Refer to prod for full documentation.
See also:
prod, ndarray.prod
Notes
Same as ndarray.prod, except, where that returns an ndarray, this returns a matrix object instead.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.prod()
0
>>> x.prod(0)
matrix([[ 0, 45, 120, 231]])
>>> x.prod(1)
matrix([[ 0],
[ 840],
[7920]])
matrix.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
Peak-to-peak (maximum - minimum) value along the given axis.
See also:
numpy.ptp
Notes
Same as ndarray.ptp, except, where that would return an ndarray object, this returns a matrix
object.
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.ptp()
11
>>> x.ptp(0)
matrix([[8, 8, 8, 8]])

>>> x.ptp(1)
matrix([[3],
[3],
[3]])
matrix.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

See also:
matrix.ravel(order=’C’)
Return a flattened matrix.
Refer to numpy.ravel for more documentation.
The elements of m are read using this index order. ‘C’ means to index the elements
in C-like order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis index
changing slowest. ‘F’ means to index the elements in Fortran-like index order, with the
first index changing fastest, and the last index changing slowest. Note that the ‘C’ and
‘F’ options take no account of the memory layout of the underlying array, and only refer
to the order of axis indexing. ‘A’ means to read the elements in Fortran-like index order
if m is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise. ‘K’ means to read the
elements in the order they occur in memory, except for reversing the data when strides
are negative. By default, ‘C’ index order is used.
Returns ret : matrix
Return the matrix flattened to shape (1, N) where N is the number of elements in the
original matrix. A copy is made only if necessary.
See also:
matrix.flatten returns a similar output matrix but always a copy

matrix.flat a flat iterator on the array.
numpy.ravel related function which returns an ndarray
matrix.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See also:
matrix.reshape(shape, order=’C’)
See also:

Notes
matrix.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Returns None
Raises ValueError
SystemError
See also:
Notes

Examples
shaped:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a

array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])
>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
matrix.round(decimals=0, out=None)
See also:
matrix.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)

See also:
matrix.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)


Returns None
See also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
matrix.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Notes

piler);
this array.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
matrix.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:


Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])

>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])

>>> a
array([('c', 1), ('a', 2)],
dtype=[('x', '|S1'), ('y', '<i4')])
matrix.squeeze(axis=None)
Return a possibly reshaped matrix.
Refer to numpy.squeeze for more documentation.
Parameters axis : None or int or tuple of ints, optional
Selects a subset of the single-dimensional entries in the shape. If an axis is selected with
shape entry greater than one, an error is raised.
Returns squeezed : matrix
The matrix, but as a (1, N) matrix if it had shape (N, 1).
See also:
numpy.squeeze related function
Notes
If m has a single column then that column is returned as the single row of a matrix. Otherwise m is returned.
The returned matrix is always either m itself or a view into m. Supplying an axis keyword argument will
not affect the returned matrix but it may cause an error to be raised.

Examples
>>> c = np.matrix([[1], [2]])

>>> c
matrix([[1],
[2]])
>>> c.squeeze()
matrix([[1, 2]])
>>> r = c.T
>>> r
matrix([[1, 2]])
>>> r.squeeze()
matrix([[1, 2]])
>>> m = np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> m.squeeze()
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
matrix.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

Return the standard deviation of the array elements along the given axis.
See also:
numpy.std
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.std, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
is returned instead.
Examples

>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.std()
3.4520525295346629
>>> x.std(0)
matrix([[ 3.26598632, 3.26598632, 3.26598632, 3.26598632]])
>>> x.std(1)
matrix([[ 1.11803399],
[ 1.11803399],
[ 1.11803399]])
matrix.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Returns the sum of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
See also:
numpy.sum

Notes
This is the same as ndarray.sum, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
Examples
>>> x = np.matrix([[1, 2], [4, 3]])

>>> x.sum()
10
>>> x.sum(axis=1)
matrix([[3],
[7]])
>>> x.sum(axis=1, dtype='float')
matrix([[ 3.],
[ 7.]])
>>> out = np.zeros((1, 2), dtype='float')
>>> x.sum(axis=1, dtype='float', out=out)
matrix([[ 3.],
[ 7.]])
matrix.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See also:
matrix.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)

See also:
matrix.tobytes(order=’C’)
array.
Returns s : bytes

Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
matrix.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")

sep : str
format : str
Notes
matrix.tolist()
Return the matrix as a (possibly nested) list.
See ndarray.tolist for full documentation.
See also:
ndarray.tolist
Examples
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.tolist()
[[0, 1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6, 7], [8, 9, 10, 11]]
matrix.tostring(order=’C’)

array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
matrix.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See also:
matrix.transpose(*axes)
(i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
axis.
See also:

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
matrix.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0)

Returns the variance of the matrix elements, along the given axis.
See also:
numpy.var
Notes
This is the same as ndarray.var, except that where an ndarray would be returned, a matrix object
Examples

>>> x
matrix([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> x.var()
11.916666666666666
>>> x.var(0)
matrix([[ 10.66666667, 10.66666667, 10.66666667, 10.66666667]])
>>> x.var(1)
matrix([[ 1.25],
[ 1.25],
[ 1.25]])
matrix.view(dtype=None, type=None)


type preservation.
Notes

Examples

>>> y
>>> print(type(y))

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
>>> z.a

Views share data:

>>> x[0] = (9, 10)
>>> z[0]
(9, 10)
>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
numpy.asmatrix(data, dtype=None)
Interpret the input as a matrix.
Unlike matrix, asmatrix does not make a copy if the input is already a matrix or an ndarray. Equivalent to
matrix(data, copy=False).
Parameters data : array_like
Input data.
dtype : data-type
Returns mat : matrix
data interpreted as a matrix.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> m = np.asmatrix(x)
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.bmat(obj, ldict=None, gdict=None)

Build a matrix object from a string, nested sequence, or array.
Parameters obj : str or array_like
Input data. If a string, variables in the current scope may be referenced by name.

ldict : dict, optional

A dictionary that replaces local operands in current frame. Ignored if obj is not a string
or gdict is None.
gdict : dict, optional
A dictionary that replaces global operands in current frame. Ignored if obj is not a
string.
Returns out : matrix
Returns a matrix object, which is a specialized 2-D array.
See also:
block A generalization of this function for N-d arrays, that returns normal ndarrays.
Examples
>>> A = np.mat('1 1; 1 1')

>>> B = np.mat('2 2; 2 2')
>>> C = np.mat('3 4; 5 6')
>>> D = np.mat('7 8; 9 0')
All the following expressions construct the same block matrix:
>>> np.bmat([[A, B], [C, D]])

matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat(np.r_[np.c_[A, B], np.c_[C, D]])
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
>>> np.bmat('A,B; C,D')
matrix([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2],
[3, 4, 7, 8],
[5, 6, 9, 0]])
Example 1: Matrix creation from a string
>>> a=mat('1 2 3; 4 5 3')

>>> print (a*a.T).I
[[ 0.2924 -0.1345]
[-0.1345 0.0819]]
Example 2: Matrix creation from nested sequence
>>> mat([[1,5,10],[1.0,3,4j]])
matrix([[ 1.+0.j, 5.+0.j, 10.+0.j],
[ 1.+0.j, 3.+0.j, 0.+4.j]])
Example 3: Matrix creation from an array

>>> mat(random.rand(3,3)).T
matrix([[ 0.7699, 0.7922, 0.3294],
[ 0.2792, 0.0101, 0.9219],
[ 0.3398, 0.7571, 0.8197]])
1.6.3 Memory-mapped file arrays
Memory-mapped files are useful for reading and/or modifying small segments of a large file with regular layout,
without reading the entire file into memory. A simple subclass of the ndarray uses a memory-mapped file for the data
buffer of the array. For small files, the over-head of reading the entire file into memory is typically not significant,
however for large files using memory mapping can save considerable resources.
Memory-mapped-file arrays have one additional method (besides those they inherit from the ndarray): .flush()
which must be called manually by the user to ensure that any changes to the array actually get written to disk.
memmap Create a memory-map to an array stored in a binary file on

disk.
memmap.flush() Write any changes in the array to the file on disk.
class numpy.memmap
Create a memory-map to an array stored in a binary file on disk.
Memory-mapped files are used for accessing small segments of large files on disk, without reading the entire
file into memory. NumPy’s memmap’s are array-like objects. This differs from Python’s mmap module, which
uses file-like objects.
This subclass of ndarray has some unpleasant interactions with some operations, because it doesn’t quite fit
properly as a subclass. An alternative to using this subclass is to create the mmap object yourself, then create an
ndarray with ndarray.__new__ directly, passing the object created in its ‘buffer=’ parameter.
This class may at some point be turned into a factory function which returns a view into an mmap buffer.
Delete the memmap instance to close.
Parameters filename : str, file-like object, or pathlib.Path instance
The file name or file object to be used as the array data buffer.
The data-type used to interpret the file contents. Default is uint8.
mode : {‘r+’, ‘r’, ‘w+’, ‘c’}, optional
The file is opened in this mode:
‘r’ Open existing file for reading only.

‘r+’ Open existing file for reading and writing.
‘w+’ Create or overwrite existing file for reading and writing.
‘c’ Copy-on-write: assignments affect data in memory, but changes are not saved
to disk. The file on disk is read-only.
Default is ‘r+’.

In the file, array data starts at this offset. Since offset is measured in bytes, it should
normally be a multiple of the byte-size of dtype. When mode != 'r', even pos-
itive offsets beyond end of file are valid; The file will be extended to accommodate
the additional data. By default, memmap will start at the beginning of the file, even if
filename is a file pointer fp and fp.tell() != 0.
shape : tuple, optional
The desired shape of the array. If mode == 'r' and the number of remaining bytes
after offset is not a multiple of the byte-size of dtype, you must specify shape. By
default, the returned array will be 1-D with the number of elements determined by file
size and data-type.
Specify the order of the ndarray memory layout: row-major, C-style or column-major,
Fortran-style. This only has an effect if the shape is greater than 1-D. The default order
is ‘C’.
See also:
lib.format.open_memmap Create or load a memory-mapped .npy file.
Notes
The memmap object can be used anywhere an ndarray is accepted. Given a memmap fp, isinstance(fp,
numpy.ndarray) returns True.
Memory-mapped files cannot be larger than 2GB on 32-bit systems.
When a memmap causes a file to be created or extended beyond its current size in the filesystem, the contents
of the new part are unspecified. On systems with POSIX filesystem semantics, the extended part will be filled
with zero bytes.
Examples
>>> data = np.arange(12, dtype='float32')

>>> data.resize((3,4))
This example uses a temporary file so that doctest doesn’t write files to your directory. You would use a ‘normal’
filename.
>>> from tempfile import mkdtemp

>>> import os.path as path
>>> filename = path.join(mkdtemp(), 'newfile.dat')
Create a memmap with dtype and shape that matches our data:
>>> fp = np.memmap(filename, dtype='float32', mode='w+', shape=(3,4))

>>> fp
memmap([[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
Write data to memmap array:

>>> fp[:] = data[:]

>>> fp
memmap([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
>>> fp.filename == path.abspath(filename)

True
Deletion flushes memory changes to disk before removing the object:
>>> del fp
Load the memmap and verify data was stored:
>>> newfp = np.memmap(filename, dtype='float32', mode='r', shape=(3,4))

>>> newfp
memmap([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
Read-only memmap:
>>> fpr = np.memmap(filename, dtype='float32', mode='r', shape=(3,4))

>>> fpr.flags.writeable
False
Copy-on-write memmap:
>>> fpc = np.memmap(filename, dtype='float32', mode='c', shape=(3,4))

>>> fpc.flags.writeable
True
It’s possible to assign to copy-on-write array, but values are only written into the memory copy of the array, and
not written to disk:
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
>>> fpc[0,:] = 0
>>> fpc
memmap([[ 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
File on disk is unchanged:
>>> fpr
memmap([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]], dtype=float32)
Offset into a memmap:

>>> fpo = np.memmap(filename, dtype='float32', mode='r', offset=16)

>>> fpo
memmap([ 4., 5., 6., 7., 8., 9., 10., 11.], dtype=float32)
Attributes
filename (str or pathlib.Path instance) Path to the mapped file.

offset (int) Offset position in the file.
mode (str) File mode.
Methods
flush() Write any changes in the array to the file on disk.
memmap.flush()
Write any changes in the array to the file on disk.
For further information, see memmap.
Parameters None
See also:
memmap
Example:
>>> a = memmap('newfile.dat', dtype=float, mode='w+', shape=1000)
>>> a[10] = 10.0
>>> a[30] = 30.0
>>> del a
>>> b = fromfile('newfile.dat', dtype=float)
>>> print b[10], b[30]
10.0 30.0
>>> a = memmap('newfile.dat', dtype=float)
>>> print a[10], a[30]
10.0 30.0
1.6.4 Character arrays (numpy.char)
See also:
Creating character arrays (numpy.char)
Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for new
development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of dtype
object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast vectorized
string operations.
These are enhanced arrays of either string_ type or unicode_ type. These arrays inherit from the ndarray,
but specially-define the operations +, *, and % on a (broadcasting) element-by-element basis. These operations are

not available on the standard ndarray of character type. In addition, the chararray has all of the standard
string (and unicode) methods, executing them on an element-by-element basis. Perhaps the easiest way to create
a chararray is to use self.view(chararray) where self is an ndarray of str or unicode data-type. However, a
chararray can also be created using the numpy.chararray constructor, or via the numpy.char.array function:
chararray(shape[, itemsize, unicode, . . . ]) Provides a convenient view on arrays of string and unicode
values.
core.defchararray.array(obj[, itemsize, . . . ]) Create a chararray.
class numpy.chararray(shape, itemsize=1, unicode=False, buffer=None, offset=0, strides=None, or-

der=None)
Provides a convenient view on arrays of string and unicode values.
Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for
new development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of
dtype object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast
vectorized string operations.
Versus a regular NumPy array of type str or unicode, this class adds the following functionality:
1. values automatically have whitespace removed from the end when indexed
2. comparison operators automatically remove whitespace from the end when comparing values
3. vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. endswith) and infix operators (e.g. "+",
"*", "%")
chararrays should be created using numpy.char.array or numpy.char.asarray, rather than this con-
structor directly.
This constructor creates the array, using buffer (with offset and strides) if it is not None. If buffer
is None, then constructs a new array with strides in “C order”, unless both len(shape) >= 2 and
order='Fortran', in which case strides is in “Fortran order”.
Parameters shape : tuple
Shape of the array.
itemsize : int, optional
Length of each array element, in number of characters. Default is 1.
unicode : bool, optional
Are the array elements of type unicode (True) or string (False). Default is False.
buffer : int, optional
Memory address of the start of the array data. Default is None, in which case a new
array is created.
Fixed stride displacement from the beginning of an axis? Default is 0. Needs to be >=0.
strides : array_like of ints, optional
Strides for the array (see ndarray.strides for full description). Default is None.

The order in which the array data is stored in memory: ‘C’ -> “row major” order (the
default), ‘F’ -> “column major” (Fortran) order.
Examples
>>> charar = np.chararray((3, 3))

>>> charar[:] = 'a'
>>> charar
chararray([['a', 'a', 'a'],
['a', 'a', 'a'],
['a', 'a', 'a']],
dtype='|S1')
>>> charar = np.chararray(charar.shape, itemsize=5)

>>> charar[:] = 'abc'
>>> charar
chararray([['abc', 'abc', 'abc'],
['abc', 'abc', 'abc'],
['abc', 'abc', 'abc']],
dtype='|S5')
Attributes

self.ndim < 2.
the ctypes module.
data.
ing an array.
Methods
argsort([axis, kind, order])


count(sub[, start, end]) Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping
occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end].
decode([encoding, errors]) Calls str.decode element-wise.
encode([encoding, errors]) Calls str.encode element-wise.
endswith(suffix[, start, end]) Returns a boolean array which is True where the string
element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
expandtabs([tabsize]) Return a copy of each string element where all tab char-
acters are replaced by one or more spaces.
find(sub[, start, end]) For each element, return the lowest index in the string
where substring sub is found.
index(sub[, start, end]) Like find, but raises ValueError when the substring is
not found.
isalnum() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are alphanumeric and there is at least one char-
acter, false otherwise.
isalpha() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are alphabetic and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
isdecimal() For each element in self, return True if there are only
decimal characters in the element.
isdigit() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are digits and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
islower() Returns true for each element if all cased characters in
the string are lowercase and there is at least one cased
character, false otherwise.
isnumeric() For each element in self, return True if there are only
numeric characters in the element.
isspace() Returns true for each element if there are only whites-
pace characters in the string and there is at least one
istitle() Returns true for each element if the element is a title-
cased string and there is at least one character, false oth-
erwise.
isupper() Returns true for each element if all cased characters in
the string are uppercase and there is at least one charac-
ter, false otherwise.
and return it.
join(seq) Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings
in the sequence seq.
ljust(width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of self left-justified
in a string of length width.
lower() Return an array with the elements of self converted to
lowercase.


lstrip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the leading
characters removed.
replace(old, new[, count]) For each element in self, return a copy of the string with
all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
shape.
rfind(sub[, start, end]) For each element in self, return the highest index in the
string where substring sub is found, such that sub is con-
tained within [start, end].
rindex(sub[, start, end]) Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring
sub is not found.
rjust(width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of self right-justified
rsplit([sep, maxsplit]) For each element in self, return a list of the words in the
string, using sep as the delimiter string.
rstrip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the trailing
characters removed.
data-type.
split([sep, maxsplit]) For each element in self, return a list of the words in the
splitlines([keepends]) For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the
element, breaking at line boundaries.
startswith(prefix[, start, end]) Returns a boolean array which is True where the string
element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
strip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the leading
and trailing characters removed.
changed.
swapcase() For each element in self, return a copy of the string with
uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice
versa.
given indices.
title() For each element in self, return a titlecased version of
the string: words start with uppercase characters, all re-
maining cased characters are lowercase.


the array.
translate(table[, deletechars]) For each element in self, return a copy of the string
where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters
have been mapped through the given translation table.
upper() Return an array with the elements of self converted to
uppercase.
zfill(width) Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros in a
string of length width.
chararray.astype(dtype, order=’K’, casting=’unsafe’, subok=True, copy=True)

Default is ‘K’.
patibility.
allowed.
of a copy.

astype(t).
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])

>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])
>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
chararray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

chararray.copy(order=’C’)
See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True

chararray.count(sub, start=0, end=None)

Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end].
See also:
char.count
chararray.decode(encoding=None, errors=None)
Calls str.decode element-wise.
See also:
char.decode
chararray.dump(file)
chararray.dumps()
array.
Parameters None
chararray.encode(encoding=None, errors=None)
Calls str.encode element-wise.
See also:
char.encode
chararray.endswith(suffix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
See also:
char.endswith
chararray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or more spaces.
See also:
char.expandtabs
chararray.fill(value)
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)

>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
chararray.find(sub, start=0, end=None)

For each element, return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found.
See also:
char.find
chararray.flatten(order=’C’)
Returns y : ndarray
See also:

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten('F')
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
chararray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
array itself.
offset : int

Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
chararray.index(sub, start=0, end=None)

Like find, but raises ValueError when the substring is not found.
See also:
char.index
chararray.isalnum()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one
See also:
char.isalnum
chararray.isalpha()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See also:
char.isalpha
chararray.isdecimal()
For each element in self, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
See also:
char.isdecimal
chararray.isdigit()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See also:
char.isdigit
chararray.islower()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one
cased character, false otherwise.
See also:
char.islower

chararray.isnumeric()
For each element in self, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
See also:
char.isnumeric
chararray.isspace()
Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace characters in the string and there is at least one
See also:
char.isspace
chararray.istitle()
Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased string and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
See also:
char.istitle
chararray.isupper()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one
See also:
char.isupper
chararray.item(*args)
Notes

Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
chararray.join(seq)
Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in the sequence seq.
See also:
char.join
chararray.ljust(width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of self left-justified in a string of length width.
See also:
char.ljust
chararray.lower()
Return an array with the elements of self converted to lowercase.
See also:
char.lower
chararray.lstrip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
See also:
char.lstrip
chararray.nonzero()
See also:
chararray.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

See also:

chararray.ravel([order ])
See also:

chararray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See also:
chararray.replace(old, new, count=None)

For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
See also:
char.replace
chararray.reshape(shape, order=’C’)
See also:
Notes
chararray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Returns None
Raises ValueError
SystemError


See also:
Notes

Examples
shaped:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])
>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])

>>> c
array([[0]])
chararray.rfind(sub, start=0, end=None)

For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub
is contained within [start, end].
See also:
char.rfind
chararray.rindex(sub, start=0, end=None)
Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring sub is not found.
See also:
char.rindex
chararray.rjust(width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of self right-justified in a string of length width.
See also:
char.rjust
chararray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
See also:
char.rsplit
chararray.rstrip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
See also:
char.rstrip
chararray.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)
See also:
chararray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)

Returns None

See also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
chararray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Notes
piler);


this array.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
chararray.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:



Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])

>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])

>>> a
array([('c', 1), ('a', 2)],
dtype=[('x', '|S1'), ('y', '<i4')])
chararray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
See also:
char.split
chararray.splitlines(keepends=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
See also:
char.splitlines
chararray.squeeze(axis=None)
See also:
chararray.startswith(prefix, start=0, end=None)

Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
See also:
char.startswith

chararray.strip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
See also:
char.strip
chararray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See also:
chararray.swapcase()
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
vice versa.
See also:
char.swapcase
chararray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)
See also:
chararray.title()
For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with uppercase characters, all
remaining cased characters are lowercase.
See also:
char.title
chararray.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")
sep : str
format : str

Notes
chararray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters none
Returns y : list
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
chararray.tostring(order=’C’)
array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples

>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
chararray.translate(table, deletechars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation
table.
See also:
char.translate
chararray.transpose(*axes)
(i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
axis.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])

chararray.upper()
Return an array with the elements of self converted to uppercase.
See also:
char.upper
chararray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
type preservation.
Notes

Examples

>>> y
>>> print(type(y))

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],

>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
>>> z.a
Views share data:
>>> x[0] = (9, 10)

>>> z[0]
(9, 10)

>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
chararray.zfill(width)
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros in a string of length width.
See also:
char.zfill
numpy.core.defchararray.array(obj, itemsize=None, copy=True, unicode=None, order=None)
Create a chararray.
Note: This class is provided for numarray backward-compatibility. New code (not concerned with numarray
compatibility) should use arrays of type string_ or unicode_ and use the free functions in numpy.char
for fast vectorized string operations instead.

3. vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. str.endswith) and infix operators (e.g. +, *,
%)
Parameters obj : array of str or unicode-like

itemsize is the number of characters per scalar in the resulting array. If itemsize is
None, and obj is an object array or a Python list, the itemsize will be automatically
determined. If itemsize is provided and obj is of type str or unicode, then the obj string
will be chunked into itemsize pieces.
If true (default), then the object is copied. Otherwise, a copy will only be made if
__array__ returns a copy, if obj is a nested sequence, or if a copy is needed to satisfy
any of the other requirements (itemsize, unicode, order, etc.).
When true, the resulting chararray can contain Unicode characters, when false only
8-bit characters. If unicode is None and obj is one of the following:
• a chararray,
• an ndarray of type str or unicode
• a Python str or unicode object,
then the unicode setting of the output array will be automatically determined.
order : {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’}, optional
Specify the order of the array. If order is ‘C’ (default), then the array will be in C-
contiguous order (last-index varies the fastest). If order is ‘F’, then the returned array
will be in Fortran-contiguous order (first-index varies the fastest). If order is ‘A’, then
the returned array may be in any order (either C-, Fortran-contiguous, or even discon-
tiguous).
Another difference with the standard ndarray of str data-type is that the chararray inherits the feature introduced by
Numarray that white-space at the end of any element in the array will be ignored on item retrieval and comparison
operations.
1.6.5 Record arrays (numpy.rec)
See also:
Creating record arrays (numpy.rec), Data type routines, Data type objects (dtype).
NumPy provides the recarray class which allows accessing the fields of a structured array as attributes, and a
corresponding scalar data type object record.
recarray Construct an ndarray that allows field access using at-

tributes.
record A data-type scalar that allows field access as attribute
lookup.
class numpy.recarray
Construct an ndarray that allows field access using attributes.

Arrays may have a data-types containing fields, analogous to columns in a spread sheet. An example is [(x,
int), (y, float)], where each entry in the array is a pair of (int, float). Normally, these attributes
are accessed using dictionary lookups such as arr['x'] and arr['y']. Record arrays allow the fields to be
accessed as members of the array, using arr.x and arr.y.
Shape of output array.
The desired data-type. By default, the data-type is determined from formats, names,
titles, aligned and byteorder.
formats : list of data-types, optional
A list containing the data-types for the different columns, e.g. ['i4', 'f8',
'i4']. formats does not support the new convention of using types directly, i.e.
(int, float, int). Note that formats must be a list, not a tuple. Given that
formats is somewhat limited, we recommend specifying dtype instead.
names : tuple of str, optional
The name of each column, e.g. ('x', 'y', 'z').
buf : buffer, optional
By default, a new array is created of the given shape and data-type. If buf is specified
and is an object exposing the buffer interface, the array will use the memory from the
existing buffer. In this case, the offset and strides keywords are available.
Returns rec : recarray
Empty array of the given shape and type.
Other Parameters titles : tuple of str, optional
Aliases for column names. For example, if names were ('x', 'y', 'z') and
titles is ('x_coordinate', 'y_coordinate', 'z_coordinate'), then
arr['x'] is equivalent to both arr.x and arr.x_coordinate.
byteorder : {‘<’, ‘>’, ‘=’}, optional
Byte-order for all fields.
aligned : bool, optional
Align the fields in memory as the C-compiler would.
strides : tuple of ints, optional
Buffer (buf ) is interpreted according to these strides (strides define how many bytes
each array element, row, column, etc. occupy in memory).
Start reading buffer (buf ) from this offset onwards.
Row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-style) order.
See also:
rec.fromrecords Construct a record array from data.

record fundamental data-type for recarray.

format_parser determine a data-type from formats, names, titles.
Notes
This constructor can be compared to empty: it creates a new record array but does not fill it with data. To create
a record array from data, use one of the following methods:
1. Create a standard ndarray and convert it to a record array, using arr.view(np.recarray)
2. Use the buf keyword.
3. Use np.rec.fromrecords.
Examples
Create an array with two fields, x and y:
>>> x = np.array([(1.0, 2), (3.0, 4)], dtype=[('x', float), ('y', int)])

>>> x
array([(1.0, 2), (3.0, 4)],
dtype=[('x', '<f8'), ('y', '<i4')])
>>> x['x']
array([ 1., 3.])
View the array as a record array:
>>> x = x.view(np.recarray)
>>> x.x
array([ 1., 3.])
>>> x.y
array([2, 4])
Create a new, empty record array:
>>> np.recarray((2,),
... dtype=[('x', int), ('y', float), ('z', int)])
rec.array([(-1073741821, 1.2249118382103472e-301, 24547520),
(3471280, 1.2134086255804012e-316, 0)],
dtype=[('x', '<i4'), ('y', '<f8'), ('z', '<i4')])
Attributes

self.ndim < 2.
the ctypes module.


data.
ing an array.
Methods
all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

any([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
argmax([axis, out]) Return indices of the maximum values along the given
axis.
argmin([axis, out]) Return indices of the minimum values along the given
axis of a.
of choices.
max].
given axis.
given axis.
field(attr[, val])
and return it.


if possible)
max([axis, out, keepdims]) Return the maximum along a given axis.
mean([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given
axis.
min([axis, out, keepdims]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
ferent byte order.
prod([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis
ptp([axis, out]) Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a
given axis.
shape.
of decimals.
data-type.
std([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements
along given axis.
sum([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
changed.
given indices.
the array.
the array.
var([axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the variance of the array elements, along given
axis.

recarray.all(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

See also:
recarray.any(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

See also:
recarray.argmax(axis=None, out=None)
Return indices of the maximum values along the given axis.
Refer to numpy.argmax for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.argmax equivalent function
recarray.argmin(axis=None, out=None)
Return indices of the minimum values along the given axis of a.
Refer to numpy.argmin for detailed documentation.
See also:
numpy.argmin equivalent function
recarray.argpartition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

See also:
recarray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:
recarray.astype(dtype, order=’K’, casting=’unsafe’, subok=True, copy=True)



Default is ‘K’.
patibility.
allowed.
of a copy.
astype(t).
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])

>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])

>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
recarray.byteswap(inplace=False)
Examples

>>> map(hex, A)
['0x1', '0x100', '0x2233']
array([ 256, 1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
['0x100', '0x1', '0x3322']

>>> A.byteswap()
dtype='|S3')
recarray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

See also:
recarray.clip(min=None, max=None, out=None)

See also:
recarray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)

See also:

recarray.conj()
See also:
recarray.conjugate()
See also:
recarray.copy(order=’C’)
See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
recarray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)


See also:
recarray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

See also:
recarray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

See also:
recarray.dot(b, out=None)
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2)
>>> b = np.ones((2, 2)) * 2
>>> a.dot(b)
array([[ 2., 2.],
[ 2., 2.]])
>>> a.dot(b).dot(b)
array([[ 8., 8.],
[ 8., 8.]])
recarray.dump(file)
recarray.dumps()
array.
Parameters None

recarray.field(attr, val=None)
recarray.fill(value)
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
recarray.flatten(order=’C’)
Returns y : ndarray
See also:

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten('F')
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
recarray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)

array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
recarray.item(*args)
Notes
Examples


>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
recarray.itemset(*args)
Notes
Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.itemset(4, 0)
>>> x.itemset((2, 2), 9)
>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 3],
[8, 5, 9]])
recarray.max(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Refer to numpy.amax for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.amax equivalent function

recarray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

See also:
numpy.mean equivalent function
recarray.min(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Refer to numpy.amin for full documentation.
See also:
numpy.amin equivalent function
recarray.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)
Equivalent to:
can be any of:
recarray.nonzero()
See also:
recarray.partition(kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)



See also:

sort Full sort.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])

>>> a.partition(3)
>>> a
array([2, 1, 3, 4])

array([1, 2, 3, 4])
recarray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Return the product of the array elements over the given axis
See also:
recarray.ptp(axis=None, out=None)
Peak to peak (maximum - minimum) value along a given axis.

See also:
numpy.ptp equivalent function
recarray.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

See also:
recarray.ravel([order ])
See also:

recarray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See also:
recarray.reshape(shape, order=’C’)
See also:
Notes
recarray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Returns None

Raises ValueError
SystemError
See also:
Notes

Examples
shaped:
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')
>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])

>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...


>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
recarray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
See also:
recarray.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)

See also:
recarray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)

Returns None
See also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])

>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
recarray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Notes
piler);
this array.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags

C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
recarray.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:

Notes

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])

>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a
array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])

>>> a
array([('c', 1), ('a', 2)],
dtype=[('x', '|S1'), ('y', '<i4')])
recarray.squeeze(axis=None)
See also:
recarray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

See also:
numpy.std equivalent function
recarray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

See also:
recarray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See also:

recarray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)

See also:
recarray.tobytes(order=’C’)
array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
recarray.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")

sep : str
format : str

Notes
recarray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters none
Returns y : list
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
recarray.tostring(order=’C’)
array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples

>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
recarray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See also:
recarray.transpose(*axes)
(i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).
axis.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])

recarray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=False)

Returns the variance of the array elements, along given axis.
See also:
numpy.var equivalent function
recarray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
type preservation.
Notes

Examples

>>> y
>>> print(type(y))


>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
>>> z.a
Views share data:
>>> x[0] = (9, 10)

>>> z[0]
(9, 10)

>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
class numpy.record
A data-type scalar that allows field access as attribute lookup.
Attributes
T transpose
base base object
data pointer to start of data
dtype dtype object
flags integer value of flags
flat a 1-d view of scalar


imag imaginary part of scalar
itemsize length of one element in bytes
nbytes length of item in bytes
ndim number of array dimensions
real real part of scalar
shape tuple of array dimensions
size number of elements in the gentype
strides tuple of bytes steps in each dimension
Methods
all Not implemented (virtual attribute)

any Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argmax Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argmin Not implemented (virtual attribute)
argsort Not implemented (virtual attribute)
astype Not implemented (virtual attribute)
byteswap Not implemented (virtual attribute)
choose Not implemented (virtual attribute)
clip Not implemented (virtual attribute)
compress Not implemented (virtual attribute)
conj
conjugate Not implemented (virtual attribute)
copy Not implemented (virtual attribute)
cumprod Not implemented (virtual attribute)
cumsum Not implemented (virtual attribute)
diagonal Not implemented (virtual attribute)
dump Not implemented (virtual attribute)
dumps Not implemented (virtual attribute)
fill Not implemented (virtual attribute)
flatten Not implemented (virtual attribute)
getfield
item Not implemented (virtual attribute)
itemset Not implemented (virtual attribute)
max Not implemented (virtual attribute)
mean Not implemented (virtual attribute)
min Not implemented (virtual attribute)
nonzero Not implemented (virtual attribute)
pprint() Pretty-print all fields.
prod Not implemented (virtual attribute)
ptp Not implemented (virtual attribute)
put Not implemented (virtual attribute)
ravel Not implemented (virtual attribute)
repeat Not implemented (virtual attribute)
reshape Not implemented (virtual attribute)
resize Not implemented (virtual attribute)
round Not implemented (virtual attribute)
searchsorted Not implemented (virtual attribute)


setfield
setflags Not implemented (virtual attribute)
sort Not implemented (virtual attribute)
squeeze Not implemented (virtual attribute)
std Not implemented (virtual attribute)
sum Not implemented (virtual attribute)
swapaxes Not implemented (virtual attribute)
take Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tobytes
tofile Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tolist Not implemented (virtual attribute)
tostring Not implemented (virtual attribute)
trace Not implemented (virtual attribute)
transpose Not implemented (virtual attribute)
var Not implemented (virtual attribute)
view Not implemented (virtual attribute)
record.all()
See also:
The
record.any()
See also:
The
record.argmax()
See also:
The
record.argmin()
See also:
The
record.argsort()

See also:
The
record.astype()
See also:
The
record.byteswap()
See also:
The
record.choose()
See also:
The
record.clip()
See also:
The
record.compress()
See also:
The
record.conj()
record.conjugate()
See also:

The
record.copy()
See also:
The
record.cumprod()
See also:
The
record.cumsum()
See also:
The
record.diagonal()
See also:
The
record.dump()
See also:
The
record.dumps()
See also:
The
record.fill()

See also:
The
record.flatten()
See also:
The
record.getfield()
record.item()
See also:
The
record.itemset()
See also:
The
record.max()
See also:
The
record.mean()
See also:
The
record.min()
See also:
The

record.newbyteorder(new_order=’S’)
The new_order code can be any from the following:
Parameters new_order : str, optional

Byte order to force; a value from the byte order specifications above. The default value
(‘S’) results in swapping the current byte order. The code does a case-insensitive check
on the first letter of new_order for the alternatives above. For example, any of ‘B’ or ‘b’
or ‘biggish’ are valid to specify big-endian.
record.nonzero()
See also:
The
record.pprint()
Pretty-print all fields.
record.prod()
See also:
The
record.ptp()
See also:
The
record.put()

See also:
The
record.ravel()
See also:
The
record.repeat()
See also:
The
record.reshape()
See also:
The
record.resize()
See also:
The
record.round()
See also:
The
record.searchsorted()
See also:
The
record.setfield()

record.setflags()
See also:
The
record.sort()
See also:
The
record.squeeze()
See also:
The
record.std()
See also:
The
record.sum()
See also:
The
record.swapaxes()
See also:
The
record.take()
See also:

The
record.tobytes()
record.tofile()
See also:
The
record.tolist()
See also:
The
record.tostring()
See also:
The
record.trace()
See also:
The
record.transpose()
See also:
The
record.var()
See also:
The
record.view()

See also:
The
1.6.6 Masked arrays (numpy.ma)
See also:
Masked arrays
1.6.7 Standard container class
For backward compatibility and as a standard “container “class, the UserArray from Numeric has been brought over to
NumPy and named numpy.lib.user_array.container The container class is a Python class whose self.array
attribute is an ndarray. Multiple inheritance is probably easier with numpy.lib.user_array.container than with the
ndarray itself and so it is included by default. It is not documented here beyond mentioning its existence because you
are encouraged to use the ndarray class directly if you can.
numpy.lib.user_array.container(data[, . . . ]) Standard container-class for easy multiple-inheritance.
class numpy.lib.user_array.container(data, dtype=None, copy=True)

Standard container-class for easy multiple-inheritance.
Methods
copy
tostring
byteswap
astype
1.6.8 Array Iterators
Iterators are a powerful concept for array processing. Essentially, iterators implement a generalized for-loop. If myiter
is an iterator object, then the Python code:
for val in myiter:
...
some code involving val
...
calls val = myiter.next() repeatedly until StopIteration is raised by the iterator. There are several ways
to iterate over an array that may be useful: default iteration, flat iteration, and 𝑁 -dimensional enumeration.
Default iteration
The default iterator of an ndarray object is the default Python iterator of a sequence type. Thus, when the array object
itself is used as an iterator. The default behavior is equivalent to:

for i in range(arr.shape[0]):
val = arr[i]
This default iterator selects a sub-array of dimension 𝑁 − 1 from the array. This can be a useful construct for defining
recursive algorithms. To loop over the entire array requires 𝑁 for-loops.
>>> a = arange(24).reshape(3,2,4)+10
>>> for val in a:
... print 'item:', val
item: [[10 11 12 13]
[14 15 16 17]]
item: [[18 19 20 21]
[22 23 24 25]]
item: [[26 27 28 29]
[30 31 32 33]]
Flat iteration
As mentioned previously, the flat attribute of ndarray objects returns an iterator that will cycle over the entire array in
C-style contiguous order.
>>> for i, val in enumerate(a.flat):

... if i%5 == 0: print i, val
0 10
5 15
10 20
15 25
20 30
Here, I’ve used the built-in enumerate iterator to return the iterator index as well as the value.
N-dimensional enumeration
ndenumerate(arr) Multidimensional index iterator.
class numpy.ndenumerate(arr)
Multidimensional index iterator.
Return an iterator yielding pairs of array coordinates and values.
Parameters arr : ndarray
Input array.
See also:
ndindex, flatiter

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> for index, x in np.ndenumerate(a):
... print(index, x)
(0, 0) 1
(0, 1) 2
(1, 0) 3
(1, 1) 4
Methods
next() Standard iterator method, returns the index tuple and ar-
ray value.
ndenumerate.next()
Standard iterator method, returns the index tuple and array value.
Returns coords : tuple of ints
The indices of the current iteration.
val : scalar
The array element of the current iteration.
Sometimes it may be useful to get the N-dimensional index while iterating. The ndenumerate iterator can achieve this.
>>> for i, val in ndenumerate(a):

... if sum(i)%5 == 0: print i, val
(0, 0, 0) 10
(1, 1, 3) 25
(2, 0, 3) 29
(2, 1, 2) 32
Iterator for broadcasting
broadcast Produce an object that mimics broadcasting.
class numpy.broadcast
Produce an object that mimics broadcasting.
Parameters in1, in2, . . . : array_like
Input parameters.
Returns b : broadcast object
Broadcast the input parameters against one another, and return an object that encapsu-
lates the result. Amongst others, it has shape and nd properties, and may be used as
an iterator.
See also:
broadcast_arrays, broadcast_to

Examples
Manually adding two vectors, using broadcasting:
>>> x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])

>>> y = np.array([4, 5, 6])
>>> b = np.broadcast(x, y)
>>> out = np.empty(b.shape)

>>> out.flat = [u+v for (u,v) in b]
>>> out
array([[ 5., 6., 7.],
[ 6., 7., 8.],
[ 7., 8., 9.]])
Compare against built-in broadcasting:
>>> x + y
array([[5, 6, 7],
[6, 7, 8],
[7, 8, 9]])
Attributes
index current index in broadcasted result

iters tuple of iterators along self’s “components.”
shape Shape of broadcasted result.
size Total size of broadcasted result.
Methods
reset() Reset the broadcasted result’s iterator(s).
broadcast.reset()
Reset the broadcasted result’s iterator(s).
Parameters None
Returns None
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> y = np.array([[4], [5], [6]]
>>> b = np.broadcast(x, y)
>>> b.index
0
>>> b.next(), b.next(), b.next()
((1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4))
>>> b.index
3

>>> b.reset()
>>> b.index
0
The general concept of broadcasting is also available from Python using the broadcast iterator. This object takes
𝑁 objects as inputs and returns an iterator that returns tuples providing each of the input sequence elements in the
broadcasted result.
>>> for val in broadcast([[1,0],[2,3]],[0,1]):

... print val
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
(2, 0)
(3, 1)
1.7 Masked arrays
Masked arrays are arrays that may have missing or invalid entries. The numpy.ma module provides a nearly work-
alike replacement for numpy that supports data arrays with masks.
1.7.1 The numpy.ma module
Rationale
Masked arrays are arrays that may have missing or invalid entries. The numpy.ma module provides a nearly work-
alike replacement for numpy that supports data arrays with masks.
What is a masked array?
In many circumstances, datasets can be incomplete or tainted by the presence of invalid data. For example, a sensor
may have failed to record a data, or recorded an invalid value. The numpy.ma module provides a convenient way to
address this issue, by introducing masked arrays.
A masked array is the combination of a standard numpy.ndarray and a mask. A mask is either nomask, indicating
that no value of the associated array is invalid, or an array of booleans that determines for each element of the associated
array whether the value is valid or not. When an element of the mask is False, the corresponding element of the
associated array is valid and is said to be unmasked. When an element of the mask is True, the corresponding element
of the associated array is said to be masked (invalid).
The package ensures that masked entries are not used in computations.
As an illustration, let’s consider the following dataset:
>>> import numpy as np

>>> import numpy.ma as ma
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, -1, 5])
We wish to mark the fourth entry as invalid. The easiest is to create a masked array:
>>> mx = ma.masked_array(x, mask=[0, 0, 0, 1, 0])
We can now compute the mean of the dataset, without taking the invalid data into account:
1.7. Masked arrays 199

>>> mx.mean()
2.75
The numpy.ma module
The main feature of the numpy.ma module is the MaskedArray class, which is a subclass of numpy.ndarray.
The class, its attributes and methods are described in more details in the MaskedArray class section.
The numpy.ma module can be used as an addition to numpy:

To create an array with the second element invalid, we would do:
>>> y = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask = [0, 1, 0])
To create a masked array where all values close to 1.e20 are invalid, we would do:
>>> z = masked_values([1.0, 1.e20, 3.0, 4.0], 1.e20)
For a complete discussion of creation methods for masked arrays please see section Constructing masked arrays.
1.7.2 Using numpy.ma
Constructing masked arrays
There are several ways to construct a masked array.

• A first possibility is to directly invoke the MaskedArray class.
• A second possibility is to use the two masked array constructors, array and masked_array.
array(data[, dtype, copy, order, mask, . . . ]) An array class with possibly masked values.
masked_array alias of MaskedArray
numpy.ma.array(data, dtype=None, copy=False, order=None, mask=False, fill_value=None,

keep_mask=True, hard_mask=False, shrink=True, subok=True, ndmin=0)
An array class with possibly masked values.
Masked values of True exclude the corresponding element from any computation.
Construction:
x = MaskedArray(data, mask=nomask, dtype=None, copy=False, subok=True,
ndmin=0, fill_value=None, keep_mask=True, hard_mask=None,
shrink=True, order=None)

Input data.
mask : sequence, optional
Mask. Must be convertible to an array of booleans with the same shape as data. True
indicates a masked (i.e. invalid) data.

dtype : dtype, optional

Data type of the output. If dtype is None, the type of the data argument (data.dtype)
is used. If dtype is not None and different from data.dtype, a copy is performed.
Whether to copy the input data (True), or to use a reference instead. Default is False.
Whether to return a subclass of MaskedArray if possible (True) or a plain
MaskedArray. Default is True.
ndmin : int, optional
Minimum number of dimensions. Default is 0.
fill_value : scalar, optional
Value used to fill in the masked values when necessary. If None, a default based on the
data-type is used.
keep_mask : bool, optional
Whether to combine mask with the mask of the input data, if any (True), or to use only
mask for the output (False). Default is True.
hard_mask : bool, optional
Whether to use a hard mask or not. With a hard mask, masked values cannot be un-
masked. Default is False.
shrink : bool, optional
Whether to force compression of an empty mask. Default is True.
Specify the order of the array. If order is ‘C’, then the array will be in C-contiguous order
(last-index varies the fastest). If order is ‘F’, then the returned array will be in Fortran-
contiguous order (first-index varies the fastest). If order is ‘A’ (default), then the returned
array may be in any order (either C-, Fortran-contiguous, or even discontiguous), unless
a copy is required, in which case it will be C-contiguous.
numpy.ma.masked_array
alias of MaskedArray
• A third option is to take the view of an existing array. In that case, the mask of the view is set to nomask if the
array has no named fields, or an array of boolean with the same structure as the array otherwise.
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.view(ma.MaskedArray)
masked_array(data = [1 2 3],
mask = False,
fill_value = 999999)
>>> x = np.array([(1, 1.), (2, 2.)], dtype=[('a',int), ('b', float)])
>>> x.view(ma.MaskedArray)
masked_array(data = [(1, 1.0) (2, 2.0)],
mask = [(False, False) (False, False)],
fill_value = (999999, 1e+20),
dtype = [('a', '<i4'), ('b', '<f8')])

• Yet another possibility is to use any of the following functions:
asarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to a masked array of the given data-
type.
asanyarray(a[, dtype]) Convert the input to a masked array, conserving sub-
classes.
fix_invalid(a[, mask, copy, fill_value]) Return input with invalid data masked and replaced by
a fill value.
masked_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where equal to a given value.
masked_greater(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where greater than a given value.
masked_greater_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where greater than or equal to a given
value.
masked_inside(x, v1, v2[, copy]) Mask an array inside a given interval.
masked_invalid(a[, copy]) Mask an array where invalid values occur (NaNs or
infs).
masked_less(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where less than a given value.
masked_less_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where less than or equal to a given value.
masked_not_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where not equal to a given value.
masked_object(x, value[, copy, shrink]) Mask the array x where the data are exactly equal to
value.
masked_outside(x, v1, v2[, copy]) Mask an array outside a given interval.
masked_values(x, value[, rtol, atol, copy, . . . ]) Mask using floating point equality.
masked_where(condition, a[, copy]) Mask an array where a condition is met.
numpy.ma.asarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Convert the input to a masked array of the given data-type.
No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray. If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, a base class
MaskedArray is returned.
Parameters a : array_like
Input data, in any form that can be converted to a masked array. This includes lists, lists
of tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists, ndarrays and masked arrays.
By default, the data-type is inferred from the input data.
Whether to use row-major (‘C’) or column-major (‘FORTRAN’) memory representa-
tion. Default is ‘C’.
Returns out : MaskedArray
Masked array interpretation of a.
See also:
asanyarray Similar to asarray, but conserves subclasses.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(10.).reshape(2, 5)
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],

[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])

>>> np.ma.asarray(x)
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> type(np.ma.asarray(x))
<class 'numpy.ma.core.MaskedArray'>
numpy.ma.asanyarray(a, dtype=None)
Convert the input to a masked array, conserving subclasses.
If a is a subclass of MaskedArray, its class is conserved. No copy is performed if the input is already
an ndarray.
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array.
Whether to use row-major (‘C’) or column-major (‘FORTRAN’) memory representa-
tion. Default is ‘C’.
Returns out : MaskedArray
MaskedArray interpretation of a.
See also:
asarray Similar to asanyarray, but does not conserve subclass.
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.],
[ 5., 6., 7., 8., 9.]])
>>> np.ma.asanyarray(x)
masked_array(data =
[[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
[ 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> type(np.ma.asanyarray(x))
<class 'numpy.ma.core.MaskedArray'>
numpy.ma.fix_invalid(a, mask=False, copy=True, fill_value=None)

Return input with invalid data masked and replaced by a fill value.
Invalid data means values of nan, inf, etc.

Input array, a (subclass of) ndarray.

mask : sequence, optional
Mask. Must be convertible to an array of booleans with the same shape as data. True
indicates a masked (i.e. invalid) data.
Whether to use a copy of a (True) or to fix a in place (False). Default is True.
Value used for fixing invalid data. Default is None, in which case the a.fill_value
is used.
Returns b : MaskedArray
The input array with invalid entries fixed.
Notes
A copy is performed by default.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1., -1, np.nan, np.inf], mask=[1] + [0]*3)

>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- -1.0 nan inf],
mask = [ True False False False],
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> np.ma.fix_invalid(x)
masked_array(data = [-- -1.0 -- --],
mask = [ True False True True],
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> fixed = np.ma.fix_invalid(x)

>>> fixed.data
array([ 1.00000000e+00, -1.00000000e+00, 1.00000000e+20,
1.00000000e+20])
>>> x.data
array([ 1., -1., NaN, Inf])
numpy.ma.masked_equal(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where equal to a given value.
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x == value). For floating point arrays,
consider using masked_values(x, value).
See also:
masked_where Mask where a condition is met.

masked_values Mask using floating point equality.

Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3],
mask = [False False True False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_greater(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where greater than a given value.
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x > value).
See also:
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_greater(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 2 --],
mask = [False False False True],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_greater_equal(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where greater than or equal to a given value.
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x >= value).
See also:
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_greater_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- --],
mask = [False False True True],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_inside(x, v1, v2, copy=True)

Mask an array inside a given interval.

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x inside the interval [v1,v2] (v1 <= x <= v2).
The boundaries v1 and v2 can be given in either order.
See also:
Notes
The array x is prefilled with its filling value.
Examples

>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
>>> ma.masked_inside(x, -0.3, 0.3)
masked_array(data = [0.31 1.2 -- -- -0.4 -1.1],
mask = [False False True True False False],
fill_value=1e+20)
The order of v1 and v2 doesn’t matter.
>>> ma.masked_inside(x, 0.3, -0.3)

masked_array(data = [0.31 1.2 -- -- -0.4 -1.1],
mask = [False False True True False False],
fill_value=1e+20)
numpy.ma.masked_invalid(a, copy=True)
Mask an array where invalid values occur (NaNs or infs).
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = ~(np.isfinite(a)). Any pre-existing mask
is conserved. Only applies to arrays with a dtype where NaNs or infs make sense (i.e. floating point types),
but accepts any array_like object.
See also:
Examples

>>> a = np.arange(5, dtype=float)
>>> a[2] = np.NaN
>>> a[3] = np.PINF
>>> a
array([ 0., 1., NaN, Inf, 4.])
>>> ma.masked_invalid(a)
masked_array(data = [0.0 1.0 -- -- 4.0],
mask = [False False True True False],
fill_value=1e+20)
numpy.ma.masked_less(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where less than a given value.

This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x < value).

See also:
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_less(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 2 3],
mask = [ True True False False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_less_equal(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where less than or equal to a given value.
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x <= value).
See also:
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_less_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- -- 3],
mask = [ True True True False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_not_equal(x, value, copy=True)

Mask an array where not equal to a given value.
This function is a shortcut to masked_where, with condition = (x != value).
See also:
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_not_equal(a, 2)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 2 --],

mask = [ True True False True],

fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_object(x, value, copy=True, shrink=True)

Mask the array x where the data are exactly equal to value.
This function is similar to masked_values, but only suitable for object arrays: for floating point, use
masked_values instead.
Parameters x : array_like
Array to mask
value : object
Comparison value
copy : {True, False}, optional
Whether to return a copy of x.
shrink : {True, False}, optional
Whether to collapse a mask full of False to nomask
Returns result : MaskedArray
The result of masking x where equal to value.
See also:

masked_equal Mask where equal to a given value (integers).
Examples

>>> food = np.array(['green_eggs', 'ham'], dtype=object)
>>> # don't eat spoiled food
>>> eat = ma.masked_object(food, 'green_eggs')
>>> print(eat)
[-- ham]
>>> # plain ol` ham is boring
>>> fresh_food = np.array(['cheese', 'ham', 'pineapple'], dtype=object)
>>> eat = ma.masked_object(fresh_food, 'green_eggs')
>>> print(eat)
[cheese ham pineapple]
Note that mask is set to nomask if possible.
>>> eat
masked_array(data = [cheese ham pineapple],
mask = False,
fill_value=?)
numpy.ma.masked_outside(x, v1, v2, copy=True)

Mask an array outside a given interval.

Shortcut to masked_where, where condition is True for x outside the interval [v1,v2] (x < v1)|(x > v2).
The boundaries v1 and v2 can be given in either order.
See also:
Notes
The array x is prefilled with its filling value.
Examples

>>> x = [0.31, 1.2, 0.01, 0.2, -0.4, -1.1]
>>> ma.masked_outside(x, -0.3, 0.3)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.01 0.2 -- --],
mask = [ True True False False True True],
fill_value=1e+20)
The order of v1 and v2 doesn’t matter.
>>> ma.masked_outside(x, 0.3, -0.3)

masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.01 0.2 -- --],
mask = [ True True False False True True],
fill_value=1e+20)
numpy.ma.masked_values(x, value, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08, copy=True, shrink=True)

Mask using floating point equality.
Return a MaskedArray, masked where the data in array x are approximately equal to value, determined
using isclose. The default tolerances for masked_values are the same as those for isclose.
For integer types, exact equality is used, in the same way as masked_equal.
The fill_value is set to value and the mask is set to nomask if possible.
Array to mask.
value : float
Masking value.
rtol, atol : float, optional
Tolerance parameters passed on to isclose
Whether to return a copy of x.
Whether to collapse a mask full of False to nomask.
The result of masking x where approximately equal to value.

See also:

masked_equal Mask where equal to a given value (integers).
Examples

>>> x = np.array([1, 1.1, 2, 1.1, 3])
>>> ma.masked_values(x, 1.1)
masked_array(data = [1.0 -- 2.0 -- 3.0],
mask = [False True False True False],
fill_value=1.1)
Note that mask is set to nomask if possible.
>>> ma.masked_values(x, 1.5)

masked_array(data = [ 1. 1.1 2. 1.1 3. ],
mask = False,
fill_value=1.5)
For integers, the fill value will be different in general to the result of masked_equal.
>>> x = np.arange(5)
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> ma.masked_values(x, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3 4],
mask = [False False True False False],
fill_value=2)
>>> ma.masked_equal(x, 2)
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3 4],
mask = [False False True False False],
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.masked_where(condition, a, copy=True)
Mask an array where a condition is met.
Return a as an array masked where condition is True. Any masked values of a or condition are also masked
in the output.
Parameters condition : array_like
Masking condition. When condition tests floating point values for equality, consider
using masked_values instead.
a : array_like
Array to mask.
copy : bool
If True (default) make a copy of a in the result. If False modify a in place and return a
view.
The result of masking a where condition is True.

See also:

masked_equal Mask where equal to a given value.
masked_not_equal Mask where not equal to a given value.
masked_less_equal Mask where less than or equal to a given value.
masked_greater_equal Mask where greater than or equal to a given value.
masked_less Mask where less than a given value.
masked_greater Mask where greater than a given value.
masked_inside Mask inside a given interval.
masked_outside Mask outside a given interval.
masked_invalid Mask invalid values (NaNs or infs).
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a)
fill_value=999999)
Mask array b conditional on a.

>>> b = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
>>> ma.masked_where(a == 2, b)
masked_array(data = [a b -- d],
fill_value=N/A)
Effect of the copy argument.

>>> c = ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a)
>>> c
fill_value=999999)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
masked_array(data = [99 -- -- 3],
mask = [False True True False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3])
>>> c = ma.masked_where(a <= 2, a, copy=False)
>>> c[0] = 99
>>> c
masked_array(data = [99 -- -- 3],
mask = [False True True False],

fill_value=999999)
>>> a
array([99, 1, 2, 3])
When condition or a contain masked values.
>>> a = ma.masked_where(a == 2, a)
>>> a
masked_array(data = [0 1 -- 3],
fill_value=999999)
>>> b = np.arange(4)
>>> b = ma.masked_where(b == 0, b)
>>> b
masked_array(data = [-- 1 2 3],
mask = [ True False False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.masked_where(a == 3, b)
masked_array(data = [-- 1 -- --],
mask = [ True False True True],
fill_value=999999)
Accessing the data
The underlying data of a masked array can be accessed in several ways:

• through the data attribute. The output is a view of the array as a numpy.ndarray or one of its subclasses,
depending on the type of the underlying data at the masked array creation.
• through the __array__ method. The output is then a numpy.ndarray.
• by directly taking a view of the masked array as a numpy.ndarray or one of its subclass (which is actually
what using the data attribute does).
• by using the getdata function.
None of these methods is completely satisfactory if some entries have been marked as invalid. As a general rule,
where a representation of the array is required without any masked entries, it is recommended to fill the array with the
filled method.
Accessing the mask
The mask of a masked array is accessible through its mask attribute. We must keep in mind that a True entry in the
mask indicates an invalid data.
Another possibility is to use the getmask and getmaskarray functions. getmask(x) outputs the mask of x if
x is a masked array, and the special value nomask otherwise. getmaskarray(x) outputs the mask of x if x is a
masked array. If x has no invalid entry or is not a masked array, the function outputs a boolean array of False with
as many elements as x.
Accessing only the valid entries
To retrieve only the valid entries, we can use the inverse of the mask as an index. The inverse of the mask can be
calculated with the numpy.logical_not function or simply with the ~ operator:

>>> x = ma.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]], mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])

>>> x[~x.mask]
masked_array(data = [1 4],
mask = [False False],
Another way to retrieve the valid data is to use the compressed method, which returns a one-dimensional ndarray
(or one of its subclasses, depending on the value of the baseclass attribute):
>>> x.compressed()
array([1, 4])
Note that the output of compressed is always 1D.
Modifying the mask
Masking an entry
The recommended way to mark one or several specific entries of a masked array as invalid is to assign the special
value masked to them:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x[0] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- 2 3],
mask = [ True False False],
>>> y = ma.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])
>>> y[(0, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0)] = ma.masked
>>> y
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 3]
[4 5 --]
[-- 8 9]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False False True]
[ True False False]],
>>> z = ma.array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> z[:-2] = ma.masked
>>> z
masked_array(data = [-- -- 3 4],
A second possibility is to modify the mask directly, but this usage is discouraged.
Note: When creating a new masked array with a simple, non-structured datatype, the mask is initially set to the
special value nomask, that corresponds roughly to the boolean False. Trying to set an element of nomask will fail
with a TypeError exception, as a boolean does not support item assignment.
All the entries of an array can be masked at once by assigning True to the mask:

>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> x.mask = True
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- -- --],
mask = [ True True True],
Finally, specific entries can be masked and/or unmasked by assigning to the mask a sequence of booleans:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.mask = [0, 1, 0]
>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 -- 3],
mask = [False True False],
Unmasking an entry
To unmask one or several specific entries, we can just assign one or several new valid values to them:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 2 --],
mask = [False False True],
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
mask = [False False False],
Note: Unmasking an entry by direct assignment will silently fail if the masked array has a hard mask, as shown by
the hardmask attribute. This feature was introduced to prevent overwriting the mask. To force the unmasking of an
entry where the array has a hard mask, the mask must first to be softened using the soften_mask method before
the allocation. It can be re-hardened with harden_mask:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1], hard_mask=True)

>>> x
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
>>> x.soften_mask()
>>> x[-1] = 5
>>> x
>>> x.harden_mask()

To unmask all masked entries of a masked array (provided the mask isn’t a hard mask), the simplest solution is to
assign the constant nomask to the mask:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> x
>>> x.mask = ma.nomask
>>> x
Indexing and slicing
As a MaskedArray is a subclass of numpy.ndarray, it inherits its mechanisms for indexing and slicing.
When accessing a single entry of a masked array with no named fields, the output is either a scalar (if the corresponding
entry of the mask is False) or the special value masked (if the corresponding entry of the mask is True):
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> x[0]
1
>>> x[-1]
masked_array(data = --,
mask = True,
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> x[-1] is ma.masked
True
If the masked array has named fields, accessing a single entry returns a numpy.void object if none of the fields are
masked, or a 0d masked array with the same dtype as the initial array if at least one of the fields is masked.
>>> y = ma.masked_array([(1,2), (3, 4)],

... mask=[(0, 0), (0, 1)],
... dtype=[('a', int), ('b', int)])
>>> y[0]
(1, 2)
>>> y[-1]
masked_array(data = (3, --),
mask = (False, True),
fill_value = (999999, 999999),
dtype = [('a', '<i4'), ('b', '<i4')])
When accessing a slice, the output is a masked array whose data attribute is a view of the original data, and whose
mask is either nomask (if there was no invalid entries in the original array) or a view of the corresponding slice of
the original mask. The view is required to ensure propagation of any modification of the mask to the original.
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], mask=[0, 1, 0, 0, 1])

>>> mx = x[:3]
>>> mx
>>> mx[1] = -1
>>> mx

masked_array(data = [1 -1 3],
>>> x.mask
array([False, True, False, False, True])
>>> x.data
array([ 1, -1, 3, 4, 5])
Accessing a field of a masked array with structured datatype returns a MaskedArray.
Operations on masked arrays
Arithmetic and comparison operations are supported by masked arrays. As much as possible, invalid entries of a
masked array are not processed, meaning that the corresponding data entries should be the same before and after the
operation.
Warning: We need to stress that this behavior may not be systematic, that masked data may be affected by the
operation in some cases and therefore users should not rely on this data remaining unchanged.
The numpy.ma module comes with a specific implementation of most ufuncs. Unary and binary functions that have a
validity domain (such as log or divide) return the masked constant whenever the input is masked or falls outside
the validity domain:
>>> ma.log([-1, 0, 1, 2])

masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.0 0.69314718056],
fill_value = 1e+20)
Masked arrays also support standard numpy ufuncs. The output is then a masked array. The result of a unary ufunc is
masked wherever the input is masked. The result of a binary ufunc is masked wherever any of the input is masked. If
the ufunc also returns the optional context output (a 3-element tuple containing the name of the ufunc, its arguments
and its domain), the context is processed and entries of the output masked array are masked wherever the corresponding
input fall outside the validity domain:
>>> x = ma.array([-1, 1, 0, 2, 3], mask=[0, 0, 0, 0, 1])

>>> np.log(x)
masked_array(data = [-- -- 0.0 0.69314718056 --],
mask = [ True True False False True],
fill_value = 1e+20)
1.7.3 Examples
Data with a given value representing missing data
Let’s consider a list of elements, x, where values of -9999. represent missing data. We wish to compute the average
value of the data and the vector of anomalies (deviations from the average):

>>> x = [0.,1.,-9999.,3.,4.]
>>> mx = ma.masked_values (x, -9999.)
>>> print mx.mean()
2.0

>>> print mx - mx.mean()

[-2.0 -1.0 -- 1.0 2.0]
>>> print mx.anom()
[-2.0 -1.0 -- 1.0 2.0]
Filling in the missing data
Suppose now that we wish to print that same data, but with the missing values replaced by the average value.
>>> print mx.filled(mx.mean())

[ 0. 1. 2. 3. 4.]
Numerical operations
Numerical operations can be easily performed without worrying about missing values, dividing by zero, square roots
of negative numbers, etc.:
>>> import numpy as np, numpy.ma as ma

>>> x = ma.array([1., -1., 3., 4., 5., 6.], mask=[0,0,0,0,1,0])
>>> y = ma.array([1., 2., 0., 4., 5., 6.], mask=[0,0,0,0,0,1])
>>> print np.sqrt(x/y)
[1.0 -- -- 1.0 -- --]
Four values of the output are invalid: the first one comes from taking the square root of a negative number, the second
from the division by zero, and the last two where the inputs were masked.
Ignoring extreme values
Let’s consider an array d of random floats between 0 and 1. We wish to compute the average of the values of d while
ignoring any data outside the range [0.1, 0.9]:
>>> print ma.masked_outside(d, 0.1, 0.9).mean()
1.7.4 Constants of the numpy.ma module
In addition to the MaskedArray class, the numpy.ma module defines several constants.
numpy.ma.masked
The masked constant is a special case of MaskedArray, with a float datatype and a null shape. It is used to
test whether a specific entry of a masked array is masked, or to mask one or several entries of a masked array:
>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 1, 0])

>>> x[1] is ma.masked
True
>>> x[-1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data = [1 -- --],
mask = [False True True],

numpy.ma.nomask
Value indicating that a masked array has no invalid entry. nomask is used internally to speed up computations
when the mask is not needed.
numpy.ma.masked_print_options
String used in lieu of missing data when a masked array is printed. By default, this string is '--'.
1.7.5 The MaskedArray class
class numpy.ma.MaskedArray
A subclass of ndarray designed to manipulate numerical arrays with missing data.
An instance of MaskedArray can be thought as the combination of several elements:
• The data, as a regular numpy.ndarray of any shape or datatype (the data).
• A boolean mask with the same shape as the data, where a True value indicates that the corresponding element
of the data is invalid. The special value nomask is also acceptable for arrays without named fields, and indicates
that no data is invalid.
• A fill_value, a value that may be used to replace the invalid entries in order to return a standard numpy.
ndarray.
Attributes and properties of masked arrays
See also:
Array Attributes
MaskedArray.data
Returns the underlying data, as a view of the masked array. If the underlying data is a subclass of numpy.
ndarray, it is returned as such.
>>> x = ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])

>>> x.data
matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
The type of the data can be accessed through the baseclass attribute.
MaskedArray.mask
Returns the underlying mask, as an array with the same shape and structure as the data, but where all fields are
atomically booleans. A value of True indicates an invalid entry.
MaskedArray.recordmask
Returns the mask of the array if it has no named fields. For structured arrays, returns a ndarray of booleans
where entries are True if all the fields are masked, False otherwise:
>>> x = ma.array([(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4), (5, 5)],
... mask=[(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1), (0, 0)],
... dtype=[('a', int), ('b', int)])
>>> x.recordmask
array([False, False, True, False, False])
MaskedArray.fill_value
Returns the value used to fill the invalid entries of a masked array. The value is either a scalar (if the masked
array has no named fields), or a 0-D ndarray with the same dtype as the masked array if it has named fields.

The default filling value depends on the datatype of the array:
datatype default
bool True
int 999999
float 1.e20
complex 1.e20+0j
object ‘?’
string ‘N/A’
MaskedArray.baseclass
Returns the class of the underlying data.
>>> x = ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 0], [1, 0]])

>>> x.baseclass
MaskedArray.sharedmask
Returns whether the mask of the array is shared between several masked arrays. If this is the case, any modifi-
cation to the mask of one array will be propagated to the others.
MaskedArray.hardmask
Returns whether the mask is hard (True) or soft (False). When the mask is hard, masked entries cannot be
unmasked.
As MaskedArray is a subclass of ndarray, a masked array also inherits all the attributes and properties of a
ndarray instance.
MaskedArray.base Base object if memory is from some other object.

MaskedArray.ctypes An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the
ctypes module.
MaskedArray.dtype Data-type of the array’s elements.
MaskedArray.flags Information about the memory layout of the array.
MaskedArray.itemsize Length of one array element in bytes.
MaskedArray.nbytes Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
MaskedArray.ndim Number of array dimensions.
MaskedArray.shape Tuple of array dimensions.
MaskedArray.size Number of elements in the array.
MaskedArray.strides Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing
an array.
MaskedArray.imag Imaginary part.
MaskedArray.real Real part
MaskedArray.flat Flat version of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_priority__
MaskedArray.base
Base object if memory is from some other object.
Examples
The base of an array that owns its memory is None:

>>> x = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x.base is None
True
Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:
>>> y = x[2:]
>>> y.base is x
True
MaskedArray.ctypes
An object to simplify the interaction of the array with the ctypes module.
This attribute creates an object that makes it easier to use arrays when calling shared libraries with the ctypes
module. The returned object has, among others, data, shape, and strides attributes (see Notes below) which
themselves return ctypes objects that can be used as arguments to a shared library.
Parameters None
Returns c : Python object
Possessing attributes data, shape, strides, etc.
See also:
numpy.ctypeslib
Notes
Below are the public attributes of this object which were documented in “Guide to NumPy” (we have omitted
undocumented public attributes, as well as documented private attributes):
• data: A pointer to the memory area of the array as a Python integer. This memory area may contain data
that is not aligned, or not in correct byte-order. The memory area may not even be writeable. The array
flags and data-type of this array should be respected when passing this attribute to arbitrary C-code to avoid
trouble that can include Python crashing. User Beware! The value of this attribute is exactly the same as
self._array_interface_[‘data’][0].
• shape (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the C-integer corre-
sponding to dtype(‘p’) on this platform. This base-type could be c_int, c_long, or c_longlong depending
on the platform. The c_intp type is defined accordingly in numpy.ctypeslib. The ctypes array contains the
shape of the underlying array.
• strides (c_intp*self.ndim): A ctypes array of length self.ndim where the basetype is the same as for the
shape attribute. This ctypes array contains the strides information from the underlying array. This strides
information is important for showing how many bytes must be jumped to get to the next element in the
array.
• data_as(obj): Return the data pointer cast to a particular c-types object. For example, calling
self._as_parameter_ is equivalent to self.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p). Perhaps you want to use the data as
a pointer to a ctypes array of floating-point data: self.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_double)).
• shape_as(obj): Return the shape tuple as an array of some other c-types type. For example:
self.shape_as(ctypes.c_short).
• strides_as(obj): Return the strides tuple as an array of some other c-types type. For example:
self.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong).
Be careful using the ctypes attribute - especially on temporary arrays or arrays constructed on the fly. For
example, calling (a+b).ctypes.data_as(ctypes.c_void_p) returns a pointer to memory that is

invalid because the array created as (a+b) is deallocated before the next Python statement. You can avoid this
problem using either c=a+b or ct=(a+b).ctypes. In the latter case, ct will hold a reference to the array
until ct is deleted or re-assigned.
If the ctypes module is not available, then the ctypes attribute of array objects still returns something useful, but
ctypes objects are not returned and errors may be raised instead. In particular, the object will still have the as
parameter attribute which will return an integer equal to the data attribute.
Examples
>>> import ctypes

>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.ctypes.data
30439712
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long))
<ctypes.LP_c_long object at 0x01F01300>
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_long)).contents
c_long(0)
>>> x.ctypes.data_as(ctypes.POINTER(ctypes.c_longlong)).contents
c_longlong(4294967296L)
>>> x.ctypes.shape
<numpy.core._internal.c_long_Array_2 object at 0x01FFD580>
>>> x.ctypes.shape_as(ctypes.c_long)
>>> x.ctypes.strides
>>> x.ctypes.strides_as(ctypes.c_longlong)
<numpy.core._internal.c_longlong_Array_2 object at 0x01F01300>
MaskedArray.dtype
Data-type of the array’s elements.
Parameters None
Returns d : numpy dtype object
See also:
numpy.dtype
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> x.dtype
dtype('int32')
>>> type(x.dtype)
<type 'numpy.dtype'>
MaskedArray.flags
Information about the memory layout of the array.

Notes
The flags object can be accessed dictionary-like (as in a.flags['WRITEABLE']), or by using lowercased
attribute names (as in a.flags.writeable). Short flag names are only supported in dictionary access.
Only the WRITEBACKIFCOPY, UPDATEIFCOPY, WRITEABLE, and ALIGNED flags can be changed by
the user, via direct assignment to the attribute or dictionary entry, or by calling ndarray.setflags.
The array flags cannot be set arbitrarily:
• UPDATEIFCOPY can only be set False.
• WRITEBACKIFCOPY can only be set False.
• ALIGNED can only be set True if the data is truly aligned.
• WRITEABLE can only be set True if the array owns its own memory or the ultimate owner of the memory
exposes a writeable buffer interface or is a string.
Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays,
but can also be true for higher dimensional arrays.
Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension arr.strides[dim] may be arbitrary if arr.
shape[dim] == 1 or the array has no elements. It does not generally hold that self.strides[-1]
== self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] == self.itemsize for
Fortran-style contiguous arrays is true.

Attributes
C_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, C-style contiguous segment.
(C)
F_CONTIGUOUS
The data is in a single, Fortran-style contiguous segment.
(F)
OWN- The array owns the memory it uses or borrows it from another object.
DATA
(O)
WRITE-
The data area can be written to. Setting this to False locks the data, making it read-only. A view
ABLE (slice, etc.) inherits WRITEABLE from its base array at creation time, but a view of a writeable
(W) array may be subsequently locked while the base array remains writeable. (The opposite is not true,
in that a view of a locked array may not be made writeable. However, currently, locking a base object
does not lock any views that already reference it, so under that circumstance it is possible to alter the
contents of a locked array via a previously created writeable view onto it.) Attempting to change a
non-writeable array raises a RuntimeError exception.
ALIGNED
The data and all elements are aligned appropriately for the hardware.
(A)
WRITE-
This array is a copy of some other array. The C-API function PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy
BACK-must be called before deallocating to the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
IF-
COPY
(X)
UP- (Deprecated, use WRITEBACKIFCOPY) This array is a copy of some other array. When this array
DATEIF-
is deallocated, the base array will be updated with the contents of this array.
COPY
(U)
FNC F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
FORC F_CONTIGUOUS or C_CONTIGUOUS (one-segment test).
BE- ALIGNED and WRITEABLE.
HAVED
(B)
CAR- BEHAVED and C_CONTIGUOUS.
RAY
(CA)
FAR- BEHAVED and F_CONTIGUOUS and not C_CONTIGUOUS.
RAY
(FA)
MaskedArray.itemsize
Length of one array element in bytes.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)

>>> x.itemsize
8
>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.complex128)
>>> x.itemsize
16

MaskedArray.nbytes
Total bytes consumed by the elements of the array.
Notes
Does not include memory consumed by non-element attributes of the array object.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3,5,2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x.nbytes
480
>>> np.prod(x.shape) * x.itemsize
480
MaskedArray.ndim
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.ndim
1
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.ndim
3
MaskedArray.shape
Tuple of array dimensions.
The shape property is usually used to get the current shape of an array, but may also be used to reshape the
array in-place by assigning a tuple of array dimensions to it. As with numpy.reshape, one of the new shape
dimensions can be -1, in which case its value is inferred from the size of the array and the remaining dimensions.
Reshaping an array in-place will fail if a copy is required.
See also:
numpy.reshape similar function

ndarray.reshape similar method
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> x.shape
(4,)
>>> y = np.zeros((2, 3, 4))
>>> y.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> y.shape = (3, 8)
>>> y
array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],

[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],

[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> y.shape = (3, 6)
ValueError: total size of new array must be unchanged
>>> np.zeros((4,2))[::2].shape = (-1,)
MaskedArray.size
Number of elements in the array.
Equivalent to np.prod(a.shape), i.e., the product of the array’s dimensions.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3, 5, 2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x.size
30
>>> np.prod(x.shape)
30
MaskedArray.strides
Tuple of bytes to step in each dimension when traversing an array.
The byte offset of element (i[0], i[1], ..., i[n]) in an array a is:
offset = sum(np.array(i) * a.strides)
A more detailed explanation of strides can be found in the “ndarray.rst” file in the NumPy reference guide.
See also:
numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided
Notes
Imagine an array of 32-bit integers (each 4 bytes):

x = np.array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]], dtype=np.int32)
This array is stored in memory as 40 bytes, one after the other (known as a contiguous block of memory). The
strides of an array tell us how many bytes we have to skip in memory to move to the next position along a certain
axis. For example, we have to skip 4 bytes (1 value) to move to the next column, but 20 bytes (5 values) to get
to the same position in the next row. As such, the strides for the array x will be (20, 4).
Examples
>>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(2*3*4), (2,3,4))

>>> y
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],

[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],
[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
>>> y.strides
(48, 16, 4)
>>> y[1,1,1]
17
>>> offset=sum(y.strides * np.array((1,1,1)))
>>> offset/y.itemsize
17
>>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(5*6*7*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)

>>> x.strides
(32, 4, 224, 1344)
>>> i = np.array([3,5,2,2])
>>> offset = sum(i * x.strides)
>>> x[3,5,2,2]
813
>>> offset / x.itemsize
813
MaskedArray.imag
Imaginary part.
MaskedArray.real
Real part
MaskedArray.flat
Flat version of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_priority__ = 15
1.7.6 MaskedArray methods
See also:
Array methods
Conversion
MaskedArray.__float__() Convert to float.

MaskedArray.__hex__
MaskedArray.__int__() Convert to int.
MaskedArray.__long__() Convert to long.
MaskedArray.__oct__
MaskedArray.view([dtype, type]) New view of array with the same data.
MaskedArray.astype(newtype) Returns a copy of the MaskedArray cast to given newtype.
MaskedArray.byteswap([inplace]) Swap the bytes of the array elements
MaskedArray.compressed() Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
MaskedArray.filled([fill_value]) Return a copy of self, with masked values filled with a
given value.


MaskedArray.tofile(fid[, sep, format]) Save a masked array to a file in binary format.
MaskedArray.toflex() Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
MaskedArray.tolist([fill_value]) Return the data portion of the masked array as a hierarchi-
cal Python list.
MaskedArray.torecords() Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
MaskedArray.tostring([fill_value, order]) This function is a compatibility alias for tobytes.
MaskedArray.tobytes([fill_value, order]) Return the array data as a string containing the raw bytes in
the array.
MaskedArray.__float__()
Convert to float.
MaskedArray.__int__()
Convert to int.
MaskedArray.__long__()
Convert to long.
MaskedArray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
type preservation.
Notes

a.view(some_dtype) or a.view(dtype=some_dtype) constructs a view of the array’s memory with
a different data-type. This can cause a reinterpretation of the bytes of memory.
a.view(ndarray_subclass) or a.view(type=ndarray_subclass) just returns an instance of
ndarray_subclass that looks at the same array (same shape, dtype, etc.) This does not cause a reinterpretation
of the memory.
For a.view(some_dtype), if some_dtype has a different number of bytes per entry than the previous
dtype (for example, converting a regular array to a structured array), then the behavior of the view cannot be
predicted just from the superficial appearance of a (shown by print(a)). It also depends on exactly how a
is stored in memory. Therefore if a is C-ordered versus fortran-ordered, versus defined as a slice or transpose,
etc., the view may give different results.
Examples


>>> y
>>> print(type(y))

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
>>> z.a
Views share data:
>>> x[0] = (9, 10)

>>> z[0]
(9, 10)

>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
MaskedArray.astype(newtype)
Returns a copy of the MaskedArray cast to given newtype.
Returns output : MaskedArray
A copy of self cast to input newtype. The returned record shape matches self.shape.

Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3.1],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1.0 -- 3.1]
[-- 5.0 --]
[7.0 -- 9.0]]
>>> print(x.astype(int32))
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
MaskedArray.byteswap(inplace=False)
Toggle between low-endian and big-endian data representation by returning a byteswapped array, optionally
swapped in-place.
Examples

>>> map(hex, A)
['0x1', '0x100', '0x2233']
array([ 256, 1, 13090], dtype=int16)
>>> map(hex, A)
['0x100', '0x1', '0x3322']

>>> A.byteswap()
dtype='|S3')
MaskedArray.compressed()
Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
Returns data : ndarray
A new ndarray holding the non-masked data is returned.
Notes
The result is not a MaskedArray!

Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(5), mask=[0]*2 + [1]*3)

>>> x.compressed()
array([0, 1])
>>> type(x.compressed())
MaskedArray.filled(fill_value=None)
Return a copy of self, with masked values filled with a given value. However, if there are no masked values to
fill, self will be returned instead as an ndarray.
Parameters fill_value : scalar, optional
The value to use for invalid entries (None by default). If None, the fill_value
attribute of the array is used instead.
Returns filled_array : ndarray
A copy of self with invalid entries replaced by fill_value (be it the function argument
or the attribute of self), or self itself as an ndarray if there are no invalid entries to
be replaced.
Notes
The result is not a MaskedArray!
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1,2,3,4,5], mask=[0,0,1,0,1], fill_value=-999)

>>> x.filled()
array([1, 2, -999, 4, -999])
>>> type(x.filled())
Subclassing is preserved. This means that if the data part of the masked array is a matrix, filled returns a
matrix:
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.matrix([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])

>>> x.filled()
matrix([[ 1, 999999],
[999999, 4]])
MaskedArray.tofile(fid, sep=”, format=’%s’)

Save a masked array to a file in binary format.
Warning: This function is not implemented yet.
Raises NotImplementedError
When tofile is called.

MaskedArray.toflex()
Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
The flexible type array that is returned will have two fields:
• the _data field stores the _data part of the array.
• the _mask field stores the _mask part of the array.
Parameters None
Returns record : ndarray
A new flexible-type ndarray with two fields: the first element containing a value, the
second element containing the corresponding mask boolean. The returned record shape
matches self.shape.
Notes
A side-effect of transforming a masked array into a flexible ndarray is that meta information (fill_value,
. . . ) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print(x.toflex())
[[(1, False) (2, True) (3, False)]
[(4, True) (5, False) (6, True)]
[(7, False) (8, True) (9, False)]]
MaskedArray.tolist(fill_value=None)
Return the data portion of the masked array as a hierarchical Python list.
Data items are converted to the nearest compatible Python type. Masked values are converted to fill_value.
If fill_value is None, the corresponding entries in the output list will be None.
The value to use for invalid entries. Default is None.
Returns result : list
The Python list representation of the masked array.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> x.tolist()
[[1, None, 3], [None, 5, None], [7, None, 9]]
>>> x.tolist(-999)
[[1, -999, 3], [-999, 5, -999], [7, -999, 9]]

MaskedArray.torecords()
Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
The flexible type array that is returned will have two fields:
• the _data field stores the _data part of the array.
• the _mask field stores the _mask part of the array.
Parameters None
Returns record : ndarray
A new flexible-type ndarray with two fields: the first element containing a value, the
second element containing the corresponding mask boolean. The returned record shape
matches self.shape.
Notes
A side-effect of transforming a masked array into a flexible ndarray is that meta information (fill_value,
. . . ) will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print(x.toflex())
[[(1, False) (2, True) (3, False)]
[(4, True) (5, False) (6, True)]
[(7, False) (8, True) (9, False)]]
MaskedArray.tostring(fill_value=None, order=’C’)
MaskedArray.tobytes(fill_value=None, order=’C’)
Return the array data as a string containing the raw bytes in the array.
The array is filled with a fill value before the string conversion.
Value used to fill in the masked values. Default is None, in which case
MaskedArray.fill_value is used.
order : {‘C’,’F’,’A’}, optional
Order of the data item in the copy. Default is ‘C’.
• ‘C’ – C order (row major).
• ‘F’ – Fortran order (column major).
• ‘A’ – Any, current order of array.
• None – Same as ‘A’.

See also:
ndarray.tobytes, tolist, tofile
Notes
As for ndarray.tobytes, information about the shape, dtype, etc., but also about fill_value, will be lost.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]]), mask=[[0, 1], [1, 0]])

>>> x.tobytes()
'\x01\x00\x00\x00?B\x0f\x00?B\x0f\x00\x04\x00\x00\x00'
Shape manipulation
For reshape, resize, and transpose, the single tuple argument may be replaced with n integers which will be interpreted
as an n-tuple.
MaskedArray.flatten([order]) Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.

MaskedArray.ravel([order]) Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.
MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs) Give a new shape to the array without changing its data.
MaskedArray.resize(newshape[, refcheck, order])
MaskedArray.squeeze([axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 inter-
changed.
MaskedArray.transpose(*axes) Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
MaskedArray.T
MaskedArray.flatten(order=’C’)
Returns y : ndarray
See also:


Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten('F')
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
MaskedArray.ravel(order=’C’)
Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.
The elements of a are read using this index order. ‘C’ means to index the elements
Returns MaskedArray
Output view is of shape (self.size,) (or (np.ma.product(self.shape),
)).
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print(x.ravel())
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs)
Give a new shape to the array without changing its data.
Returns a masked array containing the same data, but with a new shape. The result is a view on the original
array; if this is not possible, a ValueError is raised.
Parameters shape : int or tuple of ints
The new shape should be compatible with the original shape. If an integer is supplied,
then the result will be a 1-D array of that length.
Determines whether the array data should be viewed as in C (row-major) or FORTRAN
(column-major) order.
Returns reshaped_array : array
A new view on the array.
See also:

reshape Equivalent function in the masked array module.

numpy.ndarray.reshape Equivalent method on ndarray object.
numpy.reshape Equivalent function in the NumPy module.
Notes
The reshaping operation cannot guarantee that a copy will not be made, to modify the shape in place, use
a.shape = s
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2],[3,4]], mask=[1,0,0,1])

>>> print(x)
[[-- 2]
[3 --]]
>>> x = x.reshape((4,1))
>>> print(x)
[[--]
[2]
[3]
[--]]
MaskedArray.resize(newshape, refcheck=True, order=False)
Warning: This method does nothing, except raise a ValueError exception. A masked array does not own
its data and therefore cannot safely be resized in place. Use the numpy.ma.resize function instead.
This method is difficult to implement safely and may be deprecated in future releases of NumPy.
MaskedArray.squeeze(axis=None)
See also:
MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See also:
MaskedArray.transpose(*axes)
For a 1-D array, this has no effect. (To change between column and row vectors, first cast the 1-D array into
a matrix object.) For a 2-D array, this is the usual matrix transpose. For an n-D array, if axes are given,

their order indicates how the axes are permuted (see Examples). If axes are not provided and a.shape =
(i[0], i[1], ... i[n-2], i[n-1]), then a.transpose().shape = (i[n-1], i[n-2],
... i[1], i[0]).
axis.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
MaskedArray.T
For array methods that take an axis keyword, it defaults to None. If axis is None, then the array is treated as a 1-D
array. Any other value for axis represents the dimension along which the operation should proceed.
MaskedArray.argmax([axis, fill_value, out]) Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the
given axis.
MaskedArray.argmin([axis, fill_value, out]) Return array of indices to the minimum values along the
given axis.
MaskedArray.argsort([axis, kind, order, . . . ]) Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the
specified axis.
MaskedArray.choose(choices[, out, mode]) Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of
choices.
MaskedArray.compress(condition[, axis, out]) Return a where condition is True.
MaskedArray.diagonal([offset, axis1, axis2]) Return specified diagonals.


MaskedArray.fill(value) Fill the array with a scalar value.
MaskedArray.item(*args) Copy an element of an array to a standard Python scalar
and return it.
MaskedArray.nonzero() Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
MaskedArray.put(indices, values[, mode]) Set storage-indexed locations to corresponding values.
MaskedArray.repeat(repeats[, axis]) Repeat elements of an array.
MaskedArray.searchsorted(v[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements of v should be inserted in a to
maintain order.
MaskedArray.sort([axis, kind, order, . . . ]) Sort the array, in-place
MaskedArray.take(indices[, axis, out, mode])
MaskedArray.argmax(axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None)

Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the given axis. Masked values are treated as if they had
the value fill_value.
Parameters axis : {None, integer}
If None, the index is into the flattened array, otherwise along the specified axis
fill_value : {var}, optional
Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, the output of maxi-
mum_fill_value(self._data) is used instead.
out : {None, array}, optional
Array into which the result can be placed. Its type is preserved and it must be of the
right shape to hold the output.
Returns index_array : {integer_array}
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])
MaskedArray.argmin(axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None)

Return array of indices to the minimum values along the given axis.
Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, the output of mini-
Returns ndarray or scalar

If multi-dimension input, returns a new ndarray of indices to the minimum values along
the given axis. Otherwise, returns a scalar of index to the minimum values along the
given axis.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(arange(4), mask=[1,1,0,0])

>>> x.shape = (2,2)
>>> print(x)
[[-- --]
[2 3]]
>>> print(x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=-1))
[0 0]
>>> print(x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=9))
[1 1]
MaskedArray.argsort(axis=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, kind=’quicksort’, order=None, end-

with=True, fill_value=None)
Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the specified axis. Masked values are filled beforehand to
fill_value.
Axis along which to sort. If None, the default, the flattened array is used.
Changed in version 1.13.0: Previously, the default was documented to be -1, but that
was in error. At some future date, the default will change to -1, as originally intended.
Until then, the axis should be given explicitly when arr.ndim > 1, to avoid a Fu-
tureWarning.
Sorting algorithm.
order : list, optional
first, second, etc. Not all fields need be specified.
endwith : {True, False}, optional
Whether missing values (if any) should be treated as the largest values (True) or the
smallest values (False) When the array contains unmasked values at the same extremes
of the datatype, the ordering of these values and the masked values is undefined.
Value used internally for the masked values. If fill_value is not None, it supersedes
endwith.
Returns index_array : ndarray, int
Array of indices that sort a along the specified axis. In other words,
a[index_array] yields a sorted a.
See also:
MaskedArray.sort Describes sorting algorithms used.

lexsort Indirect stable sort with multiple keys.
ndarray.sort Inplace sort.

Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([3,2,1], mask=[False, False, True])

>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])
MaskedArray.choose(choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

See also:
MaskedArray.compress(condition, axis=None, out=None)

Return a where condition is True.
If condition is a MaskedArray, missing values are considered as False.
Parameters condition : var
Boolean 1-d array selecting which entries to return. If len(condition) is less than the
size of a along the axis, then output is truncated to length of condition array.
axis : {None, int}, optional
Axis along which the operation must be performed.
out : {None, ndarray}, optional
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as the
expected output but the type will be cast if necessary.
A MaskedArray object.
Notes
Please note the difference with compressed ! The output of compress has a mask, the output of
compressed does not.
Examples

>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> x.compress([1, 0, 1])
masked_array(data = [1 3],
mask = [False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> x.compress([1, 0, 1], axis=1)

masked_array(data =
[[1 3]
[-- --]
[7 9]],
mask =
[[False False]
[ True True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
MaskedArray.diagonal(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

Return specified diagonals. In NumPy 1.9 the returned array is a read-only view instead of a copy as in previous
NumPy versions. In a future version the read-only restriction will be removed.
See also:
MaskedArray.fill(value)
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
MaskedArray.item(*args)

• int_type: this argument is interpreted as a flat index into the array, specifying which element
to copy and return.
• tuple of int_types: functions as does a single int_type argument, except that the argument is
interpreted as an nd-index into the array.
Notes
When the data type of a is longdouble or clongdouble, item() returns a scalar array object because there is no
available Python scalar that would not lose information. Void arrays return a buffer object for item(), unless
fields are defined, in which case a tuple is returned.
item is very similar to a[args], except, instead of an array scalar, a standard Python scalar is returned. This can
be useful for speeding up access to elements of the array and doing arithmetic on elements of the array using
Python’s optimized math.
Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
MaskedArray.nonzero()
Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
dimension. The corresponding non-zero values can be obtained with:
a[a.nonzero()]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use instead:
np.transpose(a.nonzero())
The result of this is always a 2d array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Parameters None
Returns tuple_of_arrays : tuple
Indices of elements that are non-zero.
See also:

numpy.nonzero Function operating on ndarrays.

flatnonzero Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of the input array.
ndarray.nonzero Equivalent ndarray method.
count_nonzero Counts the number of non-zero elements in the input array.
Examples

>>> x = ma.array(np.eye(3))
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
Masked elements are ignored.

>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[[False False False]
[False True False]
[False False False]],
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))
Indices can also be grouped by element.

>>> np.transpose(x.nonzero())
array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
A common use for nonzero is to find the indices of an array, where a condition is True. Given an array a, the
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, ma.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
a where the condition is true.
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)

>>> ma.nonzero(a > 3)

(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
The nonzero method of the condition array can also be called.
>>> (a > 3).nonzero()

(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
MaskedArray.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

Set storage-indexed locations to corresponding values.
Sets self._data.flat[n] = values[n] for each n in indices. If values is shorter than indices then it will repeat. If
values has some masked values, the initial mask is updated in consequence, else the corresponding values are
unmasked.
Parameters indices : 1-D array_like
Target indices, interpreted as integers.
values : array_like
Values to place in self._data copy at target indices.
mode : {‘raise’, ‘wrap’, ‘clip’}, optional
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices will behave. ‘raise’ : raise an error. ‘wrap’ : wrap
around. ‘clip’ : clip to the range.
Notes
values can be a scalar or length 1 array.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> x.put([0,4,8],[10,20,30])
>>> print(x)
[[10 -- 3]
[-- 20 --]
[7 -- 30]]
>>> x.put(4,999)
>>> print(x)
[[10 -- 3]
[-- 999 --]
[7 -- 30]]
MaskedArray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See also:

MaskedArray.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)

See also:
MaskedArray.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None, endwith=True, fill_value=None)

Sort the array, in-place
Array to be sorted.
Axis along which to sort. If None, the array is flattened before sorting. The default is
-1, which sorts along the last axis.
When a is a structured array, this argument specifies which fields to compare first, sec-
ond, and so on. This list does not need to include all of the fields.
endwith.
Returns sorted_array : ndarray
Array of the same type and shape as a.
See also:
ndarray.sort Method to sort an array in-place.

searchsorted Find elements in a sorted array.
Notes

Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print(a)
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # Put missing values in the front
>>> a.sort(endwith=False)
>>> print(a)
[-- -- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # fill_value takes over endwith
>>> a.sort(endwith=False, fill_value=3)
>>> print(a)
[1 -- -- 3 5]
MaskedArray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)
Pickling and copy
MaskedArray.copy([order]) Return a copy of the array.

MaskedArray.dump(file) Dump a pickle of the array to the specified file.
MaskedArray.dumps() Returns the pickle of the array as a string.
MaskedArray.copy(order=’C’)
See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)

>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
MaskedArray.dump(file)
MaskedArray.dumps()
Returns the pickle of the array as a string. pickle.loads or numpy.loads will convert the string back to an array.
Parameters None
Calculations
MaskedArray.all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

MaskedArray.anom([axis, dtype]) Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic
mean) along the given axis.
MaskedArray.any([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
MaskedArray.clip([min, max, out]) Return an array whose values are limited to [min, max].
MaskedArray.conj() Complex-conjugate all elements.
MaskedArray.conjugate() Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
MaskedArray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the array elements over
the given axis.
MaskedArray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the array elements over the
given axis.
MaskedArray.max([axis, out, fill_value, . . . ]) Return the maximum along a given axis.
MaskedArray.mean([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
MaskedArray.min([axis, out, fill_value, . . . ]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
MaskedArray.prod([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis.
MaskedArray.product([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis.
MaskedArray.ptp([axis, out, fill_value]) Return (maximum - minimum) along the given dimension
(i.e.
MaskedArray.round([decimals, out]) Return each element rounded to the given number of deci-
mals.
MaskedArray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof, . . . ]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along
given axis.
MaskedArray.sum([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
MaskedArray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, . . . ]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
MaskedArray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof, . . . ]) Compute the variance along the specified axis.

MaskedArray.all(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

The output array is masked where all the values along the given axis are masked: if the output would have been
a scalar and that all the values are masked, then the output is masked.
See also:
ndarray.all corresponding function for ndarrays

Examples
>>> np.ma.array([1,2,3]).all()
True
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3], mask=True)
>>> (a.all() is np.ma.masked)
True
MaskedArray.anom(axis=None, dtype=None)
Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic mean) along the given axis.
Returns an array of anomalies, with the same shape as the input and where the arithmetic mean is computed
Axis over which the anomalies are taken. The default is to use the mean of the flattened
array as reference.
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is
float32; for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
See also:
mean Compute the mean of the array.
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
masked_array(data = [-1. 0. 1.],
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
MaskedArray.any(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Masked values are considered as False during computation.
See also:

ndarray.any corresponding function for ndarrays

MaskedArray.clip(min=None, max=None, out=None)

See also:
MaskedArray.conj()
See also:
MaskedArray.conjugate()
See also:
MaskedArray.cumprod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of the array elements over the given axis.
Masked values are set to 1 internally during the computation. However, their position is saved, and the result
will be masked at the same locations.
See also:
ndarray.cumprod corresponding function for ndarrays

Notes
The mask is lost if out is not a valid MaskedArray !

Arithmetic is modular when using integer types, and no error is raised on overflow.
MaskedArray.cumsum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)
Return the cumulative sum of the array elements over the given axis.
See also:

ndarray.cumsum corresponding function for ndarrays

Notes

Examples
>>> marr = np.ma.array(np.arange(10), mask=[0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,0])

>>> print(marr.cumsum())
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]
MaskedArray.max(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None, keepdims=<class

’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)
Parameters axis : {None, int}, optional
Axis along which to operate. By default, axis is None and the flattened input is used.
out : array_like, optional
Alternative output array in which to place the result. Must be of the same shape and
buffer length as the expected output.
Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, use the output of maxi-
mum_fill_value().
Returns amax : array_like
New array holding the result. If out was specified, out is returned.
See also:
maximum_fill_value Returns the maximum filling value for a given datatype.
MaskedArray.mean(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class

Masked entries are ignored, and result elements which are not finite will be masked.
See also:
ndarray.mean corresponding function for ndarrays

numpy.mean Equivalent function
numpy.ma.average Weighted average.

Examples

>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5
MaskedArray.min(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None, keepdims=<class

Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, use the output of
minimum_fill_value.
Returns amin : array_like
See also:
minimum_fill_value Returns the minimum filling value for a given datatype.
MaskedArray.prod(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class

Masked elements are set to 1 internally for computation.
See also:
ndarray.prod corresponding function for ndarrays

Notes
MaskedArray.product(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class

See also:

Notes
MaskedArray.ptp(axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)
Return (maximum - minimum) along the given dimension (i.e. peak-to-peak value).
Axis along which to find the peaks. If None (default) the flattened array is used.
out : {None, array_like}, optional
Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape and
buffer length as the expected output but the type will be cast if necessary.
Value used to fill in the masked values.
Returns ptp : ndarray.
A new array holding the result, unless out was specified, in which case a reference to
out is returned.
MaskedArray.round(decimals=0, out=None)
Return each element rounded to the given number of decimals.
See also:
ndarray.around corresponding function for ndarrays

MaskedArray.std(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

Masked entries are ignored.
See also:
ndarray.std corresponding function for ndarrays

numpy.std Equivalent function
MaskedArray.sum(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Masked elements are set to 0 internally.
See also:

ndarray.sum corresponding function for ndarrays

Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print(x.sum())
25
>>> print(x.sum(axis=1))
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
>>> print(type(x.sum(axis=0, dtype=np.int64)[0]))
<type 'numpy.int64'>
MaskedArray.trace(offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

See also:
MaskedArray.var(axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

Compute the variance along the specified axis.
Returns the variance of the array elements, a measure of the spread of a distribution. The variance is computed
for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
Array containing numbers whose variance is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
axis : None or int or tuple of ints, optional
Axis or axes along which the variance is computed. The default is to compute the
variance of the flattened array.
If this is a tuple of ints, a variance is performed over multiple axes, instead of a single
axis or all the axes as before.
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is float32;
for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as the
expected output, but the type is cast if necessary.

ddof : int, optional

“Delta Degrees of Freedom”: the divisor used in the calculation is N - ddof, where
N represents the number of elements. By default ddof is zero.
keepdims : bool, optional
If this is set to True, the axes which are reduced are left in the result as dimensions with
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the input array.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the var
method of sub-classes of ndarray, however any non-default value will be. If the sub-
classes sum method does not implement keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns variance : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
If out=None, returns a new array containing the variance; otherwise, a reference to
the output array is returned.
See also:
std, mean, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar
numpy.doc.ufuncs Section “Output arguments”
Notes
The variance is the average of the squared deviations from the mean, i.e., var = mean(abs(x - x.
mean())**2).
The mean is normally calculated as x.sum() / N, where N = len(x). If, however, ddof is specified, the
divisor N - ddof is used instead. In standard statistical practice, ddof=1 provides an unbiased estimator
of the variance of a hypothetical infinite population. ddof=0 provides a maximum likelihood estimate of the
variance for normally distributed variables.
Note that for complex numbers, the absolute value is taken before squaring, so that the result is always real and
nonnegative.
For floating-point input, the variance is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on the
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a
higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.var(a)
1.25
>>> np.var(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])
In single precision, var() can be inaccurate:

>>> a = np.zeros((2, 512*512), dtype=np.float32)
>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20250003

Computing the variance in float64 is more accurate:
>>> np.var(a, dtype=np.float64)

0.20249999932944759
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.2025
Arithmetic and comparison operations
Comparison operators:
MaskedArray.__lt__($self, value, /) Return self<value.

MaskedArray.__le__($self, value, /) Return self<=value.
MaskedArray.__gt__($self, value, /) Return self>value.
MaskedArray.__ge__($self, value, /) Return self>=value.
MaskedArray.__eq__(other) Check whether other equals self elementwise.
MaskedArray.__ne__(other) Check whether other does not equal self elementwise.
MaskedArray.__lt__($self, value, / )
Return self<value.
MaskedArray.__le__($self, value, / )
Return self<=value.
MaskedArray.__gt__($self, value, / )
Return self>value.
MaskedArray.__ge__($self, value, / )
Return self>=value.
MaskedArray.__eq__(other)
Check whether other equals self elementwise.
When either of the elements is masked, the result is masked as well, but the underlying boolean data are still set,
with self and other considered equal if both are masked, and unequal otherwise.
For structured arrays, all fields are combined, with masked values ignored. The result is masked if all fields
were masked, with self and other considered equal only if both were fully masked.
MaskedArray.__ne__(other)
Check whether other does not equal self elementwise.
When either of the elements is masked, the result is masked as well, but the underlying boolean data are still set,
with self and other considered equal if both are masked, and unequal otherwise.
For structured arrays, all fields are combined, with masked values ignored. The result is masked if all fields
were masked, with self and other considered equal only if both were fully masked.
Truth value of an array (bool):
MaskedArray.__nonzero__

Arithmetic:
MaskedArray.__abs__(self)
MaskedArray.__add__(other) Add self to other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__radd__(other) Add other to self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__sub__(other) Subtract other from self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rsub__(other) Subtract self from other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__mul__(other) Multiply self by other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rmul__(other) Multiply other by self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__div__(other) Divide other into self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rdiv__
MaskedArray.__truediv__(other) Divide other into self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rtruediv__(other) Divide self into other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__floordiv__(other) Divide other into self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rfloordiv__(other) Divide self into other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__mod__($self, value, /) Return self%value.
MaskedArray.__rmod__($self, value, /) Return value%self.
MaskedArray.__divmod__($self, value, /) Return divmod(self, value).
MaskedArray.__rdivmod__($self, value, /) Return divmod(value, self).
MaskedArray.__pow__(other) Raise self to the power other, masking the potential
NaNs/Infs
MaskedArray.__rpow__(other) Raise other to the power self, masking the potential
NaNs/Infs
MaskedArray.__lshift__($self, value, /) Return self<<value.
MaskedArray.__rlshift__($self, value, /) Return value<<self.
MaskedArray.__rshift__($self, value, /) Return self>>value.
MaskedArray.__rrshift__($self, value, /) Return value>>self.
MaskedArray.__and__($self, value, /) Return self&value.
MaskedArray.__rand__($self, value, /) Return value&self.
MaskedArray.__or__($self, value, /) Return self|value.
MaskedArray.__ror__($self, value, /) Return value|self.
MaskedArray.__xor__($self, value, /) Return self^value.
MaskedArray.__rxor__($self, value, /) Return value^self.
MaskedArray.__abs__(self )
MaskedArray.__add__(other)
Add self to other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__radd__(other)
Add other to self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__sub__(other)
Subtract other from self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rsub__(other)
Subtract self from other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__mul__(other)
Multiply self by other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__rmul__(other)
Multiply other by self, and return a new masked array.

MaskedArray.__div__(other)
Divide other into self, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__truediv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rtruediv__(other)
Divide self into other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__floordiv__(other)
MaskedArray.__rfloordiv__(other)
Divide self into other, and return a new masked array.
MaskedArray.__mod__($self, value, / )
Return self%value.
MaskedArray.__rmod__($self, value, / )
Return value%self.
MaskedArray.__divmod__($self, value, / )
Return divmod(self, value).
MaskedArray.__rdivmod__($self, value, / )
Return divmod(value, self).
MaskedArray.__pow__(other)
Raise self to the power other, masking the potential NaNs/Infs
MaskedArray.__rpow__(other)
Raise other to the power self, masking the potential NaNs/Infs
MaskedArray.__lshift__($self, value, / )
Return self<<value.
MaskedArray.__rlshift__($self, value, / )
Return value<<self.
MaskedArray.__rshift__($self, value, / )
Return self>>value.
MaskedArray.__rrshift__($self, value, / )
Return value>>self.
MaskedArray.__and__($self, value, / )
Return self&value.
MaskedArray.__rand__($self, value, / )
Return value&self.
MaskedArray.__or__($self, value, / )
Return self|value.
MaskedArray.__ror__($self, value, / )
Return value|self.
MaskedArray.__xor__($self, value, / )
Return self^value.
MaskedArray.__rxor__($self, value, / )
Return value^self.

Arithmetic, in-place:
MaskedArray.__iadd__(other) Add other to self in-place.

MaskedArray.__isub__(other) Subtract other from self in-place.
MaskedArray.__imul__(other) Multiply self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__idiv__(other) Divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__itruediv__(other) True divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__ifloordiv__(other) Floor divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__imod__($self, value, /) Return self%=value.
MaskedArray.__ipow__(other) Raise self to the power other, in place.
MaskedArray.__ilshift__($self, value, /) Return self<<=value.
MaskedArray.__irshift__($self, value, /) Return self>>=value.
MaskedArray.__iand__($self, value, /) Return self&=value.
MaskedArray.__ior__($self, value, /) Return self|=value.
MaskedArray.__ixor__($self, value, /) Return self^=value.
MaskedArray.__iadd__(other)
Add other to self in-place.
MaskedArray.__isub__(other)
Subtract other from self in-place.
MaskedArray.__imul__(other)
Multiply self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__idiv__(other)
Divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__itruediv__(other)
True divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__ifloordiv__(other)
Floor divide self by other in-place.
MaskedArray.__imod__($self, value, / )
Return self%=value.
MaskedArray.__ipow__(other)
Raise self to the power other, in place.
MaskedArray.__ilshift__($self, value, / )
Return self<<=value.
MaskedArray.__irshift__($self, value, / )
Return self>>=value.
MaskedArray.__iand__($self, value, / )
Return self&=value.
MaskedArray.__ior__($self, value, / )
Return self|=value.
MaskedArray.__ixor__($self, value, / )
Return self^=value.
Representation

MaskedArray.__repr__() Literal string representation.

MaskedArray.__str__()
MaskedArray.ids() Return the addresses of the data and mask areas.
MaskedArray.iscontiguous() Return a boolean indicating whether the data is contiguous.
MaskedArray.__repr__()
Literal string representation.
MaskedArray.__str__()
MaskedArray.ids()
Return the addresses of the data and mask areas.
Parameters None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3], mask=[0, 1, 1])

>>> x.ids()
(166670640, 166659832)
If the array has no mask, the address of nomask is returned. This address is typically not close to the data in
memory:
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.ids()
(166691080, 3083169284L)
MaskedArray.iscontiguous()
Return a boolean indicating whether the data is contiguous.
Parameters None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> x.iscontiguous()
True
iscontiguous returns one of the flags of the masked array:
>>> x.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
F_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : False
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
Special methods
For standard library functions:

MaskedArray.__copy__() Used if copy.copy is called on an array.

MaskedArray.__deepcopy__([memo])
MaskedArray.__getstate__() Return the internal state of the masked array, for pickling
purposes.
MaskedArray.__reduce__() Return a 3-tuple for pickling a MaskedArray.
MaskedArray.__setstate__(state) Restore the internal state of the masked array, for pickling
purposes.
MaskedArray.__copy__()
Used if copy.copy is called on an array. Returns a copy of the array.
Equivalent to a.copy(order='K').
MaskedArray.__deepcopy__(memo=None)
MaskedArray.__getstate__()
Return the internal state of the masked array, for pickling purposes.
MaskedArray.__reduce__()
Return a 3-tuple for pickling a MaskedArray.
MaskedArray.__setstate__(state)
Restore the internal state of the masked array, for pickling purposes. state is typically the output of the
__getstate__ output, and is a 5-tuple:
• class name
• a tuple giving the shape of the data
• a typecode for the data
• a binary string for the data
• a binary string for the mask.
Basic customization:
MaskedArray.__new__([data, mask, dtype, . . . ]) Create a new masked array from scratch.

MaskedArray.__array__(. . . ) Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given
or a new array of provided data type if dtype is different
from the current dtype of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_wrap__(obj[, context]) Special hook for ufuncs.
static MaskedArray.__new__(data=None, mask=False, dtype=None, copy=False, subok=True,

ndmin=0, fill_value=None, keep_mask=True, hard_mask=None,
shrink=True, order=None, **options)
Create a new masked array from scratch.
Notes
A masked array can also be created by taking a .view(MaskedArray).

MaskedArray.__array__(|dtype) → reference if type unchanged, copy otherwise.
Returns either a new reference to self if dtype is not given or a new array of provided data type if dtype is
different from the current dtype of the array.
MaskedArray.__array_wrap__(obj, context=None)
Special hook for ufuncs.

Wraps the numpy array and sets the mask according to context.
Container customization: (see Indexing)
MaskedArray.__len__($self, /) Return len(self).

MaskedArray.__getitem__(indx) x.__getitem__(y) <==> x[y]
MaskedArray.__setitem__(indx, value) x.__setitem__(i, y) <==> x[i]=y
MaskedArray.__delitem__($self, key, /) Delete self[key].
MaskedArray.__contains__($self, key, /) Return key in self.
MaskedArray.__len__($self, / )
Return len(self).
MaskedArray.__getitem__(indx)
x.__getitem__(y) <==> x[y]
Return the item described by i, as a masked array.
MaskedArray.__setitem__(indx, value)
x.__setitem__(i, y) <==> x[i]=y
Set item described by index. If value is masked, masks those locations.
MaskedArray.__delitem__($self, key, / )
Delete self[key].
MaskedArray.__contains__($self, key, / )
Return key in self.
Specific methods
Handling the mask
The following methods can be used to access information about the mask or to manipulate the mask.
MaskedArray.__setmask__(mask[, copy]) Set the mask.

MaskedArray.harden_mask() Force the mask to hard.
MaskedArray.soften_mask() Force the mask to soft.
MaskedArray.unshare_mask() Copy the mask and set the sharedmask flag to False.
MaskedArray.shrink_mask() Reduce a mask to nomask when possible.
MaskedArray.__setmask__(mask, copy=False)
Set the mask.
MaskedArray.harden_mask()
Force the mask to hard.
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. harden_mask
sets hardmask to True.
See also:
hardmask
MaskedArray.soften_mask()
Force the mask to soft.
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. soften_mask

sets hardmask to False.

See also:
hardmask
MaskedArray.unshare_mask()
Copy the mask and set the sharedmask flag to False.
Whether the mask is shared between masked arrays can be seen from the sharedmask property.
unshare_mask ensures the mask is not shared. A copy of the mask is only made if it was shared.
See also:
sharedmask
MaskedArray.shrink_mask()
Reduce a mask to nomask when possible.
Parameters None
Returns None
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2 ], [3, 4]], mask=[0]*4)

>>> x.mask
array([[False, False],
[False, False]])
>>> x.shrink_mask()
>>> x.mask
False
Handling the fill_value
MaskedArray.get_fill_value() Return the filling value of the masked array.

MaskedArray.set_fill_value([value]) Set the filling value of the masked array.
MaskedArray.get_fill_value()
Return the filling value of the masked array.
Returns fill_value : scalar
The filling value.
Examples
>>> for dt in [np.int32, np.int64, np.float64, np.complex128]:

... np.ma.array([0, 1], dtype=dt).get_fill_value()
...
999999
999999
1e+20
(1e+20+0j)

>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=-np.inf)

>>> x.get_fill_value()
-inf
MaskedArray.set_fill_value(value=None)
Set the filling value of the masked array.
Parameters value : scalar, optional
The new filling value. Default is None, in which case a default based on the data type
is used.
See also:
ma.set_fill_value Equivalent function.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=-np.inf)

>>> x.fill_value
-inf
>>> x.set_fill_value(np.pi)
>>> x.fill_value
3.1415926535897931
Reset to default:
>>> x.set_fill_value()
>>> x.fill_value
1e+20
Counting the missing elements
MaskedArray.count([axis, keepdims]) Count the non-masked elements of the array along the
given axis.
MaskedArray.count(axis=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Count the non-masked elements of the array along the given axis.
Axis or axes along which the count is performed. The default (axis = None) performs
the count over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be negative, in which case
it counts from the last to the first axis.
If this is a tuple of ints, the count is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis
or all the axes as before.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the array.
Returns result : ndarray or scalar

An array with the same shape as the input array, with the specified axis removed. If the
array is a 0-d array, or if axis is None, a scalar is returned.
See also:
count_masked Count masked elements in array or along a given axis.
Examples

>>> a = ma.arange(6).reshape((2, 3))
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3
When the axis keyword is specified an array of appropriate size is returned.
>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
1.7.7 Masked array operations
Constants
ma.MaskType alias of bool_
numpy.ma.MaskType
alias of bool_
Creation
From existing data
ma.masked_array alias of MaskedArray

ma.array(data[, dtype, copy, order, mask, . . . ]) An array class with possibly masked values.
ma.copy(self, *args, **params) a.copy(order=) Return a copy of the array.
ma.frombuffer(buffer[, dtype, count, offset]) Interpret a buffer as a 1-dimensional array.
ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs) Construct an array by executing a function over each coor-
dinate.


ma.MaskedArray.copy([order]) Return a copy of the array.
numpy.ma.copy(self, *args, **params) a.copy(order=’C’) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod

object>

Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
numpy.ma.frombuffer(buffer, dtype=float, count=-1, offset=0) = <numpy.ma.core.

_convert2ma object>
Interpret a buffer as a 1-dimensional array.
Parameters buffer : buffer_like
An object that exposes the buffer interface.
Data-type of the returned array; default: float.
count : int, optional
Number of items to read. -1 means all data in the buffer.
Start reading the buffer from this offset (in bytes); default: 0.

Notes
If the buffer has data that is not in machine byte-order, this should be specified as part of the data-type, e.g.:
>>> dt = np.dtype(int)
>>> dt = dt.newbyteorder('>')
>>> np.frombuffer(buf, dtype=dt)
The data of the resulting array will not be byteswapped, but will be interpreted correctly.
Examples
>>> s = 'hello world'

>>> np.frombuffer(s, dtype='S1', count=5, offset=6)
array(['w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'],
dtype='|S1')
>>> np.frombuffer(b'\x01\x02', dtype=np.uint8)

array([1, 2], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.frombuffer(b'\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05', dtype=np.uint8, count=3)
array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)
numpy.ma.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma

object>
Construct an array by executing a function over each coordinate.
The resulting array therefore has a value fn(x, y, z) at coordinate (x, y, z).
Parameters function : callable
The function is called with N parameters, where N is the rank of shape. Each pa-
rameter represents the coordinates of the array varying along a specific axis. For exam-
ple, if shape were (2, 2), then the parameters would be array([[0, 0], [1,
1]]) and array([[0, 1], [0, 1]])
shape : (N,) tuple of ints
Shape of the output array, which also determines the shape of the coordinate arrays
passed to function.
Data-type of the coordinate arrays passed to function. By default, dtype is float.
Returns fromfunction : any
The result of the call to function is passed back directly. Therefore the shape of
fromfunction is completely determined by function. If function returns a scalar
value, the shape of fromfunction would match the shape parameter.
See also:
indices, meshgrid
Notes
Keywords other than dtype are passed to function.

Examples
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i == j, (3, 3), dtype=int)

array([[ True, False, False],
[False, True, False],
[False, False, True]])
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i + j, (3, 3), dtype=int)

array([[0, 1, 2],
[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
Ones and zeros
ma.empty(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, without initial-
izing entries.
ma.empty_like(a[, dtype, order, subok]) Return a new array with the same shape and type as a given
array.
ma.masked_all(shape[, dtype]) Empty masked array with all elements masked.
ma.masked_all_like(arr) Empty masked array with the properties of an existing ar-
ray.
ma.ones(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with
ones.
ma.zeros(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with ze-
ros.
numpy.ma.empty(shape, dtype=float, order=’C’) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma object>

Return a new array of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
Parameters shape : int or tuple of int
Shape of the empty array
Desired output data-type.
Whether to store multi-dimensional data in row-major (C-style) or column-major
(Fortran-style) order in memory.
Array of uninitialized (arbitrary) data of the given shape, dtype, and order. Object arrays
will be initialized to None.
See also:
empty_like, zeros, ones
Notes
empty, unlike zeros, does not set the array values to zero, and may therefore be marginally faster. On the
other hand, it requires the user to manually set all the values in the array, and should be used with caution.

Examples
>>> np.empty([2, 2])

array([[ -9.74499359e+001, 6.69583040e-309],
[ 2.13182611e-314, 3.06959433e-309]]) #random
>>> np.empty([2, 2], dtype=int)

array([[-1073741821, -1067949133],
[ 496041986, 19249760]]) #random
numpy.ma.empty_like(a, dtype=None, order=’K’, subok=True) = <numpy.ma.core.

_convert2ma object>
Return a new array with the same shape and type as a given array.
The shape and data-type of a define these same attributes of the returned array.
Overrides the data type of the result.
order : {‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’, or ‘K’}, optional
Overrides the memory layout of the result. ‘C’ means C-order, ‘F’ means F-order, ‘A’
as closely as possible.
subok : bool, optional.
If True, then the newly created array will use the sub-class type of ‘a’, otherwise it will
be a base-class array. Defaults to True.
Array of uninitialized (arbitrary) data with the same shape and type as a.
See also:
ones_like Return an array of ones with shape and type of input.

zeros_like Return an array of zeros with shape and type of input.
empty Return a new uninitialized array.
ones Return a new array setting values to one.
zeros Return a new array setting values to zero.
Notes
This function does not initialize the returned array; to do that use zeros_like or ones_like instead. It may be
marginally faster than the functions that do set the array values.

Examples
>>> a = ([1,2,3], [4,5,6]) # a is array-like

>>> np.empty_like(a)
array([[-1073741821, -1073741821, 3], #random
[ 0, 0, -1073741821]])
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2., 3.],[4.,5.,6.]])
array([[ -2.00000715e+000, 1.48219694e-323, -2.00000572e+000],#random
[ 4.38791518e-305, -2.00000715e+000, 4.17269252e-309]])
numpy.ma.masked_all(shape, dtype=<class ’float’>)

Empty masked array with all elements masked.
Return an empty masked array of the given shape and dtype, where all the data are masked.
Shape of the required MaskedArray.
Data type of the output.
Returns a : MaskedArray
A masked array with all data masked.
See also:
masked_all_like Empty masked array modelled on an existing array.
Examples

>>> ma.masked_all((3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype parameter defines the underlying data type.
>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3))

>>> a.dtype
dtype('float64')
>>> a = ma.masked_all((3, 3), dtype=np.int32)
>>> a.dtype
dtype('int32')
numpy.ma.masked_all_like(arr)
Empty masked array with the properties of an existing array.
Return an empty masked array of the same shape and dtype as the array arr, where all the data are masked.


An array describing the shape and dtype of the required MaskedArray.
A masked array with all data masked.
Raises AttributeError
If arr doesn’t have a shape attribute (i.e. not an ndarray)
See also:
masked_all Empty masked array with all elements masked.
Examples

>>> arr = np.zeros((2, 3), dtype=np.float32)
>>> arr
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]], dtype=float32)
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr)
masked_array(data =
[[-- -- --]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[[ True True True]
[ True True True]],
fill_value=1e+20)
The dtype of the masked array matches the dtype of arr.
>>> arr.dtype
dtype('float32')
>>> ma.masked_all_like(arr).dtype
dtype('float32')
numpy.ma.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=’C’) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma object>

Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.
Parameters shape : int or sequence of ints
Shape of the new array, e.g., (2, 3) or 2.
The desired data-type for the array, e.g., numpy.int8. Default is numpy.float64.
Whether to store multidimensional data in C- or Fortran-contiguous (row- or column-
wise) order in memory.
Array of ones with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:
zeros, ones_like

Examples
>>> np.ones(5)
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> np.ones((5,), dtype=int)

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.ones((2, 1))

array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.ones(s)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.ma.zeros(shape, dtype=float, order=’C’) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma object>

Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
Array of zeros with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:

empty_like Return an empty array with shape and type of input.
Examples
>>> np.zeros(5)
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.])
>>> np.zeros((5,), dtype=int)

array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0])

>>> np.zeros((2, 1))

array([[ 0.],
[ 0.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.zeros(s)
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
>>> np.zeros((2,), dtype=[('x', 'i4'), ('y', 'i4')]) # custom dtype

array([(0, 0), (0, 0)],
dtype=[('x', '<i4'), ('y', '<i4')])
Inspecting the array
ma.all(self[, axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.
ma.any(self[, axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
ma.count(self[, axis, keepdims]) Count the non-masked elements of the array along the
given axis.
ma.count_masked(arr[, axis]) Count the number of masked elements along the given axis.
ma.getmask(a) Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.
ma.getmaskarray(arr) Return the mask of a masked array, or full boolean array of
False.
ma.getdata(a[, subok]) Return the data of a masked array as an ndarray.
ma.nonzero(self) Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
ma.shape(obj) Return the shape of an array.
ma.size(obj[, axis]) Return the number of elements along a given axis.
ma.is_masked(x) Determine whether input has masked values.
ma.is_mask(m) Return True if m is a valid, standard mask.
ma.MaskedArray.data Return the current data, as a view of the original underlying
data.
ma.MaskedArray.mask Mask
ma.MaskedArray.recordmask Return the mask of the records.
ma.MaskedArray.all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.
ma.MaskedArray.any([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if any of the elements of a evaluate to True.
ma.MaskedArray.count([axis, keepdims]) Count the non-masked elements of the array along the
given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.nonzero() Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
ma.shape(obj) Return the shape of an array.
ma.size(obj[, axis]) Return the number of elements along a given axis.
numpy.ma.all(self, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>) =

<numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>
The output array is masked where all the values along the given axis are masked: if the output would have been
a scalar and that all the values are masked, then the output is masked.
See also:

ndarray.all corresponding function for ndarrays

Examples
>>> np.ma.array([1,2,3]).all()
True
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3], mask=True)
>>> (a.all() is np.ma.masked)
True
numpy.ma.any(self, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>) =

<numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>
Masked values are considered as False during computation.
See also:
ndarray.any corresponding function for ndarrays

numpy.ma.count(self, axis=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>) = <numpy.ma.

core._frommethod object>
Count the non-masked elements of the array along the given axis.
Axis or axes along which the count is performed. The default (axis = None) performs
the count over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be negative, in which case
it counts from the last to the first axis.
If this is a tuple of ints, the count is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the array.
Returns result : ndarray or scalar
An array with the same shape as the input array, with the specified axis removed. If the
array is a 0-d array, or if axis is None, a scalar is returned.
See also:
count_masked Count masked elements in array or along a given axis.
Examples


>>> a = ma.arange(6).reshape((2, 3))
>>> a[1, :] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- -- --]],
mask =
[ True True True]],
>>> a.count()
3
When the axis keyword is specified an array of appropriate size is returned.
>>> a.count(axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.count(axis=1)
array([3, 0])
numpy.ma.count_masked(arr, axis=None)
Count the number of masked elements along the given axis.
Parameters arr : array_like
An array with (possibly) masked elements.
Axis along which to count. If None (default), a flattened version of the array is used.
Returns count : int, ndarray
The total number of masked elements (axis=None) or the number of masked elements
along each slice of the given axis.
See also:
MaskedArray.count Count non-masked elements.
Examples

>>> a = np.arange(9).reshape((3,3))
>>> a = ma.array(a)
>>> a[1, 0] = ma.masked
>>> a[1, 2] = ma.masked
>>> a[2, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 1 2]
[-- 4 --]
[6 -- 8]],
mask =
[ True False True]
[False True False]],

fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.count_masked(a)
3
When the axis keyword is used an array is returned.
>>> ma.count_masked(a, axis=0)

array([1, 1, 1])
>>> ma.count_masked(a, axis=1)
array([0, 2, 1])
numpy.ma.getmask(a)
Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.
Return the mask of a as an ndarray if a is a MaskedArray and the mask is not nomask, else return nomask.
To guarantee a full array of booleans of the same shape as a, use getmaskarray.
Input MaskedArray for which the mask is required.
See also:
getdata Return the data of a masked array as an ndarray.

getmaskarray Return the mask of a masked array, or full array of False.
Examples

>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmask(a)
array([[False, True],
[False, False]])
Equivalently use the MaskedArray mask attribute.
>>> a.mask
[False, False]])
Result when mask == nomask
>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =

False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nomask
False
>>> ma.getmask(b) == ma.nomask
True
>>> b.mask == ma.nomask
True
numpy.ma.getmaskarray(arr)
Return the mask of a masked array, or full boolean array of False.
Return the mask of arr as an ndarray if arr is a MaskedArray and the mask is not nomask, else return a full
boolean array of False of the same shape as arr.
Input MaskedArray for which the mask is required.
See also:
getmask Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.

getdata Return the data of a masked array as an ndarray.
Examples

>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getmaskarray(a)
[False, False]])
Result when mask == nomask
>>> b = ma.masked_array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> b
masked_array(data =
[[1 2]
[3 4]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> >ma.getmaskarray(b)
array([[False, False],
[False, False]])
numpy.ma.getdata(a, subok=True)
Return the data of a masked array as an ndarray.

Return the data of a (if any) as an ndarray if a is a MaskedArray, else return a as a ndarray or subclass
(depending on subok) if not.
Input MaskedArray, alternatively a ndarray or a subclass thereof.
subok : bool
Whether to force the output to be a pure ndarray (False) or to return a subclass of ndarray
if appropriate (True, default).
See also:
getmask Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.

getmaskarray Return the mask of a masked array, or full array of False.
Examples

>>> a = ma.masked_equal([[1,2],[3,4]], 2)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.getdata(a)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Equivalently use the MaskedArray data attribute.
>>> a.data
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.nonzero(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>

Return the indices of unmasked elements that are not zero.
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
dimension. The corresponding non-zero values can be obtained with:
a[a.nonzero()]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use instead:
np.transpose(a.nonzero())
The result of this is always a 2d array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Parameters None

See also:
numpy.nonzero Function operating on ndarrays.

Examples

>>> x = ma.array(np.eye(3))
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[ 1. 0. 0.]
[ 0. 1. 0.]
[ 0. 0. 1.]],
mask =
False,
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
Masked elements are ignored.
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked

>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[1.0 0.0 0.0]
[0.0 -- 0.0]
[0.0 0.0 1.0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> x.nonzero()
(array([0, 2]), array([0, 2]))
Indices can also be grouped by element.
>>> np.transpose(x.nonzero())
array([[0, 0],
[2, 2]])
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, ma.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
>>> a = ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
masked_array(data =
[ True True True]
[ True True True]],

mask =
False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.nonzero(a > 3)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
The nonzero method of the condition array can also be called.
>>> (a > 3).nonzero()

(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.ma.shape(obj)
Return the shape of an array.
Input array.
Returns shape : tuple of ints
The elements of the shape tuple give the lengths of the corresponding array dimensions.
See also:
alen
ndarray.shape Equivalent array method.
Examples
>>> np.shape(np.eye(3))
(3, 3)
>>> np.shape([[1, 2]])
(1, 2)
>>> np.shape([0])
(1,)
>>> np.shape(0)
()
>>> a = np.array([(1, 2), (3, 4)], dtype=[('x', 'i4'), ('y', 'i4')])

>>> np.shape(a)
(2,)
>>> a.shape
(2,)
numpy.ma.size(obj, axis=None)
Return the number of elements along a given axis.
Input data.
Axis along which the elements are counted. By default, give the total number of ele-
ments.
Returns element_count : int
Number of elements along the specified axis.

See also:
shape dimensions of array

ndarray.shape dimensions of array
ndarray.size number of elements in array
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])
>>> np.size(a)
6
>>> np.size(a,1)
3
>>> np.size(a,0)
2
numpy.ma.is_masked(x)
Determine whether input has masked values.
Accepts any object as input, but always returns False unless the input is a MaskedArray containing masked
values.
Array to check for masked values.
Returns result : bool
True if x is a MaskedArray with masked values, False otherwise.
Examples

>>> x = ma.masked_equal([0, 1, 0, 2, 3], 0)
>>> x
masked_array(data = [-- 1 -- 2 3],
mask = [ True False True False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.is_masked(x)
True
>>> x = ma.masked_equal([0, 1, 0, 2, 3], 42)
>>> x
masked_array(data = [0 1 0 2 3],
mask = False,
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.is_masked(x)
False
Always returns False if x isn’t a MaskedArray.
>>> x = [False, True, False]

>>> ma.is_masked(x)
False
>>> x = 'a string'

>>> ma.is_masked(x)
False
numpy.ma.is_mask(m)
Return True if m is a valid, standard mask.
This function does not check the contents of the input, only that the type is MaskType. In particular, this function
returns False if the mask has a flexible dtype.
Parameters m : array_like
Array to test.
Returns result : bool
True if m.dtype.type is MaskType, False otherwise.
See also:
isMaskedArray Test whether input is an instance of MaskedArray.
Examples

>>> m = ma.masked_equal([0, 1, 0, 2, 3], 0)
>>> m
masked_array(data = [-- 1 -- 2 3],
mask = [ True False True False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.is_mask(m)
False
>>> ma.is_mask(m.mask)
True
Input must be an ndarray (or have similar attributes) for it to be considered a valid mask.
>>> m = [False, True, False]
>>> ma.is_mask(m)
False
>>> m = np.array([False, True, False])
>>> m
array([False, True, False])
>>> ma.is_mask(m)
True
Arrays with complex dtypes don’t return True.

>>> dtype = np.dtype({'names':['monty', 'pithon'],
'formats':[bool, bool]})
>>> dtype
dtype([('monty', '|b1'), ('pithon', '|b1')])
>>> m = np.array([(True, False), (False, True), (True, False)],
dtype=dtype)
>>> m
array([(True, False), (False, True), (True, False)],
dtype=[('monty', '|b1'), ('pithon', '|b1')])
>>> ma.is_mask(m)
False

MaskedArray.data
Return the current data, as a view of the original underlying data.
MaskedArray.mask
Mask
MaskedArray.recordmask
Return the mask of the records.
A record is masked when all the fields are masked.
Manipulating a MaskedArray
Changing the shape
ma.ravel(self[, order]) Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.

ma.reshape(a, new_shape[, order]) Returns an array containing the same data with a new
shape.
ma.resize(x, new_shape) Return a new masked array with the specified size and
shape.
ma.MaskedArray.flatten([order]) Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
ma.MaskedArray.ravel([order]) Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.
ma.MaskedArray.reshape(*s, **kwargs) Give a new shape to the array without changing its data.
ma.MaskedArray.resize(newshape[, refcheck, . . . ])
numpy.ma.ravel(self, order=’C’) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>

Returns a 1D version of self, as a view.
The elements of a are read using this index order. ‘C’ means to index the elements
Returns MaskedArray
Output view is of shape (self.size,) (or (np.ma.product(self.shape),
)).
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]

>>> print(x.ravel())
[1 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 -- 9]
numpy.ma.reshape(a, new_shape, order=’C’)

Refer to MaskedArray.reshape for full documentation.
See also:
MaskedArray.reshape equivalent function
numpy.ma.resize(x, new_shape)
Return a new masked array with the specified size and shape.
This is the masked equivalent of the numpy.resize function. The new array is filled with repeated copies of
x (in the order that the data are stored in memory). If x is masked, the new array will be masked, and the new
mask will be a repetition of the old one.
See also:
numpy.resize Equivalent function in the top level NumPy module.
Examples

>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])
>>> a[0, 1] = ma.masked
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[1 --]
[3 4]],
mask =
[[False True]
[False False]],
>>> np.resize(a, (3, 3))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 1]])
>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 3]
[4 1 --]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False False True]
A MaskedArray is always returned, regardless of the input type.

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2] ,[3, 4]])
>>> ma.resize(a, (3, 3))
masked_array(data =
[[1 2 3]

[4 1 2]
[3 4 1]],
mask =
False,
Modifying axes
ma.swapaxes(self, *args, . . . ) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 inter-
changed.
ma.transpose(a[, axes]) Permute the dimensions of an array.
ma.MaskedArray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) Return a view of the array with axis1 and axis2 inter-
changed.
ma.MaskedArray.transpose(*axes) Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
numpy.ma.swapaxes(self, *args, **params) a.swapaxes(axis1, axis2) = <numpy.ma.core.

_frommethod object>
See also:
numpy.ma.transpose(a, axes=None)
Permute the dimensions of an array.
This function is exactly equivalent to numpy.transpose.
See also:
numpy.transpose Equivalent function in top-level NumPy module.
Examples

>>> x = ma.arange(4).reshape((2,2))
>>> x[1, 1] = ma.masked
>>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[0 1]
[2 --]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False True]],
>>> ma.transpose(x)
masked_array(data =
[[0 2]
[1 --]],
mask =
[[False False]

[False True]],
Changing the number of dimensions
ma.atleast_1d(*arys) Convert inputs to arrays with at least one dimension.

ma.atleast_2d(*arys) View inputs as arrays with at least two dimensions.
ma.atleast_3d(*arys) View inputs as arrays with at least three dimensions.
ma.expand_dims(x, axis) Expand the shape of an array.
ma.squeeze(a[, axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of an
array.
ma.MaskedArray.squeeze([axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of a.
ma.column_stack(tup) Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.
ma.concatenate(arrays[, axis]) Concatenate a sequence of arrays along the given axis.
ma.dstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
ma.hstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) Split an array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally
(column-wise).
ma.mr_ Translate slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
ma.row_stack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
ma.vstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
numpy.ma.atleast_1d(*arys) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_allargs
object>
Convert inputs to arrays with at least one dimension.
Scalar inputs are converted to 1-dimensional arrays, whilst higher-dimensional inputs are preserved.
Parameters arys1, arys2, . . . : array_like

One or more input arrays.
An array, or list of arrays, each with a.ndim >= 1. Copies are made only if neces-
sary.
Notes
The function is applied to both the _data and the _mask, if any.
Examples
>>> np.atleast_1d(1.0)
array([ 1.])
>>> x = np.arange(9.0).reshape(3,3)
>>> np.atleast_1d(x)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.],

[ 6., 7., 8.]])

>>> np.atleast_1d(x) is x
True
>>> np.atleast_1d(1, [3, 4])

[array([1]), array([3, 4])]
object>
View inputs as arrays with at least two dimensions.

One or more array-like sequences. Non-array inputs are converted to arrays. Arrays
that already have two or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns res, res2, . . . : ndarray
An array, or list of arrays, each with a.ndim >= 2. Copies are avoided where possi-
ble, and views with two or more dimensions are returned.
Notes
Examples
array([[ 3.]])
>>> x = np.arange(3.0)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> np.atleast_2d(x).base is x
True
>>> np.atleast_2d(1, [1, 2], [[1, 2]])

[array([[1]]), array([[1, 2]]), array([[1, 2]])]
object>
View inputs as arrays with at least three dimensions.

that already have three or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns res1, res2, . . . : ndarray
ble, and views with three or more dimensions are returned. For example, a 1-D array of
shape (N,) becomes a view of shape (1, N, 1), and a 2-D array of shape (M, N)
becomes a view of shape (M, N, 1).

Notes
Examples
array([[[ 3.]]])
>>> np.atleast_3d(x).shape
(1, 3, 1)
(4, 3, 1)
>>> np.atleast_3d(x).base is x.base # x is a reshape, so not base itself
True
>>> for arr in np.atleast_3d([1, 2], [[1, 2]], [[[1, 2]]]):

... print(arr, arr.shape)
...
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1 2]]] (1, 1, 2)
numpy.ma.expand_dims(x, axis)
Expand the shape of an array.
Expands the shape of the array by including a new axis before the one specified by the axis parameter. This
function behaves the same as numpy.expand_dims but preserves masked elements.
See also:
numpy.expand_dims Equivalent function in top-level NumPy module.
Examples

>>> x = ma.array([1, 2, 4])
>>> x[1] = ma.masked
>>> x
>>> np.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
array([[1, 2, 4]])
>>> ma.expand_dims(x, axis=0)
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =

[[False True False]],

The same result can be achieved using slicing syntax with np.newaxis.
>>> x[np.newaxis, :]
masked_array(data =
[[1 -- 4]],
mask =
[[False True False]],
numpy.ma.squeeze(a, axis=None)
Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of an array.
Input data.
Returns squeezed : ndarray
The input array, but with all or a subset of the dimensions of length 1 removed. This is
always a itself or a view into a.
Raises ValueError
If axis is not None, and an axis being squeezed is not of length 1
See also:
expand_dims The inverse operation, adding singleton dimensions

reshape Insert, remove, and combine dimensions, and resize existing ones
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[[0], [1], [2]]])

>>> x.shape
(1, 3, 1)
>>> np.squeeze(x).shape
(3,)
>>> np.squeeze(x, axis=0).shape
(3, 1)
...
ValueError: cannot select an axis to squeeze out which has size not equal to one
(1, 3)
numpy.ma.column_stack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_seq object>

Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.

Take a sequence of 1-D arrays and stack them as columns to make a single 2-D array. 2-D arrays are
stacked as-is, just like with hstack. 1-D arrays are turned into 2-D columns first.
Parameters tup : sequence of 1-D or 2-D arrays.

Arrays to stack. All of them must have the same first dimension.
Returns stacked : 2-D array
The array formed by stacking the given arrays.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.column_stack((a,b))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.ma.concatenate(arrays, axis=0)
Concatenate a sequence of arrays along the given axis.
Parameters arrays : sequence of array_like
The arrays must have the same shape, except in the dimension corresponding to axis
(the first, by default).
The axis along which the arrays will be joined. Default is 0.
The concatenated array with any masked entries preserved.
See also:
numpy.concatenate Equivalent function in the top-level NumPy module.
Examples

>>> a = ma.arange(3)
>>> a[1] = ma.masked
>>> b = ma.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b

mask = False,
>>> ma.concatenate([a, b])
masked_array(data = [0 -- 2 2 3 4],
mask = [False True False False False False],
numpy.ma.dstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_seq object>

Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
This is equivalent to concatenation along the third axis after 2-D arrays of shape (M,N) have been
reshaped to (M,N,1) and 1-D arrays of shape (N,) have been reshaped to (1,N,1). Rebuilds arrays
divided by dsplit.
This function makes most sense for arrays with up to 3 dimensions. For instance, for pixel-
data with a height (first axis), width (second axis), and r/g/b channels (third axis). The functions
concatenate, stack and block provide more general stacking and concatenation operations.
Parameters tup : sequence of arrays

The arrays must have the same shape along all but the third axis. 1-D or 2-D arrays
must have the same shape.
Returns stacked : ndarray
The array formed by stacking the given arrays, will be at least 3-D.
See also:
stack Join a sequence of arrays along a new axis.

vstack Stack along first axis.
hstack Stack along second axis.
concatenate Join a sequence of arrays along an existing axis.
dsplit Split array along third axis.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.dstack((a,b))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])

>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])
numpy.ma.hstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_seq object>

Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
This is equivalent to concatenation along the second axis, except for 1-D arrays where it concatenates
along the first axis. Rebuilds arrays divided by hsplit.
Parameters tup : sequence of ndarrays

The arrays must have the same shape along all but the second axis, except 1-D arrays
which can be any length.
See also:

vstack Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
dstack Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
hsplit Split array along second axis.
block Assemble arrays from blocks.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.hstack((a,b))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])

numpy.ma.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) = <numpy.ma.extras.

_fromnxfunction_single object>
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).
Please refer to the split documentation. hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is
always split along the second axis regardless of the array dimension.
See also:
split Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(16.0).reshape(4, 4)
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 4., 5.],
[ 8., 9.],
[ 12., 13.]]),
array([[ 2., 3.],
[ 6., 7.],
[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]])]
>>> np.hsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 4., 5., 6.],
[ 8., 9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]),
array([[ 3.],
[ 7.],
[ 11.],
[ 15.]]),
array([], dtype=float64)]
With a higher dimensional array the split is still along the second axis.
>>> x = np.arange(8.0).reshape(2, 2, 2)
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.]],
[[ 4., 5.]]]),

array([[[ 2., 3.]],

[[ 6., 7.]]])]
numpy.ma.mr_ = <numpy.ma.extras.mr_class object>

Translate slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
This is the masked array version of lib.index_tricks.RClass.
See also:
lib.index_tricks.RClass
Examples
>>> np.ma.mr_[np.ma.array([1,2,3]), 0, 0, np.ma.array([4,5,6])]

array([1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6])
numpy.ma.row_stack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_seq object>

Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
This is equivalent to concatenation along the first axis after 1-D arrays of shape (N,) have been
reshaped to (1,N). Rebuilds arrays divided by vsplit.

The arrays must have the same shape along all but the first axis. 1-D arrays must have
the same length.
See also:

hstack Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
dstack Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third dimension).
vsplit Split array into a list of multiple sub-arrays vertically.
Notes

Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.vstack((a,b))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])

>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
numpy.ma.vstack(tup) = <numpy.ma.extras._fromnxfunction_seq object>

This is equivalent to concatenation along the first axis after 1-D arrays of shape (N,) have been
reshaped to (1,N). Rebuilds arrays divided by vsplit.

the same length.
See also:

Notes

Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])

>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
Joining arrays
ma.column_stack(tup) Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.

ma.concatenate(arrays[, axis]) Concatenate a sequence of arrays along the given axis.
ma.append(a, b[, axis]) Append values to the end of an array.
ma.dstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
ma.hstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
ma.vstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
numpy.ma.append(a, b, axis=None)
Append values to the end of an array.
Values are appended to a copy of this array.
b : array_like
These values are appended to a copy of a. It must be of the correct shape (the same
shape as a, excluding axis). If axis is not specified, b can be any shape and will be
flattened before use.
The axis along which v are appended. If axis is not given, both a and b are flattened
before use.
Returns append : MaskedArray
A copy of a with b appended to axis. Note that append does not occur in-place: a new
array is allocated and filled. If axis is None, the result is a flattened array.
See also:
numpy.append Equivalent function in the top-level NumPy module.

Examples

>>> a = ma.masked_values([1, 2, 3], 2)
>>> b = ma.masked_values([[4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]], 7)
>>> print(ma.append(a, b))
[1 -- 3 4 5 6 -- 8 9]
Operations on masks
Creating a mask
ma.make_mask(m[, copy, shrink, dtype]) Create a boolean mask from an array.

ma.make_mask_none(newshape[, dtype]) Return a boolean mask of the given shape, filled with False.
ma.mask_or(m1, m2[, copy, shrink]) Combine two masks with the logical_or operator.
ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype) Construct a dtype description list from a given dtype.
numpy.ma.make_mask(m, copy=False, shrink=True, dtype=<class ’numpy.bool_’>)

Create a boolean mask from an array.
Return m as a boolean mask, creating a copy if necessary or requested. The function can accept any sequence
that is convertible to integers, or nomask. Does not require that contents must be 0s and 1s, values of 0 are
interepreted as False, everything else as True.
Potential mask.
Whether to return a copy of m (True) or m itself (False).
Whether to shrink m to nomask if all its values are False.
Data-type of the output mask. By default, the output mask has a dtype of MaskType
(bool). If the dtype is flexible, each field has a boolean dtype. This is ignored when m
is nomask, in which case nomask is always returned.
Returns result : ndarray
A boolean mask derived from m.
Examples

>>> m = [True, False, True, True]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
array([ True, False, True, True])
>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)


>>> m = [1, 0, 2, -3]
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
Effect of the shrink parameter.
>>> m = np.zeros(4)
>>> m
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0.])
>>> ma.make_mask(m)
False
>>> ma.make_mask(m, shrink=False)
array([False, False, False, False])
Using a flexible dtype.
>>> m = [1, 0, 1, 1]
>>> n = [0, 1, 0, 0]
>>> arr = []
>>> for man, mouse in zip(m, n):
... arr.append((man, mouse))
>>> arr
[(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)]
>>> dtype = np.dtype({'names':['man', 'mouse'],
'formats':[int, int]})
>>> arr = np.array(arr, dtype=dtype)
>>> arr
array([(1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), (1, 0)],
dtype=[('man', '<i4'), ('mouse', '<i4')])
>>> ma.make_mask(arr, dtype=dtype)
array([(True, False), (False, True), (True, False), (True, False)],
dtype=[('man', '|b1'), ('mouse', '|b1')])
numpy.ma.make_mask_none(newshape, dtype=None)
Return a boolean mask of the given shape, filled with False.
This function returns a boolean ndarray with all entries False, that can be used in common mask manipulations.
If a complex dtype is specified, the type of each field is converted to a boolean type.
Parameters newshape : tuple
A tuple indicating the shape of the mask.
dtype : {None, dtype}, optional
If None, use a MaskType instance. Otherwise, use a new datatype with the same fields
as dtype, converted to boolean types.
An ndarray of appropriate shape and dtype, filled with False.
See also:
make_mask Create a boolean mask from an array.

make_mask_descr Construct a dtype description list from a given dtype.

Examples

>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,))
array([False, False, False])
Defining a more complex dtype.
>>> dtype = np.dtype({'names':['foo', 'bar'],

'formats':[np.float32, int]})
>>> dtype
dtype([('foo', '<f4'), ('bar', '<i4')])
>>> ma.make_mask_none((3,), dtype=dtype)
array([(False, False), (False, False), (False, False)],
dtype=[('foo', '|b1'), ('bar', '|b1')])
numpy.ma.mask_or(m1, m2, copy=False, shrink=True)

Combine two masks with the logical_or operator.
The result may be a view on m1 or m2 if the other is nomask (i.e. False).
Parameters m1, m2 : array_like
Input masks.
If copy is False and one of the inputs is nomask, return a view of the other input mask.
Defaults to False.
Whether to shrink the output to nomask if all its values are False. Defaults to True.
Returns mask : output mask
The result masks values that are masked in either m1 or m2.
Raises ValueError
If m1 and m2 have different flexible dtypes.
Examples
>>> m1 = np.ma.make_mask([0, 1, 1, 0])

>>> m2 = np.ma.make_mask([1, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.ma.mask_or(m1, m2)
array([ True, True, True, False])
numpy.ma.make_mask_descr(ndtype)
Construct a dtype description list from a given dtype.
Returns a new dtype object, with the type of all fields in ndtype to a boolean type. Field names are not altered.
Parameters ndtype : dtype
The dtype to convert.
Returns result : dtype
A dtype that looks like ndtype, the type of all fields is boolean.

Examples

>>> dtype = np.dtype({'names':['foo', 'bar'],
'formats':[np.float32, int]})
>>> dtype
dtype([('foo', '<f4'), ('bar', '<i4')])
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(dtype)
dtype([('foo', '|b1'), ('bar', '|b1')])
>>> ma.make_mask_descr(np.float32)
dtype('bool')
Accessing a mask
ma.getmask(a) Return the mask of a masked array, or nomask.

ma.getmaskarray(arr) Return the mask of a masked array, or full boolean array of
False.
ma.masked_array.mask Mask
masked_array.mask
Mask
Finding masked data
ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a) Find contiguous unmasked data in a masked array along

the given axis.
ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a) Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values.
ma.notmasked_contiguous(a[, axis]) Find contiguous unmasked data in a masked array along
the given axis.
ma.notmasked_edges(a[, axis]) Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values along
an axis.
ma.clump_masked(a) Returns a list of slices corresponding to the masked clumps
of a 1-D array.
ma.clump_unmasked(a) Return list of slices corresponding to the unmasked clumps
of a 1-D array.
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
Find contiguous unmasked data in a masked array along the given axis.
Parameters a : narray
The input array.
Returns slice_list : list
A sorted sequence of slices (start index, end index).
See also:
flatnotmasked_edges, notmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked

Notes
Only accepts 2-D arrays at most.
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.arange(10)
>>> np.ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
slice(0, 10, None)
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)

>>> a[mask] = np.ma.masked
>>> np.array(a[~a.mask])
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])
>>> np.ma.flatnotmasked_contiguous(a)
[slice(3, 5, None), slice(6, 9, None)]
>>> a[:] = np.ma.masked
>>> print(np.ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a))
None
numpy.ma.flatnotmasked_edges(a)
Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values.
Expects a 1-D MaskedArray, returns None if all values are masked.
Input 1-D MaskedArray
Returns edges : ndarray or None
The indices of first and last non-masked value in the array. Returns None if all values
are masked.
See also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Only accepts 1-D arrays.
Examples
>>> flatnotmasked_edges(a)
[0,-1]
>>> mask = (a < 3) | (a > 8) | (a == 5)

>>> a[mask] = np.ma.masked
>>> np.array(a[~a.mask])
array([3, 4, 6, 7, 8])

>>> flatnotmasked_edges(a)
array([3, 8])
>>> a[:] = np.ma.masked

>>> print(flatnotmasked_edges(ma))
None
numpy.ma.notmasked_contiguous(a, axis=None)
Find contiguous unmasked data in a masked array along the given axis.
The input array.
Axis along which to perform the operation. If None (default), applies to a flattened
version of the array.
Returns endpoints : list
A list of slices (start and end indexes) of unmasked indexes in the array.
See also:
flatnotmasked_edges, flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges, clump_masked,
clump_unmasked
Notes
Only accepts 2-D arrays at most.
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(9).reshape((3, 3))

>>> mask = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> mask[1:, 1:] = 1
>>> ma = np.ma.array(a, mask=mask)

>>> np.array(ma[~ma.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.notmasked_contiguous(ma)
numpy.ma.notmasked_edges(a, axis=None)
Find the indices of the first and last unmasked values along an axis.
If all values are masked, return None. Otherwise, return a list of two tuples, corresponding to the indices of the
first and last unmasked values respectively.
The input array.

Axis along which to perform the operation. If None (default), applies to a flattened
version of the array.
Returns edges : ndarray or list
An array of start and end indexes if there are any masked data in the array. If there are
no masked data in the array, edges is a list of the first and last index.
See also:
flatnotmasked_contiguous, flatnotmasked_edges, notmasked_contiguous,
clump_masked, clump_unmasked
Examples

>>> m = np.zeros_like(a)
>>> m[1:, 1:] = 1
>>> am = np.ma.array(a, mask=m)

>>> np.array(am[~am.mask])
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 6])
>>> np.ma.notmasked_edges(ma)
array([0, 6])
numpy.ma.clump_masked(a)
Returns a list of slices corresponding to the masked clumps of a 1-D array. (A “clump” is defined as a contiguous
region of the array).
Parameters a : ndarray
A one-dimensional masked array.
Returns slices : list of slice
The list of slices, one for each continuous region of masked elements in a.
See also:
flatnotmasked_edges, flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges,
notmasked_contiguous, clump_unmasked
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.masked_array(np.arange(10))
>>> a[[0, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9]] = np.ma.masked
>>> np.ma.clump_masked(a)
[slice(0, 3, None), slice(6, 7, None), slice(8, 10, None)]

numpy.ma.clump_unmasked(a)
Return list of slices corresponding to the unmasked clumps of a 1-D array. (A “clump” is defined as a contiguous
region of the array).
A one-dimensional masked array.
Returns slices : list of slice
The list of slices, one for each continuous region of unmasked elements in a.
See also:
flatnotmasked_edges, flatnotmasked_contiguous, notmasked_edges,
notmasked_contiguous, clump_masked
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.masked_array(np.arange(10))
>>> a[[0, 1, 2, 6, 8, 9]] = np.ma.masked
>>> np.ma.clump_unmasked(a)
Modifying a mask
ma.mask_cols(a[, axis]) Mask columns of a 2D array that contain masked values.

ma.mask_or(m1, m2[, copy, shrink]) Combine two masks with the logical_or operator.
ma.mask_rowcols(a[, axis]) Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain
masked values.
ma.mask_rows(a[, axis]) Mask rows of a 2D array that contain masked values.
ma.harden_mask(self) Force the mask to hard.
ma.soften_mask(self) Force the mask to soft.
ma.MaskedArray.harden_mask() Force the mask to hard.
ma.MaskedArray.soften_mask() Force the mask to soft.
ma.MaskedArray.shrink_mask() Reduce a mask to nomask when possible.
ma.MaskedArray.unshare_mask() Copy the mask and set the sharedmask flag to False.
numpy.ma.mask_cols(a, axis=None)
Mask columns of a 2D array that contain masked values.
This function is a shortcut to mask_rowcols with axis equal to 1.
See also:
mask_rowcols Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array.


Examples

>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3), dtype=int)
>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a = ma.masked_equal(a, 1)
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_cols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.mask_rowcols(a, axis=None)
Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain masked values.
Mask whole rows and/or columns of a 2D array that contain masked values. The masking behavior is selected
using the axis parameter.
• If axis is None, rows and columns are masked.
• If axis is 0, only rows are masked.
• If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are masked.
Parameters a : array_like, MaskedArray

The array to mask. If not a MaskedArray instance (or if no array elements are masked).
The result is a MaskedArray with mask set to nomask (False). Must be a 2D array.
Axis along which to perform the operation. If None, applies to a flattened version of the
array.
A modified version of the input array, masked depending on the value of the axis pa-
rameter.
Raises NotImplementedError
If input array a is not 2D.

See also:
mask_rows Mask rows of a 2D array that contain masked values.

mask_cols Mask cols of a 2D array that contain masked values.
Notes
The input array’s mask is modified by this function.
Examples

>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rowcols(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 -- 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 -- 0]],
mask =
[[False True False]
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.mask_rows(a, axis=None)
Mask rows of a 2D array that contain masked values.
This function is a shortcut to mask_rowcols with axis equal to 0.
See also:
mask_rowcols Mask rows and/or columns of a 2D array.


Examples

>>> a[1, 1] = 1
>>> a
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[0 -- 0]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[False True False]
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.mask_rows(a)
masked_array(data =
[[0 0 0]
[-- -- --]
[0 0 0]],
mask =
[ True True True]
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.harden_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>

Force the mask to hard.
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. harden_mask
sets hardmask to True.
See also:
hardmask
numpy.ma.soften_mask(self ) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>
Force the mask to soft.
Whether the mask of a masked array is hard or soft is determined by its hardmask property. soften_mask
sets hardmask to False.
See also:
hardmask
Conversion operations
> to a masked array

ma.asarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to a masked array of the given data-type.
ma.asanyarray(a[, dtype]) Convert the input to a masked array, conserving subclasses.
ma.fix_invalid(a[, mask, copy, fill_value]) Return input with invalid data masked and replaced by a fill
value.
ma.masked_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where equal to a given value.
ma.masked_greater(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where greater than a given value.
ma.masked_greater_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where greater than or equal to a given value.
ma.masked_inside(x, v1, v2[, copy]) Mask an array inside a given interval.
ma.masked_invalid(a[, copy]) Mask an array where invalid values occur (NaNs or infs).
ma.masked_less(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where less than a given value.
ma.masked_less_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where less than or equal to a given value.
ma.masked_not_equal(x, value[, copy]) Mask an array where not equal to a given value.
ma.masked_object(x, value[, copy, shrink]) Mask the array x where the data are exactly equal to value.
ma.masked_outside(x, v1, v2[, copy]) Mask an array outside a given interval.
ma.masked_values(x, value[, rtol, atol, . . . ]) Mask using floating point equality.
ma.masked_where(condition, a[, copy]) Mask an array where a condition is met.
> to a ndarray
ma.compress_cols(a) Suppress whole columns of a 2-D array that contain

masked values.
ma.compress_rowcols(x[, axis]) Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that con-
tain masked values.
ma.compress_rows(a) Suppress whole rows of a 2-D array that contain masked
values.
ma.compressed(x) Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
ma.filled(a[, fill_value]) Return input as an array with masked data replaced by a fill
value.
ma.MaskedArray.compressed() Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
ma.MaskedArray.filled([fill_value]) Return a copy of self, with masked values filled with a
given value.
numpy.ma.compress_cols(a)
Suppress whole columns of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
This is equivalent to np.ma.compress_rowcols(a, 1), see extras.compress_rowcols for de-
tails.
See also:
extras.compress_rowcols
numpy.ma.compress_rowcols(x, axis=None)
Suppress the rows and/or columns of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
The suppression behavior is selected with the axis parameter.
• If axis is None, both rows and columns are suppressed.
• If axis is 0, only rows are suppressed.
• If axis is 1 or -1, only columns are suppressed.
Parameters x : array_like, MaskedArray

The array to operate on. If not a MaskedArray instance (or if no array elements are
masked), x is interpreted as a MaskedArray with mask set to nomask. Must be a 2D
array.
Axis along which to perform the operation. Default is None.
Returns compressed_array : ndarray
The compressed array.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[1, 0, 0],

... [1, 0, 0],
... [0, 0, 0]])
>>> x
masked_array(data =
[[-- 1 2]
[-- 4 5]
[6 7 8]],
mask =
[[ True False False]
[ True False False]
>>> np.ma.compress_rowcols(x)
array([[7, 8]])
>>> np.ma.compress_rowcols(x, 0)
array([[6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.ma.compress_rowcols(x, 1)
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5],
[7, 8]])
numpy.ma.compress_rows(a)
Suppress whole rows of a 2-D array that contain masked values.
This is equivalent to np.ma.compress_rowcols(a, 0), see extras.compress_rowcols for de-
tails.
See also:
extras.compress_rowcols
numpy.ma.compressed(x)
Return all the non-masked data as a 1-D array.
This function is equivalent to calling the “compressed” method of a MaskedArray, see MaskedArray.
compressed for details.
See also:
MaskedArray.compressed Equivalent method.
numpy.ma.filled(a, fill_value=None)
Return input as an array with masked data replaced by a fill value.

If a is not a MaskedArray, a itself is returned. If a is a MaskedArray and fill_value is None, fill_value is

set to a.fill_value.
Parameters a : MaskedArray or array_like
An input object.
Filling value. Default is None.
Returns a : ndarray
The filled array.
See also:
compressed
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[1, 0, 0],

... [1, 0, 0],
... [0, 0, 0]])
>>> x.filled()
array([[999999, 1, 2],
[999999, 4, 5],
[ 6, 7, 8]])
> to another object
ma.MaskedArray.tofile(fid[, sep, format]) Save a masked array to a file in binary format.

ma.MaskedArray.tolist([fill_value]) Return the data portion of the masked array as a hierarchi-
cal Python list.
ma.MaskedArray.torecords() Transforms a masked array into a flexible-type array.
ma.MaskedArray.tobytes([fill_value, order]) Return the array data as a string containing the raw bytes in
the array.
Pickling and unpickling
ma.dump(a, F) Pickle a masked array to a file.

ma.dumps(a) Return a string corresponding to the pickling of a masked
array.
ma.load(F) Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a
file-like object or a filename.
ma.loads(strg) Load a pickle from the current string.
numpy.ma.dump(a, F)
Pickle a masked array to a file.
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dump.
Parameters a : MaskedArray

The array to be pickled.

F : str or file-like object
The file to pickle a to. If a string, the full path to the file.
numpy.ma.dumps(a)
Return a string corresponding to the pickling of a masked array.
This is a wrapper around cPickle.dumps.
Parameters a : MaskedArray
The array for which the string representation of the pickle is returned.
numpy.ma.load(F)
Wrapper around cPickle.load which accepts either a file-like object or a filename.
Parameters F : str or file
The file or file name to load.
See also:
dump Pickle an array
Notes
This is different from numpy.load, which does not use cPickle but loads the NumPy binary .npy format.
numpy.ma.loads(strg)
Load a pickle from the current string.
The result of cPickle.loads(strg) is returned.
Parameters strg : str
The string to load.
See also:
dumps Return a string corresponding to the pickling of a masked array.
Filling a masked array
ma.common_fill_value(a, b) Return the common filling value of two masked arrays, if

any.
ma.default_fill_value(obj) Return the default fill value for the argument object.
ma.maximum_fill_value(obj) Return the minimum value that can be represented by the
dtype of an object.
ma.maximum_fill_value(obj) Return the minimum value that can be represented by the
dtype of an object.
ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value) Set the filling value of a, if a is a masked array.
ma.MaskedArray.get_fill_value() Return the filling value of the masked array.
ma.MaskedArray.set_fill_value([value]) Set the filling value of the masked array.
ma.MaskedArray.fill_value Filling value.

numpy.ma.common_fill_value(a, b)
Return the common filling value of two masked arrays, if any.
If a.fill_value == b.fill_value, return the fill value, otherwise return None.
Parameters a, b : MaskedArray
The masked arrays for which to compare fill values.
Returns fill_value : scalar or None
The common fill value, or None.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)

>>> y = np.ma.array([0, 1.], fill_value=3)
>>> np.ma.common_fill_value(x, y)
3.0
numpy.ma.default_fill_value(obj)
Return the default fill value for the argument object.
The default filling value depends on the datatype of the input array or the type of the input scalar:
datatype default
bool True
int 999999
float 1.e20
complex 1.e20+0j
object ‘?’
string ‘N/A’
For structured types, a structured scalar is returned, with each field the default fill value for its type.
For subarray types, the fill value is an array of the same size containing the default scalar fill value.
Parameters obj : ndarray, dtype or scalar
The array data-type or scalar for which the default fill value is returned.
Returns fill_value : scalar
The default fill value.
Examples
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(1)
999999
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.array([1.1, 2., np.pi]))
1e+20
>>> np.ma.default_fill_value(np.dtype(complex))
(1e+20+0j)
numpy.ma.maximum_fill_value(obj)
Return the minimum value that can be represented by the dtype of an object.
This function is useful for calculating a fill value suitable for taking the maximum of an array with a given dtype.

Parameters obj : ndarray, dtype or scalar

An object that can be queried for it’s numeric type.
Returns val : scalar
The minimum representable value.
Raises TypeError
If obj isn’t a suitable numeric type.
See also:
minimum_fill_value The inverse function.

set_fill_value Set the filling value of a masked array.
MaskedArray.fill_value Return current fill value.
Examples

>>> a = np.int8()
>>> ma.maximum_fill_value(a)
-128
>>> a = np.int32()
-2147483648
An array of numeric data can also be passed.
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)

-128
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.float32)
-inf
numpy.ma.set_fill_value(a, fill_value)
Set the filling value of a, if a is a masked array.
This function changes the fill value of the masked array a in place. If a is not a masked array, the function
returns silently, without doing anything.
Input array.
fill_value : dtype
Filling value. A consistency test is performed to make sure the value is compatible with
the dtype of a.
Returns None
Nothing returned by this function.
See also:
maximum_fill_value Return the default fill value for a dtype.

MaskedArray.fill_value Return current fill value.

MaskedArray.set_fill_value Equivalent method.
Examples

>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = ma.masked_where(a < 3, a)
>>> a
masked_array(data = [-- -- -- 3 4],
mask = [ True True True False False],
fill_value=999999)
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, -999)
>>> a
masked_array(data = [-- -- -- 3 4],
mask = [ True True True False False],
fill_value=-999)
Nothing happens if a is not a masked array.
>>> a = range(5)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, 100)
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> ma.set_fill_value(a, 100)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
MaskedArray.fill_value
Filling value.
Masked arrays arithmetics
Arithmetics
ma.anom(self[, axis, dtype]) Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic
ma.anomalies(self[, axis, dtype]) Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic
ma.average(a[, axis, weights, returned]) Return the weighted average of array over the given axis.
ma.conjugate(x, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
ma.corrcoef(x[, y, rowvar, bias, . . . ]) Return Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients.
ma.cov(x[, y, rowvar, bias, allow_masked, ddof]) Estimate the covariance matrix.


ma.cumsum(self[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the array elements over the
given axis.
ma.cumprod(self[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the array elements over
the given axis.
ma.mean(self[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
ma.median(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input, . . . ]) Compute the median along the specified axis.
ma.power(a, b[, third]) Returns element-wise base array raised to power from sec-
ond array.
ma.prod(self[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis.
ma.std(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along
given axis.
ma.sum(self[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
ma.var(self[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Compute the variance along the specified axis.
ma.MaskedArray.anom([axis, dtype]) Compute the anomalies (deviations from the arithmetic
ma.MaskedArray.cumprod([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of the array elements over
the given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.cumsum([axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the array elements over the
given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.mean([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Returns the average of the array elements along given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.prod([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of the array elements over the given
axis.
ma.MaskedArray.std([axis, dtype, out, ddof, . . . ]) Returns the standard deviation of the array elements along
given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.sum([axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of the array elements over the given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.var([axis, dtype, out, ddof, . . . ]) Compute the variance along the specified axis.
numpy.ma.anom(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>

array as reference.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()

mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
numpy.ma.anomalies(self, axis=None, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod

object>
array as reference.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1,2,3])
>>> a.anom()
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
numpy.ma.average(a, axis=None, weights=None, returned=False)

Return the weighted average of array over the given axis.
Data to be averaged. Masked entries are not taken into account in the computation.
Axis along which to average a. If None, averaging is done over the flattened array.
weights : array_like, optional
The importance that each element has in the computation of the average. The weights
array can either be 1-D (in which case its length must be the size of a along the given
axis) or of the same shape as a. If weights=None, then all data in a are assumed to
have a weight equal to one. If weights is complex, the imaginary parts are ignored.
returned : bool, optional
Flag indicating whether a tuple (result, sum of weights) should be returned
as output (True), or just the result (False). Default is False.
Returns average, [sum_of_weights] : (tuple of) scalar or MaskedArray
The average along the specified axis. When returned is True, return a tuple with the
average as the first element and the sum of the weights as the second element. The
return type is np.float64 if a is of integer type and floats smaller than float64, or the
input data-type, otherwise. If returned, sum_of_weights is always float64.

Examples
>>> a = np.ma.array([1., 2., 3., 4.], mask=[False, False, True, True])

>>> np.ma.average(a, weights=[3, 1, 0, 0])
1.25
>>> x = np.ma.arange(6.).reshape(3, 2)
>>> print(x)
[[ 0. 1.]
[ 2. 3.]
[ 4. 5.]]
>>> avg, sumweights = np.ma.average(x, axis=0, weights=[1, 2, 3],
... returned=True)
>>> print(avg)
[2.66666666667 3.66666666667]
numpy.ma.conjugate(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’,

dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <numpy.ma.core.
_MaskedUnaryOperation object>
The complex conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part.
Input value.
out : ndarray, None, or tuple of ndarray and None, optional
A location into which the result is stored. If provided, it must have a shape that the
inputs broadcast to. If not provided or None, a freshly-allocated array is returned. A
tuple (possible only as a keyword argument) must have length equal to the number of
outputs.
where : array_like, optional
Values of True indicate to calculate the ufunc at that position, values of False indicate
to leave the value in the output alone.
**kwargs
For other keyword-only arguments, see the ufunc docs.
Returns y : ndarray
The complex conjugate of x, with same dtype as y.
Examples
>>> np.conjugate(1+2j)
(1-2j)
>>> x = np.eye(2) + 1j * np.eye(2)

>>> np.conjugate(x)
array([[ 1.-1.j, 0.-0.j],
[ 0.-0.j, 1.-1.j]])

numpy.ma.corrcoef(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, al-

low_masked=True, ddof=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)
Return Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients.
Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.corrcoef. For more details
and examples, see numpy.corrcoef.
A 1-D or 2-D array containing multiple variables and observations. Each row of x
represents a variable, and each column a single observation of all those variables. Also
see rowvar below.
y : array_like, optional
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same shape as x.
rowvar : bool, optional
If rowvar is True (default), then each row represents a variable, with observations in the
columns. Otherwise, the relationship is transposed: each column represents a variable,
while the rows contain observations.
bias : _NoValue, optional
Has no effect, do not use.
Deprecated since version 1.10.0.
allow_masked : bool, optional
If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the corre-
sponding value is masked in y. If False, raises an exception. Because bias is deprecated,
this argument needs to be treated as keyword only to avoid a warning.
ddof : _NoValue, optional
See also:
numpy.corrcoef Equivalent function in top-level NumPy module.

cov Estimate the covariance matrix.
Notes
This function accepts but discards arguments bias and ddof. This is for backwards compatibility with previous
versions of this function. These arguments had no effect on the return values of the function and can be safely
ignored in this and previous versions of numpy.
numpy.ma.cov(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, allow_masked=True, ddof=None)
Estimate the covariance matrix.
Except for the handling of missing data this function does the same as numpy.cov. For more details and
examples, see numpy.cov.
By default, masked values are recognized as such. If x and y have the same shape, a common mask is allocated:
if x[i,j] is masked, then y[i,j] will also be masked. Setting allow_masked to False will raise an exception
if values are missing in either of the input arrays.

see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same form as x.
bias : bool, optional
Default normalization (False) is by (N-1), where N is the number of observations given
(unbiased estimate). If bias is True, then normalization is by N. This keyword can be
overridden by the keyword ddof in numpy versions >= 1.5.
allow_masked : bool, optional
If True, masked values are propagated pair-wise: if a value is masked in x, the cor-
responding value is masked in y. If False, raises a ValueError exception when some
values are missing.
ddof : {None, int}, optional
If not None normalization is by (N - ddof), where N is the number of observations;
this overrides the value implied by bias. The default value is None.
New in version 1.5.
Raises ValueError
Raised if some values are missing and allow_masked is False.
See also:
numpy.cov
numpy.ma.cumsum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod
object>
Return the cumulative sum of the array elements over the given axis.
See also:
ndarray.cumsum corresponding function for ndarrays

Notes


Examples
>>> marr = np.ma.array(np.arange(10), mask=[0,0,0,1,1,1,0,0,0,0])

>>> print(marr.cumsum())
[0 1 3 -- -- -- 9 16 24 33]
numpy.ma.cumprod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod

object>
Return the cumulative product of the array elements over the given axis.
See also:
ndarray.cumprod corresponding function for ndarrays

Notes

numpy.ma.mean(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class
’numpy._globals._NoValue’>) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>
Masked entries are ignored, and result elements which are not finite will be masked.
See also:
ndarray.mean corresponding function for ndarrays

numpy.mean Equivalent function
numpy.ma.average Weighted average.
Examples

>>> a
>>> a.mean()
1.5
numpy.ma.median(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False, keepdims=False)

Compute the median along the specified axis.
Returns the median of the array elements.

Input array or object that can be converted to an array.

Axis along which the medians are computed. The default (None) is to compute the
median along a flattened version of the array.
overwrite_input : bool, optional
If True, then allow use of memory of input array (a) for calculations. The input array
will be modified by the call to median. This will save memory when you do not need to
preserve the contents of the input array. Treat the input as undefined, but it will probably
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. Note that, if overwrite_input is True, and
the input is not already an ndarray, an error will be raised.
Returns median : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a refer-
ence to out is returned. Return data-type is float64 for integers and floats smaller than
float64, or the input data-type, otherwise.
See also:
mean
Notes
Given a vector V with N non masked values, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V (Vs) - i.e.
Vs[(N-1)/2], when N is odd, or {Vs[N/2 - 1] + Vs[N/2]}/2 when N is even.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(8), mask=[0]*4 + [1]*4)

>>> np.ma.median(x)
1.5
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(10).reshape(2, 5), mask=[0]*6 + [1]*4)

>>> np.ma.median(x)
2.5
>>> np.ma.median(x, axis=-1, overwrite_input=True)
masked_array(data = [ 2. 5.],
mask = False,
fill_value = 1e+20)
numpy.ma.power(a, b, third=None)
Returns element-wise base array raised to power from second array.

This is the masked array version of numpy.power. For details see numpy.power.
See also:
numpy.power
Notes
The out argument to numpy.power is not supported, third has to be None.

numpy.ma.prod(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class
See also:

Notes
numpy.ma.std(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class
Masked entries are ignored.
See also:
ndarray.std corresponding function for ndarrays

numpy.std Equivalent function
numpy.ma.sum(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

= <numpy.ma.core._frommethod object>
Masked elements are set to 0 internally.
See also:
ndarray.sum corresponding function for ndarrays


Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]], mask=[0] + [1,0]*4)

>>> print(x)
[[1 -- 3]
[-- 5 --]
[7 -- 9]]
>>> print(x.sum())
25
[4 5 16]
[8 5 12]
>>> print(type(x.sum(axis=0, dtype=np.int64)[0]))
numpy.ma.var(self, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

is attempted.
Type to use in computing the variance. For arrays of integer type the default is float32;
for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
method of sub-classes of ndarray, however any non-default value will be. If the sub-
classes sum method does not implement keepdims any exceptions will be raised.


See also:
Notes
mean())**2).
nonnegative.
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a
higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])

>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20250003

0.20249999932944759
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.2025
Minimum/maximum

ma.argmax(self[, axis, fill_value, out]) Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the
given axis.
ma.argmin(self[, axis, fill_value, out]) Return array of indices to the minimum values along the
given axis.
ma.max(obj[, axis, out, fill_value, keepdims]) Return the maximum along a given axis.
ma.min(obj[, axis, out, fill_value, keepdims]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
ma.ptp(obj[, axis, out, fill_value]) Return (maximum - minimum) along the given dimension
(i.e.
ma.MaskedArray.argmax([axis, fill_value, out]) Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the
given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.argmin([axis, fill_value, out]) Return array of indices to the minimum values along the
given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.max([axis, out, fill_value, . . . ]) Return the maximum along a given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.min([axis, out, fill_value, . . . ]) Return the minimum along a given axis.
ma.MaskedArray.ptp([axis, out, fill_value]) Return (maximum - minimum) along the given dimension
(i.e.
numpy.ma.argmax(self, axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core.

_frommethod object>
Returns array of indices of the maximum values along the given axis. Masked values are treated as if they had
the value fill_value.
Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, the output of maxi-
Returns index_array : {integer_array}
Examples
>>> a.argmax()
5
>>> a.argmax(0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> a.argmax(1)
array([2, 2])
numpy.ma.argmin(self, axis=None, fill_value=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core.

_frommethod object>
Return array of indices to the minimum values along the given axis.

Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, the output of mini-
Returns ndarray or scalar
If multi-dimension input, returns a new ndarray of indices to the minimum values along
the given axis. Otherwise, returns a scalar of index to the minimum values along the
given axis.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(arange(4), mask=[1,1,0,0])

>>> x.shape = (2,2)
>>> print(x)
[[-- --]
[2 3]]
>>> print(x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=-1))
[0 0]
>>> print(x.argmin(axis=0, fill_value=9))
[1 1]
numpy.ma.max(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None, keepdims=<class

Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, use the output of maxi-
mum_fill_value().
Returns amax : array_like
See also:
maximum_fill_value Returns the maximum filling value for a given datatype.
numpy.ma.min(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None, keepdims=<class


Value used to fill in the masked values. If None, use the output of
minimum_fill_value.
Returns amin : array_like
See also:
minimum_fill_value Returns the minimum filling value for a given datatype.
numpy.ma.ptp(obj, axis=None, out=None, fill_value=None)

Return (maximum - minimum) along the given dimension (i.e. peak-to-peak value).
Axis along which to find the peaks. If None (default) the flattened array is used.
out : {None, array_like}, optional
Value used to fill in the masked values.
Returns ptp : ndarray.
out is returned.
Sorting
ma.argsort(a[, axis, kind, order, endwith, . . . ]) Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the
specified axis.
ma.sort(a[, axis, kind, order, endwith, . . . ]) Sort the array, in-place
ma.MaskedArray.argsort([axis, kind, order, . . . ]) Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the
specified axis.
ma.MaskedArray.sort([axis, kind, order, . . . ]) Sort the array, in-place
numpy.ma.argsort(a, axis=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, kind=’quicksort’, order=None, end-

with=True, fill_value=None)
Return an ndarray of indices that sort the array along the specified axis. Masked values are filled beforehand to
fill_value.
Axis along which to sort. If None, the default, the flattened array is used.
Changed in version 1.13.0: Previously, the default was documented to be -1, but that
was in error. At some future date, the default will change to -1, as originally intended.
Until then, the axis should be given explicitly when arr.ndim > 1, to avoid a Fu-
tureWarning.


Sorting algorithm.
first, second, etc. Not all fields need be specified.
endwith.
Array of indices that sort a along the specified axis. In other words,
See also:
MaskedArray.sort Describes sorting algorithms used.

Notes
Examples

>>> a
>>> a.argsort()
array([1, 0, 2])
numpy.ma.sort(a, axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None, endwith=True, fill_value=None)

Sort the array, in-place
Array to be sorted.


When a is a structured array, this argument specifies which fields to compare first, sec-
ond, and so on. This list does not need to include all of the fields.
endwith.
See also:

Notes
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # Default
>>> a.sort()
>>> print(a)
[1 3 5 -- --]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # Put missing values in the front
>>> a.sort(endwith=False)
>>> print(a)
[-- -- 1 3 5]
>>> a = ma.array([1, 2, 5, 4, 3],mask=[0, 1, 0, 1, 0])

>>> # fill_value takes over endwith
>>> a.sort(endwith=False, fill_value=3)
>>> print(a)
[1 -- -- 3 5]

Algebra
ma.diag(v[, k]) Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.

ma.dot(a, b[, strict, out]) Return the dot product of two arrays.
ma.identity(n[, dtype]) Return the identity array.
ma.inner(a, b) Inner product of two arrays.
ma.innerproduct(a, b) Inner product of two arrays.
ma.outer(a, b) Compute the outer product of two vectors.
ma.outerproduct(a, b) Compute the outer product of two vectors.
ma.trace(self[, offset, axis1, axis2, . . . ]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
ma.transpose(a[, axes]) Permute the dimensions of an array.
ma.MaskedArray.trace([offset, axis1, axis2, . . . ]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
ma.MaskedArray.transpose(*axes) Returns a view of the array with axes transposed.
numpy.ma.diag(v, k=0)
Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.
This function is the equivalent of numpy.diag that takes masked values into account, see numpy.diag for
details.
See also:
numpy.diag Equivalent function for ndarrays.
numpy.ma.dot(a, b, strict=False, out=None)

Return the dot product of two arrays.
This function is the equivalent of numpy.dot that takes masked values into account. Note that strict and out
are in different position than in the method version. In order to maintain compatibility with the corresponding
method, it is recommended that the optional arguments be treated as keyword only. At some point that may be
mandatory.
Note: Works only with 2-D arrays at the moment.
Parameters a, b : masked_array_like
Inputs arrays.
strict : bool, optional
Whether masked data are propagated (True) or set to 0 (False) for the computation.
Default is False. Propagating the mask means that if a masked value appears in a row
or column, the whole row or column is considered masked.
out : masked_array, optional
Output argument. This must have the exact kind that would be returned if it was not
used. In particular, it must have the right type, must be C-contiguous, and its dtype
must be the dtype that would be returned for dot(a,b). This is a performance feature.
Therefore, if these conditions are not met, an exception is raised, instead of attempting
to be flexible.
See also:

numpy.dot Equivalent function for ndarrays.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]])

>>> b = ma.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]], mask=[[1, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]])
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b)
masked_array(data =
[[21 26]
[45 64]],
mask =
[[False False]
[False False]],
>>> np.ma.dot(a, b, strict=True)
masked_array(data =
[[-- --]
[-- 64]],
mask =
[[ True True]
[ True False]],
numpy.ma.identity(n, dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma object>

Return the identity array.
The identity array is a square array with ones on the main diagonal.
Parameters n : int
Number of rows (and columns) in n x n output.
Data-type of the output. Defaults to float.
n x n array with its main diagonal set to one, and all other elements 0.
Examples
>>> np.identity(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.ma.inner(a, b)
Inner product of two arrays.
Ordinary inner product of vectors for 1-D arrays (without complex conjugation), in higher dimensions a sum
product over the last axes.
Parameters a, b : array_like
If a and b are nonscalar, their last dimensions must match.

out.shape = a.shape[:-1] + b.shape[:-1]

Raises ValueError
If the last dimension of a and b has different size.
See also:
tensordot Sum products over arbitrary axes.

dot Generalised matrix product, using second last dimension of b.
einsum Einstein summation convention.
Notes
For vectors (1-D arrays) it computes the ordinary inner-product:
np.inner(a, b) = sum(a[:]*b[:])
More generally, if ndim(a) = r > 0 and ndim(b) = s > 0:
np.inner(a, b) = np.tensordot(a, b, axes=(-1,-1))
or explicitly:
np.inner(a, b)[i0,...,ir-1,j0,...,js-1]
= sum(a[i0,...,ir-1,:]*b[j0,...,js-1,:])
In addition a or b may be scalars, in which case:
np.inner(a,b) = a*b
Examples
Ordinary inner product for vectors:
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
A multidimensional example:
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape((2,3,4))
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])
An example where b is a scalar:
>>> np.inner(np.eye(2), 7)
array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])

numpy.ma.innerproduct(a, b)
Raises ValueError
See also:

Notes
or explicitly:
= sum(a[i0,...,ir-1,:]*b[j0,...,js-1,:])
np.inner(a,b) = a*b
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2

>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])
array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.ma.outer(a, b)
Compute the outer product of two vectors.
Given two vectors, a = [a0, a1, ..., aM] and b = [b0, b1, ..., bN], the outer product
[R9797] is:
[[a0*b0 a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

[a1*b0 .
[ ... .
[aM*b0 aM*bN ]]
Parameters a : (M,) array_like

First input vector. Input is flattened if not already 1-dimensional.
b : (N,) array_like
Second input vector. Input is flattened if not already 1-dimensional.
out : (M, N) ndarray, optional
A location where the result is stored
Returns out : (M, N) ndarray
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See also:
inner
einsum einsum('i,j->ij', a.ravel(), b.ravel()) is the equivalent.
ufunc.outer A generalization to N dimensions and other operations. np.multiply.outer(a.
ravel(), b.ravel()) is the equivalent.
References
[R9797]
Examples
Make a (very coarse) grid for computing a Mandelbrot set:

>>> rl = np.outer(np.ones((5,)), np.linspace(-2, 2, 5))

>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im = np.outer(1j*np.linspace(2, -2, 5), np.ones((5,)))
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])
An example using a “vector” of letters:
>>> x = np.array(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype=object)

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
array([[a, aa, aaa],
[b, bb, bbb],
[c, cc, ccc]], dtype=object)
numpy.ma.outerproduct(a, b)
[R9999] is:
[[a0*b0 a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

[a1*b0 .
[ ... .
[aM*b0 aM*bN ]]

b : (N,) array_like
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See also:

inner
References
[R9999]
Examples

>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.ma.trace(self, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) a.trace(offset=0, axis1=0,

axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None) = <numpy.ma.core._frommethod
object>
See also:

Polynomial fit
ma.vander(x[, n]) Generate a Vandermonde matrix.

ma.polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w, cov]) Least squares polynomial fit.
numpy.ma.vander(x, n=None)
Generate a Vandermonde matrix.
The columns of the output matrix are powers of the input vector. The order of the powers is determined by the
increasing boolean argument. Specifically, when increasing is False, the i-th output column is the input vector
raised element-wise to the power of N - i - 1. Such a matrix with a geometric progression in each row is
named for Alexandre- Theophile Vandermonde.
1-D input array.
N : int, optional
Number of columns in the output. If N is not specified, a square array is returned (N =
len(x)).
increasing : bool, optional
Order of the powers of the columns. If True, the powers increase from left to right, if
False (the default) they are reversed.
Vandermonde matrix. If increasing is False, the first column is x^(N-1), the second
x^(N-2) and so forth. If increasing is True, the columns are x^0, x^1, ...,
x^(N-1).
See also:
polynomial.polynomial.polyvander
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])

>>> N = 3
>>> np.vander(x, N)
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> np.column_stack([x**(N-1-i) for i in range(N)])

array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])

>>> np.vander(x)
array([[ 1, 1, 1, 1],

[ 8, 4, 2, 1],
[ 27, 9, 3, 1],
[125, 25, 5, 1]])
>>> np.vander(x, increasing=True)
array([[ 1, 1, 1, 1],
[ 1, 2, 4, 8],
[ 1, 3, 9, 27],
[ 1, 5, 25, 125]])
The determinant of a square Vandermonde matrix is the product of the differences between the values of the
input vector:
>>> np.linalg.det(np.vander(x))
48.000000000000043
>>> (5-3)*(5-2)*(5-1)*(3-2)*(3-1)*(2-1)
48
numpy.ma.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False)

Least squares polynomial fit.
Fit a polynomial p(x) = p[0] * x**deg + ... + p[deg] of degree deg to points (x, y). Returns a
vector of coefficients p that minimises the squared error.
Parameters x : array_like, shape (M,)
x-coordinates of the M sample points (x[i], y[i]).
y : array_like, shape (M,) or (M, K)
y-coordinates of the sample points. Several data sets of sample points sharing the same
x-coordinates can be fitted at once by passing in a 2D-array that contains one dataset
per column.
deg : int
Degree of the fitting polynomial
rcond : float, optional
Relative condition number of the fit. Singular values smaller than this relative to the
largest singular value will be ignored. The default value is len(x)*eps, where eps is the
relative precision of the float type, about 2e-16 in most cases.
full : bool, optional
Switch determining nature of return value. When it is False (the default) just the coef-
ficients are returned, when True diagnostic information from the singular value decom-
position is also returned.
w : array_like, shape (M,), optional
Weights to apply to the y-coordinates of the sample points. For gaussian uncertainties,
use 1/sigma (not 1/sigma**2).
cov : bool, optional
Return the estimate and the covariance matrix of the estimate If full is True, then cov is
not returned.
Returns p : ndarray, shape (deg + 1,) or (deg + 1, K)
Polynomial coefficients, highest power first. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for k-th data
set are in p[:,k].

residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond

Present only if full = True. Residuals of the least-squares fit, the effective rank of the
scaled Vandermonde coefficient matrix, its singular values, and the specified value of
rcond. For more details, see linalg.lstsq.
V : ndarray, shape (M,M) or (M,M,K)
Present only if full = False and cov‘=True. The covariance matrix of the polynomial
coefficient estimates. The diagonal of this matrix are the variance estimates for each
coefficient. If y is a 2-D array, then the covariance matrix for the ‘k-th data set are in
V[:,:,k]
Warns RankWarning
The rank of the coefficient matrix in the least-squares fit is deficient. The warning is
only raised if full = False.
The warnings can be turned off by
>>> import warnings

>>> warnings.simplefilter('ignore', np.RankWarning)
See also:
polyval Compute polynomial values.

linalg.lstsq Computes a least-squares fit.
scipy.interpolate.UnivariateSpline Computes spline fits.
Notes
The solution minimizes the squared error

𝑘
∑︁
𝐸= |𝑝(𝑥𝑗 ) − 𝑦𝑗 |2
𝑗=0
in the equations:
x[0]**n * p[0] + ... + x[0] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[0]

x[1]**n * p[0] + ... + x[1] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[1]
...
x[k]**n * p[0] + ... + x[k] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[k]
The coefficient matrix of the coefficients p is a Vandermonde matrix.

polyfit issues a RankWarning when the least-squares fit is badly conditioned. This implies that the best fit
is not well-defined due to numerical error. The results may be improved by lowering the polynomial degree or
by replacing x by x - x.mean(). The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the
resulting fit may be spurious: including contributions from the small singular values can add numerical noise to
the result.
Note that fitting polynomial coefficients is inherently badly conditioned when the degree of the polynomial is
large or the interval of sample points is badly centered. The quality of the fit should always be checked in these
cases. When polynomial fits are not satisfactory, splines may be a good alternative.

References
[R101102], [R102102]
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])

>>> y = np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
>>> z = np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
>>> z
array([ 0.08703704, -0.81349206, 1.69312169, -0.03968254])
It is convenient to use poly1d objects for dealing with polynomials:
>>> p = np.poly1d(z)
>>> p(0.5)
0.6143849206349179
>>> p(3.5)
-0.34732142857143039
>>> p(10)
22.579365079365115
High-order polynomials may oscillate wildly:
>>> p30 = np.poly1d(np.polyfit(x, y, 30))

/... RankWarning: Polyfit may be poorly conditioned...
>>> p30(4)
-0.80000000000000204
>>> p30(5)
-0.99999999999999445
>>> p30(4.5)
-0.10547061179440398
Illustration:
>>> import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

>>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
>>> _ = plt.plot(x, y, '.', xp, p(xp), '-', xp, p30(xp), '--')
>>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
(-2, 2)
>>> plt.show()
Clipping and rounding
ma.around Round an array to the given number of decimals.

ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max[, out]) Clip (limit) the values in an array.
ma.round(a[, decimals, out]) Return a copy of a, rounded to ‘decimals’ places.
ma.MaskedArray.clip([min, max, out]) Return an array whose values are limited to [min, max].
ma.MaskedArray.round([decimals, out]) Return each element rounded to the given number of deci-
mals.

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
numpy.ma.around = <numpy.ma.core._MaskedUnaryOperation object>

Round an array to the given number of decimals.
Refer to around for full documentation.
See also:
around equivalent function
numpy.ma.clip(a, a_min, a_max, out=None)

Clip (limit) the values in an array.
Given an interval, values outside the interval are clipped to the interval edges. For example, if an interval of
[0, 1] is specified, values smaller than 0 become 0, and values larger than 1 become 1.
Array containing elements to clip.
a_min : scalar or array_like or None
Minimum value. If None, clipping is not performed on lower interval edge. Not more
than one of a_min and a_max may be None.
a_max : scalar or array_like or None
Maximum value. If None, clipping is not performed on upper interval edge. Not more
than one of a_min and a_max may be None. If a_min or a_max are array_like, then the
three arrays will be broadcasted to match their shapes.
The results will be placed in this array. It may be the input array for in-place clipping.
out must be of the right shape to hold the output. Its type is preserved.
Returns clipped_array : ndarray
An array with the elements of a, but where values < a_min are replaced with a_min, and
those > a_max with a_max.
See also:

Examples
>>> np.clip(a, 1, 8)
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, 3, 6, out=a)
array([3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, [3, 4, 1, 1, 1, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4], 8)
array([3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
numpy.ma.round(a, decimals=0, out=None)

Return a copy of a, rounded to ‘decimals’ places.
When ‘decimals’ is negative, it specifies the number of positions to the left of the decimal point. The real and
imaginary parts of complex numbers are rounded separately. Nothing is done if the array is not of float type and
‘decimals’ is greater than or equal to 0.
Parameters decimals : int
Number of decimals to round to. May be negative.
out : array_like
Existing array to use for output. If not given, returns a default copy of a.
Notes
If out is given and does not have a mask attribute, the mask of a is lost!
Miscellanea
ma.allequal(a, b[, fill_value]) Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using
fill_value as a truth value where either or both are masked.
ma.allclose(a, b[, masked_equal, rtol, atol]) Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a
tolerance.
ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, . . . ) Apply a function to 1-D slices along the given axis.
ma.arange([start,] stop[, step,][, dtype]) Return evenly spaced values within a given interval.
ma.choose(indices, choices[, out, mode]) Use an index array to construct a new array from a set of
choices.
ma.ediff1d(arr[, to_end, to_begin]) Compute the differences between consecutive elements of
an array.
ma.indices(dimensions[, dtype]) Return an array representing the indices of a grid.
ma.where(condition[, x, y]) Return a masked array with elements from x or y, depend-
ing on condition.

numpy.ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=True)
Return True if all entries of a and b are equal, using fill_value as a truth value where either or both are masked.
Input arrays to compare.
fill_value : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a or b are considered equal (True) or not (False).
Returns y : bool
Returns True if the two arrays are equal within the given tolerance, False otherwise. If
either array contains NaN, then False is returned.
See also:
all, any, numpy.ma.allclose
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> a
masked_array(data = [10000000000.0 1e-07 --],
fill_value=1e+20)
>>> b = array([1e10, 1e-7, -42.0])

>>> b
array([ 1.00000000e+10, 1.00000000e-07, -4.20000000e+01])
>>> ma.allequal(a, b, fill_value=False)
False
>>> ma.allequal(a, b)
True
numpy.ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=True, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08)

Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
This function is equivalent to allclose except that masked values are treated as equal (default) or unequal,
depending on the masked_equal argument.
masked_equal : bool, optional
Whether masked values in a and b are considered equal (True) or not (False). They are
considered equal by default.
rtol : float, optional
Relative tolerance. The relative difference is equal to rtol * b. Default is 1e-5.
atol : float, optional
Absolute tolerance. The absolute difference is equal to atol. Default is 1e-8.
Returns y : bool
Returns True if the two arrays are equal within the given tolerance, False otherwise. If
either array contains NaN, then False is returned.

See also:
all, any
numpy.allclose the non-masked allclose.
Notes
If the following equation is element-wise True, then allclose returns True:
absolute(à` - `b`) <= (àtol` + `rtol` * absolute(`b`))
Return True if all elements of a and b are equal subject to given tolerances.
Examples
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-7, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> a
masked_array(data = [10000000000.0 1e-07 --],
fill_value = 1e+20)
>>> b = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
>>> ma.allclose(a, b)
False
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, -42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
>>> ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=False)
False
Masked values are not compared directly.
>>> a = ma.array([1e10, 1e-8, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])

>>> b = ma.array([1.00001e10, 1e-9, 42.0], mask=[0, 0, 1])
True
>>> ma.allclose(a, b, masked_equal=False)
False
numpy.ma.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args, **kwargs)

Apply a function to 1-D slices along the given axis.
Execute func1d(a, *args) where func1d operates on 1-D arrays and a is a 1-D slice of arr along axis.
This is equivalent to (but faster than) the following use of ndindex and s_, which sets each of ii, jj, and kk to
a tuple of indices:
Ni, Nk = a.shape[:axis], a.shape[axis+1:]

for ii in ndindex(Ni):
for kk in ndindex(Nk):
f = func1d(arr[ii + s_[:,] + kk])
Nj = f.shape
for jj in ndindex(Nj):
out[ii + jj + kk] = f[jj]

Equivalently, eliminating the inner loop, this can be expressed as:

out[ii + s_[...,] + kk] = func1d(arr[ii + s_[:,] + kk])
Parameters func1d : function (M,) -> (Nj. . . )

This function should accept 1-D arrays. It is applied to 1-D slices of arr along the
specified axis.
axis : integer
Axis along which arr is sliced.
arr : ndarray (Ni. . . , M, Nk. . . )
Input array.
args : any
Additional arguments to func1d.
kwargs : any
Additional named arguments to func1d.
Returns out : ndarray (Ni. . . , Nj. . . , Nk. . . )
The output array. The shape of out is identical to the shape of arr, except along the
axis dimension. This axis is removed, and replaced with new dimensions equal to the
shape of the return value of func1d. So if func1d returns a scalar out will have one fewer
dimensions than arr.
See also:
apply_over_axes Apply a function repeatedly over multiple axes.
Examples
>>> def my_func(a):

... """Average first and last element of a 1-D array"""
... return (a[0] + a[-1]) * 0.5
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])
>>> np.apply_along_axis(my_func, 0, b)
array([ 4., 5., 6.])
array([ 2., 5., 8.])
For a function that returns a 1D array, the number of dimensions in outarr is the same as arr.
>>> b = np.array([[8,1,7], [4,3,9], [5,2,6]])

>>> np.apply_along_axis(sorted, 1, b)
array([[1, 7, 8],
[3, 4, 9],
[2, 5, 6]])

For a function that returns a higher dimensional array, those dimensions are inserted in place of the axis dimen-
sion.
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])

>>> np.apply_along_axis(np.diag, -1, b)
array([[[1, 0, 0],
[0, 2, 0],
[0, 0, 3]],
[[4, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 6]],
[[7, 0, 0],
[0, 8, 0],
[0, 0, 9]]])
numpy.ma.arange([start ], stop[, step ], dtype=None) = <numpy.ma.core._convert2ma

object>
Return evenly spaced values within a given interval.
Values are generated within the half-open interval [start, stop) (in other words, the interval including
start but excluding stop). For integer arguments the function is equivalent to the Python built-in range function,
but returns an ndarray rather than a list.
When using a non-integer step, such as 0.1, the results will often not be consistent. It is better to use linspace
for these cases.
Parameters start : number, optional
Start of interval. The interval includes this value. The default start value is 0.
stop : number
End of interval. The interval does not include this value, except in some cases where
step is not an integer and floating point round-off affects the length of out.
step : number, optional
Spacing between values. For any output out, this is the distance between two adjacent
values, out[i+1] - out[i]. The default step size is 1. If step is specified as a
position argument, start must also be given.
dtype : dtype
The type of the output array. If dtype is not given, infer the data type from the other
input arguments.
Returns arange : ndarray
Array of evenly spaced values.
For floating point arguments, the length of the result is ceil((stop - start)/
step). Because of floating point overflow, this rule may result in the last element of
out being greater than stop.
See also:
linspace Evenly spaced numbers with careful handling of endpoints.

ogrid Arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.
mgrid Grid-shaped arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.

Examples
>>> np.arange(3)
array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.arange(3.0)
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.arange(3,7)
array([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.arange(3,7,2)
array([3, 5])
numpy.ma.choose(indices, choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

Given an array of integers and a set of n choice arrays, this method will create a new array that merges each of
the choice arrays. Where a value in a is i, the new array will have the value that choices[i] contains in the same
place.
Parameters a : ndarray of ints
This array must contain integers in [0, n-1], where n is the number of choices.
choices : sequence of arrays
Choice arrays. The index array and all of the choices should be broadcastable to the
same shape.
out : array, optional
If provided, the result will be inserted into this array. It should be of the appropriate
shape and dtype.
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices will behave.
• ‘raise’ : raise an error
• ‘wrap’ : wrap around
• ‘clip’ : clip to the range
Returns merged_array : array
See also:
choose equivalent function
Examples
>>> choice = np.array([[1,1,1], [2,2,2], [3,3,3]])

>>> a = np.array([2, 1, 0])
>>> np.ma.choose(a, choice)
mask = False,
fill_value=999999)
numpy.ma.ediff1d(arr, to_end=None, to_begin=None)

Compute the differences between consecutive elements of an array.

This function is the equivalent of numpy.ediff1d that takes masked values into account, see numpy.
ediff1d for details.
See also:
numpy.ediff1d Equivalent function for ndarrays.
numpy.ma.indices(dimensions, dtype=<class ’int’>)

Return an array representing the indices of a grid.
Compute an array where the subarrays contain index values 0,1,. . . varying only along the corresponding axis.
Parameters dimensions : sequence of ints
The shape of the grid.
Data type of the result.
Returns grid : ndarray
The array of grid indices, grid.shape = (len(dimensions),) +
tuple(dimensions).
See also:
mgrid, meshgrid
Notes
The output shape is obtained by prepending the number of dimensions in front of the tuple of dimensions, i.e. if
dimensions is a tuple (r0, ..., rN-1) of length N, the output shape is (N,r0,...,rN-1).
The subarrays grid[k] contains the N-D array of indices along the k-th axis. Explicitly:
grid[k,i0,i1,...,iN-1] = ik
Examples
>>> grid = np.indices((2, 3))

>>> grid.shape
(2, 2, 3)
>>> grid[0] # row indices
array([[0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> grid[1] # column indices
array([[0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2]])
The indices can be used as an index into an array.
>>> x = np.arange(20).reshape(5, 4)
>>> row, col = np.indices((2, 3))
>>> x[row, col]
array([[0, 1, 2],
[4, 5, 6]])

Note that it would be more straightforward in the above example to extract the required elements directly with
x[:2, :3].
numpy.ma.where(condition, x=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, y=<class
Return a masked array with elements from x or y, depending on condition.
Returns a masked array, shaped like condition, where the elements are from x when condition is True, and from
y otherwise. If neither x nor y are given, the function returns a tuple of indices where condition is True (the
result of condition.nonzero()).
Parameters condition : array_like, bool
The condition to meet. For each True element, yield the corresponding element from x,
otherwise from y.
x, y : array_like, optional
Values from which to choose. x, y and condition need to be broadcastable to some
shape.
Returns out : MaskedArray or tuple of ndarrays
The resulting masked array if x and y were given, otherwise the result of condition.
nonzero().
See also:
numpy.where Equivalent function in the top-level NumPy module.
Examples
>>> x = np.ma.array(np.arange(9.).reshape(3, 3), mask=[[0, 1, 0],

... [1, 0, 1],
... [0, 1, 0]])
>>> print(x)
[[0.0 -- 2.0]
[-- 4.0 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
>>> np.ma.where(x > 5) # return the indices where x > 5
(array([2, 2]), array([0, 2]))
>>> print(np.ma.where(x > 5, x, -3.1416))

[[-3.1416 -- -3.1416]
[-- -3.1416 --]
[6.0 -- 8.0]]
1.8 The Array Interface
Note: This page describes the numpy-specific API for accessing the contents of a numpy array from other C exten-
sions. PEP 3118 – The Revised Buffer Protocol introduces similar, standardized API to Python 2.6 and
3.0 for any extension module to use. Cython’s buffer array support uses the PEP 3118 API; see the Cython numpy
tutorial. Cython provides a way to write code that supports the buffer protocol with Python versions older than 2.6
because it has a backward-compatible implementation utilizing the array interface described here.
1.8. The Array Interface 347

version 3
The array interface (sometimes called array protocol) was created in 2005 as a means for array-like Python objects to
re-use each other’s data buffers intelligently whenever possible. The homogeneous N-dimensional array interface is
a default mechanism for objects to share N-dimensional array memory and information. The interface consists of a
Python-side and a C-side using two attributes. Objects wishing to be considered an N-dimensional array in application
code should support at least one of these attributes. Objects wishing to support an N-dimensional array in application
code should look for at least one of these attributes and use the information provided appropriately.
This interface describes homogeneous arrays in the sense that each item of the array has the same “type”. This type
can be very simple or it can be a quite arbitrary and complicated C-like structure.
There are two ways to use the interface: A Python side and a C-side. Both are separate attributes.
1.8.1 Python side
This approach to the interface consists of the object having an __array_interface__ attribute.
__array_interface__
A dictionary of items (3 required and 5 optional). The optional keys in the dictionary have implied defaults if
they are not provided.
The keys are:
shape (required)
Tuple whose elements are the array size in each dimension. Each entry is an integer (a Python int or
long). Note that these integers could be larger than the platform “int” or “long” could hold (a Python
int is a C long). It is up to the code using this attribute to handle this appropriately; either by raising
an error when overflow is possible, or by using Py_LONG_LONG as the C type for the shapes.
typestr (required)
A string providing the basic type of the homogenous array The basic string format consists of 3 parts:
a character describing the byteorder of the data (<: little-endian, >: big-endian, |: not-relevant), a
character code giving the basic type of the array, and an integer providing the number of bytes the
type uses.
The basic type character codes are:
t Bit field (following integer gives the number of bits in the bit field).
b Boolean (integer type where all values are only True or False)
i Integer
u Unsigned integer
f Floating point
c Complex floating point
m Timedelta
M Datetime
O Object (i.e. the memory contains a pointer to PyObject)
S String (fixed-length sequence of char)
U Unicode (fixed-length sequence of Py_UNICODE)
V Other (void * – each item is a fixed-size chunk of memory)
descr (optional)
A list of tuples providing a more detailed description of the memory layout for each item in the
homogeneous array. Each tuple in the list has two or three elements. Normally, this attribute would
be used when typestr is V[0-9]+, but this is not a requirement. The only requirement is that the

number of bytes represented in the typestr key is the same as the total number of bytes represented
here. The idea is to support descriptions of C-like structs that make up array elements. The elements
of each tuple in the list are
1. A string providing a name associated with this portion of the datatype. This could also be a tuple
of ('full name', 'basic_name') where basic name would be a valid Python variable
name representing the full name of the field.
2. Either a basic-type description string as in typestr or another list (for nested structured types)
3. An optional shape tuple providing how many times this part of the structure should be repeated.
No repeats are assumed if this is not given. Very complicated structures can be described using
this generic interface. Notice, however, that each element of the array is still of the same data-
type. Some examples of using this interface are given below.
Default: [('', typestr)]
data (optional)
A 2-tuple whose first argument is an integer (a long integer if necessary) that points to the data-area
storing the array contents. This pointer must point to the first element of data (in other words any
offset is always ignored in this case). The second entry in the tuple is a read-only flag (true means
the data area is read-only).
This attribute can also be an object exposing the buffer interface which will be used to share
the data. If this key is not present (or returns None), then memory sharing will be done through the
buffer interface of the object itself. In this case, the offset key can be used to indicate the start of the
buffer. A reference to the object exposing the array interface must be stored by the new object if the
memory area is to be secured.
Default: None
strides (optional)
Either None to indicate a C-style contiguous array or a Tuple of strides which provides the number of
bytes needed to jump to the next array element in the corresponding dimension. Each entry must be
an integer (a Python int or long). As with shape, the values may be larger than can be represented
by a C “int” or “long”; the calling code should handle this appropriately, either by raising an error, or
by using Py_LONG_LONG in C. The default is None which implies a C-style contiguous memory
buffer. In this model, the last dimension of the array varies the fastest. For example, the default
strides tuple for an object whose array entries are 8 bytes long and whose shape is (10,20,30) would
be (4800, 240, 8)
Default: None (C-style contiguous)
mask (optional)
None or an object exposing the array interface. All elements of the mask array should be interpreted
only as true or not true indicating which elements of this array are valid. The shape of this object
should be “broadcastable” to the shape of the original array.
Default: None (All array values are valid)
offset (optional)
An integer offset into the array data region. This can only be used when data is None or returns a
buffer object.
Default: 0.
version (required)

An integer showing the version of the interface (i.e. 3 for this version). Be careful not to use this to
invalidate objects exposing future versions of the interface.
1.8.2 C-struct access
This approach to the array interface allows for faster access to an array using only one attribute lookup and a well-
defined C-structure.
__array_struct__
A :c:type: PyCObject whose voidptr member contains a pointer to a filled PyArrayInterface structure.
Memory for the structure is dynamically created and the PyCObject is also created with an appropriate de-
structor so the retriever of this attribute simply has to apply Py_DECREF to the object returned by this attribute
when it is finished. Also, either the data needs to be copied out, or a reference to the object exposing this at-
tribute must be held to ensure the data is not freed. Objects exposing the __array_struct__ interface must
also not reallocate their memory if other objects are referencing them.
The PyArrayInterface structure is defined in numpy/ndarrayobject.h as:
typedef struct {
int two; /* contains the integer 2 -- simple sanity check */
int nd; /* number of dimensions */
char typekind; /* kind in array --- character code of typestr */
int itemsize; /* size of each element */
int flags; /* flags indicating how the data should be interpreted */
/* must set ARR_HAS_DESCR bit to validate descr */
Py_intptr_t *shape; /* A length-nd array of shape information */
Py_intptr_t *strides; /* A length-nd array of stride information */
void *data; /* A pointer to the first element of the array */
PyObject *descr; /* NULL or data-description (same as descr key
of __array_interface__) -- must set ARR_HAS_DESCR
flag or this will be ignored. */
} PyArrayInterface;
The flags member may consist of 5 bits showing how the data should be interpreted and one bit showing how
the Interface should be interpreted. The data-bits are CONTIGUOUS (0x1), FORTRAN (0x2), ALIGNED (0x100),
NOTSWAPPED (0x200), and WRITEABLE (0x400). A final flag ARR_HAS_DESCR (0x800) indicates whether or not
this structure has the arrdescr field. The field should not be accessed unless this flag is present.
New since June 16, 2006:

In the past most implementations used the “desc” member of the PyCObject itself (do not confuse this with the
“descr” member of the PyArrayInterface structure above — they are two separate things) to hold the pointer to
the object exposing the interface. This is now an explicit part of the interface. Be sure to own a reference to the object
when the PyCObject is created using PyCObject_FromVoidPtrAndDesc.
1.8.3 Type description examples
For clarity it is useful to provide some examples of the type description and corresponding __array_interface__
‘descr’ entries. Thanks to Scott Gilbert for these examples:
In every case, the ‘descr’ key is optional, but of course provides more information which may be important for various
applications:

* Float data
typestr == '>f4'
descr == [('','>f4')]
* Complex double
typestr == '>c8'
descr == [('real','>f4'), ('imag','>f4')]
* RGB Pixel data

typestr == '|V3'
descr == [('r','|u1'), ('g','|u1'), ('b','|u1')]
* Mixed endian (weird but could happen).

typestr == '|V8' (or '>u8')
descr == [('big','>i4'), ('little','<i4')]
* Nested structure
struct {
int ival;
struct {
unsigned short sval;
unsigned char bval;
unsigned char cval;
} sub;
}
typestr == '|V8' (or '<u8' if you want)
descr == [('ival','<i4'), ('sub', [('sval','<u2'), ('bval','|u1'), ('cval','|u1')
˓→]) ]
* Nested array
struct {
int ival;
double data[16*4];
}
typestr == '|V516'
descr == [('ival','>i4'), ('data','>f8',(16,4))]
* Padded structure
struct {
int ival;
double dval;
}
typestr == '|V16'
descr == [('ival','>i4'),('','|V4'),('dval','>f8')]
It should be clear that any structured type could be described using this interface.
1.8.4 Differences with Array interface (Version 2)
The version 2 interface was very similar. The differences were largely aesthetic. In particular:
1. The PyArrayInterface structure had no descr member at the end (and therefore no flag ARR_HAS_DESCR)
2. The desc member of the PyCObject returned from __array_struct__ was not specified. Usually, it was the object
exposing the array (so that a reference to it could be kept and destroyed when the C-object was destroyed). Now
it must be a tuple whose first element is a string with “PyArrayInterface Version #” and whose second element
is the object exposing the array.

3. The tuple returned from __array_interface__[‘data’] used to be a hex-string (now it is an integer or a long
integer).
4. There was no __array_interface__ attribute instead all of the keys (except for version) in the __array_interface__
dictionary were their own attribute: Thus to obtain the Python-side information you had to access separately the
attributes:
• __array_data__
• __array_shape__
• __array_strides__
• __array_typestr__
• __array_descr__
• __array_offset__
• __array_mask__
1.9 Datetimes and Timedeltas

Starting in NumPy 1.7, there are core array data types which natively support datetime functionality. The data type is
called “datetime64”, so named because “datetime” is already taken by the datetime library included in Python.
Note: The datetime API is experimental in 1.7.0, and may undergo changes in future versions of NumPy.
1.9.1 Basic Datetimes
The most basic way to create datetimes is from strings in ISO 8601 date or datetime format. The unit for internal
storage is automatically selected from the form of the string, and can be either a date unit or a time unit. The date
units are years (‘Y’), months (‘M’), weeks (‘W’), and days (‘D’), while the time units are hours (‘h’), minutes (‘m’),
seconds (‘s’), milliseconds (‘ms’), and some additional SI-prefix seconds-based units.
Example
A simple ISO date:
>>> np.datetime64('2005-02-25')
numpy.datetime64('2005-02-25')
Using months for the unit:
>>> np.datetime64('2005-02')
numpy.datetime64('2005-02')
Specifying just the month, but forcing a ‘days’ unit:
>>> np.datetime64('2005-02', 'D')

From a date and time:

>>> np.datetime64('2005-02-25T03:30')
numpy.datetime64('2005-02-25T03:30')
When creating an array of datetimes from a string, it is still possible to automatically select the unit from the inputs,
by using the datetime type with generic units.
Example
>>> np.array(['2007-07-13', '2006-01-13', '2010-08-13'], dtype='datetime64')

array(['2007-07-13', '2006-01-13', '2010-08-13'], dtype='datetime64[D]')
>>> np.array(['2001-01-01T12:00', '2002-02-03T13:56:03.172'], dtype='datetime64')

array(['2001-01-01T12:00:00.000-0600', '2002-02-03T13:56:03.172-0600'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ms]')
The datetime type works with many common NumPy functions, for example arange can be used to generate ranges
of dates.
Example
All the dates for one month:
>>> np.arange('2005-02', '2005-03', dtype='datetime64[D]')

array(['2005-02-01', '2005-02-02', '2005-02-03', '2005-02-04',
'2005-02-05', '2005-02-06', '2005-02-07', '2005-02-08',
'2005-02-09', '2005-02-10', '2005-02-11', '2005-02-12',
'2005-02-13', '2005-02-14', '2005-02-15', '2005-02-16',
'2005-02-17', '2005-02-18', '2005-02-19', '2005-02-20',
'2005-02-21', '2005-02-22', '2005-02-23', '2005-02-24',
'2005-02-25', '2005-02-26', '2005-02-27', '2005-02-28'],
dtype='datetime64[D]')
The datetime object represents a single moment in time. If two datetimes have different units, they may still be
representing the same moment of time, and converting from a bigger unit like months to a smaller unit like days is
considered a ‘safe’ cast because the moment of time is still being represented exactly.
Example
>>> np.datetime64('2005') == np.datetime64('2005-01-01')

True
>>> np.datetime64('2010-03-14T15Z') == np.datetime64('2010-03-14T15:00:00.00Z')

True
1.9.2 Datetime and Timedelta Arithmetic
NumPy allows the subtraction of two Datetime values, an operation which produces a number with a time unit.
Because NumPy doesn’t have a physical quantities system in its core, the timedelta64 data type was created to com-
plement datetime64.
1.9. Datetimes and Timedeltas 353

Datetimes and Timedeltas work together to provide ways for simple datetime calculations.
Example
>>> np.datetime64('2009-01-01') - np.datetime64('2008-01-01')

numpy.timedelta64(366,'D')
>>> np.datetime64('2009') + np.timedelta64(20, 'D')

>>> np.datetime64('2011-06-15T00:00') + np.timedelta64(12, 'h')

numpy.datetime64('2011-06-15T12:00-0500')
>>> np.timedelta64(1,'W') / np.timedelta64(1,'D')

7.0
There are two Timedelta units (‘Y’, years and ‘M’, months) which are treated specially, because how much time they
represent changes depending on when they are used. While a timedelta day unit is equivalent to 24 hours, there is no
way to convert a month unit into days, because different months have different numbers of days.
Example
>>> a = np.timedelta64(1, 'Y')
>>> np.timedelta64(a, 'M')

numpy.timedelta64(12,'M')
>>> np.timedelta64(a, 'D')

TypeError: Cannot cast NumPy timedelta64 scalar from metadata [Y] to [D] according to
˓→the rule 'same_kind'
1.9.3 Datetime Units
The Datetime and Timedelta data types support a large number of time units, as well as generic units which can be
coerced into any of the other units based on input data.
Datetimes are always stored based on POSIX time (though having a TAI mode which allows for accounting of leap-
seconds is proposed), with an epoch of 1970-01-01T00:00Z. This means the supported dates are always a symmetric
interval around the epoch, called “time span” in the table below.
The length of the span is the range of a 64-bit integer times the length of the date or unit. For example, the time span
for ‘W’ (week) is exactly 7 times longer than the time span for ‘D’ (day), and the time span for ‘D’ (day) is exactly 24
times longer than the time span for ‘h’ (hour).
Here are the date units:

Code Meaning Time span (relative) Time span (absolute)

Y year +/- 9.2e18 years [9.2e18 BC, 9.2e18 AD]
M month +/- 7.6e17 years [7.6e17 BC, 7.6e17 AD]
W week +/- 1.7e17 years [1.7e17 BC, 1.7e17 AD]
D day +/- 2.5e16 years [2.5e16 BC, 2.5e16 AD]
And here are the time units:
Code Meaning Time span (relative) Time span (absolute)

h hour +/- 1.0e15 years [1.0e15 BC, 1.0e15 AD]
m minute +/- 1.7e13 years [1.7e13 BC, 1.7e13 AD]
s second +/- 2.9e11 years [2.9e11 BC, 2.9e11 AD]
ms millisecond +/- 2.9e8 years [ 2.9e8 BC, 2.9e8 AD]
us microsecond +/- 2.9e5 years [290301 BC, 294241 AD]
ns nanosecond +/- 292 years [ 1678 AD, 2262 AD]
ps picosecond +/- 106 days [ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
fs femtosecond +/- 2.6 hours [ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
as attosecond +/- 9.2 seconds [ 1969 AD, 1970 AD]
1.9.4 Business Day Functionality
To allow the datetime to be used in contexts where only certain days of the week are valid, NumPy includes a set of
“busday” (business day) functions.
The default for busday functions is that the only valid days are Monday through Friday (the usual business days). The
implementation is based on a “weekmask” containing 7 Boolean flags to indicate valid days; custom weekmasks are
possible that specify other sets of valid days.
The “busday” functions can additionally check a list of “holiday” dates, specific dates that are not valid days.
The function busday_offset allows you to apply offsets specified in business days to datetimes with a unit of ‘D’
(day).
Example
>>> np.busday_offset('2011-06-23', 1)
>>> np.busday_offset('2011-06-23', 2)
When an input date falls on the weekend or a holiday, busday_offset first applies a rule to roll the date to a valid
business day, then applies the offset. The default rule is ‘raise’, which simply raises an exception. The rules most
typically used are ‘forward’ and ‘backward’.
Example
>>> np.busday_offset('2011-06-25', 2)
ValueError: Non-business day date in busday_offset

>>> np.busday_offset('2011-06-25', 0, roll='forward')


>>> np.busday_offset('2011-06-25', 0, roll='backward')


In some cases, an appropriate use of the roll and the offset is necessary to get a desired answer.
Example
The first business day on or after a date:

numpy.datetime64('2011-03-21','D')
The first business day strictly after a date:

The function is also useful for computing some kinds of days like holidays. In Canada and the U.S., Mother’s day is
on the second Sunday in May, which can be computed with a custom weekmask.
Example
>>> np.busday_offset('2012-05', 1, roll='forward', weekmask='Sun')

When performance is important for manipulating many business dates with one particular choice of weekmask and
holidays, there is an object busdaycalendar which stores the data necessary in an optimized form.
np.is_busday():
To test a datetime64 value to see if it is a valid day, use is_busday.
Example
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64('2011-07-15')) # a Friday

True
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64('2011-07-16')) # a Saturday

False
>>> np.is_busday(np.datetime64('2011-07-16'), weekmask="Sat Sun")
True
>>> a = np.arange(np.datetime64('2011-07-11'), np.datetime64('2011-07-18'))
>>> np.is_busday(a)
array([ True, True, True, True, True, False, False], dtype='bool')
np.busday_count():
To find how many valid days there are in a specified range of datetime64 dates, use busday_count:
Example
>>> np.busday_count(np.datetime64('2011-07-11'), np.datetime64('2011-07-18'))

5
>>> np.busday_count(np.datetime64('2011-07-18'), np.datetime64('2011-07-11'))
-5
If you have an array of datetime64 day values, and you want a count of how many of them are valid dates, you can do
this:
Example
>>> a = np.arange(np.datetime64('2011-07-11'), np.datetime64('2011-07-18'))

>>> np.count_nonzero(np.is_busday(a))
5
Custom Weekmasks
Here are several examples of custom weekmask values. These examples specify the “busday” default of Monday
through Friday being valid days.
Some examples:
# Positional sequences; positions are Monday through Sunday.

# Length of the sequence must be exactly 7.
weekmask = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0]
# list or other sequence; 0 == invalid day, 1 == valid day
weekmask = "1111100"
# string '0' == invalid day, '1' == valid day
# string abbreviations from this list: Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
weekmask = "Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri"
# any amount of whitespace is allowed; abbreviations are case-sensitive.
weekmask = "MonTue Wed Thu\tFri"

1.9.5 Changes with NumPy 1.11
In prior versions of NumPy, the datetime64 type always stored times in UTC. By default, creating a datetime64 object
from a string or printing it would convert from or to local time:
# old behavior
>>>> np.datetime64('2000-01-01T00:00:00')
numpy.datetime64('2000-01-01T00:00:00-0800') # note the timezone offset -08:00
A consensus of datetime64 users agreed that this behavior is undesirable and at odds with how datetime64 is usually
used (e.g., by pandas). For most use cases, a timezone naive datetime type is preferred, similar to the datetime.
datetime type in the Python standard library. Accordingly, datetime64 no longer assumes that input is in local time,
nor does it print local times:
>>>> np.datetime64('2000-01-01T00:00:00')
numpy.datetime64('2000-01-01T00:00:00')
For backwards compatibility, datetime64 still parses timezone offsets, which it handles by converting to UTC. How-
ever, the resulting datetime is timezone naive:
>>> np.datetime64('2000-01-01T00:00:00-08')
DeprecationWarning: parsing timezone aware datetimes is deprecated; this will raise
˓→an error in the future
numpy.datetime64('2000-01-01T08:00:00')
As a corollary to this change, we no longer prohibit casting between datetimes with date units and datetimes with
timeunits. With timezone naive datetimes, the rule for casting from dates to times is no longer ambiguous.
1.9.6 Differences Between 1.6 and 1.7 Datetimes
The NumPy 1.6 release includes a more primitive datetime data type than 1.7. This section documents many of the
changes that have taken place.
String Parsing
The datetime string parser in NumPy 1.6 is very liberal in what it accepts, and silently allows invalid input without
raising errors. The parser in NumPy 1.7 is quite strict about only accepting ISO 8601 dates, with a few convenience
extensions. 1.6 always creates microsecond (us) units by default, whereas 1.7 detects a unit based on the format of the
string. Here is a comparison.:
# NumPy 1.6.1
>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22')
1979-03-22 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0
>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22')
# NumPy 1.6.1, unit default microseconds

>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22').dtype
dtype('datetime64[us]')
# NumPy 1.7.0, unit of days detected from string
>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22').dtype
dtype('<M8[D]')
# NumPy 1.6.1, ignores invalid part of string

>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-2corruptedstring')
1979-03-02 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, raises error for invalid input
>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-2corruptedstring')
ValueError: Error parsing datetime string "1979-03-2corruptedstring" at position 8
# NumPy 1.6.1, 'nat' produces today's date

>>> np.datetime64('nat')
2012-04-30 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, 'nat' produces not-a-time
>>> np.datetime64('nat')
numpy.datetime64('NaT')
# NumPy 1.6.1, 'garbage' produces today's date

>>> np.datetime64('garbage')
2012-04-30 00:00:00
# NumPy 1.7.0, 'garbage' raises an exception
>>> np.datetime64('garbage')
ValueError: Error parsing datetime string "garbage" at position 0
# NumPy 1.6.1, can't specify unit in scalar constructor

>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22T19:00', 'h')
TypeError: function takes at most 1 argument (2 given)
# NumPy 1.7.0, unit in scalar constructor
>>> np.datetime64('1979-03-22T19:00', 'h')
numpy.datetime64('1979-03-22T19:00-0500','h')
# NumPy 1.6.1, reads ISO 8601 strings w/o TZ as UTC

>>> np.array(['1979-03-22T19:00'], dtype='M8[h]')
array([1979-03-22 19:00:00], dtype=datetime64[h])
# NumPy 1.7.0, reads ISO 8601 strings w/o TZ as local (ISO specifies this)
array(['1979-03-22T19-0500'], dtype='datetime64[h]')
# NumPy 1.6.1, doesn't parse all ISO 8601 strings correctly

>>> np.array(['1979-03-22T12'], dtype='M8[h]')
# NumPy 1.7.0, handles this case correctly
>>> np.array(['1979-03-22T12'], dtype='M8[h]')
Unit Conversion
The 1.6 implementation of datetime does not convert between units correctly.:

# NumPy 1.6.1, the representation value is untouched

>>> np.array(['1979-03-22'], dtype='M8[D]')
array([1979-03-22 00:00:00], dtype=datetime64[D])
>>> np.array(['1979-03-22'], dtype='M8[D]').astype('M8[M]')
array([2250-08-01 00:00:00], dtype=datetime64[M])
# NumPy 1.7.0, the representation is scaled accordingly
>>> np.array(['1979-03-22'], dtype='M8[D]')
array(['1979-03-22'], dtype='datetime64[D]')
>>> np.array(['1979-03-22'], dtype='M8[D]').astype('M8[M]')
array(['1979-03'], dtype='datetime64[M]')
Datetime Arithmetic
The 1.6 implementation of datetime only works correctly for a small subset of arithmetic operations. Here we show
some simple cases.:
# NumPy 1.6.1, produces invalid results if units are incompatible

>>> a = np.array(['1979-03-22T12'], dtype='M8[h]')
>>> b = np.array([3*60], dtype='m8[m]')
>>> a + b
array([1970-01-01 00:00:00.080988], dtype=datetime64[us])
# NumPy 1.7.0, promotes to higher-resolution unit
>>> a = np.array(['1979-03-22T12'], dtype='M8[h]')
>>> b = np.array([3*60], dtype='m8[m]')
>>> a + b
array(['1979-03-22T15:00-0500'], dtype='datetime64[m]')
# NumPy 1.6.1, arithmetic works if everything is microseconds

>>> a = np.array(['1979-03-22T12:00'], dtype='M8[us]')
>>> b = np.array([3*60*60*1000000], dtype='m8[us]')
>>> a + b
array([1979-03-22 15:00:00], dtype=datetime64[us])
# NumPy 1.7.0
>>> a = np.array(['1979-03-22T12:00'], dtype='M8[us]')
>>> b = np.array([3*60*60*1000000], dtype='m8[us]')
>>> a + b
array(['1979-03-22T15:00:00.000000-0500'], dtype='datetime64[us]')

CHAPTER
TWO
UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONS (UFUNC)
A universal function (or ufunc for short) is a function that operates on ndarrays in an element-by-element fashion,
supporting array broadcasting, type casting, and several other standard features. That is, a ufunc is a “vectorized”
wrapper for a function that takes a fixed number of specific inputs and produces a fixed number of specific outputs.
In NumPy, universal functions are instances of the numpy.ufunc class. Many of the built-in functions are imple-
mented in compiled C code. The basic ufuncs operate on scalars, but there is also a generalized kind for which the
basic elements are sub-arrays (vectors, matrices, etc.), and broadcasting is done over other dimensions. One can also
produce custom ufunc instances using the frompyfunc factory function.
2.1 Broadcasting
Each universal function takes array inputs and produces array outputs by performing the core function element-wise
on the inputs (where an element is generally a scalar, but can be a vector or higher-order sub-array for generalized
ufuncs). Standard broadcasting rules are applied so that inputs not sharing exactly the same shapes can still be usefully
operated on. Broadcasting can be understood by four rules:
1. All input arrays with ndim smaller than the input array of largest ndim, have 1’s prepended to their shapes.
2. The size in each dimension of the output shape is the maximum of all the input sizes in that dimension.
3. An input can be used in the calculation if its size in a particular dimension either matches the output size in that
dimension, or has value exactly 1.
4. If an input has a dimension size of 1 in its shape, the first data entry in that dimension will be used for all
calculations along that dimension. In other words, the stepping machinery of the ufunc will simply not step
along that dimension (the stride will be 0 for that dimension).
Broadcasting is used throughout NumPy to decide how to handle disparately shaped arrays; for example, all arithmetic
operations (+, -, *, . . . ) between ndarrays broadcast the arrays before operation.
A set of arrays is called “broadcastable” to the same shape if the above rules produce a valid result, i.e., one of the
following is true:
1. The arrays all have exactly the same shape.
2. The arrays all have the same number of dimensions and the length of each dimensions is either a common length
or 1.
3. The arrays that have too few dimensions can have their shapes prepended with a dimension of length 1 to satisfy
property 2.
Example
361
If a.shape is (5,1), b.shape is (1,6), c.shape is (6,) and d.shape is () so that d is a scalar, then a, b, c, and d
are all broadcastable to dimension (5,6); and
• a acts like a (5,6) array where a[:,0] is broadcast to the other columns,
• b acts like a (5,6) array where b[0,:] is broadcast to the other rows,
• c acts like a (1,6) array and therefore like a (5,6) array where c[:] is broadcast to every row, and finally,
• d acts like a (5,6) array where the single value is repeated.
2.2 Output type determination
The output of the ufunc (and its methods) is not necessarily an ndarray, if all input arguments are not ndarrays.
Indeed, if any input defines an __array_ufunc__ method, control will be passed completely to that function, i.e.,
the ufunc is overridden.
If none of the inputs overrides the ufunc, then all output arrays will be passed to the __array_prepare__ and
__array_wrap__ methods of the input (besides ndarrays, and scalars) that defines it and has the highest
__array_priority__ of any other input to the universal function. The default __array_priority__ of the
ndarray is 0.0, and the default __array_priority__ of a subtype is 1.0. Matrices have __array_priority__
equal to 10.0.
All ufuncs can also take output arguments. If necessary, output will be cast to the data-type(s) of the provided output
array(s). If a class with an __array__ method is used for the output, results will be written to the object returned
by __array__. Then, if the class also has an __array_prepare__ method, it is called so metadata may be
determined based on the context of the ufunc (the context consisting of the ufunc itself, the arguments passed to
the ufunc, and the ufunc domain.) The array object returned by __array_prepare__ is passed to the ufunc for
computation. Finally, if the class also has an __array_wrap__ method, the returned ndarray result will be
passed to that method just before passing control back to the caller.
2.3 Use of internal buffers
Internally, buffers are used for misaligned data, swapped data, and data that has to be converted from one data type to
another. The size of internal buffers is settable on a per-thread basis. There can be up to 2(𝑛inputs + 𝑛outputs ) buffers
of the specified size created to handle the data from all the inputs and outputs of a ufunc. The default size of a buffer is
10,000 elements. Whenever buffer-based calculation would be needed, but all input arrays are smaller than the buffer
size, those misbehaved or incorrectly-typed arrays will be copied before the calculation proceeds. Adjusting the size of
the buffer may therefore alter the speed at which ufunc calculations of various sorts are completed. A simple interface
for setting this variable is accessible using the function
setbufsize(size) Set the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
numpy.setbufsize(size)
Set the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
Parameters size : int
Size of buffer.
362 Chapter 2. Universal functions (ufunc)

2.4 Error handling
Universal functions can trip special floating-point status registers in your hardware (such as divide-by-zero). If avail-
able on your platform, these registers will be regularly checked during calculation. Error handling is controlled on a
per-thread basis, and can be configured using the functions
seterr([all, divide, over, under, invalid]) Set how floating-point errors are handled.
seterrcall(func) Set the floating-point error callback function or log object.
numpy.seterr(all=None, divide=None, over=None, under=None, invalid=None)

Set how floating-point errors are handled.
Note that operations on integer scalar types (such as int16) are handled like floating point, and are affected by
these settings.
Parameters all : {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}, optional
Set treatment for all types of floating-point errors at once:
• ignore: Take no action when the exception occurs.
• warn: Print a RuntimeWarning (via the Python warnings module).
• raise: Raise a FloatingPointError.
• call: Call a function specified using the seterrcall function.
• print: Print a warning directly to stdout.
• log: Record error in a Log object specified by seterrcall.
The default is not to change the current behavior.
divide : {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}, optional
Treatment for division by zero.
over : {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}, optional
Treatment for floating-point overflow.
under : {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}, optional
Treatment for floating-point underflow.
invalid : {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}, optional
Treatment for invalid floating-point operation.
Returns old_settings : dict
Dictionary containing the old settings.
See also:
seterrcall Set a callback function for the ‘call’ mode.
geterr, geterrcall, errstate
2.4. Error handling 363

Notes
The floating-point exceptions are defined in the IEEE 754 standard [1]:
• Division by zero: infinite result obtained from finite numbers.
• Overflow: result too large to be expressed.
• Underflow: result so close to zero that some precision was lost.
• Invalid operation: result is not an expressible number, typically indicates that a NaN was produced.
Examples
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all='ignore') #seterr to known value

>>> np.seterr(over='raise')
{'over': 'ignore', 'divide': 'ignore', 'invalid': 'ignore',
'under': 'ignore'}
>>> np.seterr(**old_settings) # reset to default
{'over': 'raise', 'divide': 'ignore', 'invalid': 'ignore', 'under': 'ignore'}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)

30464
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all='warn', over='raise')
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
FloatingPointError: overflow encountered in short_scalars
>>> old_settings = np.seterr(all='print')

>>> np.geterr()
{'over': 'print', 'divide': 'print', 'invalid': 'print', 'under': 'print'}
>>> np.int16(32000) * np.int16(3)
Warning: overflow encountered in short_scalars
30464
numpy.seterrcall(func)
Set the floating-point error callback function or log object.
There are two ways to capture floating-point error messages. The first is to set the error-handler to ‘call’, using
seterr. Then, set the function to call using this function.
The second is to set the error-handler to ‘log’, using seterr. Floating-point errors then trigger a call to the
‘write’ method of the provided object.
Parameters func : callable f(err, flag) or object with write method
Function to call upon floating-point errors (‘call’-mode) or object whose ‘write’ method
is used to log such message (‘log’-mode).
The call function takes two arguments. The first is a string describing the type of error
(such as “divide by zero”, “overflow”, “underflow”, or “invalid value”), and the second
is the status flag. The flag is a byte, whose four least-significant bits indicate the type of
error, one of “divide”, “over”, “under”, “invalid”:
[0 0 0 0 divide over under invalid]

In other words, flags = divide + 2*over + 4*under + 8*invalid.

If an object is provided, its write method should take one argument, a string.
Returns h : callable, log instance or None
The old error handler.
See also:
seterr, geterr, geterrcall
Examples
Callback upon error:

>>> def err_handler(type, flag):
... print("Floating point error (%s), with flag %s" % (type, flag))
...
>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)

>>> save_err = np.seterr(all='call')
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0

Floating point error (divide by zero), with flag 1
array([ Inf, Inf, Inf])
>>> np.seterrcall(saved_handler)
<function err_handler at 0x...>
>>> np.seterr(**save_err)
{'over': 'call', 'divide': 'call', 'invalid': 'call', 'under': 'call'}
Log error message:

>>> class Log(object):
... def write(self, msg):
... print("LOG: %s" % msg)
...
>>> log = Log()

>>> saved_handler = np.seterrcall(log)
>>> save_err = np.seterr(all='log')
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0

LOG: Warning: divide by zero encountered in divide
>>> np.seterrcall(saved_handler)
<__main__.Log object at 0x...>
>>> np.seterr(**save_err)
{'over': 'log', 'divide': 'log', 'invalid': 'log', 'under': 'log'}
2.5 Casting Rules
2.5. Casting Rules 365

Note: In NumPy 1.6.0, a type promotion API was created to encapsulate the mechanism for determining output types.
See the functions result_type, promote_types, and min_scalar_type for more details.
At the core of every ufunc is a one-dimensional strided loop that implements the actual function for a specific type
combination. When a ufunc is created, it is given a static list of inner loops and a corresponding list of type signatures
over which the ufunc operates. The ufunc machinery uses this list to determine which inner loop to use for a particular
case. You can inspect the .types attribute for a particular ufunc to see which type combinations have a defined inner
loop and which output type they produce (character codes are used in said output for brevity).
Casting must be done on one or more of the inputs whenever the ufunc does not have a core loop implementation for
the input types provided. If an implementation for the input types cannot be found, then the algorithm searches for an
implementation with a type signature to which all of the inputs can be cast “safely.” The first one it finds in its internal
list of loops is selected and performed, after all necessary type casting. Recall that internal copies during ufuncs (even
for casting) are limited to the size of an internal buffer (which is user settable).
Note: Universal functions in NumPy are flexible enough to have mixed type signatures. Thus, for example, a universal
function could be defined that works with floating-point and integer values. See ldexp for an example.
By the above description, the casting rules are essentially implemented by the question of when a data type can be
cast “safely” to another data type. The answer to this question can be determined in Python with a function call:
can_cast(fromtype, totype). The Figure below shows the results of this call for the 24 internally supported
types on the author’s 64-bit system. You can generate this table for your system with the code given in the Figure.
Figure
Code segment showing the “can cast safely” table for a 32-bit system.
>>> def print_table(ntypes):

... print 'X',
... for char in ntypes: print char,
... print
... for row in ntypes:
... print row,
... for col in ntypes:
... print int(np.can_cast(row, col)),
... print
>>> print_table(np.typecodes['All'])
X ? b h i l q p B H I L Q P e f d g F D G S U V O M m
? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
h 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
i 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
l 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
q 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
p 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
B 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
H 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
I 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
L 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
P 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
f 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
F 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
G 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
U 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
M 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
m 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
You should note that, while included in the table for completeness, the ‘S’, ‘U’, and ‘V’ types cannot be operated on
by ufuncs. Also, note that on a 32-bit system the integer types may have different sizes, resulting in a slightly altered
table.
Mixed scalar-array operations use a different set of casting rules that ensure that a scalar cannot “upcast” an array
unless the scalar is of a fundamentally different kind of data (i.e., under a different hierarchy in the data-type hierarchy)
than the array. This rule enables you to use scalar constants in your code (which, as Python types, are interpreted
accordingly in ufuncs) without worrying about whether the precision of the scalar constant will cause upcasting on
your large (small precision) array.
2.6 Overriding Ufunc behavior
Classes (including ndarray subclasses) can override how ufuncs act on them by defining certain special methods. For
details, see Standard array subclasses.
2.7 ufunc
2.7.1 Optional keyword arguments
All ufuncs take optional keyword arguments. Most of these represent advanced usage and will not typically be used.
out
New in version 1.6.
The first output can be provided as either a positional or a keyword parameter. Keyword ‘out’ arguments
are incompatible with positional ones.
The ‘out’ keyword argument is expected to be a tuple with one entry per output (which can be None for
arrays to be allocated by the ufunc). For ufuncs with a single output, passing a single array (instead of a
tuple holding a single array) is also valid.
Passing a single array in the ‘out’ keyword argument to a ufunc with multiple outputs is deprecated, and
will raise a warning in numpy 1.10, and an error in a future release.
where
New in version 1.7.
Accepts a boolean array which is broadcast together with the operands. Values of True indicate to calculate
the ufunc at that position, values of False indicate to leave the value in the output alone. This argument
cannot be used for generalized ufuncs as those take non-scalar input.
2.6. Overriding Ufunc behavior 367

casting
New in version 1.6.
May be ‘no’, ‘equiv’, ‘safe’, ‘same_kind’, or ‘unsafe’. See can_cast for explanations of the parameter
values.
Provides a policy for what kind of casting is permitted. For compatibility with previous versions of
NumPy, this defaults to ‘unsafe’ for numpy < 1.7. In numpy 1.7 a transition to ‘same_kind’ was begun
where ufuncs produce a DeprecationWarning for calls which are allowed under the ‘unsafe’ rules, but not
under the ‘same_kind’ rules. From numpy 1.10 and onwards, the default is ‘same_kind’.
order
New in version 1.6.
Specifies the calculation iteration order/memory layout of the output array. Defaults to ‘K’. ‘C’ means
the output should be C-contiguous, ‘F’ means F-contiguous, ‘A’ means F-contiguous if the inputs are F-
contiguous and not also not C-contiguous, C-contiguous otherwise, and ‘K’ means to match the element
ordering of the inputs as closely as possible.
dtype
New in version 1.6.
Overrides the dtype of the calculation and output arrays. Similar to signature.
subok
New in version 1.6.
Defaults to true. If set to false, the output will always be a strict array, not a subtype.
signature
Either a data-type, a tuple of data-types, or a special signature string indicating the input and output
types of a ufunc. This argument allows you to provide a specific signature for the 1-d loop to use in
the underlying calculation. If the loop specified does not exist for the ufunc, then a TypeError is raised.
Normally, a suitable loop is found automatically by comparing the input types with what is available and
searching for a loop with data-types to which all inputs can be cast safely. This keyword argument lets
you bypass that search and choose a particular loop. A list of available signatures is provided by the
types attribute of the ufunc object. For backwards compatibility this argument can also be provided as
sig, although the long form is preferred. Note that this should not be confused with the generalized ufunc
signature that is stored in the signature attribute of the of the ufunc object.
extobj
a list of length 1, 2, or 3 specifying the ufunc buffer-size, the error mode integer, and the error call-
back function. Normally, these values are looked up in a thread-specific dictionary. Passing them here
circumvents that look up and uses the low-level specification provided for the error mode. This may be
useful, for example, as an optimization for calculations requiring many ufunc calls on small arrays in a
loop.
2.7.2 Attributes
There are some informational attributes that universal functions possess. None of the attributes can be set.
__doc__A docstring for each ufunc. The first part of the docstring is dynamically generated from the number of
outputs, the name, and the number of inputs. The second part of the docstring is provided at creation time
and stored with the ufunc.
__name__
The name of the ufunc.

ufunc.nin The number of inputs.

ufunc.nout The number of outputs.
ufunc.nargs The number of arguments.
ufunc.ntypes The number of types.
ufunc.types Returns a list with types grouped input->output.
ufunc.identity The identity value.
ufunc.signature Definition of the core elements a generalized ufunc oper-
ates on.
ufunc.nin
The number of inputs.
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc treats as input.
Examples
>>> np.add.nin
2
>>> np.multiply.nin
2
>>> np.power.nin
2
>>> np.exp.nin
1
ufunc.nout
The number of outputs.
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc treats as output.
Notes
Since all ufuncs can take output arguments, this will always be (at least) 1.
Examples
>>> np.add.nout
1
>>> np.multiply.nout
1
>>> np.power.nout
1
>>> np.exp.nout
1
ufunc.nargs
The number of arguments.
Data attribute containing the number of arguments the ufunc takes, including optional ones.
2.7. ufunc 369

Notes
Typically this value will be one more than what you might expect because all ufuncs take the optional “out”
argument.
Examples
>>> np.add.nargs
3
>>> np.multiply.nargs
3
>>> np.power.nargs
3
>>> np.exp.nargs
2
ufunc.ntypes
The number of types.
The number of numerical NumPy types - of which there are 18 total - on which the ufunc can operate.
See also:
numpy.ufunc.types
Examples
>>> np.add.ntypes
18
>>> np.multiply.ntypes
18
>>> np.power.ntypes
17
>>> np.exp.ntypes
7
>>> np.remainder.ntypes
14
ufunc.types
Returns a list with types grouped input->output.
Data attribute listing the data-type “Domain-Range” groupings the ufunc can deliver. The data-types are given
using the character codes.
See also:
numpy.ufunc.ntypes
Examples
>>> np.add.types
['??->?', 'bb->b', 'BB->B', 'hh->h', 'HH->H', 'ii->i', 'II->I', 'll->l',
'LL->L', 'qq->q', 'QQ->Q', 'ff->f', 'dd->d', 'gg->g', 'FF->F', 'DD->D',
'GG->G', 'OO->O']

>>> np.multiply.types
['??->?', 'bb->b', 'BB->B', 'hh->h', 'HH->H', 'ii->i', 'II->I', 'll->l',
'LL->L', 'qq->q', 'QQ->Q', 'ff->f', 'dd->d', 'gg->g', 'FF->F', 'DD->D',
'GG->G', 'OO->O']
>>> np.power.types
['bb->b', 'BB->B', 'hh->h', 'HH->H', 'ii->i', 'II->I', 'll->l', 'LL->L',
'qq->q', 'QQ->Q', 'ff->f', 'dd->d', 'gg->g', 'FF->F', 'DD->D', 'GG->G',
'OO->O']
>>> np.exp.types
['f->f', 'd->d', 'g->g', 'F->F', 'D->D', 'G->G', 'O->O']
>>> np.remainder.types
['bb->b', 'BB->B', 'hh->h', 'HH->H', 'ii->i', 'II->I', 'll->l', 'LL->L',
'qq->q', 'QQ->Q', 'ff->f', 'dd->d', 'gg->g', 'OO->O']
ufunc.identity
The identity value.
Data attribute containing the identity element for the ufunc, if it has one. If it does not, the attribute value is
None.
Examples
>>> np.add.identity
0
>>> np.multiply.identity
1
>>> np.power.identity
1
>>> print(np.exp.identity)
None
ufunc.signature
Definition of the core elements a generalized ufunc operates on.
The signature determines how the dimensions of each input/output array are split into core and loop dimensions:
1. Each dimension in the signature is matched to a dimension of the corresponding passed-in array, starting
from the end of the shape tuple.
2. Core dimensions assigned to the same label in the signature must have exactly matching sizes, no broad-
casting is performed.
3. The core dimensions are removed from all inputs and the remaining dimensions are broadcast together,
defining the loop dimensions.
Notes
Generalized ufuncs are used internally in many linalg functions, and in the testing suite; the examples below are
taken from these. For ufuncs that operate on scalars, the signature is None, which is equivalent to ‘()’ for every
argument.
2.7. ufunc 371

Examples
>>> np.core.umath_tests.matrix_multiply.signature
'(m,n),(n,p)->(m,p)'
>>> np.linalg._umath_linalg.det.signature
'(m,m)->()'
>>> np.add.signature is None
True # equivalent to '(),()->()'
2.7.3 Methods
All ufuncs have four methods. However, these methods only make sense on scalar ufuncs that take two input arguments
and return one output argument. Attempting to call these methods on other ufuncs will cause a ValueError. The
reduce-like methods all take an axis keyword, a dtype keyword, and an out keyword, and the arrays must all have
dimension >= 1. The axis keyword specifies the axis of the array over which the reduction will take place (with
negative values counting backwards). Generally, it is an integer, though for ufunc.reduce, it can also be a tuple of
int to reduce over several axes at once, or None, to reduce over all axes. The dtype keyword allows you to manage
a very common problem that arises when naively using ufunc.reduce. Sometimes you may have an array of a
certain data type and wish to add up all of its elements, but the result does not fit into the data type of the array. This
commonly happens if you have an array of single-byte integers. The dtype keyword allows you to alter the data type
over which the reduction takes place (and therefore the type of the output). Thus, you can ensure that the output
is a data type with precision large enough to handle your output. The responsibility of altering the reduce type is
mostly up to you. There is one exception: if no dtype is given for a reduction on the “add” or “multiply” operations,
then if the input type is an integer (or Boolean) data-type and smaller than the size of the int_ data type, it will be
internally upcast to the int_ (or uint) data-type. Finally, the out keyword allows you to provide an output array (for
single-output ufuncs, which are currently the only ones supported; for future extension, however, a tuple with a single
argument can be passed in). If out is given, the dtype argument is ignored.
Ufuncs also have a fifth method that allows in place operations to be performed using fancy indexing. No buffering
is used on the dimensions where fancy indexing is used, so the fancy index can list an item more than once and the
operation will be performed on the result of the previous operation for that item.
ufunc.reduce(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Reduces a’s dimension by one, by applying ufunc along
one axis.
ufunc.accumulate(array[, axis, dtype, out]) Accumulate the result of applying the operator to all ele-
ments.
ufunc.reduceat(a, indices[, axis, dtype, out]) Performs a (local) reduce with specified slices over a single
axis.
ufunc.outer(A, B, **kwargs) Apply the ufunc op to all pairs (a, b) with a in A and b in B.
ufunc.at(a, indices[, b]) Performs unbuffered in place operation on operand ‘a’ for
elements specified by ‘indices’.
ufunc.reduce(a, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

Reduces a’s dimension by one, by applying ufunc along one axis.
Let 𝑎.𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 = (𝑁0 , ..., 𝑁𝑖 , ..., 𝑁𝑀 −1 ). Then 𝑢𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑐.𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒(𝑎, 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖)[𝑘0 , .., 𝑘𝑖−1 , 𝑘𝑖+1 , .., 𝑘𝑀 −1 ] = the
result of iterating j over 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑁𝑖 ), cumulatively applying ufunc to each 𝑎[𝑘0 , .., 𝑘𝑖−1 , 𝑗, 𝑘𝑖+1 , .., 𝑘𝑀 −1 ]. For a
one-dimensional array, reduce produces results equivalent to:
r = op.identity # op = ufunc
for i in range(len(A)):
r = op(r, A[i])
return r

For example, add.reduce() is equivalent to sum().

The array to act on.
Axis or axes along which a reduction is performed. The default (axis = 0) is perform
a reduction over the first dimension of the input array. axis may be negative, in which
case it counts from the last to the first axis.
If this is None, a reduction is performed over all the axes. If this is a tuple of ints,
a reduction is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single axis or all the axes as
before.
For operations which are either not commutative or not associative, doing a reduction
over multiple axes is not well-defined. The ufuncs do not currently raise an exception
in this case, but will likely do so in the future.
dtype : data-type code, optional
The type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data-type of the
output array if this is provided, or the data-type of the input array if no output array is
provided.
A location into which the result is stored. If not provided or None, a freshly-allocated
array is returned. For consistency with ufunc.__call__, if given as a keyword, this may
be wrapped in a 1-element tuple.
Changed in version 1.13.0: Tuples are allowed for keyword argument.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original arr.
Returns r : ndarray
The reduced array. If out was supplied, r is a reference to it.
Examples
>>> np.multiply.reduce([2,3,5])
30
A multi-dimensional array example:
>>> X = np.arange(8).reshape((2,2,2))
>>> X
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
[6, 7]]])
>>> np.add.reduce(X, 0)
array([[ 4, 6],
2.7. ufunc 373

[ 8, 10]])
>>> np.add.reduce(X) # confirm: default axis value is 0
array([[ 4, 6],
[ 8, 10]])
array([[ 2, 4],
[10, 12]])
array([[ 1, 5],
[ 9, 13]])
ufunc.accumulate(array, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None)

Accumulate the result of applying the operator to all elements.
For a one-dimensional array, accumulate produces results equivalent to:
r = np.empty(len(A))
t = op.identity # op = the ufunc being applied to A's elements
t = op(t, A[i])
r[i] = t
return r
For example, add.accumulate() is equivalent to np.cumsum().

For a multi-dimensional array, accumulate is applied along only one axis (axis zero by default; see Examples
below) so repeated use is necessary if one wants to accumulate over multiple axes.
Parameters array : array_like
The axis along which to apply the accumulation; default is zero.
The data-type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data-type of the
output array if such is provided, or the the data-type of the input array if no output array
is provided.
Returns r : ndarray
The accumulated values. If out was supplied, r is a reference to out.
Examples
1-D array examples:
>>> np.add.accumulate([2, 3, 5])

array([ 2, 5, 10])

>>> np.multiply.accumulate([2, 3, 5])

array([ 2, 6, 30])
2-D array examples:
>>> I = np.eye(2)
>>> I
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
Accumulate along axis 0 (rows), down columns:
>>> np.add.accumulate(I, 0)
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 1., 1.]])
>>> np.add.accumulate(I) # no axis specified = axis zero
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 1., 1.]])
Accumulate along axis 1 (columns), through rows:
>>> np.add.accumulate(I, 1)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 0., 1.]])
ufunc.reduceat(a, indices, axis=0, dtype=None, out=None)

Performs a (local) reduce with specified slices over a single axis.
For i in range(len(indices)), reduceat computes ufunc.
reduce(a[indices[i]:indices[i+1]]), which becomes the i-th generalized “row” parallel to
axis in the final result (i.e., in a 2-D array, for example, if axis = 0, it becomes the i-th row, but if axis = 1, it
becomes the i-th column). There are three exceptions to this:
• when i = len(indices) - 1 (so for the last index), indices[i+1] = a.shape[axis].
• if indices[i] >= indices[i + 1], the i-th generalized “row” is simply a[indices[i]].
• if indices[i] >= len(a) or indices[i] < 0, an error is raised.
The shape of the output depends on the size of indices, and may be larger than a (this happens if
len(indices) > a.shape[axis]).
indices : array_like
Paired indices, comma separated (not colon), specifying slices to reduce.
The axis along which to apply the reduceat.
The type used to represent the intermediate results. Defaults to the data type of the
output array if this is provided, or the data type of the input array if no output array is
provided.
2.7. ufunc 375

Returns r : ndarray
The reduced values. If out was supplied, r is a reference to out.
Notes
A descriptive example:
If a is 1-D, the function ufunc.accumulate(a) is the same as ufunc.reduceat(a, indices)[::2]
where indices is range(len(array) - 1) with a zero placed in every other element: indices =
zeros(2 * len(a) - 1), indices[1::2] = range(1, len(a)).
Don’t be fooled by this attribute’s name: reduceat(a) is not necessarily smaller than a.
Examples
To take the running sum of four successive values:
>>> np.add.reduceat(np.arange(8),[0,4, 1,5, 2,6, 3,7])[::2]

array([ 6, 10, 14, 18])
A 2-D example:
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 15, 16).reshape(4,4)

>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
# reduce such that the result has the following five rows:
# [row1 + row2 + row3]
# [row4]
# [row2]
# [row3]
# [row1 + row2 + row3 + row4]
>>> np.add.reduceat(x, [0, 3, 1, 2, 0])

array([[ 12., 15., 18., 21.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 24., 28., 32., 36.]])
# reduce such that result has the following two columns:

# [col1 * col2 * col3, col4]
>>> np.multiply.reduceat(x, [0, 3], 1)

array([[ 0., 3.],

[ 120., 7.],
[ 720., 11.],
[ 2184., 15.]])
ufunc.outer(A, B, **kwargs)
Apply the ufunc op to all pairs (a, b) with a in A and b in B.
Let M = A.ndim, N = B.ndim. Then the result, C, of op.outer(A, B) is an array of dimension M + N
such that:
𝐶[𝑖0 , ..., 𝑖𝑀 −1 , 𝑗0 , ..., 𝑗𝑁 −1 ] = 𝑜𝑝(𝐴[𝑖0 , ..., 𝑖𝑀 −1 ], 𝐵[𝑗0 , ..., 𝑗𝑁 −1 ])
For A and B one-dimensional, this is equivalent to:
r = empty(len(A),len(B))
for j in range(len(B)):
r[i,j] = op(A[i], B[j]) # op = ufunc in question
Parameters A : array_like
First array
B : array_like
Second array
kwargs : any
Arguments to pass on to the ufunc. Typically dtype or out.
Returns r : ndarray
Output array
See also:
numpy.outer
Examples
>>> np.multiply.outer([1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6])

array([[ 4, 5, 6],
[ 8, 10, 12],
[12, 15, 18]])
A multi-dimensional example:
>>> A = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

>>> A.shape
(2, 3)
>>> B = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 4]])
>>> B.shape
(1, 4)
>>> C = np.multiply.outer(A, B)
>>> C.shape; C
(2, 3, 1, 4)
array([[[[ 1, 2, 3, 4]],
2.7. ufunc 377

[[ 2, 4, 6, 8]],
[[ 3, 6, 9, 12]]],
[[[ 4, 8, 12, 16]],
[[ 5, 10, 15, 20]],
[[ 6, 12, 18, 24]]]])
ufunc.at(a, indices, b=None)

Performs unbuffered in place operation on operand ‘a’ for elements specified by ‘indices’. For addition ufunc,
this method is equivalent to a[indices] += b, except that results are accumulated for elements that are indexed
more than once. For example, a[[0,0]] += 1 will only increment the first element once because of buffering,
whereas add.at(a, [0,0], 1) will increment the first element twice.
The array to perform in place operation on.
indices : array_like or tuple
Array like index object or slice object for indexing into first operand. If first operand has
multiple dimensions, indices can be a tuple of array like index objects or slice objects.
b : array_like
Second operand for ufuncs requiring two operands. Operand must be broadcastable
over first operand after indexing or slicing.
Examples
Set items 0 and 1 to their negative values:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> np.negative.at(a, [0, 1])
>>> print(a)
array([-1, -2, 3, 4])
Increment items 0 and 1, and increment item 2 twice:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> np.add.at(a, [0, 1, 2, 2], 1)
>>> print(a)
array([2, 3, 5, 4])
Add items 0 and 1 in first array to second array, and store results in first array:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> b = np.array([1, 2])
>>> np.add.at(a, [0, 1], b)
>>> print(a)
array([2, 4, 3, 4])
Warning: A reduce-like operation on an array with a data-type that has a range “too small” to handle the result
will silently wrap. One should use dtype to increase the size of the data-type over which reduction takes place.

2.8 Available ufuncs
There are currently more than 60 universal functions defined in numpy on one or more types, covering a wide variety
of operations. Some of these ufuncs are called automatically on arrays when the relevant infix notation is used (e.g.,
add(a, b) is called internally when a + b is written and a or b is an ndarray). Nevertheless, you may still want
to use the ufunc call in order to use the optional output argument(s) to place the output(s) in an object (or objects) of
your choice.
Recall that each ufunc operates element-by-element. Therefore, each scalar ufunc will be described as if acting on a
set of scalar inputs to return a set of scalar outputs.
Note: The ufunc still returns its output(s) even if you use the optional output argument(s).
2.8.1 Math operations
add(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Add arguments element-wise.
subtract(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Subtract arguments, element-wise.
multiply(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Multiply arguments element-wise.
divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
logaddexp(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs.
logaddexp2(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs in
base-2.
true_divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
floor_divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the largest integer smaller or equal to the division
of the inputs.
negative(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Numerical negative, element-wise.
positive(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Numerical positive, element-wise.
power(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) First array elements raised to powers from second array,
element-wise.
remainder(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return element-wise remainder of division.
mod(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return element-wise remainder of division.
fmod(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the element-wise remainder of division.
divmod(x1, x2[, out1, out2], / [[, out, . . . ]) Return element-wise quotient and remainder simultane-
ously.
absolute(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate the absolute value element-wise.
fabs(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute the absolute values element-wise.
rint(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Round elements of the array to the nearest integer.
sign(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Returns an element-wise indication of the sign of a number.
heaviside(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the Heaviside step function.
conj(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
exp(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate the exponential of all elements in the input array.
exp2(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate 2**p for all p in the input array.
log(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Natural logarithm, element-wise.
log2(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Base-2 logarithm of x.
log10(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the base 10 logarithm of the input array, element-
wise.
expm1(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate exp(x) - 1 for all elements in the array.
log1p(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the natural logarithm of one plus the input array,
element-wise.
2.8. Available ufuncs 379


sqrt(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the positive square-root of an array, element-wise.
square(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the element-wise square of the input.
cbrt(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the cube-root of an array, element-wise.
reciprocal(x, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the reciprocal of the argument, element-wise.
Tip: The optional output arguments can be used to help you save memory for large calculations. If your arrays are
large, complicated expressions can take longer than absolutely necessary due to the creation and (later) destruction of
temporary calculation spaces. For example, the expression G = a * b + c is equivalent to t1 = A * B; G =
T1 + C; del t1. It will be more quickly executed as G = A * B; add(G, C, G) which is the same as G
= A * B; G += C.
2.8.2 Trigonometric functions
All trigonometric functions use radians when an angle is called for. The ratio of degrees to radians is 180∘ /𝜋.
sin(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric sine, element-wise.

cos(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Cosine element-wise.
tan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute tangent element-wise.
arcsin(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse sine, element-wise.
arccos(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric inverse cosine, element-wise.
arctan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric inverse tangent, element-wise.
arctan2(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise arc tangent of x1/x2 choosing the quadrant
correctly.
hypot(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Given the “legs” of a right triangle, return its hypotenuse.
sinh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Hyperbolic sine, element-wise.
cosh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
tanh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
arcsinh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic sine element-wise.
arccosh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
arctanh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
deg2rad(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from degrees to radians.
rad2deg(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from radians to degrees.
2.8.3 Bit-twiddling functions
These function all require integer arguments and they manipulate the bit-pattern of those arguments.
bitwise_and(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise AND of two arrays element-wise.
bitwise_or(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise OR of two arrays element-wise.
bitwise_xor(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise XOR of two arrays element-wise.
invert(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute bit-wise inversion, or bit-wise NOT, element-
wise.
left_shift(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Shift the bits of an integer to the left.
right_shift(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Shift the bits of an integer to the right.

2.8.4 Comparison functions
greater(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 > x2) element-wise.
greater_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
less(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 < x2) element-wise.
less_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 =< x2) element-wise.
not_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.
Warning: Do not use the Python keywords and and or to combine logical array expressions. These keywords
will test the truth value of the entire array (not element-by-element as you might expect). Use the bitwise operators
& and | instead.
logical_and(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 AND x2 element-wise.
logical_or(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 OR x2 element-wise.
logical_xor(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 XOR x2, element-wise.
logical_not(x, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of NOT x element-wise.
Warning: The bit-wise operators & and | are the proper way to perform element-by-element array comparisons.
Be sure you understand the operator precedence: (a > 2) & (a < 5) is the proper syntax because a > 2
& a < 5 will result in an error due to the fact that 2 & a is evaluated first.
maximum(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise maximum of array elements.
Tip: The Python function max() will find the maximum over a one-dimensional array, but it will do so using a
slower sequence interface. The reduce method of the maximum ufunc is much faster. Also, the max() method will
not give answers you might expect for arrays with greater than one dimension. The reduce method of minimum also
allows you to compute a total minimum over an array.
minimum(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise minimum of array elements.
Warning: the behavior of maximum(a, b) is different than that of max(a, b). As a ufunc, maximum(a,
b) performs an element-by-element comparison of a and b and chooses each element of the result according to
which element in the two arrays is larger. In contrast, max(a, b) treats the objects a and b as a whole, looks at
the (total) truth value of a > b and uses it to return either a or b (as a whole). A similar difference exists between
minimum(a, b) and min(a, b).
fmax(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise maximum of array elements.
fmin(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise minimum of array elements.
2.8. Available ufuncs 381

2.8.5 Floating functions
Recall that all of these functions work element-by-element over an array, returning an array output. The description
details only a single operation.
isfinite(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for finiteness (not infinity or not Not a
Number).
isinf(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for positive or negative infinity.
isnan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for NaN and return result as a boolean
array.
isnat(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for NaT (not a time) and return result as
a boolean array.
signbit(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Returns element-wise True where signbit is set (less than
zero).
copysign(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Change the sign of x1 to that of x2, element-wise.
nextafter(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the next floating-point value after x1 towards x2,
element-wise.
spacing(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the distance between x and the nearest adjacent
number.
modf(x[, out1, out2], / [[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the fractional and integral parts of an array, element-
wise.
ldexp(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Returns x1 * 2**x2, element-wise.
frexp(x[, out1, out2], / [[, out, where, . . . ]) Decompose the elements of x into mantissa and twos expo-
nent.
floor(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the floor of the input, element-wise.
ceil(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the ceiling of the input, element-wise.
trunc(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the truncated value of the input, element-wise.

CHAPTER
THREE
ROUTINES
In this chapter routine docstrings are presented, grouped by functionality. Many docstrings contain example code,
which demonstrates basic usage of the routine. The examples assume that NumPy is imported with:
A convenient way to execute examples is the %doctest_mode mode of IPython, which allows for pasting of multi-
line examples and preserves indentation.
3.1 Array creation routines
See also:
Array creation
3.1.1 Ones and zeros
empty(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, without initial-
izing entries.
empty_like(a[, dtype, order, subok]) Return a new array with the same shape and type as a given
array.
eye(N[, M, k, dtype, order]) Return a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros
elsewhere.
identity(n[, dtype]) Return the identity array.
ones(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with
ones.
ones_like(a[, dtype, order, subok]) Return an array of ones with the same shape and type as a
given array.
zeros(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with ze-
ros.
zeros_like(a[, dtype, order, subok]) Return an array of zeros with the same shape and type as a
given array.
full(shape, fill_value[, dtype, order]) Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with
fill_value.
full_like(a, fill_value[, dtype, order, subok]) Return a full array with the same shape and type as a given
array.
numpy.empty(shape, dtype=float, order=’C’)

Return a new array of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
383

Shape of the empty array
Desired output data-type.
(Fortran-style) order in memory.
Array of uninitialized (arbitrary) data of the given shape, dtype, and order. Object arrays
will be initialized to None.
See also:
empty_like, zeros, ones
Notes
empty, unlike zeros, does not set the array values to zero, and may therefore be marginally faster. On the
other hand, it requires the user to manually set all the values in the array, and should be used with caution.
Examples
>>> np.empty([2, 2])

array([[ -9.74499359e+001, 6.69583040e-309],
[ 2.13182611e-314, 3.06959433e-309]]) #random
>>> np.empty([2, 2], dtype=int)

array([[-1073741821, -1067949133],
[ 496041986, 19249760]]) #random
numpy.empty_like(a, dtype=None, order=’K’, subok=True)

Return a new array with the same shape and type as a given array.
as closely as possible.
384 Chapter 3. Routines

Array of uninitialized (arbitrary) data with the same shape and type as a.
See also:

Notes
This function does not initialize the returned array; to do that use zeros_like or ones_like instead. It
may be marginally faster than the functions that do set the array values.
Examples
>>> a = ([1,2,3], [4,5,6]) # a is array-like

array([[-1073741821, -1073741821, 3], #random
[ 0, 0, -1073741821]])
>>> a = np.array([[1., 2., 3.],[4.,5.,6.]])
array([[ -2.00000715e+000, 1.48219694e-323, -2.00000572e+000],#random
[ 4.38791518e-305, -2.00000715e+000, 4.17269252e-309]])
numpy.eye(N, M=None, k=0, dtype=<class ’float’>, order=’C’)

Return a 2-D array with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters N : int
Number of rows in the output.
M : int, optional
Number of columns in the output. If None, defaults to N.
k : int, optional
Index of the diagonal: 0 (the default) refers to the main diagonal, a positive value refers
to an upper diagonal, and a negative value to a lower diagonal.
Data-type of the returned array.
Whether the output should be stored in row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-
style) order in memory.
3.1. Array creation routines 385

Returns I : ndarray of shape (N,M)

An array where all elements are equal to zero, except for the k-th diagonal, whose values
are equal to one.
See also:
identity (almost) equivalent function

diag diagonal 2-D array from a 1-D array specified by the user.
Examples
>>> np.eye(2, dtype=int)

array([[1, 0],
[0, 1]])
>>> np.eye(3, k=1)
array([[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
numpy.identity(n, dtype=None)
Return the identity array.
The identity array is a square array with ones on the main diagonal.
Parameters n : int
Number of rows (and columns) in n x n output.
n x n array with its main diagonal set to one, and all other elements 0.
Examples
>>> np.identity(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=’C’)

Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with ones.


Array of ones with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:
zeros, ones_like
Examples
>>> np.ones(5)
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> np.ones((5,), dtype=int)

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.ones((2, 1))

array([[ 1.],
[ 1.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.ones(s)
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.ones_like(a, dtype=None, order=’K’, subok=True)

Return an array of ones with the same shape and type as a given array.
means ‘F’ if a is Fortran contiguous, ‘C’ otherwise. ‘K’ means match the layout of a as
closely as possible.
Array of ones with the same shape and type as a.
See also:



Examples
>>> x = x.reshape((2, 3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.ones_like(x)
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> y = np.arange(3, dtype=float)

>>> y
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.ones_like(y)
array([ 1., 1., 1.])
numpy.zeros(shape, dtype=float, order=’C’)

Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
Array of zeros with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:

Examples
>>> np.zeros(5)
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.])

>>> np.zeros((5,), dtype=int)

array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
>>> np.zeros((2, 1))

array([[ 0.],
[ 0.]])
>>> s = (2,2)
>>> np.zeros(s)
array([[ 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0.]])
>>> np.zeros((2,), dtype=[('x', 'i4'), ('y', 'i4')]) # custom dtype

array([(0, 0), (0, 0)],
dtype=[('x', '<i4'), ('y', '<i4')])
numpy.zeros_like(a, dtype=None, order=’K’, subok=True)

Return an array of zeros with the same shape and type as a given array.
Array of zeros with the same shape and type as a.
See also:


Examples
>>> x = x.reshape((2, 3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.zeros_like(x)
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y = np.arange(3, dtype=float)

>>> y
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.zeros_like(y)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
numpy.full(shape, fill_value, dtype=None, order=’C’)

Return a new array of given shape and type, filled with fill_value.
fill_value : scalar
Fill value.
The desired data-type for the array The default, None, means
np.array(fill_value).dtype.
Array of fill_value with the given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:

full_like Fill an array with shape and type of input.

Examples
>>> np.full((2, 2), np.inf)

array([[ inf, inf],
[ inf, inf]])
>>> np.full((2, 2), 10)
array([[10, 10],
[10, 10]])
numpy.full_like(a, fill_value, dtype=None, order=’K’, subok=True)

Return a full array with the same shape and type as a given array.
fill_value : scalar
Fill value.
Array of fill_value with the same shape and type as a.
See also:

full Fill a new array.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(6, dtype=int)

>>> np.full_like(x, 1)
array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.full_like(x, 0.1)
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])

>>> np.full_like(x, 0.1, dtype=np.double)

array([ 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1])
>>> np.full_like(x, np.nan, dtype=np.double)
array([ nan, nan, nan, nan, nan, nan])
>>> y = np.arange(6, dtype=np.double)

>>> np.full_like(y, 0.1)
array([ 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1, 0.1])
3.1.2 From existing data
array(object[, dtype, copy, order, subok, ndmin]) Create an array.

asarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to an array.
asanyarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to an ndarray, but pass ndarray subclasses
through.
ascontiguousarray(a[, dtype]) Return a contiguous array in memory (C order).
copy(a[, order]) Return an array copy of the given object.
frombuffer(buffer[, dtype, count, offset]) Interpret a buffer as a 1-dimensional array.
fromfile(file[, dtype, count, sep]) Construct an array from data in a text or binary file.
fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs) Construct an array by executing a function over each coor-
dinate.
fromiter(iterable, dtype[, count]) Create a new 1-dimensional array from an iterable object.
fromstring(string[, dtype, count, sep]) A new 1-D array initialized from text data in a string.
loadtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, delimiter, . . . ]) Load data from a text file.
numpy.array(object, dtype=None, copy=True, order=’K’, subok=False, ndmin=0)

Create an array.
Parameters object : array_like
An array, any object exposing the array interface, an object whose __array__ method
returns an array, or any (nested) sequence.
The desired data-type for the array. If not given, then the type will be determined as the
minimum type required to hold the objects in the sequence. This argument can only be
used to ‘upcast’ the array. For downcasting, use the .astype(t) method.
If true (default), then the object is copied. Otherwise, a copy will only be made if
__array__ returns a copy, if obj is a nested sequence, or if a copy is needed to satisfy
any of the other requirements (dtype, order, etc.).
order : {‘K’, ‘A’, ‘C’, ‘F’}, optional
Specify the memory layout of the array. If object is not an array, the newly created array
will be in C order (row major) unless ‘F’ is specified, in which case it will be in Fortran
order (column major). If object is an array the following holds.

order no copy copy=True

‘K’ unchanged F & C order preserved, otherwise most similar order
‘A’ unchanged F order if input is F and not C, otherwise C order
‘C’ C order C order
‘F’ F order F order
When copy=False and a copy is made for other reasons, the result is the same as if
copy=True, with some exceptions for A, see the Notes section. The default order is
‘K’.
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through, otherwise the returned array will be
forced to be a base-class array (default).
Specifies the minimum number of dimensions that the resulting array should have. Ones
will be pre-pended to the shape as needed to meet this requirement.
An array object satisfying the specified requirements.
See also:
empty, empty_like, zeros, zeros_like, ones, ones_like, full, full_like
Notes
When order is ‘A’ and object is an array in neither ‘C’ nor ‘F’ order, and a copy is forced by a change in
dtype, then the order of the result is not necessarily ‘C’ as expected. This is likely a bug.
Examples
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3])

array([1, 2, 3])
Upcasting:
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3.0])

array([ 1., 2., 3.])
More than one dimension:
>>> np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
Minimum dimensions 2:
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3], ndmin=2)

array([[1, 2, 3]])
Type provided:

>>> np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=complex)

array([ 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 3.+0.j])
Data-type consisting of more than one element:
>>> x = np.array([(1,2),(3,4)],dtype=[('a','<i4'),('b','<i4')])
>>> x['a']
array([1, 3])
Creating an array from sub-classes:
>>> np.array(np.mat('1 2; 3 4'))

array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.array(np.mat('1 2; 3 4'), subok=True)

matrix([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
numpy.asarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Convert the input to an array.
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes lists, lists of
tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists and ndarrays.
Whether to use row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-style) memory represen-
tation. Defaults to ‘C’.
Array interpretation of a. No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray with
matching dtype and order. If a is a subclass of ndarray, a base class ndarray is returned.
See also:
asanyarray Similar function which passes through subclasses.

ascontiguousarray Convert input to a contiguous array.
asfarray Convert input to a floating point ndarray.
asfortranarray Convert input to an ndarray with column-major memory order.
asarray_chkfinite Similar function which checks input for NaNs and Infs.
fromiter Create an array from an iterator.
fromfunction Construct an array by executing a function on grid positions.
Examples
Convert a list into an array:

>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asarray(a)
array([1, 2])
Existing arrays are not copied:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> np.asarray(a) is a
True
If dtype is set, array is copied only if dtype does not match:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.float32)

>>> np.asarray(a, dtype=np.float32) is a
True
>>> np.asarray(a, dtype=np.float64) is a
False
Contrary to asanyarray, ndarray subclasses are not passed through:
>>> issubclass(np.matrix, np.ndarray)

True
>>> a = np.matrix([[1, 2]])
>>> np.asarray(a) is a
False
>>> np.asanyarray(a) is a
True
numpy.asanyarray(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Convert the input to an ndarray, but pass ndarray subclasses through.
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes scalars, lists,
lists of tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists, and ndarrays.
Returns out : ndarray or an ndarray subclass
Array interpretation of a. If a is an ndarray or a subclass of ndarray, it is returned as-is
and no copy is performed.
See also:
asarray Similar function which always returns ndarrays.

asarray_chkfinite Similar function which checks input for NaNs and Infs.


Examples
Convert a list into an array:
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asanyarray(a)
array([1, 2])
Instances of ndarray subclasses are passed through as-is:
>>> a = np.matrix([1, 2])

>>> np.asanyarray(a) is a
True
numpy.ascontiguousarray(a, dtype=None)
Return a contiguous array in memory (C order).
Input array.
dtype : str or dtype object, optional
Data-type of returned array.
Contiguous array of same shape and content as a, with type dtype if specified.
See also:

require Return an ndarray that satisfies requirements.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> np.ascontiguousarray(x, dtype=np.float32)
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.]], dtype=float32)
>>> x.flags['C_CONTIGUOUS']
True
numpy.copy(a, order=’K’)
Return an array copy of the given object.
Input data.

closely as possible. (Note that this function and ndarray.copy are very similar, but
Returns arr : ndarray
Array interpretation of a.
Notes
This is equivalent to:
>>> np.array(a, copy=True)
Examples
Create an array x, with a reference y and a copy z:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> y = x
>>> z = np.copy(x)
Note that, when we modify x, y changes, but not z:
>>> x[0] = 10
>>> x[0] == y[0]
True
>>> x[0] == z[0]
False
numpy.frombuffer(buffer, dtype=float, count=-1, offset=0)

Interpret a buffer as a 1-dimensional array.
Parameters buffer : buffer_like
An object that exposes the buffer interface.
Data-type of the returned array; default: float.
Number of items to read. -1 means all data in the buffer.
Start reading the buffer from this offset (in bytes); default: 0.
Notes
If the buffer has data that is not in machine byte-order, this should be specified as part of the data-type, e.g.:
>>> dt = np.dtype(int)
>>> dt = dt.newbyteorder('>')
>>> np.frombuffer(buf, dtype=dt)

The data of the resulting array will not be byteswapped, but will be interpreted correctly.
Examples
>>> s = 'hello world'

>>> np.frombuffer(s, dtype='S1', count=5, offset=6)
array(['w', 'o', 'r', 'l', 'd'],
dtype='|S1')
>>> np.frombuffer(b'\x01\x02', dtype=np.uint8)

array([1, 2], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.frombuffer(b'\x01\x02\x03\x04\x05', dtype=np.uint8, count=3)
array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)
numpy.fromfile(file, dtype=float, count=-1, sep=”)

Construct an array from data in a text or binary file.
A highly efficient way of reading binary data with a known data-type, as well as parsing simply formatted text
files. Data written using the tofile method can be read using this function.
Parameters file : file or str
Open file object or filename.
dtype : data-type
Data type of the returned array. For binary files, it is used to determine the size and
byte-order of the items in the file.
count : int
Number of items to read. -1 means all items (i.e., the complete file).
sep : str
Separator between items if file is a text file. Empty (“”) separator means the file should
be treated as binary. Spaces (” “) in the separator match zero or more whitespace char-
acters. A separator consisting only of spaces must match at least one whitespace.
See also:
load, save, ndarray.tofile
loadtxt More flexible way of loading data from a text file.
Notes
Do not rely on the combination of tofile and fromfile for data storage, as the binary files generated are are
not platform independent. In particular, no byte-order or data-type information is saved. Data can be stored in
the platform independent .npy format using save and load instead.
Examples
Construct an ndarray:

>>> dt = np.dtype([('time', [('min', int), ('sec', int)]),

... ('temp', float)])
>>> x = np.zeros((1,), dtype=dt)
>>> x['time']['min'] = 10; x['temp'] = 98.25
>>> x
array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
dtype=[('time', [('min', '<i4'), ('sec', '<i4')]), ('temp', '<f8')])
Save the raw data to disk:
>>> import os
>>> fname = os.tmpnam()
>>> x.tofile(fname)
Read the raw data from disk:
>>> np.fromfile(fname, dtype=dt)

array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
The recommended way to store and load data:
>>> np.save(fname, x)
>>> np.load(fname + '.npy')
array([((10, 0), 98.25)],
numpy.fromfunction(function, shape, **kwargs)

Construct an array by executing a function over each coordinate.
The resulting array therefore has a value fn(x, y, z) at coordinate (x, y, z).
Parameters function : callable
The function is called with N parameters, where N is the rank of shape. Each pa-
rameter represents the coordinates of the array varying along a specific axis. For exam-
ple, if shape were (2, 2), then the parameters would be array([[0, 0], [1,
1]]) and array([[0, 1], [0, 1]])
shape : (N,) tuple of ints
Shape of the output array, which also determines the shape of the coordinate arrays
passed to function.
Data-type of the coordinate arrays passed to function. By default, dtype is float.
Returns fromfunction : any
The result of the call to function is passed back directly. Therefore the shape of
fromfunction is completely determined by function. If function returns a scalar
value, the shape of fromfunction would match the shape parameter.
See also:
indices, meshgrid

Notes
Keywords other than dtype are passed to function.
Examples
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i == j, (3, 3), dtype=int)

array([[ True, False, False],
[False, True, False],
[False, False, True]])
>>> np.fromfunction(lambda i, j: i + j, (3, 3), dtype=int)

array([[0, 1, 2],
[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
numpy.fromiter(iterable, dtype, count=-1)

Create a new 1-dimensional array from an iterable object.
Parameters iterable : iterable object
An iterable object providing data for the array.
dtype : data-type
The data-type of the returned array.
The number of items to read from iterable. The default is -1, which means all data is
read.
The output array.
Notes
Specify count to improve performance. It allows fromiter to pre-allocate the output array, instead of resizing
it on demand.
Examples
>>> iterable = (x*x for x in range(5))

>>> np.fromiter(iterable, float)
array([ 0., 1., 4., 9., 16.])
numpy.fromstring(string, dtype=float, count=-1, sep=”)

A new 1-D array initialized from text data in a string.
Parameters string : str
A string containing the data.

The data type of the array; default: float. For binary input data, the data must be in
exactly this format.
Read this number of dtype elements from the data. If this is negative (the default), the
count will be determined from the length of the data.
sep : str, optional
The string separating numbers in the data; extra whitespace between elements is also
ignored.
Deprecated since version 1.14: If this argument is not provided, fromstring falls
back on the behaviour of frombuffer after encoding unicode string inputs as either
utf-8 (python 3), or the default encoding (python 2).
Returns arr : ndarray
The constructed array.
Raises ValueError
If the string is not the correct size to satisfy the requested dtype and count.
See also:
frombuffer, fromfile, fromiter
Examples
>>> np.fromstring('1 2', dtype=int, sep=' ')

array([1, 2])
>>> np.fromstring('1, 2', dtype=int, sep=',')
array([1, 2])
numpy.loadtxt(fname, dtype=<class ’float’>, comments=’#’, delimiter=None, converters=None,

skiprows=0, usecols=None, unpack=False, ndmin=0, encoding=’bytes’)
Load data from a text file.
Each row in the text file must have the same number of values.
Parameters fname : file, str, or pathlib.Path
File, filename, or generator to read. If the filename extension is .gz or .bz2, the file
is first decompressed. Note that generators should return byte strings for Python 3k.
Data-type of the resulting array; default: float. If this is a structured data-type, the
resulting array will be 1-dimensional, and each row will be interpreted as an element of
the array. In this case, the number of columns used must match the number of fields in
the data-type.
comments : str or sequence of str, optional
The characters or list of characters used to indicate the start of a comment. For back-
wards compatibility, byte strings will be decoded as ‘latin1’. The default is ‘#’.
delimiter : str, optional
The string used to separate values. For backwards compatibility, byte strings will be
decoded as ‘latin1’. The default is whitespace.

converters : dict, optional

A dictionary mapping column number to a function that will convert that col-
umn to a float. E.g., if column 0 is a date string: converters = {0:
datestr2num}. Converters can also be used to provide a default value for
missing data (but see also genfromtxt): converters = {3: lambda s:
float(s.strip() or 0)}. Default: None.
skiprows : int, optional
Skip the first skiprows lines; default: 0.
usecols : int or sequence, optional
Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1,4,5) will
extract the 2nd, 5th and 6th columns. The default, None, results in all columns being
read.
Changed in version 1.11.0: When a single column has to be read it is possible to use an
integer instead of a tuple. E.g usecols = 3 reads the fourth column the same way
as usecols = (3,)‘ would.
unpack : bool, optional
If True, the returned array is transposed, so that arguments may be unpacked using
x, y, z = loadtxt(...). When used with a structured data-type, arrays are
returned for each field. Default is False.
The returned array will have at least ndmin dimensions. Otherwise mono-dimensional
axes will be squeezed. Legal values: 0 (default), 1 or 2.
encoding : str, optional
Encoding used to decode the inputfile. Does not apply to input streams. The spe-
cial value ‘bytes’ enables backward compatibility workarounds that ensures you receive
byte arrays as results if possible and passes latin1 encoded strings to converters. Over-
ride this value to receive unicode arrays and pass strings as input to converters. If set to
None the system default is used. The default value is ‘bytes’.
Data read from the text file.
See also:
load, fromstring, fromregex
genfromtxt Load data with missing values handled as specified.
scipy.io.loadmat reads MATLAB data files
Notes
This function aims to be a fast reader for simply formatted files. The genfromtxt function provides more
sophisticated handling of, e.g., lines with missing values.

The strings produced by the Python float.hex method can be used as input for floats.
Examples
>>> from io import StringIO # StringIO behaves like a file object

>>> c = StringIO("0 1\n2 3")
>>> np.loadtxt(c)
array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]])
>>> d = StringIO("M 21 72\nF 35 58")

>>> np.loadtxt(d, dtype={'names': ('gender', 'age', 'weight'),
... 'formats': ('S1', 'i4', 'f4')})
array([('M', 21, 72.0), ('F', 35, 58.0)],
dtype=[('gender', '|S1'), ('age', '<i4'), ('weight', '<f4')])
>>> c = StringIO("1,0,2\n3,0,4")
>>> x, y = np.loadtxt(c, delimiter=',', usecols=(0, 2), unpack=True)
>>> x
array([ 1., 3.])
>>> y
array([ 2., 4.])
3.1.3 Creating record arrays (numpy.rec)
Note: numpy.rec is the preferred alias for numpy.core.records.
core.records.array(obj[, dtype, shape, . . . ]) Construct a record array from a wide-variety of objects.

core.records.fromarrays(arrayList[, dtype, . . . ]) create a record array from a (flat) list of arrays
core.records.fromrecords(recList[, dtype, . . . ]) create a recarray from a list of records in text form
core.records.fromstring(datastring[, dtype, . . . ]) create a (read-only) record array from binary data con-
tained in
core.records.fromfile(fd[, dtype, shape, . . . ]) Create an array from binary file data
numpy.core.records.array(obj, dtype=None, shape=None, offset=0, strides=None, formats=None,

names=None, titles=None, aligned=False, byteorder=None, copy=True)
Construct a record array from a wide-variety of objects.
numpy.core.records.fromarrays(arrayList, dtype=None, shape=None, formats=None,
names=None, titles=None, aligned=False, byteorder=None)
create a record array from a (flat) list of arrays
>>> x1=np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> x2=np.array(['a','dd','xyz','12'])
>>> x3=np.array([1.1,2,3,4])
>>> r = np.core.records.fromarrays([x1,x2,x3],names='a,b,c')
>>> print(r[1])
(2, 'dd', 2.0)
>>> x1[1]=34
>>> r.a
array([1, 2, 3, 4])

numpy.core.records.fromrecords(recList, dtype=None, shape=None, formats=None,

create a recarray from a list of records in text form
The data in the same field can be heterogeneous, they will be promoted to the highest data type. This
method is intended for creating smaller record arrays. If used to create large array without formats
defined
r=fromrecords([(2,3.,’abc’)]*100000)
it can be slow.
If formats is None, then this will auto-detect formats. Use list of tuples rather than list of lists for
faster processing.
>>> r=np.core.records.fromrecords([(456,'dbe',1.2),(2,'de',1.3)],
... names='col1,col2,col3')
>>> print(r[0])
(456, 'dbe', 1.2)
>>> r.col1
array([456, 2])
>>> r.col2
array(['dbe', 'de'],
dtype='|S3')
>>> import pickle
>>> print(pickle.loads(pickle.dumps(r)))
[(456, 'dbe', 1.2) (2, 'de', 1.3)]
numpy.core.records.fromstring(datastring, dtype=None, shape=None, offset=0, formats=None,

create a (read-only) record array from binary data contained in a string
numpy.core.records.fromfile(fd, dtype=None, shape=None, offset=0, formats=None,
Create an array from binary file data
If file is a string then that file is opened, else it is assumed to be a file object. The file object must support random
access (i.e. it must have tell and seek methods).
>>> from tempfile import TemporaryFile

>>> a = np.empty(10,dtype='f8,i4,a5')
>>> a[5] = (0.5,10,'abcde')
>>>
>>> fd=TemporaryFile()
>>> a = a.newbyteorder('<')
>>> a.tofile(fd)
>>>
>>> fd.seek(0)
>>> r=np.core.records.fromfile(fd, formats='f8,i4,a5', shape=10,
... byteorder='<')
>>> print(r[5])
(0.5, 10, 'abcde')
>>> r.shape
(10,)
3.1.4 Creating character arrays (numpy.char)

Note: numpy.char is the preferred alias for numpy.core.defchararray.
core.defchararray.array(obj[, itemsize, . . . ]) Create a chararray.

core.defchararray.asarray(obj[, itemsize, . . . ]) Convert the input to a chararray, copying the data only
if necessary.
numpy.core.defchararray.asarray(obj, itemsize=None, unicode=None, order=None)

Convert the input to a chararray, copying the data only if necessary.
3. vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. str.endswith) and infix operators (e.g. +,
*,‘‘%‘‘)
Parameters obj : array of str or unicode-like

itemsize is the number of characters per scalar in the resulting array. If itemsize is
None, and obj is an object array or a Python list, the itemsize will be automatically
determined. If itemsize is provided and obj is of type str or unicode, then the obj string
will be chunked into itemsize pieces.
When true, the resulting chararray can contain Unicode characters, when false only
8-bit characters. If unicode is None and obj is one of the following:
• a chararray,
• an ndarray of type str or ‘unicode‘
• a Python str or unicode object,
then the unicode setting of the output array will be automatically determined.
Specify the order of the array. If order is ‘C’ (default), then the array will be in C-
contiguous order (last-index varies the fastest). If order is ‘F’, then the returned array
will be in Fortran-contiguous order (first-index varies the fastest).
3.1.5 Numerical ranges
arange([start,] stop[, step,][, dtype]) Return evenly spaced values within a given interval.
linspace(start, stop[, num, endpoint, . . . ]) Return evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.
logspace(start, stop[, num, endpoint, base, . . . ]) Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale.
geomspace(start, stop[, num, endpoint, dtype]) Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale (a geometric
progression).
meshgrid(*xi, **kwargs) Return coordinate matrices from coordinate vectors.
mgrid nd_grid instance which returns a dense multi-dimensional
“meshgrid”.


ogrid nd_grid instance which returns an open multi-dimensional
“meshgrid”.
numpy.arange([start ], stop[, step ], dtype=None)

Return evenly spaced values within a given interval.
Values are generated within the half-open interval [start, stop) (in other words, the interval including
start but excluding stop). For integer arguments the function is equivalent to the Python built-in range function,
but returns an ndarray rather than a list.
When using a non-integer step, such as 0.1, the results will often not be consistent. It is better to use linspace
for these cases.
Parameters start : number, optional
Start of interval. The interval includes this value. The default start value is 0.
stop : number
End of interval. The interval does not include this value, except in some cases where
step is not an integer and floating point round-off affects the length of out.
step : number, optional
Spacing between values. For any output out, this is the distance between two adjacent
values, out[i+1] - out[i]. The default step size is 1. If step is specified as a
position argument, start must also be given.
dtype : dtype
input arguments.
Returns arange : ndarray
Array of evenly spaced values.
For floating point arguments, the length of the result is ceil((stop - start)/
step). Because of floating point overflow, this rule may result in the last element of
out being greater than stop.
See also:
linspace Evenly spaced numbers with careful handling of endpoints.

ogrid Arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.
mgrid Grid-shaped arrays of evenly spaced numbers in N-dimensions.
Examples
>>> np.arange(3)
array([0, 1, 2])
>>> np.arange(3.0)
array([ 0., 1., 2.])
>>> np.arange(3,7)
array([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.arange(3,7,2)
array([3, 5])

numpy.linspace(start, stop, num=50, endpoint=True, retstep=False, dtype=None)

Return evenly spaced numbers over a specified interval.
Returns num evenly spaced samples, calculated over the interval [start, stop].
The endpoint of the interval can optionally be excluded.
Parameters start : scalar
The starting value of the sequence.
stop : scalar
The end value of the sequence, unless endpoint is set to False. In that case, the sequence
consists of all but the last of num + 1 evenly spaced samples, so that stop is excluded.
Note that the step size changes when endpoint is False.
num : int, optional
Number of samples to generate. Default is 50. Must be non-negative.
endpoint : bool, optional
If True, stop is the last sample. Otherwise, it is not included. Default is True.
retstep : bool, optional
If True, return (samples, step), where step is the spacing between samples.
input arguments.
Returns samples : ndarray
There are num equally spaced samples in the closed interval [start, stop] or
the half-open interval [start, stop) (depending on whether endpoint is True or
False).
step : float, optional
Only returned if retstep is True
Size of spacing between samples.
See also:
arange Similar to linspace, but uses a step size (instead of the number of samples).
logspace Samples uniformly distributed in log space.
Examples
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5)

array([ 2. , 2.25, 2.5 , 2.75, 3. ])
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5, endpoint=False)
array([ 2. , 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8])
>>> np.linspace(2.0, 3.0, num=5, retstep=True)
(array([ 2. , 2.25, 2.5 , 2.75, 3. ]), 0.25)
Graphical illustration:


>>> N = 8
>>> y = np.zeros(N)
>>> x1 = np.linspace(0, 10, N, endpoint=True)
>>> x2 = np.linspace(0, 10, N, endpoint=False)
>>> plt.plot(x1, y, 'o')
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>]
>>> plt.plot(x2, y + 0.5, 'o')
>>> plt.ylim([-0.5, 1])
(-0.5, 1)
>>> plt.show()
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numpy.logspace(start, stop, num=50, endpoint=True, base=10.0, dtype=None)

Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale.
In linear space, the sequence starts at base ** start (base to the power of start) and ends with base **
stop (see endpoint below).
Parameters start : float
base ** start is the starting value of the sequence.
stop : float
base ** stop is the final value of the sequence, unless endpoint is False. In that
case, num + 1 values are spaced over the interval in log-space, of which all but the
last (a sequence of length num) are returned.
num : integer, optional
Number of samples to generate. Default is 50.
endpoint : boolean, optional
If true, stop is the last sample. Otherwise, it is not included. Default is True.
base : float, optional
The base of the log space. The step size between the elements in ln(samples) /
ln(base) (or log_base(samples)) is uniform. Default is 10.0.

dtype : dtype
input arguments.
num samples, equally spaced on a log scale.
See also:
arange Similar to linspace, with the step size specified instead of the number of samples. Note that, when
used with a float endpoint, the endpoint may or may not be included.
linspace Similar to logspace, but with the samples uniformly distributed in linear space, instead of log space.
geomspace Similar to logspace, but with endpoints specified directly.
Notes
Logspace is equivalent to the code
>>> y = np.linspace(start, stop, num=num, endpoint=endpoint)

...
>>> power(base, y).astype(dtype)
...
Examples
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4)

array([ 100. , 215.443469 , 464.15888336, 1000. ])
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4, endpoint=False)
array([ 100. , 177.827941 , 316.22776602, 562.34132519])
>>> np.logspace(2.0, 3.0, num=4, base=2.0)
array([ 4. , 5.0396842 , 6.34960421, 8. ])
Graphical illustration:

>>> N = 10
>>> x1 = np.logspace(0.1, 1, N, endpoint=True)
>>> x2 = np.logspace(0.1, 1, N, endpoint=False)
>>> y = np.zeros(N)
>>> plt.plot(x1, y, 'o')
>>> plt.plot(x2, y + 0.5, 'o')
>>> plt.ylim([-0.5, 1])
(-0.5, 1)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.geomspace(start, stop, num=50, endpoint=True, dtype=None)

Return numbers spaced evenly on a log scale (a geometric progression).
This is similar to logspace, but with endpoints specified directly. Each output sample is a constant multiple
of the previous.

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
2 4 6 8 10
Parameters start : scalar

The starting value of the sequence.
stop : scalar
The final value of the sequence, unless endpoint is False. In that case, num + 1 values
are spaced over the interval in log-space, of which all but the last (a sequence of length
num) are returned.
num : integer, optional
Number of samples to generate. Default is 50.
endpoint : boolean, optional
If true, stop is the last sample. Otherwise, it is not included. Default is True.
dtype : dtype
input arguments.
num samples, equally spaced on a log scale.
See also:
logspace Similar to geomspace, but with endpoints specified using log and base.
linspace Similar to geomspace, but with arithmetic instead of geometric progression.
arange Similar to linspace, with the step size specified instead of the number of samples.
Notes
If the inputs or dtype are complex, the output will follow a logarithmic spiral in the complex plane. (There are
an infinite number of spirals passing through two points; the output will follow the shortest such path.)

Examples
>>> np.geomspace(1, 1000, num=4)

array([ 1., 10., 100., 1000.])
>>> np.geomspace(1, 1000, num=3, endpoint=False)
array([ 1., 10., 100.])
>>> np.geomspace(1, 1000, num=4, endpoint=False)
array([ 1. , 5.62341325, 31.6227766 , 177.827941 ])
array([ 1., 2., 4., 8., 16., 32., 64., 128., 256.])
Note that the above may not produce exact integers:
>>> np.geomspace(1, 256, num=9, dtype=int)

array([ 1, 2, 4, 7, 16, 32, 63, 127, 256])
>>> np.around(np.geomspace(1, 256, num=9)).astype(int)
array([ 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256])
Negative, decreasing, and complex inputs are allowed:

array([ 1000., 100., 10., 1.])
>>> np.geomspace(-1000, -1, num=4)
array([-1000., -100., -10., -1.])
>>> np.geomspace(1j, 1000j, num=4) # Straight line
array([ 0. +1.j, 0. +10.j, 0. +100.j, 0.+1000.j])
>>> np.geomspace(-1+0j, 1+0j, num=5) # Circle
array([-1.00000000+0.j , -0.70710678+0.70710678j,
0.00000000+1.j , 0.70710678+0.70710678j,
1.00000000+0.j ])
Graphical illustration of endpoint parameter:

>>> N = 10
>>> y = np.zeros(N)
>>> plt.semilogx(np.geomspace(1, 1000, N, endpoint=True), y + 1, 'o')
>>> plt.semilogx(np.geomspace(1, 1000, N, endpoint=False), y + 2, 'o')
>>> plt.axis([0.5, 2000, 0, 3])
>>> plt.grid(True, color='0.7', linestyle='-', which='both', axis='both')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.meshgrid(*xi, **kwargs)
Return coordinate matrices from coordinate vectors.
Make N-D coordinate arrays for vectorized evaluations of N-D scalar/vector fields over N-D grids, given one-
dimensional coordinate arrays x1, x2,. . . , xn.
Changed in version 1.9: 1-D and 0-D cases are allowed.
Parameters x1, x2,. . . , xn : array_like
1-D arrays representing the coordinates of a grid.
indexing : {‘xy’, ‘ij’}, optional
Cartesian (‘xy’, default) or matrix (‘ij’) indexing of output. See Notes for more details.

3.0
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2.0
1.5
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0.5
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100 101 102 103
sparse : bool, optional

If True a sparse grid is returned in order to conserve memory. Default is False.
If False, a view into the original arrays are returned in order to conserve memory. De-
fault is True. Please note that sparse=False, copy=False will likely return
non-contiguous arrays. Furthermore, more than one element of a broadcast array may
refer to a single memory location. If you need to write to the arrays, make copies first.
Returns X1, X2,. . . , XN : ndarray
For vectors x1, x2,. . . , ‘xn’ with lengths Ni=len(xi) , return (N1, N2, N3,.
..Nn) shaped arrays if indexing=’ij’ or (N2, N1, N3,...Nn) shaped arrays if
indexing=’xy’ with the elements of xi repeated to fill the matrix along the first dimension
for x1, the second for x2 and so on.
See also:
index_tricks.mgrid Construct a multi-dimensional “meshgrid” using indexing notation.

index_tricks.ogrid Construct an open multi-dimensional “meshgrid” using indexing notation.
Notes
This function supports both indexing conventions through the indexing keyword argument. Giving the string ‘ij’
returns a meshgrid with matrix indexing, while ‘xy’ returns a meshgrid with Cartesian indexing. In the 2-D case
with inputs of length M and N, the outputs are of shape (N, M) for ‘xy’ indexing and (M, N) for ‘ij’ indexing.
In the 3-D case with inputs of length M, N and P, outputs are of shape (N, M, P) for ‘xy’ indexing and (M, N, P)
for ‘ij’ indexing. The difference is illustrated by the following code snippet:
xv, yv = np.meshgrid(x, y, sparse=False, indexing='ij')

for i in range(nx):

for j in range(ny):
# treat xv[i,j], yv[i,j]
xv, yv = np.meshgrid(x, y, sparse=False, indexing='xy')

for i in range(nx):
for j in range(ny):
# treat xv[j,i], yv[j,i]
In the 1-D and 0-D case, the indexing and sparse keywords have no effect.
Examples
>>> nx, ny = (3, 2)

>>> x = np.linspace(0, 1, nx)
>>> y = np.linspace(0, 1, ny)
>>> xv, yv = np.meshgrid(x, y)
>>> xv
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ],
[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ]])
>>> yv
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 1.]])
>>> xv, yv = np.meshgrid(x, y, sparse=True) # make sparse output arrays
>>> xv
array([[ 0. , 0.5, 1. ]])
>>> yv
array([[ 0.],
[ 1.]])
meshgrid is very useful to evaluate functions on a grid.
>>> x = np.arange(-5, 5, 0.1)

>>> y = np.arange(-5, 5, 0.1)
>>> xx, yy = np.meshgrid(x, y, sparse=True)
>>> z = np.sin(xx**2 + yy**2) / (xx**2 + yy**2)
>>> h = plt.contourf(x,y,z)
numpy.mgrid = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid object>

nd_grid instance which returns a dense multi-dimensional “meshgrid”.
An instance of numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid which returns an dense (or fleshed out) mesh-grid
when indexed, so that each returned argument has the same shape. The dimensions and number of the output
arrays are equal to the number of indexing dimensions. If the step length is not a complex number, then the stop
is not inclusive.
However, if the step length is a complex number (e.g. 5j), then the integer part of its magnitude is interpreted
as specifying the number of points to create between the start and stop values, where the stop value is inclusive.
Returns mesh-grid ndarrays all of the same dimensions
See also:
numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid class of ogrid and mgrid objects

ogrid like mgrid but returns open (not fleshed out) mesh grids
r_ array concatenator

Examples
>>> np.mgrid[0:5,0:5]
array([[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3, 3, 3],
[4, 4, 4, 4, 4]],
[[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]]])
>>> np.mgrid[-1:1:5j]
array([-1. , -0.5, 0. , 0.5, 1. ])
numpy.ogrid = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid object>

nd_grid instance which returns an open multi-dimensional “meshgrid”.
An instance of numpy.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid which returns an open (i.e. not fleshed out) mesh-
grid when indexed, so that only one dimension of each returned array is greater than 1. The dimension and
number of the output arrays are equal to the number of indexing dimensions. If the step length is not a complex
number, then the stop is not inclusive.
However, if the step length is a complex number (e.g. 5j), then the integer part of its magnitude is interpreted
as specifying the number of points to create between the start and stop values, where the stop value is inclusive.
Returns mesh-grid ndarrays with only one dimension ̸= 1
See also:
np.lib.index_tricks.nd_grid class of ogrid and mgrid objects

mgrid like ogrid but returns dense (or fleshed out) mesh grids
r_ array concatenator
Examples
>>> from numpy import ogrid

>>> ogrid[-1:1:5j]
array([-1. , -0.5, 0. , 0.5, 1. ])
>>> ogrid[0:5,0:5]
[array([[0],
[1],
[2],
[3],
[4]]), array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]])]
3.1.6 Building matrices
diag(v[, k]) Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.

diagflat(v[, k]) Create a two-dimensional array with the flattened input as
a diagonal.


tri(N[, M, k, dtype]) An array with ones at and below the given diagonal and
zeros elsewhere.
tril(m[, k]) Lower triangle of an array.
triu(m[, k]) Upper triangle of an array.
vander(x[, N, increasing]) Generate a Vandermonde matrix.
numpy.diag(v, k=0)
Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.
See the more detailed documentation for numpy.diagonal if you use this function to extract a diagonal and
wish to write to the resulting array; whether it returns a copy or a view depends on what version of numpy you
are using.
Parameters v : array_like
If v is a 2-D array, return a copy of its k-th diagonal. If v is a 1-D array, return a 2-D
array with v on the k-th diagonal.
k : int, optional
Diagonal in question. The default is 0. Use k>0 for diagonals above the main diagonal,
and k<0 for diagonals below the main diagonal.
The extracted diagonal or constructed diagonal array.
See also:
diagonal Return specified diagonals.

diagflat Create a 2-D array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
trace Sum along diagonals.
triu Upper triangle of an array.
tril Lower triangle of an array.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(9).reshape((3,3))
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.diag(x)
array([0, 4, 8])
>>> np.diag(x, k=1)
array([1, 5])
>>> np.diag(x, k=-1)
array([3, 7])
>>> np.diag(np.diag(x))
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],
[0, 0, 8]])

numpy.diagflat(v, k=0)
Create a two-dimensional array with the flattened input as a diagonal.
Parameters v : array_like
Input data, which is flattened and set as the k-th diagonal of the output.
k : int, optional
Diagonal to set; 0, the default, corresponds to the “main” diagonal, a positive (negative)
k giving the number of the diagonal above (below) the main.
The 2-D output array.
See also:
diag MATLAB work-alike for 1-D and 2-D arrays.

diagonal Return specified diagonals.
Examples
>>> np.diagflat([[1,2], [3,4]])

array([[1, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 2, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 3, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 4]])
>>> np.diagflat([1,2], 1)
array([[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 2],
[0, 0, 0]])
numpy.tri(N, M=None, k=0, dtype=<class ’float’>)

An array with ones at and below the given diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters N : int
Number of rows in the array.
M : int, optional
Number of columns in the array. By default, M is taken equal to N.
k : int, optional
The sub-diagonal at and below which the array is filled. k = 0 is the main diagonal,
while k < 0 is below it, and k > 0 is above. The default is 0.
Data type of the returned array. The default is float.
Returns tri : ndarray of shape (N, M)
Array with its lower triangle filled with ones and zero elsewhere; in other words T[i,
j] == 1 for i <= j + k, 0 otherwise.

Examples
>>> np.tri(3, 5, 2, dtype=int)

array([[1, 1, 1, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1, 1, 0],
[1, 1, 1, 1, 1]])
>>> np.tri(3, 5, -1)

array([[ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., 0., 0.]])
numpy.tril(m, k=0)
Lower triangle of an array.
Return a copy of an array with elements above the k-th diagonal zeroed.
Parameters m : array_like, shape (M, N)
Input array.
k : int, optional
Diagonal above which to zero elements. k = 0 (the default) is the main diagonal, k < 0
is below it and k > 0 is above.
Returns tril : ndarray, shape (M, N)
Lower triangle of m, of same shape and data-type as m.
See also:
triu same thing, only for the upper triangle
Examples
>>> np.tril([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9],[10,11,12]], -1)

array([[ 0, 0, 0],
[ 4, 0, 0],
[ 7, 8, 0],
[10, 11, 12]])
numpy.triu(m, k=0)
Upper triangle of an array.
Return a copy of a matrix with the elements below the k-th diagonal zeroed.
Please refer to the documentation for tril for further details.
See also:
tril lower triangle of an array
Examples

>>> np.triu([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9],[10,11,12]], -1)

array([[ 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6],
[ 0, 8, 9],
[ 0, 0, 12]])
numpy.vander(x, N=None, increasing=False)

Generate a Vandermonde matrix.
The columns of the output matrix are powers of the input vector. The order of the powers is determined by the
increasing boolean argument. Specifically, when increasing is False, the i-th output column is the input vector
raised element-wise to the power of N - i - 1. Such a matrix with a geometric progression in each row is
named for Alexandre- Theophile Vandermonde.
1-D input array.
N : int, optional
Number of columns in the output. If N is not specified, a square array is returned (N =
len(x)).
increasing : bool, optional
Order of the powers of the columns. If True, the powers increase from left to right, if
False (the default) they are reversed.
Vandermonde matrix. If increasing is False, the first column is x^(N-1), the second
x^(N-2) and so forth. If increasing is True, the columns are x^0, x^1, ...,
x^(N-1).
See also:
polynomial.polynomial.polyvander
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])

>>> N = 3
>>> np.vander(x, N)
array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> np.column_stack([x**(N-1-i) for i in range(N)])

array([[ 1, 1, 1],
[ 4, 2, 1],
[ 9, 3, 1],
[25, 5, 1]])
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 5])

>>> np.vander(x)
array([[ 1, 1, 1, 1],

[ 8, 4, 2, 1],
[ 27, 9, 3, 1],
[125, 25, 5, 1]])
>>> np.vander(x, increasing=True)
array([[ 1, 1, 1, 1],
[ 1, 2, 4, 8],
[ 1, 3, 9, 27],
[ 1, 5, 25, 125]])
The determinant of a square Vandermonde matrix is the product of the differences between the values of the
input vector:
>>> np.linalg.det(np.vander(x))
48.000000000000043
>>> (5-3)*(5-2)*(5-1)*(3-2)*(3-1)*(2-1)
48
3.1.7 The Matrix class
mat(data[, dtype]) Interpret the input as a matrix.

array.
numpy.mat(data, dtype=None)
Interpret the input as a matrix.
Unlike matrix, asmatrix does not make a copy if the input is already a matrix or an ndarray. Equivalent to
matrix(data, copy=False).
Input data.
dtype : data-type
Returns mat : matrix
data interpreted as a matrix.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> m = np.asmatrix(x)
>>> x[0,0] = 5
>>> m
matrix([[5, 2],
[3, 4]])

3.2 Array manipulation routines
3.2.1 Basic operations
copyto(dst, src[, casting, where]) Copies values from one array to another, broadcasting as
necessary.
numpy.copyto(dst, src, casting=’same_kind’, where=True)

Copies values from one array to another, broadcasting as necessary.
Raises a TypeError if the casting rule is violated, and if where is provided, it selects which elements to copy.
Parameters dst : ndarray
The array into which values are copied.
src : array_like
The array from which values are copied.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur when copying.
allowed.
where : array_like of bool, optional
A boolean array which is broadcasted to match the dimensions of dst, and selects ele-
ments to copy from src to dst wherever it contains the value True.
3.2.2 Changing array shape
reshape(a, newshape[, order]) Gives a new shape to an array without changing its data.
ravel(a[, order]) Return a contiguous flattened array.
ndarray.flatten([order]) Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.
numpy.reshape(a, newshape, order=’C’)

Gives a new shape to an array without changing its data.
Array to be reshaped.
newshape : int or tuple of ints
The new shape should be compatible with the original shape. If an integer, then the

result will be a 1-D array of that length. One shape dimension can be -1. In this case,
the value is inferred from the length of the array and remaining dimensions.
Read the elements of a using this index order, and place the elements into the reshaped
array using this index order. ‘C’ means to read / write the elements using C-like index
order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis index changing
slowest. ‘F’ means to read / write the elements using Fortran-like index order, with the
to the order of indexing. ‘A’ means to read / write the elements in Fortran-like index
order if a is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise.
Returns reshaped_array : ndarray
This will be a new view object if possible; otherwise, it will be a copy. Note there is no
guarantee of the memory layout (C- or Fortran- contiguous) of the returned array.
See also:
ndarray.reshape Equivalent method.
Notes
It is not always possible to change the shape of an array without copying the data. If you want an error to be
raised when the data is copied, you should assign the new shape to the shape attribute of the array:
>>> a = np.zeros((10, 2))
# A transpose makes the array non-contiguous
>>> b = a.T
# Taking a view makes it possible to modify the shape without modifying
# the initial object.
>>> c = b.view()
>>> c.shape = (20)
The order keyword gives the index ordering both for fetching the values from a, and then placing the values into
the output array. For example, let’s say you have an array:
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3],
[4, 5]])
You can think of reshaping as first raveling the array (using the given index order), then inserting the elements
from the raveled array into the new array using the same kind of index ordering as was used for the raveling.
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3)) # C-like index ordering
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a), (2, 3)) # equivalent to C ravel then C reshape
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.reshape(a, (2, 3), order='F') # Fortran-like index ordering
array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
3.2. Array manipulation routines 421

>>> np.reshape(np.ravel(a, order='F'), (2, 3), order='F')

array([[0, 4, 3],
[2, 1, 5]])
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])

>>> np.reshape(a, 6)
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, 6, order='F')
array([1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6])
>>> np.reshape(a, (3,-1)) # the unspecified value is inferred to be 2

array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
numpy.ravel(a, order=’C’)
Return a contiguous flattened array.
A 1-D array, containing the elements of the input, is returned. A copy is made only if needed.
As of NumPy 1.10, the returned array will have the same type as the input array. (for example, a masked array
will be returned for a masked array input)
Input array. The elements in a are read in the order specified by order, and packed as a
1-D array.
order : {‘C’,’F’, ‘A’, ‘K’}, optional
The elements of a are read using this index order. ‘C’ means to index the elements in
row-major, C-style order, with the last axis index changing fastest, back to the first axis
index changing slowest. ‘F’ means to index the elements in column-major, Fortran-style
order, with the first index changing fastest, and the last index changing slowest. Note
that the ‘C’ and ‘F’ options take no account of the memory layout of the underlying
array, and only refer to the order of axis indexing. ‘A’ means to read the elements in
Fortran-like index order if a is Fortran contiguous in memory, C-like order otherwise.
‘K’ means to read the elements in the order they occur in memory, except for reversing
the data when strides are negative. By default, ‘C’ index order is used.
Returns y : array_like
If a is a matrix, y is a 1-D ndarray, otherwise y is an array of the same subtype as a. The
shape of the returned array is (a.size,). Matrices are special cased for backward
compatibility.
See also:
ndarray.flat 1-D iterator over an array.

ndarray.flatten 1-D array copy of the elements of an array in row-major order.
ndarray.reshape Change the shape of an array without changing its data.

Notes
In row-major, C-style order, in two dimensions, the row index varies the slowest, and the column index the
quickest. This can be generalized to multiple dimensions, where row-major order implies that the index along
the first axis varies slowest, and the index along the last quickest. The opposite holds for column-major, Fortran-
style index ordering.
When a view is desired in as many cases as possible, arr.reshape(-1) may be preferable.
Examples
It is equivalent to reshape(-1, order=order).
>>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

>>> print(np.ravel(x))
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
>>> print(x.reshape(-1))
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
>>> print(np.ravel(x, order='F'))

[1 4 2 5 3 6]
When order is ‘A’, it will preserve the array’s ‘C’ or ‘F’ ordering:
>>> print(np.ravel(x.T))
[1 4 2 5 3 6]
>>> print(np.ravel(x.T, order='A'))
[1 2 3 4 5 6]
When order is ‘K’, it will preserve orderings that are neither ‘C’ nor ‘F’, but won’t reverse axes:
>>> a = np.arange(3)[::-1]; a
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a.ravel(order='C')
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a.ravel(order='K')
array([2, 1, 0])
>>> a = np.arange(12).reshape(2,3,2).swapaxes(1,2); a
array([[[ 0, 2, 4],
[ 1, 3, 5]],
[[ 6, 8, 10],
[ 7, 9, 11]]])
>>> a.ravel(order='C')
array([ 0, 2, 4, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 7, 9, 11])
>>> a.ravel(order='K')
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11])
3.2.3 Transpose-like operations

moveaxis(a, source, destination) Move axes of an array to new positions.

rollaxis(a, axis[, start]) Roll the specified axis backwards, until it lies in a given
position.
swapaxes(a, axis1, axis2) Interchange two axes of an array.
ndarray.T Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if
self.ndim < 2.
transpose(a[, axes]) Permute the dimensions of an array.
numpy.moveaxis(a, source, destination)

Move axes of an array to new positions.
Other axes remain in their original order.
Parameters a : np.ndarray
The array whose axes should be reordered.
source : int or sequence of int
Original positions of the axes to move. These must be unique.
destination : int or sequence of int
Destination positions for each of the original axes. These must also be unique.
Returns result : np.ndarray
Array with moved axes. This array is a view of the input array.
See also:
transpose Permute the dimensions of an array.

swapaxes Interchange two axes of an array.
Examples
>>> x = np.zeros((3, 4, 5))

>>> np.moveaxis(x, 0, -1).shape
(4, 5, 3)
>>> np.moveaxis(x, -1, 0).shape
(5, 3, 4)
These all achieve the same result:
>>> np.transpose(x).shape
(5, 4, 3)
>>> np.swapaxes(x, 0, -1).shape
(5, 4, 3)
>>> np.moveaxis(x, [0, 1], [-1, -2]).shape
(5, 4, 3)
>>> np.moveaxis(x, [0, 1, 2], [-1, -2, -3]).shape
(5, 4, 3)
numpy.rollaxis(a, axis, start=0)

Roll the specified axis backwards, until it lies in a given position.

This function continues to be supported for backward compatibility, but you should prefer moveaxis. The
moveaxis function was added in NumPy 1.11.
Input array.
axis : int
The axis to roll backwards. The positions of the other axes do not change relative to one
another.
start : int, optional
The axis is rolled until it lies before this position. The default, 0, results in a “complete”
roll.
Returns res : ndarray
For NumPy >= 1.10.0 a view of a is always returned. For earlier NumPy versions a
view of a is returned only if the order of the axes is changed, otherwise the input array
is returned.
See also:
moveaxis Move array axes to new positions.

roll Roll the elements of an array by a number of positions along a given axis.
Examples
>>> a = np.ones((3,4,5,6))
>>> np.rollaxis(a, 3, 1).shape
(3, 6, 4, 5)
>>> np.rollaxis(a, 2).shape
(5, 3, 4, 6)
>>> np.rollaxis(a, 1, 4).shape
(3, 5, 6, 4)
numpy.swapaxes(a, axis1, axis2)

Interchange two axes of an array.
Input array.
axis1 : int
First axis.
axis2 : int
Second axis.
Returns a_swapped : ndarray
For NumPy >= 1.10.0, if a is an ndarray, then a view of a is returned; otherwise a new
array is created. For earlier NumPy versions a view of a is returned only if the order of
the axes is changed, otherwise the input array is returned.

Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3]])
>>> np.swapaxes(x,0,1)
array([[1],
[2],
[3]])
>>> x = np.array([[[0,1],[2,3]],[[4,5],[6,7]]])
>>> x
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
[6, 7]]])
>>> np.swapaxes(x,0,2)
array([[[0, 4],
[2, 6]],
[[1, 5],
[3, 7]]])
numpy.transpose(a, axes=None)
Permute the dimensions of an array.
Input array.
axes : list of ints, optional
By default, reverse the dimensions, otherwise permute the axes according to the values
given.
Returns p : ndarray
a with its axes permuted. A view is returned whenever possible.
See also:
moveaxis, argsort
Notes
Use transpose(a, argsort(axes)) to invert the transposition of tensors when using the axes keyword argument.
Transposing a 1-D array returns an unchanged view of the original array.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])

>>> np.transpose(x)
array([[0, 2],
[1, 3]])
>>> x = np.ones((1, 2, 3))

>>> np.transpose(x, (1, 0, 2)).shape
(2, 1, 3)
3.2.4 Changing number of dimensions
atleast_1d(*arys) Convert inputs to arrays with at least one dimension.

atleast_2d(*arys) View inputs as arrays with at least two dimensions.
atleast_3d(*arys) View inputs as arrays with at least three dimensions.
broadcast Produce an object that mimics broadcasting.
broadcast_to(array, shape[, subok]) Broadcast an array to a new shape.
broadcast_arrays(*args, **kwargs) Broadcast any number of arrays against each other.
expand_dims(a, axis) Expand the shape of an array.
squeeze(a[, axis]) Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of an
array.
numpy.atleast_1d(*arys)
Convert inputs to arrays with at least one dimension.
Scalar inputs are converted to 1-dimensional arrays, whilst higher-dimensional inputs are preserved.
One or more input arrays.
An array, or list of arrays, each with a.ndim >= 1. Copies are made only if neces-
sary.
See also:
atleast_2d, atleast_3d
Examples
array([ 1.])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7., 8.]])
>>> np.atleast_1d(x) is x
True
>>> np.atleast_1d(1, [3, 4])

[array([1]), array([3, 4])]

View inputs as arrays with at least two dimensions.
that already have two or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns res, res2, . . . : ndarray
ble, and views with two or more dimensions are returned.
See also:
Examples
array([[ 3.]])
array([[ 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> np.atleast_2d(x).base is x
True
>>> np.atleast_2d(1, [1, 2], [[1, 2]])

[array([[1]]), array([[1, 2]]), array([[1, 2]])]
View inputs as arrays with at least three dimensions.
that already have three or more dimensions are preserved.
Returns res1, res2, . . . : ndarray
ble, and views with three or more dimensions are returned. For example, a 1-D array of
shape (N,) becomes a view of shape (1, N, 1), and a 2-D array of shape (M, N)
becomes a view of shape (M, N, 1).
See also:
Examples
array([[[ 3.]]])
(1, 3, 1)

(4, 3, 1)
>>> np.atleast_3d(x).base is x.base # x is a reshape, so not base itself
True
>>> for arr in np.atleast_3d([1, 2], [[1, 2]], [[[1, 2]]]):

... print(arr, arr.shape)
...
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1]
[2]]] (1, 2, 1)
[[[1 2]]] (1, 1, 2)
numpy.broadcast_to(array, shape, subok=False)

Broadcast an array to a new shape.
Parameters array : array_like
The array to broadcast.
shape : tuple
The shape of the desired array.
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through, otherwise the returned array will be
Returns broadcast : array
A readonly view on the original array with the given shape. It is typically not contigu-
ous. Furthermore, more than one element of a broadcasted array may refer to a single
memory location.
Raises ValueError
If the array is not compatible with the new shape according to NumPy’s broadcasting
rules.
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> np.broadcast_to(x, (3, 3))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3]])
numpy.broadcast_arrays(*args, **kwargs)
Broadcast any number of arrays against each other.

Parameters ‘*args‘ : array_likes

The arrays to broadcast.
If True, then sub-classes will be passed-through, otherwise the returned arrays will be
Returns broadcasted : list of arrays
These arrays are views on the original arrays. They are typically not contiguous. Fur-
thermore, more than one element of a broadcasted array may refer to a single memory
location. If you need to write to the arrays, make copies first.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3]])
>>> y = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> np.broadcast_arrays(x, y)
[array([[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3]]), array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3]])]
Here is a useful idiom for getting contiguous copies instead of non-contiguous views.
>>> [np.array(a) for a in np.broadcast_arrays(x, y)]

[array([[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3],
[1, 2, 3]]), array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3]])]
numpy.expand_dims(a, axis)
Expand the shape of an array.
Insert a new axis that will appear at the axis position in the expanded array shape.
Note: Previous to NumPy 1.13.0, neither axis < -a.ndim - 1 nor axis > a.ndim raised errors or
put the new axis where documented. Those axis values are now deprecated and will raise an AxisError in the
future.
Input array.
axis : int
Position in the expanded axes where the new axis is placed.
Output array. The number of dimensions is one greater than that of the input array.
See also:

squeeze The inverse operation, removing singleton dimensions

doc.indexing, atleast_1d, atleast_2d, atleast_3d
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1,2])
>>> x.shape
(2,)
The following is equivalent to x[np.newaxis,:] or x[np.newaxis]:
>>> y = np.expand_dims(x, axis=0)

>>> y
array([[1, 2]])
>>> y.shape
(1, 2)
>>> y = np.expand_dims(x, axis=1) # Equivalent to x[:,np.newaxis]

>>> y
array([[1],
[2]])
>>> y.shape
(2, 1)
Note that some examples may use None instead of np.newaxis. These are the same objects:
>>> np.newaxis is None

True
numpy.squeeze(a, axis=None)
Remove single-dimensional entries from the shape of an array.
Input data.
Returns squeezed : ndarray
The input array, but with all or a subset of the dimensions of length 1 removed. This is
always a itself or a view into a.
Raises ValueError
If axis is not None, and an axis being squeezed is not of length 1
See also:
expand_dims The inverse operation, adding singleton dimensions


Examples
>>> x = np.array([[[0], [1], [2]]])

>>> x.shape
(1, 3, 1)
>>> np.squeeze(x).shape
(3,)
(3, 1)
...
ValueError: cannot select an axis to squeeze out which has size not equal to one
(1, 3)
3.2.5 Changing kind of array
asarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to an array.

asanyarray(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to an ndarray, but pass ndarray subclasses
through.
asfarray(a[, dtype]) Return an array converted to a float type.
asfortranarray(a[, dtype]) Return an array laid out in Fortran order in memory.
ascontiguousarray(a[, dtype]) Return a contiguous array in memory (C order).
asarray_chkfinite(a[, dtype, order]) Convert the input to an array, checking for NaNs or Infs.
asscalar(a) Convert an array of size 1 to its scalar equivalent.
require(a[, dtype, requirements]) Return an ndarray of the provided type that satisfies re-
quirements.
numpy.asfarray(a, dtype=<class ’numpy.float64’>)

Return an array converted to a float type.
The input array.
Float type code to coerce input array a. If dtype is one of the ‘int’ dtypes, it is replaced
with float64.
The input a as a float ndarray.
Examples
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3])

array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3], dtype='float')
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.asfarray([2, 3], dtype='int8')
array([ 2., 3.])

numpy.asfortranarray(a, dtype=None)
Return an array laid out in Fortran order in memory.
Input array.
The input a in Fortran, or column-major, order.
See also:
ascontiguousarray Convert input to a contiguous (C order) array.

asanyarray Convert input to an ndarray with either row or column-major memory order.
require Return an ndarray that satisfies requirements.
Examples
>>> y = np.asfortranarray(x)
>>> x.flags['F_CONTIGUOUS']
False
>>> y.flags['F_CONTIGUOUS']
True
numpy.asarray_chkfinite(a, dtype=None, order=None)

Convert the input to an array, checking for NaNs or Infs.
Input data, in any form that can be converted to an array. This includes lists, lists of
tuples, tuples, tuples of tuples, tuples of lists and ndarrays. Success requires no NaNs
or Infs.
Array interpretation of a. No copy is performed if the input is already an ndarray. If a
is a subclass of ndarray, a base class ndarray is returned.
Raises ValueError
Raises ValueError if a contains NaN (Not a Number) or Inf (Infinity).
See also:
asarray Create and array.

asanyarray Similar function which passes through subclasses.

Examples
Convert a list into an array. If all elements are finite asarray_chkfinite is identical to asarray.
>>> a = [1, 2]
>>> np.asarray_chkfinite(a, dtype=float)
array([1., 2.])
Raises ValueError if array_like contains Nans or Infs.
>>> a = [1, 2, np.inf]

>>> try:
... np.asarray_chkfinite(a)
... except ValueError:
... print('ValueError')
...
ValueError
numpy.asscalar(a)
Convert an array of size 1 to its scalar equivalent.
Input array of size 1.
Returns out : scalar
Scalar representation of a. The output data type is the same type returned by the input’s
item method.
Examples
>>> np.asscalar(np.array([24]))
24
numpy.require(a, dtype=None, requirements=None)

Return an ndarray of the provided type that satisfies requirements.
This function is useful to be sure that an array with the correct flags is returned for passing to compiled code
(perhaps through ctypes).
The object to be converted to a type-and-requirement-satisfying array.
dtype : data-type

The required data-type. If None preserve the current dtype. If your application requires
the data to be in native byteorder, include a byteorder specification as a part of the dtype
specification.
requirements : str or list of str
The requirements list can be any of the following
• ‘F_CONTIGUOUS’ (‘F’) - ensure a Fortran-contiguous array
• ‘C_CONTIGUOUS’ (‘C’) - ensure a C-contiguous array
• ‘ALIGNED’ (‘A’) - ensure a data-type aligned array
• ‘WRITEABLE’ (‘W’) - ensure a writable array
• ‘OWNDATA’ (‘O’) - ensure an array that owns its own data
• ‘ENSUREARRAY’, (‘E’) - ensure a base array, instead of a subclass
See also:
asarray Convert input to an ndarray.

asanyarray Convert to an ndarray, but pass through ndarray subclasses.
Notes
The returned array will be guaranteed to have the listed requirements by making a copy if needed.
Examples
>>> x.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : False
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True
>>> y = np.require(x, dtype=np.float32, requirements=['A', 'O', 'W', 'F'])

>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : False
F_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True

3.2.6 Joining arrays
concatenate((a1, a2, . . . )[, axis, out]) Join a sequence of arrays along an existing axis.
stack(arrays[, axis, out]) Join a sequence of arrays along a new axis.
column_stack(tup) Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.
dstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
hstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
vstack(tup) Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise).
block(arrays) Assemble an nd-array from nested lists of blocks.
numpy.concatenate((a1, a2, ...), axis=0, out=None)

Join a sequence of arrays along an existing axis.
Parameters a1, a2, . . . : sequence of array_like
The arrays must have the same shape, except in the dimension corresponding to axis
(the first, by default).
The axis along which the arrays will be joined. Default is 0.
If provided, the destination to place the result. The shape must be correct, matching that
of what concatenate would have returned if no out argument were specified.
The concatenated array.
See also:
ma.concatenate Concatenate function that preserves input masks.

array_split Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal or near-equal size.
split Split array into a list of multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
hsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column wise)
vsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row wise)
dsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays along the 3rd axis (depth).
stack Stack a sequence of arrays along a new axis.
hstack Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise)
vstack Stack arrays in sequence vertically (row wise)
dstack Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third dimension)
Notes
When one or more of the arrays to be concatenated is a MaskedArray, this function will return a MaskedArray
object instead of an ndarray, but the input masks are not preserved. In cases where a MaskedArray is expected
as input, use the ma.concatenate function from the masked array module instead.

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> b = np.array([[5, 6]])
>>> np.concatenate((a, b), axis=0)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.concatenate((a, b.T), axis=1)
array([[1, 2, 5],
[3, 4, 6]])
This function will not preserve masking of MaskedArray inputs.
>>> a[1] = np.ma.masked
>>> b = np.arange(2, 5)
>>> a
>>> b
array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.concatenate([a, b])
masked_array(data = [0 1 2 2 3 4],
mask = False,
>>> np.ma.concatenate([a, b])
masked_array(data = [0 -- 2 2 3 4],
mask = [False True False False False False],
numpy.stack(arrays, axis=0, out=None)

Join a sequence of arrays along a new axis.
The axis parameter specifies the index of the new axis in the dimensions of the result. For example, if axis=0
it will be the first dimension and if axis=-1 it will be the last dimension.
Each array must have the same shape.
The axis in the result array along which the input arrays are stacked.
If provided, the destination to place the result. The shape must be correct, matching that
of what stack would have returned if no out argument were specified.
The stacked array has one more dimension than the input arrays.
See also:

split Split array into a list of multiple sub-arrays of equal size.

Examples
>>> arrays = [np.random.randn(3, 4) for _ in range(10)]

>>> np.stack(arrays, axis=0).shape
(10, 3, 4)

(3, 10, 4)

(3, 4, 10)
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.stack((a, b))
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> np.stack((a, b), axis=-1)

array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.column_stack(tup)
Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.
Take a sequence of 1-D arrays and stack them as columns to make a single 2-D array. 2-D arrays are stacked
as-is, just like with hstack. 1-D arrays are turned into 2-D columns first.
Parameters tup : sequence of 1-D or 2-D arrays.
Arrays to stack. All of them must have the same first dimension.
Returns stacked : 2-D array
See also:
stack, hstack, vstack, concatenate
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
>>> np.column_stack((a,b))
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.dstack(tup)
Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).

This is equivalent to concatenation along the third axis after 2-D arrays of shape (M,N) have been reshaped to
(M,N,1) and 1-D arrays of shape (N,) have been reshaped to (1,N,1). Rebuilds arrays divided by dsplit.
This function makes most sense for arrays with up to 3 dimensions. For instance, for pixel-data with a height
(first axis), width (second axis), and r/g/b channels (third axis). The functions concatenate, stack and
block provide more general stacking and concatenation operations.
Parameters tup : sequence of arrays
The arrays must have the same shape along all but the third axis. 1-D or 2-D arrays
See also:

vstack Stack along first axis.
hstack Stack along second axis.
dsplit Split array along third axis.
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([[[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]]])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[[1, 2]],
[[2, 3]],
[[3, 4]]])
numpy.hstack(tup)
Stack arrays in sequence horizontally (column wise).
This is equivalent to concatenation along the second axis, except for 1-D arrays where it concatenates along the
first axis. Rebuilds arrays divided by hsplit.
The arrays must have the same shape along all but the second axis, except 1-D arrays
which can be any length.


See also:

dstack Stack arrays in sequence depth wise (along third axis).
hsplit Split array along second axis.
Examples
>>> a = np.array((1,2,3))
>>> b = np.array((2,3,4))
array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a = np.array([[1],[2],[3]])
>>> b = np.array([[2],[3],[4]])
array([[1, 2],
[2, 3],
[3, 4]])
numpy.vstack(tup)
This is equivalent to concatenation along the first axis after 1-D arrays of shape (N,) have been reshaped to (1,N).
Rebuilds arrays divided by vsplit.
the same length.
See also:


Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> a = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])

>>> b = np.array([[2], [3], [4]])
array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[2],
[3],
[4]])
numpy.block(arrays)
Assemble an nd-array from nested lists of blocks.
Blocks in the innermost lists are concatenated (see concatenate) along the last dimension (-1), then these
are concatenated along the second-last dimension (-2), and so on until the outermost list is reached.
Blocks can be of any dimension, but will not be broadcasted using the normal rules. Instead, leading axes of
size 1 are inserted, to make block.ndim the same for all blocks. This is primarily useful for working with
scalars, and means that code like np.block([v, 1]) is valid, where v.ndim == 1.
When the nested list is two levels deep, this allows block matrices to be constructed from their components.
Parameters arrays : nested list of array_like or scalars (but not tuples)
If passed a single ndarray or scalar (a nested list of depth 0), this is returned unmodified
(and not copied).
Elements shapes must match along the appropriate axes (without broadcasting), but
leading 1s will be prepended to the shape as necessary to make the dimensions match.
Returns block_array : ndarray
The array assembled from the given blocks.
The dimensionality of the output is equal to the greatest of: * the dimensionality of all
the inputs * the depth to which the input list is nested
Raises ValueError
• If list depths are mismatched - for instance, [[a, b], c] is illegal, and should be spelt
[[a, b], [c]]
• If lists are empty - for instance, [[a, b], []]
See also:
concatenate Join a sequence of arrays together.

stack Stack arrays in sequence along a new dimension.


Notes
When called with only scalars, np.block is equivalent to an ndarray call. So np.block([[1, 2], [3,
4]]) is equivalent to np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]]).
This function does not enforce that the blocks lie on a fixed grid. np.block([[a, b], [c, d]]) is not
restricted to arrays of the form:
AAAbb
AAAbb
cccDD
But is also allowed to produce, for some a, b, c, d:
AAAbb
AAAbb
cDDDD
Since concatenation happens along the last axis first, block is _not_ capable of producing the following di-
rectly:
AAAbb
cccbb
cccDD
Matlab’s “square bracket stacking”, [A, B, ...; p, q, ...], is equivalent to np.block([[A, B,

...], [p, q, ...]]).
Examples
The most common use of this function is to build a block matrix
>>> A = np.eye(2) * 2
>>> B = np.eye(3) * 3
>>> np.block([
... [A, np.zeros((2, 3))],
... [np.ones((3, 2)), B ]
... ])
array([[ 2., 0., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 3., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., 3., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., 0., 3.]])
With a list of depth 1, block can be used as hstack
>>> np.block([1, 2, 3]) # hstack([1, 2, 3])

array([1, 2, 3])
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])

>>> np.block([a, b, 10]) # hstack([a, b, 10])

array([1, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 10])
>>> A = np.ones((2, 2), int)

>>> B = 2 * A
>>> np.block([A, B]) # hstack([A, B])
array([[1, 1, 2, 2],
[1, 1, 2, 2]])
With a list of depth 2, block can be used in place of vstack:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 4])
>>> np.block([[a], [b]]) # vstack([a, b])
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 3, 4]])
>>> A = np.ones((2, 2), int)

>>> B = 2 * A
>>> np.block([[A], [B]]) # vstack([A, B])
array([[1, 1],
[1, 1],
[2, 2],
[2, 2]])
It can also be used in places of atleast_1d and atleast_2d
>>> a = np.array(0)
>>> b = np.array([1])
>>> np.block([a]) # atleast_1d(a)
array([0])
>>> np.block([b]) # atleast_1d(b)
array([1])
>>> np.block([[a]]) # atleast_2d(a)

array([[0]])
>>> np.block([[b]]) # atleast_2d(b)
array([[1]])
3.2.7 Splitting arrays
split(ary, indices_or_sections[, axis]) Split an array into multiple sub-arrays.

array_split(ary, indices_or_sections[, axis]) Split an array into multiple sub-arrays.
dsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) Split array into multiple sub-arrays along the 3rd axis
(depth).
hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) Split an array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally
(column-wise).
vsplit(ary, indices_or_sections) Split an array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row-
wise).
numpy.split(ary, indices_or_sections, axis=0)

Split an array into multiple sub-arrays.

Parameters ary : ndarray

Array to be divided into sub-arrays.
indices_or_sections : int or 1-D array
If indices_or_sections is an integer, N, the array will be divided into N equal arrays
along axis. If such a split is not possible, an error is raised.
If indices_or_sections is a 1-D array of sorted integers, the entries indicate where along
axis the array is split. For example, [2, 3] would, for axis=0, result in
• ary[:2]
• ary[2:3]
• ary[3:]
If an index exceeds the dimension of the array along axis, an empty sub-array is returned
correspondingly.
The axis along which to split, default is 0.
Returns sub-arrays : list of ndarrays
A list of sub-arrays.
Raises ValueError
If indices_or_sections is given as an integer, but a split does not result in equal division.
See also:
array_split Split an array into multiple sub-arrays of equal or near-equal size. Does not raise an exception
if an equal division cannot be made.
hsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).
vsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row wise).
dsplit Split array into multiple sub-arrays along the 3rd axis (depth).
Examples
>>> np.split(x, 3)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3., 4., 5.]), array([ 6., 7., 8.])]
>>> np.split(x, [3, 5, 6, 10])
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]),
array([ 3., 4.]),

array([ 5.]),
array([ 6., 7.]),
numpy.array_split(ary, indices_or_sections, axis=0)

Split an array into multiple sub-arrays.
Please refer to the split documentation. The only difference between these functions is that array_split
allows indices_or_sections to be an integer that does not equally divide the axis. For an array of length l that
should be split into n sections, it returns l % n sub-arrays of size l//n + 1 and the rest of size l//n.
See also:
split Split array into multiple sub-arrays of equal size.
Examples
>>> np.array_split(x, 3)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3., 4., 5.]), array([ 6., 7.])]
>>> np.array_split(x, 3)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3., 4.]), array([ 5., 6.])]
numpy.dsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split array into multiple sub-arrays along the 3rd axis (depth).
Please refer to the split documentation. dsplit is equivalent to split with axis=2, the array is always
split along the third axis provided the array dimension is greater than or equal to 3.
See also:
Examples
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.]],
[[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]]])
>>> np.dsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 4., 5.]],
[[ 8., 9.],
[ 12., 13.]]]),
array([[[ 2., 3.],
[ 6., 7.]],
[[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]]])]
>>> np.dsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[[ 0., 1., 2.],

[ 4., 5., 6.]],

[[ 8., 9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]]),
array([[[ 3.],
[ 7.]],
[[ 11.],
[ 15.]]]),
numpy.hsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays horizontally (column-wise).
Please refer to the split documentation. hsplit is equivalent to split with axis=1, the array is always
split along the second axis regardless of the array dimension.
See also:
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 4., 5.],
[ 8., 9.],
[ 12., 13.]]),
array([[ 2., 3.],
[ 6., 7.],
[ 10., 11.],
[ 14., 15.]])]
>>> np.hsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 4., 5., 6.],
[ 8., 9., 10.],
[ 12., 13., 14.]]),
array([[ 3.],
[ 7.],
[ 11.],
[ 15.]]),
With a higher dimensional array the split is still along the second axis.
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
>>> np.hsplit(x, 2)

[array([[[ 0., 1.]],

[[ 4., 5.]]]),
array([[[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 6., 7.]]])]
numpy.vsplit(ary, indices_or_sections)
Split an array into multiple sub-arrays vertically (row-wise).
Please refer to the split documentation. vsplit is equivalent to split with axis=0 (default), the array is
always split along the first axis regardless of the array dimension.
See also:
Examples
>>> x
array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])
>>> np.vsplit(x, 2)
[array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.]]),
array([[ 8., 9., 10., 11.],
[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]])]
>>> np.vsplit(x, np.array([3, 6]))
[array([[ 0., 1., 2., 3.],
[ 4., 5., 6., 7.],
[ 8., 9., 10., 11.]]),
array([[ 12., 13., 14., 15.]]),
With a higher dimensional array the split is still along the first axis.
>>> x
array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]],
[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])
>>> np.vsplit(x, 2)
[array([[[ 0., 1.],
[ 2., 3.]]]),
array([[[ 4., 5.],
[ 6., 7.]]])]
3.2.8 Tiling arrays

tile(A, reps) Construct an array by repeating A the number of times

given by reps.
repeat(a, repeats[, axis]) Repeat elements of an array.
numpy.tile(A, reps)
Construct an array by repeating A the number of times given by reps.
If reps has length d, the result will have dimension of max(d, A.ndim).
If A.ndim < d, A is promoted to be d-dimensional by prepending new axes. So a shape (3,) array is promoted
to (1, 3) for 2-D replication, or shape (1, 1, 3) for 3-D replication. If this is not the desired behavior, promote A
to d-dimensions manually before calling this function.
If A.ndim > d, reps is promoted to A.ndim by pre-pending 1’s to it. Thus for an A of shape (2, 3, 4, 5), a reps
of (2, 2) is treated as (1, 1, 2, 2).
Note : Although tile may be used for broadcasting, it is strongly recommended to use numpy’s broadcasting
operations and functions.
Parameters A : array_like
The input array.
reps : array_like
The number of repetitions of A along each axis.
Returns c : ndarray
The tiled output array.
See also:
repeat Repeat elements of an array.

broadcast_to Broadcast an array to a new shape
Examples
>>> a = np.array([0, 1, 2])

>>> np.tile(a, 2)
array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2])
>>> np.tile(a, (2, 2))
array([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]])
>>> np.tile(a, (2, 1, 2))
array([[[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],
[[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]]])
>>> b = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.tile(b, 2)
array([[1, 2, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 3, 4]])
>>> np.tile(b, (2, 1))
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[1, 2],
[3, 4]])

>>> c = np.array([1,2,3,4])
>>> np.tile(c,(4,1))
array([[1, 2, 3, 4],
[1, 2, 3, 4],
[1, 2, 3, 4],
[1, 2, 3, 4]])
numpy.repeat(a, repeats, axis=None)

Input array.
repeats : int or array of ints
The number of repetitions for each element. repeats is broadcasted to fit the shape of
the given axis.
The axis along which to repeat values. By default, use the flattened input array, and
return a flat output array.
Returns repeated_array : ndarray
Output array which has the same shape as a, except along the given axis.
See also:
tile Tile an array.
Examples
>>> np.repeat(3, 4)
array([3, 3, 3, 3])
>>> x = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
>>> np.repeat(x, 2)
array([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4])
>>> np.repeat(x, 3, axis=1)
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4]])
>>> np.repeat(x, [1, 2], axis=0)
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[3, 4]])
3.2.9 Adding and removing elements
delete(arr, obj[, axis]) Return a new array with sub-arrays along an axis deleted.
insert(arr, obj, values[, axis]) Insert values along the given axis before the given indices.
append(arr, values[, axis]) Append values to the end of an array.
resize(a, new_shape) Return a new array with the specified shape.
trim_zeros(filt[, trim]) Trim the leading and/or trailing zeros from a 1-D array or
sequence.


unique(ar[, return_index, return_inverse, . . . ]) Find the unique elements of an array.
numpy.delete(arr, obj, axis=None)

Return a new array with sub-arrays along an axis deleted. For a one dimensional array, this returns those entries
not returned by arr[obj].
Input array.
obj : slice, int or array of ints
Indicate which sub-arrays to remove.
The axis along which to delete the subarray defined by obj. If axis is None, obj is
applied to the flattened array.
A copy of arr with the elements specified by obj removed. Note that delete does not
occur in-place. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See also:
insert Insert elements into an array.

append Append elements at the end of an array.
Notes
Often it is preferable to use a boolean mask. For example:

>>> mask = np.ones(len(arr), dtype=bool)
>>> mask[[0,2,4]] = False
>>> result = arr[mask,...]
Is equivalent to np.delete(arr, [0,2,4], axis=0), but allows further use of mask.
Examples
>>> arr = np.array([[1,2,3,4], [5,6,7,8], [9,10,11,12]])

>>> arr
array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4],
[ 5, 6, 7, 8],
[ 9, 10, 11, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, 1, 0)
array([[ 1, 2, 3, 4],
[ 9, 10, 11, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, np.s_[::2], 1)

array([[ 2, 4],
[ 6, 8],
[10, 12]])
>>> np.delete(arr, [1,3,5], None)
array([ 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12])

numpy.insert(arr, obj, values, axis=None)

Insert values along the given axis before the given indices.
Input array.
obj : int, slice or sequence of ints
Object that defines the index or indices before which values is inserted.
Support for multiple insertions when obj is a single scalar or a sequence with one ele-
ment (similar to calling insert multiple times).
values : array_like
Values to insert into arr. If the type of values is different from that of arr, values is
converted to the type of arr. values should be shaped so that arr[...,obj,...]
= values is legal.
Axis along which to insert values. If axis is None then arr is flattened first.
A copy of arr with values inserted. Note that insert does not occur in-place: a new
array is returned. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See also:
append Append elements at the end of an array.

delete Delete elements from an array.
Notes
Note that for higher dimensional inserts obj=0 behaves very different from obj=[0] just like arr[:,0,:] = values
is different from arr[:,[0],:] = values.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [2, 2], [3, 3]])

>>> a
array([[1, 1],
[2, 2],
[3, 3]])
>>> np.insert(a, 1, 5)
array([1, 5, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(a, 1, 5, axis=1)
array([[1, 5, 1],
[2, 5, 2],
[3, 5, 3]])
Difference between sequence and scalars:

>>> np.insert(a, [1], [[1],[2],[3]], axis=1)

array([[1, 1, 1],
[2, 2, 2],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> np.array_equal(np.insert(a, 1, [1, 2, 3], axis=1),
... np.insert(a, [1], [[1],[2],[3]], axis=1))
True
>>> b = a.flatten()
>>> b
array([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, [2, 2], [5, 6])
array([1, 1, 5, 6, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, slice(2, 4), [5, 6])

array([1, 1, 5, 2, 6, 2, 3, 3])
>>> np.insert(b, [2, 2], [7.13, False]) # type casting

array([1, 1, 7, 0, 2, 2, 3, 3])
>>> idx = (1, 3)
>>> np.insert(x, idx, 999, axis=1)
array([[ 0, 999, 1, 2, 999, 3],
[ 4, 999, 5, 6, 999, 7]])
numpy.append(arr, values, axis=None)

Append values to the end of an array.
Values are appended to a copy of this array.
values : array_like
These values are appended to a copy of arr. It must be of the correct shape (the same
shape as arr, excluding axis). If axis is not specified, values can be any shape and will
be flattened before use.
The axis along which values are appended. If axis is not given, both arr and values are
flattened before use.
Returns append : ndarray
A copy of arr with values appended to axis. Note that append does not occur in-place:
a new array is allocated and filled. If axis is None, out is a flattened array.
See also:
insert Insert elements into an array.

delete Delete elements from an array.

Examples
>>> np.append([1, 2, 3], [[4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]])

array([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
When axis is specified, values must have the correct shape.
>>> np.append([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [[7, 8, 9]], axis=0)

array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6],
[7, 8, 9]])
>>> np.append([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], [7, 8, 9], axis=0)
...
ValueError: arrays must have same number of dimensions
numpy.resize(a, new_shape)
Return a new array with the specified shape.
If the new array is larger than the original array, then the new array is filled with repeated copies of a. Note that
this behavior is different from a.resize(new_shape) which fills with zeros instead of repeated copies of a.
Array to be resized.
new_shape : int or tuple of int
Returns reshaped_array : ndarray
The new array is formed from the data in the old array, repeated if necessary to fill out
the required number of elements. The data are repeated in the order that they are stored
in memory.
See also:
ndarray.resize resize an array in-place.
Examples
>>> a=np.array([[0,1],[2,3]])
>>> np.resize(a,(2,3))
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 1]])
array([[0, 1, 2, 3]])
array([[0, 1, 2, 3],
[0, 1, 2, 3]])
numpy.trim_zeros(filt, trim=’fb’)
Trim the leading and/or trailing zeros from a 1-D array or sequence.
Parameters filt : 1-D array or sequence
Input array.

trim : str, optional

A string with ‘f’ representing trim from front and ‘b’ to trim from back. Default is ‘fb’,
trim zeros from both front and back of the array.
Returns trimmed : 1-D array or sequence
The result of trimming the input. The input data type is preserved.
Examples
>>> a = np.array((0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1, 0))

>>> np.trim_zeros(a)
array([1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1])
>>> np.trim_zeros(a, 'b')

array([0, 0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 2, 1])
The input data type is preserved, list/tuple in means list/tuple out.
>>> np.trim_zeros([0, 1, 2, 0])

[1, 2]
numpy.unique(ar, return_index=False, return_inverse=False, return_counts=False, axis=None)

Find the unique elements of an array.
Returns the sorted unique elements of an array. There are three optional outputs in addition to the unique ele-
ments: the indices of the input array that give the unique values, the indices of the unique array that reconstruct
the input array, and the number of times each unique value comes up in the input array.
Parameters ar : array_like
Input array. Unless axis is specified, this will be flattened if it is not already 1-D.
return_index : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of ar (along the specified axis, if provided, or in the
flattened array) that result in the unique array.
return_inverse : bool, optional
If True, also return the indices of the unique array (for the specified axis, if provided)
that can be used to reconstruct ar.
return_counts : bool, optional
If True, also return the number of times each unique item appears in ar.
axis : int or None, optional
The axis to operate on. If None, ar will be flattened. If an integer, the subarrays indexed
by the given axis will be flattened and treated as the elements of a 1-D array with the
dimension of the given axis, see the notes for more details. Object arrays or structured
arrays that contain objects are not supported if the axis kwarg is used. The default is
None.
Returns unique : ndarray

The sorted unique values.

unique_indices : ndarray, optional
The indices of the first occurrences of the unique values in the original array. Only
provided if return_index is True.
unique_inverse : ndarray, optional
The indices to reconstruct the original array from the unique array. Only provided if
return_inverse is True.
unique_counts : ndarray, optional
The number of times each of the unique values comes up in the original array. Only
provided if return_counts is True. .. versionadded:: 1.9.0
See also:
numpy.lib.arraysetops Module with a number of other functions for performing set operations on ar-
rays.
Notes
When an axis is specified the subarrays indexed by the axis are sorted. This is done by making the specified
axis the first dimension of the array and then flattening the subarrays in C order. The flattened subarrays are
then viewed as a structured type with each element given a label, with the effect that we end up with a 1-D array
of structured types that can be treated in the same way as any other 1-D array. The result is that the flattened
subarrays are sorted in lexicographic order starting with the first element.
Examples
>>> np.unique([1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3])

array([1, 2, 3])
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [2, 3]])
>>> np.unique(a)
array([1, 2, 3])
Return the unique rows of a 2D array
>>> a = np.array([[1, 0, 0], [1, 0, 0], [2, 3, 4]])

>>> np.unique(a, axis=0)
array([[1, 0, 0], [2, 3, 4]])
Return the indices of the original array that give the unique values:
>>> a = np.array(['a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'a'])

>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_index=True)
>>> u
array(['a', 'b', 'c'],
dtype='|S1')
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 3])
>>> a[indices]
array(['a', 'b', 'c'],
dtype='|S1')

Reconstruct the input array from the unique values:
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])

>>> u, indices = np.unique(a, return_inverse=True)
>>> u
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 6])
>>> indices
array([0, 1, 4, 3, 1, 2, 1])
>>> u[indices]
array([1, 2, 6, 4, 2, 3, 2])
3.2.10 Rearranging elements
flip(m, axis) Reverse the order of elements in an array along the given
axis.
fliplr(m) Flip array in the left/right direction.
flipud(m) Flip array in the up/down direction.
reshape(a, newshape[, order]) Gives a new shape to an array without changing its data.
roll(a, shift[, axis]) Roll array elements along a given axis.
rot90(m[, k, axes]) Rotate an array by 90 degrees in the plane specified by axes.
numpy.flip(m, axis)
Reverse the order of elements in an array along the given axis.
The shape of the array is preserved, but the elements are reordered.
Input array.
axis : integer
Axis in array, which entries are reversed.
Returns out : array_like
A view of m with the entries of axis reversed. Since a view is returned, this operation is
done in constant time.
See also:
flipud Flip an array vertically (axis=0).

fliplr Flip an array horizontally (axis=1).
Notes
flip(m, 0) is equivalent to flipud(m). flip(m, 1) is equivalent to fliplr(m). flip(m, n) corresponds to m[...,

::-1,...] with ::-1 at position n.

Examples
>>> A = np.arange(8).reshape((2,2,2))
>>> A
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5], [6, 7]]])
>>> flip(A, 0)
array([[[4, 5],
[6, 7]],
[[0, 1], [2, 3]]])
>>> flip(A, 1)
array([[[2, 3],
[0, 1]],
[[6, 7], [4, 5]]])
>>> A = np.random.randn(3,4,5)
>>> np.all(flip(A,2) == A[:,:,::-1,...])
True
numpy.fliplr(m)
Flip array in the left/right direction.
Flip the entries in each row in the left/right direction. Columns are preserved, but appear in a different order
than before.
Input array, must be at least 2-D.
Returns f : ndarray
A view of m with the columns reversed. Since a view is returned, this operation is 𝒪(1).
See also:
flipud Flip array in the up/down direction.

rot90 Rotate array counterclockwise.
Notes
Equivalent to m[:,::-1]. Requires the array to be at least 2-D.
Examples

>>> A = np.diag([1.,2.,3.])
>>> A
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 3.]])
>>> np.fliplr(A)
array([[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 3., 0., 0.]])
>>> np.all(np.fliplr(A) == A[:,::-1,...])
True
numpy.flipud(m)
Flip array in the up/down direction.
Flip the entries in each column in the up/down direction. Rows are preserved, but appear in a different order
than before.
Input array.
A view of m with the rows reversed. Since a view is returned, this operation is 𝒪(1).
See also:
fliplr Flip array in the left/right direction.

rot90 Rotate array counterclockwise.
Notes
Equivalent to m[::-1,...]. Does not require the array to be two-dimensional.
Examples
>>> A = np.diag([1.0, 2, 3])

>>> A
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 3.]])
>>> np.flipud(A)
array([[ 0., 0., 3.],
[ 0., 2., 0.],
[ 1., 0., 0.]])
>>> np.all(np.flipud(A) == A[::-1,...])
True
>>> np.flipud([1,2])
array([2, 1])

numpy.roll(a, shift, axis=None)

Roll array elements along a given axis.
Elements that roll beyond the last position are re-introduced at the first.
Input array.
shift : int or tuple of ints
The number of places by which elements are shifted. If a tuple, then axis must be a tuple
of the same size, and each of the given axes is shifted by the corresponding number. If
an int while axis is a tuple of ints, then the same value is used for all given axes.
axis : int or tuple of ints, optional
Axis or axes along which elements are shifted. By default, the array is flattened before
shifting, after which the original shape is restored.
Output array, with the same shape as a.
See also:
rollaxis Roll the specified axis backwards, until it lies in a given position.
Notes

Supports rolling over multiple dimensions simultaneously.
Examples
>>> np.roll(x, 2)
array([8, 9, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7])
>>> x2 = np.reshape(x, (2,5))

>>> x2
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1)
array([[9, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6, 7, 8]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1, axis=0)
array([[5, 6, 7, 8, 9],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]])
>>> np.roll(x2, 1, axis=1)
array([[4, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[9, 5, 6, 7, 8]])
numpy.rot90(m, k=1, axes=(0, 1))

Rotate an array by 90 degrees in the plane specified by axes.
Rotation direction is from the first towards the second axis.

Array of two or more dimensions.
k : integer
Number of times the array is rotated by 90 degrees.
axes: (2,) array_like
The array is rotated in the plane defined by the axes. Axes must be different.
Returns y : ndarray
A rotated view of m.
See also:
flip Reverse the order of elements in an array along the given axis.
fliplr Flip an array horizontally.
flipud Flip an array vertically.
Notes
rot90(m, k=1, axes=(1,0)) is the reverse of rot90(m, k=1, axes=(0,1)) rot90(m, k=1, axes=(1,0)) is equivalent to
rot90(m, k=-1, axes=(0,1))
Examples
>>> m = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]], int)

>>> m
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.rot90(m)
array([[2, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> np.rot90(m, 2)
array([[4, 3],
[2, 1]])
>>> m = np.arange(8).reshape((2,2,2))
>>> np.rot90(m, 1, (1,2))
array([[[1, 3],
[0, 2]],
[[5, 7], [4, 6]]])
3.3 Binary operations
3.3.1 Elementwise bit operations

bitwise_and(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise AND of two arrays element-wise.
bitwise_or(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise OR of two arrays element-wise.
bitwise_xor(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the bit-wise XOR of two arrays element-wise.
invert(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute bit-wise inversion, or bit-wise NOT, element-
wise.
left_shift(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Shift the bits of an integer to the left.
right_shift(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Shift the bits of an integer to the right.
numpy.bitwise_and(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'bitwise_and'>
Compute the bit-wise AND of two arrays element-wise.
Computes the bit-wise AND of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator &.
Parameters x1, x2 : array_like
Only integer and boolean types are handled.
outputs.
**kwargs
Result.
See also:
logical_and, bitwise_or, bitwise_xor
binary_repr Return the binary representation of the input number as a string.
Examples
The number 13 is represented by 00001101. Likewise, 17 is represented by 00010001. The bit-wise AND
of 13 and 17 is therefore 000000001, or 1:
>>> np.bitwise_and(13, 17)

1
>>> np.bitwise_and(14, 13)

12
>>> np.binary_repr(12)
'1100'
>>> np.bitwise_and([14,3], 13)
array([12, 1])
3.3. Binary operations 461

>>> np.bitwise_and([11,7], [4,25])

array([0, 1])
>>> np.bitwise_and(np.array([2,5,255]), np.array([3,14,16]))
array([ 2, 4, 16])
>>> np.bitwise_and([True, True], [False, True])
array([False, True])
numpy.bitwise_or(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'bitwise_or'>
Compute the bit-wise OR of two arrays element-wise.
Computes the bit-wise OR of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This ufunc
implements the C/Python operator |.
outputs.
**kwargs
Result.
See also:
logical_or, bitwise_and, bitwise_xor
Examples
The number 13 has the binaray representation 00001101. Likewise, 16 is represented by 00010000. The
bit-wise OR of 13 and 16 is then 000111011, or 29:
>>> np.bitwise_or(13, 16)

29
'11101'
>>> np.bitwise_or(32, 2)
34
>>> np.bitwise_or([33, 4], 1)
array([33, 5])
>>> np.bitwise_or([33, 4], [1, 2])
array([33, 6])

>>> np.bitwise_or(np.array([2, 5, 255]), np.array([4, 4, 4]))

array([ 6, 5, 255])
>>> np.array([2, 5, 255]) | np.array([4, 4, 4])
array([ 6, 5, 255])
>>> np.bitwise_or(np.array([2, 5, 255, 2147483647L], dtype=np.int32),
... np.array([4, 4, 4, 2147483647L], dtype=np.int32))
array([ 6, 5, 255, 2147483647])
>>> np.bitwise_or([True, True], [False, True])
array([ True, True])
numpy.bitwise_xor(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'bitwise_xor'>
Compute the bit-wise XOR of two arrays element-wise.
Computes the bit-wise XOR of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator ^.
outputs.
**kwargs
Result.
See also:
logical_xor, bitwise_and, bitwise_or
Examples
The number 13 is represented by 00001101. Likewise, 17 is represented by 00010001. The bit-wise XOR
of 13 and 17 is therefore 00011100, or 28:
>>> np.bitwise_xor(13, 17)
28
'11100'
>>> np.bitwise_xor(31, 5)
26
>>> np.bitwise_xor([31,3], 5)
array([26, 6])

>>> np.bitwise_xor([31,3], [5,6])

array([26, 5])
>>> np.bitwise_xor([True, True], [False, True])
array([ True, False])
numpy.invert(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'invert'>
Compute bit-wise inversion, or bit-wise NOT, element-wise.
Computes the bit-wise NOT of the underlying binary representation of the integers in the input arrays. This
ufunc implements the C/Python operator ~.
For signed integer inputs, the two’s complement is returned. In a two’s-complement system negative numbers
are represented by the two’s complement of the absolute value. This is the most common method of representing
signed integers on computers [R64]. A N-bit two’s-complement system can represent every integer in the range
−2𝑁 −1 to +2𝑁 −1 − 1.
outputs.
**kwargs
Result.
See also:
bitwise_and, bitwise_or, bitwise_xor, logical_not
Notes
bitwise_not is an alias for invert:
>>> np.bitwise_not is np.invert

True
References
[R64]

Examples
We’ve seen that 13 is represented by 00001101. The invert or bit-wise NOT of 13 is then:
>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=uint8))
array([242], dtype=uint8)
>>> np.binary_repr(x, width=8)
'00001101'
>>> np.binary_repr(242, width=8)
'11110010'
The result depends on the bit-width:

>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=uint16))
>>> np.binary_repr(x, width=16)
'0000000000001101'
'1111111111110010'
When using signed integer types the result is the two’s complement of the result for the unsigned type:
>>> np.invert(np.array([13], dtype=int8))
array([-14], dtype=int8)
>>> np.binary_repr(-14, width=8)
'11110010'
Booleans are accepted as well:

>>> np.invert(array([True, False]))
numpy.left_shift(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'left_shift'>
Shift the bits of an integer to the left.
Bits are shifted to the left by appending x2 0s at the right of x1. Since the internal representation of numbers is
in binary format, this operation is equivalent to multiplying x1 by 2**x2.
Parameters x1 : array_like of integer type
Input values.
x2 : array_like of integer type
Number of zeros to append to x1. Has to be non-negative.
outputs.
**kwargs

Returns out : array of integer type

Return x1 with bits shifted x2 times to the left.
See also:
right_shift Shift the bits of an integer to the right.

Examples
'101'
>>> np.left_shift(5, 2)
20
'10100'
>>> np.left_shift(5, [1,2,3])

array([10, 20, 40])
numpy.right_shift(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'right_shift'>
Shift the bits of an integer to the right.
Bits are shifted to the right x2. Because the internal representation of numbers is in binary format, this operation
is equivalent to dividing x1 by 2**x2.
Parameters x1 : array_like, int
Input values.
x2 : array_like, int
Number of bits to remove at the right of x1.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns out : ndarray, int
Return x1 with bits shifted x2 times to the right.
See also:
left_shift Shift the bits of an integer to the left.


Examples
'1010'
>>> np.right_shift(10, 1)
5
'101'
>>> np.right_shift(10, [1,2,3])

array([5, 2, 1])
3.3.2 Bit packing
packbits(myarray[, axis]) Packs the elements of a binary-valued array into bits in a

uint8 array.
unpackbits(myarray[, axis]) Unpacks elements of a uint8 array into a binary-valued out-
put array.
numpy.packbits(myarray, axis=None)
Packs the elements of a binary-valued array into bits in a uint8 array.
The result is padded to full bytes by inserting zero bits at the end.
Parameters myarray : array_like
An array of integers or booleans whose elements should be packed to bits.
The dimension over which bit-packing is done. None implies packing the flattened
array.
Returns packed : ndarray
Array of type uint8 whose elements represent bits corresponding to the logical (0 or
nonzero) value of the input elements. The shape of packed has the same number of
dimensions as the input (unless axis is None, in which case the output is 1-D).
See also:
unpackbits Unpacks elements of a uint8 array into a binary-valued output array.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[[1,0,1],
... [0,1,0]],
... [[1,1,0],
... [0,0,1]]])
>>> b = np.packbits(a, axis=-1)
>>> b
array([[[160],[64]],[[192],[32]]], dtype=uint8)
Note that in binary 160 = 1010 0000, 64 = 0100 0000, 192 = 1100 0000, and 32 = 0010 0000.

numpy.unpackbits(myarray, axis=None)
Unpacks elements of a uint8 array into a binary-valued output array.
Each element of myarray represents a bit-field that should be unpacked into a binary-valued output array. The
shape of the output array is either 1-D (if axis is None) or the same shape as the input array with unpacking done
along the axis specified.
Parameters myarray : ndarray, uint8 type
Input array.
The dimension over which bit-unpacking is done. None implies unpacking the flattened
array.
Returns unpacked : ndarray, uint8 type
The elements are binary-valued (0 or 1).
See also:
packbits Packs the elements of a binary-valued array into bits in a uint8 array.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[2], [7], [23]], dtype=np.uint8)

>>> a
array([[ 2],
[ 7],
[23]], dtype=uint8)
>>> b = np.unpackbits(a, axis=1)
>>> b
array([[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1],
[0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1]], dtype=uint8)
3.3.3 Output formatting
binary_repr(num[, width]) Return the binary representation of the input number as a

string.
numpy.binary_repr(num, width=None)
Return the binary representation of the input number as a string.
For negative numbers, if width is not given, a minus sign is added to the front. If width is given, the two’s
complement of the number is returned, with respect to that width.
In a two’s-complement system negative numbers are represented by the two’s complement of the absolute
value. This is the most common method of representing signed integers on computers [R2424]. A N-bit two’s-
complement system can represent every integer in the range −2𝑁 −1 to +2𝑁 −1 − 1.
Parameters num : int
Only an integer decimal number can be used.
width : int, optional

The length of the returned string if num is positive, or the length of the two’s comple-
ment if num is negative, provided that width is at least a sufficient number of bits for
num to be represented in the designated form.
If the width value is insufficient, it will be ignored, and num will be returned in binary
(num > 0) or two’s complement (num < 0) form with its width equal to the minimum
number of bits needed to represent the number in the designated form. This behavior is
deprecated and will later raise an error.
Returns bin : str
Binary representation of num or two’s complement of num.
See also:
base_repr Return a string representation of a number in the given base system.

bin Python’s built-in binary representation generator of an integer.
Notes
binary_repr is equivalent to using base_repr with base 2, but about 25x faster.
References
[R2424]
Examples
'11'
>>> np.binary_repr(-3)
'-11'
'0011'
The two’s complement is returned when the input number is negative and width is specified:

'101'
'11101'
3.4 String operations
This module provides a set of vectorized string operations for arrays of type numpy.string_ or numpy.
unicode_. All of them are based on the string methods in the Python standard library.
3.4. String operations 469

3.4.1 String operations
add(x1, x2) Return element-wise string concatenation for two arrays of

str or unicode.
multiply(a, i) Return (a * i), that is string multiple concatenation,
element-wise.
mod(a, values) Return (a % i), that is pre-Python 2.6 string formatting (iter-
polation), element-wise for a pair of array_likes of str or
unicode.
capitalize(a) Return a copy of a with only the first character of each
element capitalized.
center(a, width[, fillchar]) Return a copy of a with its elements centered in a string of
length width.
decode(a[, encoding, errors]) Calls str.decode element-wise.
encode(a[, encoding, errors]) Calls str.encode element-wise.
join(sep, seq) Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings in
the sequence seq.
ljust(a, width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of a left-justified in a
lower(a) Return an array with the elements converted to lowercase.
lstrip(a[, chars]) For each element in a, return a copy with the leading char-
acters removed.
partition(a, sep) Partition each element in a around sep.
replace(a, old, new[, count]) For each element in a, return a copy of the string with all
occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
rjust(a, width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of a right-justified in a
rpartition(a, sep) Partition (split) each element around the right-most separa-
tor.
rsplit(a[, sep, maxsplit]) For each element in a, return a list of the words in the string,
using sep as the delimiter string.
rstrip(a[, chars]) For each element in a, return a copy with the trailing char-
acters removed.
split(a[, sep, maxsplit]) For each element in a, return a list of the words in the string,
using sep as the delimiter string.
splitlines(a[, keepends]) For each element in a, return a list of the lines in the ele-
ment, breaking at line boundaries.
strip(a[, chars]) For each element in a, return a copy with the leading and
trailing characters removed.
swapcase(a) Return element-wise a copy of the string with uppercase
characters converted to lowercase and vice versa.
title(a) Return element-wise title cased version of string or uni-
code.
translate(a, table[, deletechars]) For each element in a, return a copy of the string where all
characters occurring in the optional argument deletechars
are removed, and the remaining characters have been
mapped through the given translation table.
upper(a) Return an array with the elements converted to uppercase.
zfill(a, width) Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros
numpy.core.defchararray.add(x1, x2)
Return element-wise string concatenation for two arrays of str or unicode.

Arrays x1 and x2 must have the same shape.

Parameters x1 : array_like of str or unicode
Input array.
x2 : array_like of str or unicode
Input array.
Returns add : ndarray
Output array of string_ or unicode_, depending on input types of the same shape
as x1 and x2.
numpy.core.defchararray.multiply(a, i)
Return (a * i), that is string multiple concatenation, element-wise.
Values in i of less than 0 are treated as 0 (which yields an empty string).
Parameters a : array_like of str or unicode
i : array_like of ints
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input types
numpy.core.defchararray.mod(a, values)
Return (a % i), that is pre-Python 2.6 string formatting (iterpolation), element-wise for a pair of array_likes of
str or unicode.
values : array_like of values
These values will be element-wise interpolated into the string.
See also:
str.__mod__
numpy.core.defchararray.capitalize(a)
Return a copy of a with only the first character of each element capitalized.
Calls str.capitalize element-wise.
For 8-bit strings, this method is locale-dependent.
Input array of strings to capitalize.
See also:
str.capitalize

Examples
>>> c = np.array(['a1b2','1b2a','b2a1','2a1b'],'S4'); c
array(['a1b2', '1b2a', 'b2a1', '2a1b'],
dtype='|S4')
>>> np.char.capitalize(c)
array(['A1b2', '1b2a', 'B2a1', '2a1b'],
dtype='|S4')
numpy.core.defchararray.center(a, width, fillchar=’ ’)

Return a copy of a with its elements centered in a string of length width.
Calls str.center element-wise.
width : int
The length of the resulting strings
fillchar : str or unicode, optional
The padding character to use (default is space).
See also:
str.center
numpy.core.defchararray.decode(a, encoding=None, errors=None)
The set of available codecs comes from the Python standard library, and may be extended at runtime. For more
information, see the codecs module.
The name of an encoding
errors : str, optional
Specifies how to handle encoding errors
See also:
str.decode
Notes
The type of the result will depend on the encoding specified.

Examples
>>> c = np.array(['aAaAaA', ' aA ', 'abBABba'])

>>> c
array(['aAaAaA', ' aA ', 'abBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.encode(c, encoding='cp037')
array(['\x81\xc1\x81\xc1\x81\xc1', '@@\x81\xc1@@',
'\x81\x82\xc2\xc1\xc2\x82\x81'],
dtype='|S7')
numpy.core.defchararray.encode(a, encoding=None, errors=None)

The set of available codecs comes from the Python standard library, and may be extended at runtime. For more
information, see the codecs module.
The name of an encoding
errors : str, optional
Specifies how to handle encoding errors
See also:
str.encode
Notes
The type of the result will depend on the encoding specified.

numpy.core.defchararray.join(sep, seq)
Calls str.join element-wise.
Parameters sep : array_like of str or unicode
seq : array_like of str or unicode
See also:
str.join
numpy.core.defchararray.ljust(a, width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of a left-justified in a string of length width.
Calls str.ljust element-wise.
width : int


The character to use for padding
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input type
See also:
str.ljust
numpy.core.defchararray.lower(a)
Return an array with the elements converted to lowercase.
Call str.lower element-wise.
Parameters a : array_like, {str, unicode}
Input array.
Returns out : ndarray, {str, unicode}
See also:
str.lower
Examples
>>> c = np.array(['A1B C', '1BCA', 'BCA1']); c

array(['A1B C', '1BCA', 'BCA1'],
dtype='|S5')
>>> np.char.lower(c)
array(['a1b c', '1bca', 'bca1'],
dtype='|S5')
numpy.core.defchararray.lstrip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
Calls str.lstrip element-wise.
Parameters a : array-like, {str, unicode}
Input array.
chars : {str, unicode}, optional
The chars argument is a string specifying the set of characters to be removed. If omitted
or None, the chars argument defaults to removing whitespace. The chars argument is
not a prefix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
See also:
str.lstrip

Examples

>>> c
dtype='|S7')
The ‘a’ variable is unstripped from c[1] because whitespace leading.
>>> np.char.lstrip(c, 'a')

array(['AaAaA', ' aA ', 'bBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.lstrip(c, 'A') # leaves c unchanged

dtype='|S7')
>>> (np.char.lstrip(c, ' ') == np.char.lstrip(c, '')).all()
... # XXX: is this a regression? this line now returns False
... # np.char.lstrip(c,'') does not modify c at all.
True
>>> (np.char.lstrip(c, ' ') == np.char.lstrip(c, None)).all()
True
numpy.core.defchararray.partition(a, sep)
Partition each element in a around sep.
Calls str.partition element-wise.
For each element in a, split the element as the first occurrence of sep, and return 3 strings containing the part
before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3
strings containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
Input array
sep : {str, unicode}
Separator to split each string element in a.
Output array of str or unicode, depending on input type. The output array will have an
extra dimension with 3 elements per input element.
See also:
str.partition
numpy.core.defchararray.replace(a, old, new, count=None)
For each element in a, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
Calls str.replace element-wise.
Parameters a : array-like of str or unicode
old, new : str or unicode
If the optional argument count is given, only the first count occurrences are replaced.


See also:
str.replace
numpy.core.defchararray.rjust(a, width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of a right-justified in a string of length width.
Calls str.rjust element-wise.
width : int
The character to use for padding
See also:
str.rjust
numpy.core.defchararray.rpartition(a, sep)
Partition (split) each element around the right-most separator.
Calls str.rpartition element-wise.
For each element in a, split the element as the last occurrence of sep, and return 3 strings containing the part
before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3
strings containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings.
Input array
sep : str or unicode
Right-most separator to split each element in array.
Output array of string or unicode, depending on input type. The output array will have
an extra dimension with 3 elements per input element.
See also:
str.rpartition
numpy.core.defchararray.rsplit(a, sep=None, maxsplit=None)
For each element in a, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
Calls str.rsplit element-wise.
Except for splitting from the right, rsplit behaves like split.
sep : str or unicode, optional
If sep is not specified or None, any whitespace string is a separator.
maxsplit : int, optional

If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done, the rightmost ones.
Array of list objects
See also:
str.rsplit, split
numpy.core.defchararray.rstrip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
Calls str.rstrip element-wise.
chars : str or unicode, optional
not a suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
See also:
str.rstrip
Examples
>>> c = np.array(['aAaAaA', 'abBABba'], dtype='S7'); c

array(['aAaAaA', 'abBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.rstrip(c, 'a')
array(['aAaAaA', 'abBABb'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.rstrip(c, 'A')
array(['aAaAa', 'abBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
numpy.core.defchararray.split(a, sep=None, maxsplit=None)

For each element in a, return a list of the words in the string, using sep as the delimiter string.
Calls str.split element-wise.
sep : str or unicode, optional
If sep is not specified or None, any whitespace string is a separator.
maxsplit : int, optional
If maxsplit is given, at most maxsplit splits are done.
See also:
str.split, rsplit

numpy.core.defchararray.splitlines(a, keepends=None)
For each element in a, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
Calls str.splitlines element-wise.
keepends : bool, optional
Line breaks are not included in the resulting list unless keepends is given and true.
See also:
str.splitlines
numpy.core.defchararray.strip(a, chars=None)
For each element in a, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
Calls str.strip element-wise.
chars : str or unicode, optional
not a prefix or suffix; rather, all combinations of its values are stripped.
See also:
str.strip
Examples

>>> c
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.strip(c)
array(['aAaAaA', 'aA', 'abBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.strip(c, 'a') # 'a' unstripped from c[1] because whitespace leads
array(['AaAaA', ' aA ', 'bBABb'],
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.strip(c, 'A') # 'A' unstripped from c[1] because (unprinted) ws trails
array(['aAaAa', ' aA ', 'abBABba'],
dtype='|S7')
numpy.core.defchararray.swapcase(a)
Return element-wise a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice versa.
Calls str.swapcase element-wise.

Input array.
See also:
str.swapcase
Examples
>>> c=np.array(['a1B c','1b Ca','b Ca1','cA1b'],'S5'); c

array(['a1B c', '1b Ca', 'b Ca1', 'cA1b'],
dtype='|S5')
>>> np.char.swapcase(c)
array(['A1b C', '1B cA', 'B cA1', 'Ca1B'],
dtype='|S5')
numpy.core.defchararray.title(a)
Return element-wise title cased version of string or unicode.
Title case words start with uppercase characters, all remaining cased characters are lowercase.
Calls str.title element-wise.
Input array.
See also:
str.title
Examples
>>> c=np.array(['a1b c','1b ca','b ca1','ca1b'],'S5'); c

array(['a1b c', '1b ca', 'b ca1', 'ca1b'],
dtype='|S5')
>>> np.char.title(c)
array(['A1B C', '1B Ca', 'B Ca1', 'Ca1B'],
dtype='|S5')
numpy.core.defchararray.translate(a, table, deletechars=None)

For each element in a, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation table.
Calls str.translate element-wise.
table : str of length 256
deletechars : str


See also:
str.translate
numpy.core.defchararray.upper(a)
Return an array with the elements converted to uppercase.
Calls str.upper element-wise.
Input array.
See also:
str.upper
Examples
>>> c = np.array(['a1b c', '1bca', 'bca1']); c

array(['a1b c', '1bca', 'bca1'],
dtype='|S5')
>>> np.char.upper(c)
array(['A1B C', '1BCA', 'BCA1'],
dtype='|S5')
numpy.core.defchararray.zfill(a, width)
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros
Calls str.zfill element-wise.
Input array.
width : int
Width of string to left-fill elements in a.
See also:
str.zfill
3.4.2 Comparison
Unlike the standard numpy comparison operators, the ones in the char module strip trailing whitespace characters
before performing the comparison.

equal(x1, x2) Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.

not_equal(x1, x2) Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
greater_equal(x1, x2) Return (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
less_equal(x1, x2) Return (x1 <= x2) element-wise.
greater(x1, x2) Return (x1 > x2) element-wise.
less(x1, x2) Return (x1 < x2) element-wise.
numpy.core.defchararray.equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end of
the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
Parameters x1, x2 : array_like of str or unicode
Input arrays of the same shape.
Returns out : ndarray or bool
Output array of bools, or a single bool if x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.not_equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.not_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the
end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
See also:
equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.greater_equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from
the end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
See also:
equal, not_equal, less_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.less_equal(x1, x2)
Return (x1 <= x2) element-wise.

Unlike numpy.less_equal, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the
end of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
See also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, greater, less
numpy.core.defchararray.greater(x1, x2)
Return (x1 > x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end
of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
See also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, less
numpy.core.defchararray.less(x1, x2)
Return (x1 < x2) element-wise.
Unlike numpy.greater, this comparison is performed by first stripping whitespace characters from the end
of the string. This behavior is provided for backward-compatibility with numarray.
See also:
equal, not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater
3.4.3 String information
count(a, sub[, start, end]) Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping oc-
currences of substring sub in the range [start, end].
find(a, sub[, start, end]) For each element, return the lowest index in the string
index(a, sub[, start, end]) Like find, but raises ValueError when the substring is not
found.
isalpha(a) Returns true for each element if all characters in the string
are alphabetic and there is at least one character, false oth-
erwise.


isdecimal(a) For each element, return True if there are only decimal
characters in the element.
isdigit(a) Returns true for each element if all characters in the string
are digits and there is at least one character, false otherwise.
islower(a) Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the
string are lowercase and there is at least one cased charac-
isnumeric(a) For each element, return True if there are only numeric
characters in the element.
isspace(a) Returns true for each element if there are only whitespace
characters in the string and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
istitle(a) Returns true for each element if the element is a titlecased
string and there is at least one character, false otherwise.
isupper(a) Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the
string are uppercase and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
rfind(a, sub[, start, end]) For each element in a, return the highest index in the string
where substring sub is found, such that sub is contained
within [start, end].
rindex(a, sub[, start, end]) Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring sub
is not found.
startswith(a, prefix[, start, end]) Returns a boolean array which is True where the string el-
ement in a starts with prefix, otherwise False.
numpy.core.defchararray.count(a, sub, start=0, end=None)

Calls str.count element-wise.
sub : str or unicode
The substring to search for.
start, end : int, optional
Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as slice notation to specify the range
in which to count.
Output array of ints.
See also:
str.count
Examples

>>> c
dtype='|S7')
>>> np.char.count(c, 'A')

array([3, 1, 1])
>>> np.char.count(c, 'aA')
array([3, 1, 0])
>>> np.char.count(c, 'A', start=1, end=4)
array([2, 1, 1])
>>> np.char.count(c, 'A', start=1, end=3)
array([1, 0, 0])
numpy.core.defchararray.find(a, sub, start=0, end=None)

Calls str.find element-wise.
For each element, return the lowest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub is contained
in the range [start, end].
Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.
Returns out : ndarray or int
Output array of ints. Returns -1 if sub is not found.
See also:
str.find
numpy.core.defchararray.index(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
Calls str.index element-wise.
Output array of ints. Returns -1 if sub is not found.
See also:
find, str.find
numpy.core.defchararray.isalpha(a)
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
Calls str.isalpha element-wise.
Output array of bools

See also:
str.isalpha
numpy.core.defchararray.isdecimal(a)
For each element, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
Calls unicode.isdecimal element-wise.
Decimal characters include digit characters, and all characters that that can be used to form decimal-radix
numbers, e.g. U+0660, ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ZERO.
Parameters a : array_like, unicode
Input array.
Returns out : ndarray, bool
Array of booleans identical in shape to a.
See also:
unicode.isdecimal
numpy.core.defchararray.isdigit(a)
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
Calls str.isdigit element-wise.
See also:
str.isdigit
numpy.core.defchararray.islower(a)
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one cased
Calls str.islower element-wise.
See also:
str.islower
numpy.core.defchararray.isnumeric(a)
For each element, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
Calls unicode.isnumeric element-wise.
Numeric characters include digit characters, and all characters that have the Unicode numeric value property,
e.g. U+2155, VULGAR FRACTION ONE FIFTH.
Parameters a : array_like, unicode

Input array.
Array of booleans of same shape as a.
See also:
unicode.isnumeric
numpy.core.defchararray.isspace(a)
Calls str.isspace element-wise.
See also:
str.isspace
numpy.core.defchararray.istitle(a)
otherwise.
Call str.istitle element-wise.
See also:
str.istitle
numpy.core.defchararray.isupper(a)
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
Call str.isupper element-wise.
See also:
str.isupper
numpy.core.defchararray.rfind(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
For each element in a, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub is
contained within [start, end].
Calls str.rfind element-wise.


Optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in slice notation.
Output array of ints. Return -1 on failure.
See also:
str.rfind
numpy.core.defchararray.rindex(a, sub, start=0, end=None)
Calls str.rindex element-wise.
Output array of ints.
See also:
rfind, str.rindex
numpy.core.defchararray.startswith(a, prefix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in a starts with prefix, otherwise False.
Calls str.startswith element-wise.
prefix : str
With optional start, test beginning at that position. With optional end, stop comparing
at that position.
Array of booleans
See also:
str.startswith
3.4.4 Convenience class
chararray(shape[, itemsize, unicode, . . . ]) Provides a convenient view on arrays of string and unicode
values.
class numpy.core.defchararray.chararray(shape, itemsize=1, unicode=False, buffer=None,

offset=0, strides=None, order=None)
Provides a convenient view on arrays of string and unicode values.

Note: The chararray class exists for backwards compatibility with Numarray, it is not recommended for
new development. Starting from numpy 1.4, if one needs arrays of strings, it is recommended to use arrays of
dtype object_, string_ or unicode_, and use the free functions in the numpy.char module for fast
vectorized string operations.
3. vectorized string operations are provided as methods (e.g. endswith) and infix operators (e.g. "+",
"*", "%")
chararrays should be created using numpy.char.array or numpy.char.asarray, rather than this con-
structor directly.
This constructor creates the array, using buffer (with offset and strides) if it is not None. If buffer
is None, then constructs a new array with strides in “C order”, unless both len(shape) >= 2 and
order='Fortran', in which case strides is in “Fortran order”.
Shape of the array.
Length of each array element, in number of characters. Default is 1.
Are the array elements of type unicode (True) or string (False). Default is False.
buffer : int, optional
Memory address of the start of the array data. Default is None, in which case a new
array is created.
Fixed stride displacement from the beginning of an axis? Default is 0. Needs to be >=0.
strides : array_like of ints, optional
Strides for the array (see ndarray.strides for full description). Default is None.
The order in which the array data is stored in memory: ‘C’ -> “row major” order (the
default), ‘F’ -> “column major” (Fortran) order.
Examples
>>> charar = np.chararray((3, 3))

>>> charar[:] = 'a'
>>> charar
chararray([['a', 'a', 'a'],
['a', 'a', 'a'],
['a', 'a', 'a']],
dtype='|S1')

>>> charar = np.chararray(charar.shape, itemsize=5)

>>> charar[:] = 'abc'
>>> charar
chararray([['abc', 'abc', 'abc'],
['abc', 'abc', 'abc'],
['abc', 'abc', 'abc']],
dtype='|S5')
Attributes

self.ndim < 2.
the ctypes module.
data.
ing an array.
Methods
argsort([axis, kind, order])
count(sub[, start, end]) Returns an array with the number of non-overlapping
occurrences of substring sub in the range [start, end].
decode([encoding, errors]) Calls str.decode element-wise.
encode([encoding, errors]) Calls str.encode element-wise.
endswith(suffix[, start, end]) Returns a boolean array which is True where the string
element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
expandtabs([tabsize]) Return a copy of each string element where all tab char-
acters are replaced by one or more spaces.
find(sub[, start, end]) For each element, return the lowest index in the string


index(sub[, start, end]) Like find, but raises ValueError when the substring is
not found.
isalnum() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are alphanumeric and there is at least one char-
acter, false otherwise.
isalpha() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are alphabetic and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
isdecimal() For each element in self, return True if there are only
decimal characters in the element.
isdigit() Returns true for each element if all characters in the
string are digits and there is at least one character, false
otherwise.
islower() Returns true for each element if all cased characters in
the string are lowercase and there is at least one cased
isnumeric() For each element in self, return True if there are only
numeric characters in the element.
isspace() Returns true for each element if there are only whites-
pace characters in the string and there is at least one
istitle() Returns true for each element if the element is a title-
cased string and there is at least one character, false oth-
erwise.
isupper() Returns true for each element if all cased characters in
the string are uppercase and there is at least one charac-
and return it.
join(seq) Return a string which is the concatenation of the strings
in the sequence seq.
ljust(width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of self left-justified
lower() Return an array with the elements of self converted to
lowercase.
lstrip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the leading
characters removed.
replace(old, new[, count]) For each element in self, return a copy of the string with
all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
shape.
rfind(sub[, start, end]) For each element in self, return the highest index in the
string where substring sub is found, such that sub is con-
tained within [start, end].


rindex(sub[, start, end]) Like rfind, but raises ValueError when the substring
sub is not found.
rjust(width[, fillchar]) Return an array with the elements of self right-justified
rsplit([sep, maxsplit]) For each element in self, return a list of the words in the
rstrip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the trailing
characters removed.
data-type.
split([sep, maxsplit]) For each element in self, return a list of the words in the
splitlines([keepends]) For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the
element, breaking at line boundaries.
startswith(prefix[, start, end]) Returns a boolean array which is True where the string
element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
strip([chars]) For each element in self, return a copy with the leading
and trailing characters removed.
changed.
swapcase() For each element in self, return a copy of the string with
uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice
versa.
given indices.
title() For each element in self, return a titlecased version of
the string: words start with uppercase characters, all re-
maining cased characters are lowercase.
the array.
translate(table[, deletechars]) For each element in self, return a copy of the string
where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters
have been mapped through the given translation table.
upper() Return an array with the elements of self converted to
uppercase.
zfill(width) Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros in a
chararray.astype(dtype, order=’K’, casting=’unsafe’, subok=True, copy=True)



Default is ‘K’.
patibility.
allowed.
of a copy.
astype(t).
Notes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 2.5])

>>> x
array([ 1. , 2. , 2.5])

>>> x.astype(int)
array([1, 2, 2])
chararray.argsort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

chararray.copy(order=’C’)
See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]], order='F')
>>> y = x.copy()
>>> x.fill(0)
>>> x
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> y
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
True
chararray.count(sub, start=0, end=None)

See also:
char.count
chararray.decode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See also:
char.decode
chararray.dump(file)

chararray.dumps()
array.
Parameters None
chararray.encode(encoding=None, errors=None)
See also:
char.encode
chararray.endswith(suffix, start=0, end=None)
Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self ends with suffix, otherwise False.
See also:
char.endswith
chararray.expandtabs(tabsize=8)
Return a copy of each string element where all tab characters are replaced by one or more spaces.
See also:
char.expandtabs
chararray.fill(value)
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.fill(0)
>>> a
array([0, 0])
>>> a = np.empty(2)
>>> a.fill(1)
>>> a
array([ 1., 1.])
chararray.find(sub, start=0, end=None)

See also:
char.find
chararray.flatten(order=’C’)
Returns y : ndarray


See also:

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])

>>> a.flatten()
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> a.flatten('F')
array([1, 3, 2, 4])
chararray.getfield(dtype, offset=0)
array itself.
offset : int
Examples
>>> x = np.diag([1.+1.j]*2)
>>> x[1, 1] = 2 + 4.j
>>> x
array([[ 1.+1.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 2.+4.j]])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 2.]])

array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 4.]])
chararray.index(sub, start=0, end=None)

See also:
char.index

chararray.isalnum()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphanumeric and there is at least one
See also:
char.isalnum
chararray.isalpha()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are alphabetic and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See also:
char.isalpha
chararray.isdecimal()
For each element in self, return True if there are only decimal characters in the element.
See also:
char.isdecimal
chararray.isdigit()
Returns true for each element if all characters in the string are digits and there is at least one character,
false otherwise.
See also:
char.isdigit
chararray.islower()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are lowercase and there is at least one
cased character, false otherwise.
See also:
char.islower
chararray.isnumeric()
For each element in self, return True if there are only numeric characters in the element.
See also:
char.isnumeric
chararray.isspace()
See also:
char.isspace
chararray.istitle()
otherwise.
See also:
char.istitle
chararray.isupper()
Returns true for each element if all cased characters in the string are uppercase and there is at least one

See also:
char.isupper
chararray.item(*args)
Notes
Examples

>>> x
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 8, 3],
[8, 5, 3]])
>>> x.item(3)
2
>>> x.item(7)
5
>>> x.item((0, 1))
1
>>> x.item((2, 2))
3
chararray.join(seq)
See also:
char.join
chararray.ljust(width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of self left-justified in a string of length width.
See also:

char.ljust
chararray.lower()
Return an array with the elements of self converted to lowercase.
See also:
char.lower
chararray.lstrip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading characters removed.
See also:
char.lstrip
chararray.nonzero()
See also:
chararray.put(indices, values, mode=’raise’)

See also:
chararray.ravel([order ])
See also:

chararray.repeat(repeats, axis=None)
See also:
chararray.replace(old, new, count=None)

For each element in self, return a copy of the string with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new.
See also:
char.replace

chararray.reshape(shape, order=’C’)
See also:
Notes
chararray.resize(new_shape, refcheck=True)
Returns None
Raises ValueError
SystemError
See also:
Notes

Examples
shaped:

>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='C')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[1]])
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]], order='F')

>>> a.resize((2, 1))
>>> a
array([[0],
[2]])
>>> b = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> b
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 0, 0]])
>>> c = a
>>> a.resize((1, 1))
...

>>> a
array([[0]])
>>> c
array([[0]])
chararray.rfind(sub, start=0, end=None)

For each element in self, return the highest index in the string where substring sub is found, such that sub
is contained within [start, end].
See also:
char.rfind
chararray.rindex(sub, start=0, end=None)
See also:
char.rindex
chararray.rjust(width, fillchar=’ ’)
Return an array with the elements of self right-justified in a string of length width.
See also:
char.rjust
chararray.rsplit(sep=None, maxsplit=None)

See also:
char.rsplit
chararray.rstrip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the trailing characters removed.
See also:
char.rstrip
chararray.searchsorted(v, side=’left’, sorter=None)
See also:
chararray.setfield(val, dtype, offset=0)

Returns None
See also:
getfield
Examples
>>> x = np.eye(3)
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
array([[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3],
[3, 3, 3]])
>>> x
array([[ 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000, 1.48219694e-323],
[ 1.48219694e-323, 1.48219694e-323, 1.00000000e+000]])
>>> x
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],

[ 0., 1., 0.],

[ 0., 0., 1.]])
chararray.setflags(write=None, align=None, uic=None)

Notes
piler);
this array.
Examples
>>> y
array([[3, 1, 7],
[2, 0, 0],
[8, 5, 9]])
>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : True
ALIGNED : True


>>> y.flags
C_CONTIGUOUS : True
OWNDATA : True
WRITEABLE : False
ALIGNED : False
chararray.sort(axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

See also:

Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4], [3,1]])

>>> a.sort(axis=1)
>>> a
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> a.sort(axis=0)
>>> a

array([[1, 3],
[1, 4]])

>>> a
array([('c', 1), ('a', 2)],
dtype=[('x', '|S1'), ('y', '<i4')])
chararray.split(sep=None, maxsplit=None)
See also:
char.split
chararray.splitlines(keepends=None)
For each element in self, return a list of the lines in the element, breaking at line boundaries.
See also:
char.splitlines
chararray.squeeze(axis=None)
See also:
chararray.startswith(prefix, start=0, end=None)

Returns a boolean array which is True where the string element in self starts with prefix, otherwise False.
See also:
char.startswith
chararray.strip(chars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy with the leading and trailing characters removed.
See also:
char.strip
chararray.swapaxes(axis1, axis2)
See also:
chararray.swapcase()
For each element in self, return a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and
vice versa.
See also:

char.swapcase
chararray.take(indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)
See also:
chararray.title()
For each element in self, return a titlecased version of the string: words start with uppercase characters, all
remaining cased characters are lowercase.
See also:
char.title
chararray.tofile(fid, sep="", format="%s")
sep : str
format : str
Notes
chararray.tolist()
Python type.
Parameters none
Returns y : list
Notes

Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2])

>>> a.tolist()
[1, 2]
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> list(a)
[array([1, 2]), array([3, 4])]
>>> a.tolist()
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
chararray.tostring(order=’C’)
array.
Returns s : bytes
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[0, 1], [2, 3]])

>>> x.tobytes()
True
>>> x.tobytes('F')
chararray.translate(table, deletechars=None)
For each element in self, return a copy of the string where all characters occurring in the optional argument
deletechars are removed, and the remaining characters have been mapped through the given translation
table.
See also:
char.translate
chararray.transpose(*axes)
(i[n-1], i[n-2], ... i[1], i[0]).


axis.
See also:
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4]])
>>> a.transpose()
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
array([[1, 3],
[2, 4]])
chararray.upper()
Return an array with the elements of self converted to uppercase.
See also:
char.upper
chararray.view(dtype=None, type=None)
type preservation.
Notes


Examples

>>> y
>>> print(type(y))

>>> xv
array([[1, 2],
>>> xv.mean(0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> xv[0,1] = 20
>>> print(x)
[(1, 20) (3, 4)]
>>> z.a
Views share data:
>>> x[0] = (9, 10)

>>> z[0]
(9, 10)


>>> y = x[:, 0:2]
>>> y
array([[1, 2],
[4, 5]], dtype=int16)
>>> z = y.copy()
array([[(1, 2)],
chararray.zfill(width)
Return the numeric string left-filled with zeros in a string of length width.
See also:
char.zfill
3.5 C-Types Foreign Function Interface (numpy.ctypeslib)
numpy.ctypeslib.as_array(obj, shape=None)
Create a numpy array from a ctypes array or a ctypes POINTER. The numpy array shares the memory with the
ctypes object.
The size parameter must be given if converting from a ctypes POINTER. The size parameter is ignored if
converting from a ctypes array
numpy.ctypeslib.as_ctypes(obj)
Create and return a ctypes object from a numpy array. Actually anything that exposes the __array_interface__
is accepted.
numpy.ctypeslib.ctypes_load_library(*args, **kwds)
ctypes_load_library is deprecated, use load_library instead!
It is possible to load a library using >>> lib = ctypes.cdll[<full_path_name>]
But there are cross-platform considerations, such as library file extensions, plus the fact Windows will just load
the first library it finds with that name. NumPy supplies the load_library function as a convenience.
Parameters libname : str
Name of the library, which can have ‘lib’ as a prefix, but without an extension.
loader_path : str
Where the library can be found.
Returns ctypes.cdll[libpath] : library object
A ctypes library object
Raises OSError
If there is no library with the expected extension, or the library is defective and cannot
be loaded.
3.5. C-Types Foreign Function Interface (numpy.ctypeslib) 509

numpy.ctypeslib.load_library(libname, loader_path)
It is possible to load a library using >>> lib = ctypes.cdll[<full_path_name>]
But there are cross-platform considerations, such as library file extensions, plus the fact Windows will just load
the first library it finds with that name. NumPy supplies the load_library function as a convenience.
Parameters libname : str
Name of the library, which can have ‘lib’ as a prefix, but without an extension.
loader_path : str
Where the library can be found.
Returns ctypes.cdll[libpath] : library object
A ctypes library object
Raises OSError
If there is no library with the expected extension, or the library is defective and cannot
be loaded.
numpy.ctypeslib.ndpointer(dtype=None, ndim=None, shape=None, flags=None)
Array-checking restype/argtypes.
An ndpointer instance is used to describe an ndarray in restypes and argtypes specifications. This approach
is more flexible than using, for example, POINTER(c_double), since several restrictions can be specified,
which are verified upon calling the ctypes function. These include data type, number of dimensions, shape and
flags. If a given array does not satisfy the specified restrictions, a TypeError is raised.
Parameters dtype : data-type, optional
Array data-type.
ndim : int, optional
shape : tuple of ints, optional
Array shape.
flags : str or tuple of str
Array flags; may be one or more of:
• C_CONTIGUOUS / C / CONTIGUOUS
• F_CONTIGUOUS / F / FORTRAN
• OWNDATA / O
• WRITEABLE / W
• ALIGNED / A
• WRITEBACKIFCOPY / X
• UPDATEIFCOPY / U
Returns klass : ndpointer type object
A type object, which is an _ndtpr instance containing dtype, ndim, shape and flags
information.
Raises TypeError
If a given array does not satisfy the specified restrictions.

Examples
>>> clib.somefunc.argtypes = [np.ctypeslib.ndpointer(dtype=np.float64,

... ndim=1,
... flags='C_CONTIGUOUS')]
...
>>> clib.somefunc(np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.float64))
...
3.6 Datetime Support Functions
datetime_as_string(arr[, unit, timezone, . . . ]) Convert an array of datetimes into an array of strings.

datetime_data(dtype, /) Get information about the step size of a date or time type.
numpy.datetime_as_string(arr, unit=None, timezone=’naive’, casting=’same_kind’)

Convert an array of datetimes into an array of strings.
Parameters arr : array_like of datetime64
The array of UTC timestamps to format.
unit : str
One of None, ‘auto’, or a datetime unit.
timezone : {‘naive’, ‘UTC’, ‘local’} or tzinfo
Timezone information to use when displaying the datetime. If ‘UTC’, end with a Z
to indicate UTC time. If ‘local’, convert to the local timezone first, and suffix with a
+-#### timezone offset. If a tzinfo object, then do as with ‘local’, but use the specified
timezone.
casting : {‘no’, ‘equiv’, ‘safe’, ‘same_kind’, ‘unsafe’}
Casting to allow when changing between datetime units.
Returns str_arr : ndarray
An array of strings the same shape as arr.
Examples
>>> d = np.arange('2002-10-27T04:30', 4*60, 60, dtype='M8[m]')

>>> d
array(['2002-10-27T04:30', '2002-10-27T05:30', '2002-10-27T06:30',
'2002-10-27T07:30'], dtype='datetime64[m]')
Setting the timezone to UTC shows the same information, but with a Z suffix
>>> np.datetime_as_string(d, timezone='UTC')

array(['2002-10-27T04:30Z', '2002-10-27T05:30Z', '2002-10-27T06:30Z',
'2002-10-27T07:30Z'], dtype='<U35')
Note that we picked datetimes that cross a DST boundary. Passing in a pytz timezone object will print the
appropriate offset:
3.6. Datetime Support Functions 511

>>> np.datetime_as_string(d, timezone=pytz.timezone('US/Eastern'))
array([‘2002-10-27T00:30-0400’, ‘2002-10-27T01:30-0400’, ‘2002-10-27T01:30-0500’, ‘2002-10-

27T02:30-0500’], dtype=’<U39’)
Passing in a unit will change the precision:

>>> np.datetime_as_string(d, unit='h')
array([‘2002-10-27T04’, ‘2002-10-27T05’, ‘2002-10-27T06’, ‘2002-10-27T07’], dtype=’<U32’)
>>> np.datetime_as_string(d, unit='s')

array(['2002-10-27T04:30:00', '2002-10-27T05:30:00', '2002-10-27T06:30:00',
'2002-10-27T07:30:00'], dtype='<U38')
But can be made to not lose precision:

>>> np.datetime_as_string(d, unit='h', casting='safe')
TypeError: Cannot create a datetime string as units ‘h’ from a NumPy datetime with units ‘m’ according to the
rule ‘safe’
numpy.datetime_data(dtype, / )
Get information about the step size of a date or time type.
The returned tuple can be passed as the second argument of datetime64 and timedelta64.
Parameters dtype : dtype
The dtype object, which must be a datetime64 or timedelta64 type.
Returns unit : str
The datetime unit on which this dtype is based.
count : int
The number of base units in a step.
Examples
>>> dt_25s = np.dtype('timedelta64[25s]')

>>> np.datetime_data(dt_25s)
('s', 25)
>>> np.array(10, dt_25s).astype('timedelta64[s]')
array(250, dtype='timedelta64[s]')
The result can be used to construct a datetime that uses the same units as a timedelta:
>>> np.datetime64('2010', np.datetime_data(dt_25s))
numpy.datetime64(‘2010-01-01T00:00:00’,’25s’)
3.6.1 Business Day Functions

busdaycalendar([weekmask, holidays]) A business day calendar object that efficiently stores infor-
mation defining valid days for the busday family of func-
tions.
is_busday(dates[, weekmask, holidays, . . . ]) Calculates which of the given dates are valid days, and
which are not.
busday_offset(dates, offsets[, roll, . . . ]) First adjusts the date to fall on a valid day according to the
roll rule, then applies offsets to the given dates counted
in valid days.
busday_count(begindates, enddates[, . . . ]) Counts the number of valid days between begindates and
enddates, not including the day of enddates.
class numpy.busdaycalendar(weekmask=’1111100’, holidays=None)

A business day calendar object that efficiently stores information defining valid days for the busday family of
functions.
The default valid days are Monday through Friday (“business days”). A busdaycalendar object can be specified
with any set of weekly valid days, plus an optional “holiday” dates that always will be invalid.
Once a busdaycalendar object is created, the weekmask and holidays cannot be modified.
Parameters weekmask : str or array_like of bool, optional
A seven-element array indicating which of Monday through Sunday are valid days.
May be specified as a length-seven list or array, like [1,1,1,1,1,0,0]; a length-seven
string, like ‘1111100’; or a string like “Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri”, made up of 3-character
abbreviations for weekdays, optionally separated by white space. Valid abbreviations
are: Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
holidays : array_like of datetime64[D], optional
An array of dates to consider as invalid dates, no matter which weekday they fall upon.
Holiday dates may be specified in any order, and NaT (not-a-time) dates are ignored.
This list is saved in a normalized form that is suited for fast calculations of valid days.
Returns out : busdaycalendar
A business day calendar object containing the specified weekmask and holidays values.
See also:
is_busday Returns a boolean array indicating valid days.

busday_offset Applies an offset counted in valid days.
busday_count Counts how many valid days are in a half-open date range.
Examples
>>> # Some important days in July

... bdd = np.busdaycalendar(
... holidays=['2011-07-01', '2011-07-04', '2011-07-17'])
>>> # Default is Monday to Friday weekdays
... bdd.weekmask
array([ True, True, True, True, True, False, False], dtype='bool')
>>> # Any holidays already on the weekend are removed

... bdd.holidays
array(['2011-07-01', '2011-07-04'], dtype='datetime64[D]')
Attributes
weekmask A copy of the seven-element boolean mask indicating

valid days.
holidays A copy of the holiday array indicating additional invalid
days.
Note: once a busdaycalendar object is created, you cannot modify the

weekmask or holidays. The attributes return copies of internal data.
numpy.is_busday(dates, weekmask=’1111100’, holidays=None, busdaycal=None, out=None)

Calculates which of the given dates are valid days, and which are not.
Parameters dates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of dates to process.
weekmask : str or array_like of bool, optional
An array of dates to consider as invalid dates. They may be specified in any order, and
NaT (not-a-time) dates are ignored. This list is saved in a normalized form that is suited
for fast calculations of valid days.
busdaycal : busdaycalendar, optional
A busdaycalendar object which specifies the valid days. If this parameter is pro-
vided, neither weekmask nor holidays may be provided.
out : array of bool, optional
If provided, this array is filled with the result.
Returns out : array of bool
An array with the same shape as dates, containing True for each valid day, and False
for each invalid day.
See also:
busdaycalendar An object that specifies a custom set of valid days.


Examples
>>> # The weekdays are Friday, Saturday, and Monday

... np.is_busday(['2011-07-01', '2011-07-02', '2011-07-18'],
... holidays=['2011-07-01', '2011-07-04', '2011-07-17'])
array([False, False, True], dtype='bool')
numpy.busday_offset(dates, offsets, roll=’raise’, weekmask=’1111100’, holidays=None, busday-

cal=None, out=None)
First adjusts the date to fall on a valid day according to the roll rule, then applies offsets to the given dates
counted in valid days.
Parameters dates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of dates to process.
offsets : array_like of int
The array of offsets, which is broadcast with dates.
roll : {‘raise’, ‘nat’, ‘forward’, ‘following’, ‘backward’, ‘preceding’, ‘modifiedfollowing’,
‘modifiedpreceding’}, optional
How to treat dates that do not fall on a valid day. The default is ‘raise’.
• ‘raise’ means to raise an exception for an invalid day.
• ‘nat’ means to return a NaT (not-a-time) for an invalid day.
• ‘forward’ and ‘following’ mean to take the first valid day later in time.
• ‘backward’ and ‘preceding’ mean to take the first valid day earlier in time.
• ‘modifiedfollowing’ means to take the first valid day later in time unless it is across a
Month boundary, in which case to take the first valid day earlier in time.
• ‘modifiedpreceding’ means to take the first valid day earlier in time unless it is across
a Month boundary, in which case to take the first valid day later in time.
out : array of datetime64[D], optional
Returns out : array of datetime64[D]

An array with a shape from broadcasting dates and offsets together, containing
the dates with offsets applied.
See also:

Examples
>>> # First business day in October 2011 (not accounting for holidays)
... np.busday_offset('2011-10', 0, roll='forward')
>>> # Last business day in February 2012 (not accounting for holidays)
... np.busday_offset('2012-03', -1, roll='forward')
>>> # Third Wednesday in January 2011
... np.busday_offset('2011-01', 2, roll='forward', weekmask='Wed')
>>> # 2012 Mother's Day in Canada and the U.S.
... np.busday_offset('2012-05', 1, roll='forward', weekmask='Sun')
>>> # First business day on or after a date

... np.busday_offset('2011-03-20', 0, roll='forward')
>>> # First business day after a date
... np.busday_offset('2011-03-20', 1, roll='backward')
numpy.busday_count(begindates, enddates, weekmask=’1111100’, holidays=[], busdaycal=None,

out=None)
Counts the number of valid days between begindates and enddates, not including the day of enddates.
If enddates specifies a date value that is earlier than the corresponding begindates date value, the count
will be negative.
Parameters begindates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of the first dates for counting.
enddates : array_like of datetime64[D]
The array of the end dates for counting, which are excluded from the count themselves.


out : array of int, optional
Returns out : array of int
An array with a shape from broadcasting begindates and enddates together, con-
taining the number of valid days between the begin and end dates.
See also:

Examples
>>> # Number of weekdays in January 2011

... np.busday_count('2011-01', '2011-02')
21
>>> # Number of weekdays in 2011
... np.busday_count('2011', '2012')
260
>>> # Number of Saturdays in 2011
... np.busday_count('2011', '2012', weekmask='Sat')
53
3.7 Data type routines
can_cast(from_, to[, casting]) Returns True if cast between data types can occur accord-
ing to the casting rule.
promote_types(type1, type2) Returns the data type with the smallest size and small-
est scalar kind to which both type1 and type2 may be
safely cast.
min_scalar_type(a) For scalar a, returns the data type with the smallest size and
smallest scalar kind which can hold its value.
result_type(*arrays_and_dtypes) Returns the type that results from applying the NumPy type
promotion rules to the arguments.
common_type(*arrays) Return a scalar type which is common to the input arrays.
3.7. Data type routines 517


obj2sctype(rep[, default]) Return the scalar dtype or NumPy equivalent of Python
type of an object.
numpy.can_cast(from_, to, casting=’safe’)

Returns True if cast between data types can occur according to the casting rule. If from is a scalar or array scalar,
also returns True if the scalar value can be cast without overflow or truncation to an integer.
Parameters from_ : dtype, dtype specifier, scalar, or array
Data type, scalar, or array to cast from.
to : dtype or dtype specifier
Data type to cast to.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur.
allowed.
Returns out : bool
True if cast can occur according to the casting rule.
See also:
dtype, result_type
Notes
Starting in NumPy 1.9, can_cast function now returns False in ‘safe’ casting mode for integer/float dtype and
string dtype if the string dtype length is not long enough to store the max integer/float value converted to a string.
Previously can_cast in ‘safe’ mode returned True for integer/float dtype and a string dtype of any length.
Examples
Basic examples
>>> np.can_cast(np.int32, np.int64)
True
>>> np.can_cast(np.float64, complex)
True
>>> np.can_cast(complex, float)
False
>>> np.can_cast('i8', 'f8')

True
>>> np.can_cast('i8', 'f4')
False

>>> np.can_cast('i4', 'S4')

False
Casting scalars
>>> np.can_cast(100, 'i1')

True
>>> np.can_cast(150, 'i1')
False
>>> np.can_cast(150, 'u1')
True
>>> np.can_cast(3.5e100, np.float32)

False
>>> np.can_cast(1000.0, np.float32)
True
Array scalar checks the value, array does not
>>> np.can_cast(np.array(1000.0), np.float32)

True
>>> np.can_cast(np.array([1000.0]), np.float32)
False
Using the casting rules
>>> np.can_cast('i8', 'i8', 'no')

True
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>i8', 'no')
False
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>i8', 'equiv')

True
>>> np.can_cast('<i4', '>i8', 'equiv')
False
>>> np.can_cast('<i4', '>i8', 'safe')

True
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>i4', 'safe')
False
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>i4', 'same_kind')

True
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>u4', 'same_kind')
False
>>> np.can_cast('<i8', '>u4', 'unsafe')

True
numpy.promote_types(type1, type2)
Returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind to which both type1 and type2 may be
safely cast. The returned data type is always in native byte order.
This function is symmetric and associative.
Parameters type1 : dtype or dtype specifier

First data type.

type2 : dtype or dtype specifier
Second data type.
Returns out : dtype
The promoted data type.
See also:
result_type, dtype, can_cast
Notes

Starting in NumPy 1.9, promote_types function now returns a valid string length when given an integer or float
dtype as one argument and a string dtype as another argument. Previously it always returned the input string
dtype, even if it wasn’t long enough to store the max integer/float value converted to a string.
Examples
>>> np.promote_types('f4', 'f8')

dtype('float64')
>>> np.promote_types('i8', 'f4')

dtype('float64')
>>> np.promote_types('>i8', '<c8')

dtype('complex128')
>>> np.promote_types('i4', 'S8')

dtype('S11')
numpy.min_scalar_type(a)
For scalar a, returns the data type with the smallest size and smallest scalar kind which can hold its value. For
non-scalar array a, returns the vector’s dtype unmodified.
Floating point values are not demoted to integers, and complex values are not demoted to floats.
Parameters a : scalar or array_like
The value whose minimal data type is to be found.
Returns out : dtype
The minimal data type.
See also:
result_type, promote_types, dtype, can_cast
Notes

Examples
>>> np.min_scalar_type(10)
dtype('uint8')
>>> np.min_scalar_type(-260)
dtype('int16')
>>> np.min_scalar_type(3.1)
dtype('float16')
>>> np.min_scalar_type(1e50)
dtype('float64')
>>> np.min_scalar_type(np.arange(4,dtype='f8'))
dtype('float64')
numpy.result_type(*arrays_and_dtypes)
Returns the type that results from applying the NumPy type promotion rules to the arguments.
Type promotion in NumPy works similarly to the rules in languages like C++, with some slight differences.
When both scalars and arrays are used, the array’s type takes precedence and the actual value of the scalar is
taken into account.
For example, calculating 3*a, where a is an array of 32-bit floats, intuitively should result in a 32-bit float output.
If the 3 is a 32-bit integer, the NumPy rules indicate it can’t convert losslessly into a 32-bit float, so a 64-bit
float should be the result type. By examining the value of the constant, ‘3’, we see that it fits in an 8-bit integer,
which can be cast losslessly into the 32-bit float.
Parameters arrays_and_dtypes : list of arrays and dtypes
The operands of some operation whose result type is needed.
Returns out : dtype
The result type.
See also:
dtype, promote_types, min_scalar_type, can_cast
Notes

The specific algorithm used is as follows.
Categories are determined by first checking which of boolean, integer (int/uint), or floating point (float/complex)
the maximum kind of all the arrays and the scalars are.
If there are only scalars or the maximum category of the scalars is higher than the maximum category of the
arrays, the data types are combined with promote_types to produce the return value.
Otherwise, min_scalar_type is called on each array, and the resulting data types are all combined with
promote_types to produce the return value.
The set of int values is not a subset of the uint values for types with the same number of bits, something not
reflected in min_scalar_type, but handled as a special case in result_type.

Examples
>>> np.result_type(3, np.arange(7, dtype='i1'))

dtype('int8')
>>> np.result_type('i4', 'c8')

dtype('complex128')
>>> np.result_type(3.0, -2)

dtype('float64')
numpy.common_type(*arrays)
Return a scalar type which is common to the input arrays.
The return type will always be an inexact (i.e. floating point) scalar type, even if all the arrays are integer arrays.
If one of the inputs is an integer array, the minimum precision type that is returned is a 64-bit floating point
dtype.
All input arrays except int64 and uint64 can be safely cast to the returned dtype without loss of information.
Parameters array1, array2, . . . : ndarrays
Input arrays.
Returns out : data type code
Data type code.
See also:
dtype, mintypecode
Examples
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(2, dtype=np.float32))

<type 'numpy.float32'>
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(2, dtype=np.float32), np.arange(2))
>>> np.common_type(np.arange(4), np.array([45, 6.j]), np.array([45.0]))
<type 'numpy.complex128'>
numpy.obj2sctype(rep, default=None)
Return the scalar dtype or NumPy equivalent of Python type of an object.
Parameters rep : any
The object of which the type is returned.
default : any, optional
If given, this is returned for objects whose types can not be determined. If not given,
None is returned for those objects.
Returns dtype : dtype or Python type
The data type of rep.
See also:
sctype2char, issctype, issubsctype, issubdtype, maximum_sctype

Examples
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.int32)
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.array([1., 2.]))
>>> np.obj2sctype(np.array([1.j]))
<type 'numpy.complex128'>
>>> np.obj2sctype(dict)
<type 'numpy.object_'>
>>> np.obj2sctype('string')
<type 'numpy.string_'>
>>> np.obj2sctype(1, default=list)

<type 'list'>
3.7.1 Creating data types
dtype(obj[, align, copy]) Create a data type object.

format_parser(formats, names, titles[, . . . ]) Class to convert formats, names, titles description to a
dtype.
class numpy.format_parser(formats, names, titles, aligned=False, byteorder=None)

Class to convert formats, names, titles description to a dtype.
After constructing the format_parser object, the dtype attribute is the converted data-type: dtype =
format_parser(formats, names, titles).dtype
Parameters formats : str or list of str
The format description, either specified as a string with comma-separated format de-
scriptions in the form 'f8, i4, a5', or a list of format description strings in the
form ['f8', 'i4', 'a5'].
names : str or list/tuple of str
The field names, either specified as a comma-separated string in the form 'col1,
col2, col3', or as a list or tuple of strings in the form ['col1', 'col2',
'col3']. An empty list can be used, in that case default field names (‘f0’, ‘f1’, . . . )
are used.
titles : sequence
Sequence of title strings. An empty list can be used to leave titles out.
aligned : bool, optional
If True, align the fields by padding as the C-compiler would. Default is False.
byteorder : str, optional
If specified, all the fields will be changed to the provided byte-order. Otherwise,
the default byte-order is used. For all available string specifiers, see dtype.
newbyteorder.
See also:

dtype, typename, sctype2char
Examples
>>> np.format_parser(['f8', 'i4', 'a5'], ['col1', 'col2', 'col3'],

... ['T1', 'T2', 'T3']).dtype
dtype([(('T1', 'col1'), '<f8'), (('T2', 'col2'), '<i4'),
(('T3', 'col3'), '|S5')])
names and/or titles can be empty lists. If titles is an empty list, titles will simply not appear. If names is empty,
default field names will be used.
>>> np.format_parser(['f8', 'i4', 'a5'], ['col1', 'col2', 'col3'],

... []).dtype
dtype([('col1', '<f8'), ('col2', '<i4'), ('col3', '|S5')])
>>> np.format_parser(['f8', 'i4', 'a5'], [], []).dtype
dtype([('f0', '<f8'), ('f1', '<i4'), ('f2', '|S5')])
Attributes
dtype (dtype) The converted data-type.
3.7.2 Data type information
finfo(dtype) Machine limits for floating point types.

iinfo(type) Machine limits for integer types.
MachAr([float_conv, int_conv, . . . ]) Diagnosing machine parameters.
class numpy.finfo(dtype)
Machine limits for floating point types.
Parameters dtype : float, dtype, or instance
Kind of floating point data-type about which to get information.
See also:
MachAr The implementation of the tests that produce this information.

iinfo The equivalent for integer data types.
Notes
For developers of NumPy: do not instantiate this at the module level. The initial calculation of these parameters
is expensive and negatively impacts import times. These objects are cached, so calling finfo() repeatedly
inside your functions is not a problem.

Attributes
bits (int) The number of bits occupied by the type.

eps (float) The smallest representable positive number such that 1.0 + eps != 1.0. Type of eps
is an appropriate floating point type.
epsneg (floating point number of the appropriate type) The smallest representable positive number such
that 1.0 - epsneg != 1.0.
iexp (int) The number of bits in the exponent portion of the floating point representation.
machar (MachAr) The object which calculated these parameters and holds more detailed information.
machep (int) The exponent that yields eps.
max (floating point number of the appropriate type) The largest representable number.
max- (int) The smallest positive power of the base (2) that causes overflow.
exp
min (floating point number of the appropriate type) The smallest representable number, typically
-max.
min- (int) The most negative power of the base (2) consistent with there being no leading 0’s in the
exp mantissa.
negep (int) The exponent that yields epsneg.
nexp (int) The number of bits in the exponent including its sign and bias.
nmant (int) The number of bits in the mantissa.
preci- (int) The approximate number of decimal digits to which this kind of float is precise.
sion
resolu- (floating point number of the appropriate type) The approximate decimal resolution of this type,
tion i.e., 10**-precision.
tiny (float) The smallest positive usable number. Type of tiny is an appropriate floating point type.
class numpy.iinfo(type)
Machine limits for integer types.
Parameters int_type : integer type, dtype, or instance
The kind of integer data type to get information about.
See also:
finfo The equivalent for floating point data types.
Examples
With types:
>>> ii16 = np.iinfo(np.int16)

>>> ii16.min
-32768
>>> ii16.max
32767
>>> ii32 = np.iinfo(np.int32)
>>> ii32.min
-2147483648
>>> ii32.max
2147483647
With instances:

>>> ii32 = np.iinfo(np.int32(10))

>>> ii32.min
-2147483648
>>> ii32.max
2147483647
Attributes
min Minimum value of given dtype.

max Maximum value of given dtype.
bits (int) The number of bits occupied by the type.
class numpy.MachAr(float_conv=<class ’float’>, int_conv=<class ’int’>, float_to_float=<class

’float’>, float_to_str=<function MachAr.<lambda>>, title=’Python floating point
number’)
Diagnosing machine parameters.
Parameters float_conv : function, optional
Function that converts an integer or integer array to a float or float array. Default is
float.
int_conv : function, optional
Function that converts a float or float array to an integer or integer array. Default is int.
float_to_float : function, optional
Function that converts a float array to float. Default is float. Note that this does not
seem to do anything useful in the current implementation.
float_to_str : function, optional
Function that converts a single float to a string. Default is lambda v:'%24.16e'
%v.
title : str, optional
Title that is printed in the string representation of MachAr.
See also:
finfo Machine limits for floating point types.

iinfo Machine limits for integer types.
References
[R11]

Attributes
ibeta (int) Radix in which numbers are represented.

it (int) Number of base-ibeta digits in the floating point mantissa M.
machep (int) Exponent of the smallest (most negative) power of ibeta that, added to 1.0, gives something
different from 1.0
eps (float) Floating-point number beta**machep (floating point precision)
negep (int) Exponent of the smallest power of ibeta that, subtracted from 1.0, gives something different
from 1.0.
epsneg (float) Floating-point number beta**negep.
iexp (int) Number of bits in the exponent (including its sign and bias).
minexp (int) Smallest (most negative) power of ibeta consistent with there being no leading zeros in the
mantissa.
xmin (float) Floating point number beta**minexp (the smallest [in magnitude] usable floating
value).
maxexp (int) Smallest (positive) power of ibeta that causes overflow.
xmax (float) (1-epsneg) * beta**maxexp (the largest [in magnitude] usable floating value).
irnd (int) In range(6), information on what kind of rounding is done in addition, and on how
underflow is handled.
ngrd (int) Number of ‘guard digits’ used when truncating the product of two mantissas to fit the
representation.
epsilon (float) Same as eps.
tiny (float) Same as xmin.
huge (float) Same as xmax.
preci- (float) - int(-log10(eps))
sion
resolu- (float) - 10**(-precision)
tion
3.7.3 Data type testing
issctype(rep) Determines whether the given object represents a scalar

data-type.
issubdtype(arg1, arg2) Returns True if first argument is a typecode lower/equal in
type hierarchy.
issubsctype(arg1, arg2) Determine if the first argument is a subclass of the second
argument.
issubclass_(arg1, arg2) Determine if a class is a subclass of a second class.
find_common_type(array_types, scalar_types) Determine common type following standard coercion rules.
numpy.issctype(rep)
Determines whether the given object represents a scalar data-type.
Parameters rep : any
If rep is an instance of a scalar dtype, True is returned. If not, False is returned.
Returns out : bool
Boolean result of check whether rep is a scalar dtype.
See also:

issubsctype, issubdtype, obj2sctype, sctype2char
Examples
>>> np.issctype(np.int32)
True
>>> np.issctype(list)
False
>>> np.issctype(1.1)
False
Strings are also a scalar type:
>>> np.issctype(np.dtype('str'))
True
numpy.issubdtype(arg1, arg2)
Returns True if first argument is a typecode lower/equal in type hierarchy.
Parameters arg1, arg2 : dtype_like
dtype or string representing a typecode.
Returns out : bool
See also:
issubsctype, issubclass_
numpy.core.numerictypes Overview of numpy type hierarchy.
Examples
>>> np.issubdtype('S1', np.string_)

True
>>> np.issubdtype(np.float64, np.float32)
False
numpy.issubsctype(arg1, arg2)
Determine if the first argument is a subclass of the second argument.
Parameters arg1, arg2 : dtype or dtype specifier
Data-types.
Returns out : bool
The result.
See also:
issctype, issubdtype, obj2sctype
Examples

>>> np.issubsctype('S8', str)

True
>>> np.issubsctype(np.array([1]), int)
True
>>> np.issubsctype(np.array([1]), float)
False
numpy.issubclass_(arg1, arg2)
Determine if a class is a subclass of a second class.
issubclass_ is equivalent to the Python built-in issubclass, except that it returns False instead of raising
a TypeError if one of the arguments is not a class.
Parameters arg1 : class
Input class. True is returned if arg1 is a subclass of arg2.
arg2 : class or tuple of classes.
Input class. If a tuple of classes, True is returned if arg1 is a subclass of any of the tuple
elements.
Returns out : bool
Whether arg1 is a subclass of arg2 or not.
See also:
issubsctype, issubdtype, issctype
Examples
>>> np.issubclass_(np.int32, int)

True
>>> np.issubclass_(np.int32, float)
False
numpy.find_common_type(array_types, scalar_types)
Determine common type following standard coercion rules.
Parameters array_types : sequence
A list of dtypes or dtype convertible objects representing arrays.
scalar_types : sequence
A list of dtypes or dtype convertible objects representing scalars.
Returns datatype : dtype
The common data type, which is the maximum of array_types ignoring scalar_types,
unless the maximum of scalar_types is of a different kind (dtype.kind). If the kind
is not understood, then None is returned.
See also:
dtype, common_type, can_cast, mintypecode

Examples
>>> np.find_common_type([], [np.int64, np.float32, complex])

dtype('complex128')
>>> np.find_common_type([np.int64, np.float32], [])
dtype('float64')
The standard casting rules ensure that a scalar cannot up-cast an array unless the scalar is of a fundamentally
different kind of data (i.e. under a different hierarchy in the data type hierarchy) then the array:
>>> np.find_common_type([np.float32], [np.int64, np.float64])

dtype('float32')
Complex is of a different type, so it up-casts the float in the array_types argument:
>>> np.find_common_type([np.float32], [complex])

dtype('complex128')
Type specifier strings are convertible to dtypes and can therefore be used instead of dtypes:
>>> np.find_common_type(['f4', 'f4', 'i4'], ['c8'])

dtype('complex128')
3.7.4 Miscellaneous
typename(char) Return a description for the given data type code.

sctype2char(sctype) Return the string representation of a scalar dtype.
mintypecode(typechars[, typeset, default]) Return the character for the minimum-size type to which
given types can be safely cast.
numpy.typename(char)
Return a description for the given data type code.
Parameters char : str
Data type code.
Returns out : str
Description of the input data type code.
See also:
dtype, typecodes
Examples
>>> typechars = ['S1', '?', 'B', 'D', 'G', 'F', 'I', 'H', 'L', 'O', 'Q',
... 'S', 'U', 'V', 'b', 'd', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'h', 'l', 'q']
>>> for typechar in typechars:
... print(typechar, ' : ', np.typename(typechar))
...
S1 : character
? : bool

B : unsigned char
D : complex double precision
G : complex long double precision
F : complex single precision
I : unsigned integer
H : unsigned short
L : unsigned long integer
O : object
Q : unsigned long long integer
S : string
U : unicode
V : void
b : signed char
d : double precision
g : long precision
f : single precision
i : integer
h : short
l : long integer
q : long long integer
numpy.sctype2char(sctype)
Return the string representation of a scalar dtype.
Parameters sctype : scalar dtype or object
If a scalar dtype, the corresponding string character is returned. If an object,
sctype2char tries to infer its scalar type and then return the corresponding string
character.
Returns typechar : str
The string character corresponding to the scalar type.
Raises ValueError
If sctype is an object for which the type can not be inferred.
See also:
obj2sctype, issctype, issubsctype, mintypecode
Examples
>>> for sctype in [np.int32, float, complex, np.string_, np.ndarray]:

... print(np.sctype2char(sctype))
l
d
D
S
O
>>> x = np.array([1., 2-1.j])

>>> np.sctype2char(x)
'D'
>>> np.sctype2char(list)
'O'

numpy.mintypecode(typechars, typeset=’GDFgdf’, default=’d’)

Return the character for the minimum-size type to which given types can be safely cast.
The returned type character must represent the smallest size dtype such that an array of the returned type can
handle the data from an array of all types in typechars (or if typechars is an array, then its dtype.char).
Parameters typechars : list of str or array_like
If a list of strings, each string should represent a dtype. If array_like, the character
representation of the array dtype is used.
typeset : str or list of str, optional
The set of characters that the returned character is chosen from. The default set is
‘GDFgdf’.
default : str, optional
The default character, this is returned if none of the characters in typechars matches a
character in typeset.
Returns typechar : str
The character representing the minimum-size type that was found.
See also:
dtype, sctype2char, maximum_sctype
Examples
>>> np.mintypecode(['d', 'f', 'S'])

'd'
>>> x = np.array([1.1, 2-3.j])
>>> np.mintypecode(x)
'D'
>>> np.mintypecode('abceh', default='G')

'G'
3.8 Optionally Scipy-accelerated routines (numpy.dual)
Aliases for functions which may be accelerated by Scipy.

Scipy can be built to use accelerated or otherwise improved libraries for FFTs, linear algebra, and special functions.
This module allows developers to transparently support these accelerated functions when scipy is available but still
support users who have only installed NumPy.
3.8.1 Linear algebra
cholesky(a) Cholesky decomposition.

det(a) Compute the determinant of an array.
eig(a) Compute the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of a square
array.


eigh(a[, UPLO]) Return the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian or
symmetric matrix.
eigvals(a) Compute the eigenvalues of a general matrix.
eigvalsh(a[, UPLO]) Compute the eigenvalues of a Hermitian or real symmetric
matrix.
inv(a) Compute the (multiplicative) inverse of a matrix.
lstsq(a, b[, rcond]) Return the least-squares solution to a linear matrix equa-
tion.
norm(x[, ord, axis, keepdims]) Matrix or vector norm.
pinv(a[, rcond]) Compute the (Moore-Penrose) pseudo-inverse of a matrix.
solve(a, b) Solve a linear matrix equation, or system of linear scalar
equations.
svd(a[, full_matrices, compute_uv]) Singular Value Decomposition.
3.8.2 FFT
fft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.

fft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform
fftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.
ifft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the one-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier
Transform.
ifft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Trans-
form.
ifftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the N-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Trans-
form.
3.8.3 Other
i0(x) Modified Bessel function of the first kind, order 0.
3.9 Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath)
Note: numpy.emath is a preferred alias for numpy.lib.scimath, available after numpy is imported.
Wrapper functions to more user-friendly calling of certain math functions whose output data-type is different than the
input data-type in certain domains of the input.
For example, for functions like log with branch cuts, the versions in this module provide the mathematically valid
answers in the complex plane:
>>> import math

>>> from numpy.lib import scimath
>>> scimath.log(-math.exp(1)) == (1+1j*math.pi)
True
Similarly, sqrt, other base logarithms, power and trig functions are correctly handled. See their respective doc-
strings for specific examples.
3.9. Mathematical functions with automatic domain (numpy.emath) 533

3.10 Floating point error handling
3.10.1 Setting and getting error handling
seterr([all, divide, over, under, invalid]) Set how floating-point errors are handled.
geterr() Get the current way of handling floating-point errors.
seterrcall(func) Set the floating-point error callback function or log object.
geterrcall() Return the current callback function used on floating-point
errors.
errstate(**kwargs) Context manager for floating-point error handling.
numpy.geterr()
Get the current way of handling floating-point errors.
Returns res : dict
A dictionary with keys “divide”, “over”, “under”, and “invalid”, whose values are from
the strings “ignore”, “print”, “log”, “warn”, “raise”, and “call”. The keys represent pos-
sible floating-point exceptions, and the values define how these exceptions are handled.
See also:
geterrcall, seterr, seterrcall
Notes
For complete documentation of the types of floating-point exceptions and treatment options, see seterr.
Examples
>>> np.geterr()
{'over': 'warn', 'divide': 'warn', 'invalid': 'warn',
'under': 'ignore'}
>>> np.arange(3.) / np.arange(3.)
array([ NaN, 1., 1.])
>>> oldsettings = np.seterr(all='warn', over='raise')

>>> np.geterr()
{'over': 'raise', 'divide': 'warn', 'invalid': 'warn', 'under': 'warn'}
>>> np.arange(3.) / np.arange(3.)
__main__:1: RuntimeWarning: invalid value encountered in divide
array([ NaN, 1., 1.])
numpy.geterrcall()
Return the current callback function used on floating-point errors.
When the error handling for a floating-point error (one of “divide”, “over”, “under”, or “invalid”) is set to ‘call’
or ‘log’, the function that is called or the log instance that is written to is returned by geterrcall. This
function or log instance has been set with seterrcall.
Returns errobj : callable, log instance or None
The current error handler. If no handler was set through seterrcall, None is re-
turned.

See also:
seterrcall, seterr, geterr
Notes
Examples
>>> np.geterrcall() # we did not yet set a handler, returns None
>>> oldsettings = np.seterr(all='call')

>>> oldhandler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> np.array([1, 2, 3]) / 0.0
Floating point error (divide by zero), with flag 1
>>> cur_handler = np.geterrcall()

>>> cur_handler is err_handler
True
class numpy.errstate(**kwargs)
Context manager for floating-point error handling.
Using an instance of errstate as a context manager allows statements in that context to execute with a known
error handling behavior. Upon entering the context the error handling is set with seterr and seterrcall,
and upon exiting it is reset to what it was before.
Parameters kwargs : {divide, over, under, invalid}
Keyword arguments. The valid keywords are the possible floating-point exceptions.
Each keyword should have a string value that defines the treatment for the particular
error. Possible values are {‘ignore’, ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘call’, ‘print’, ‘log’}.
See also:
seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall
Notes
The with statement was introduced in Python 2.5, and can only be used there by importing it: from
__future__ import with_statement. In earlier Python versions the with statement is not avail-
able.
Examples
>>> from __future__ import with_statement # use 'with' in Python 2.5

>>> olderr = np.seterr(all='ignore') # Set error handling to known state.
3.10. Floating point error handling 535

>>> np.arange(3) / 0.
array([ NaN, Inf, Inf])
>>> with np.errstate(divide='warn'):
... np.arange(3) / 0.
...
__main__:2: RuntimeWarning: divide by zero encountered in divide
array([ NaN, Inf, Inf])
>>> np.sqrt(-1)
nan
>>> with np.errstate(invalid='raise'):
... np.sqrt(-1)
FloatingPointError: invalid value encountered in sqrt
Outside the context the error handling behavior has not changed:
>>> np.geterr()
{'over': 'warn', 'divide': 'warn', 'invalid': 'warn',
'under': 'ignore'}
3.10.2 Internal functions
seterrobj(errobj) Set the object that defines floating-point error handling.

geterrobj() Return the current object that defines floating-point error
handling.
numpy.seterrobj(errobj)
Set the object that defines floating-point error handling.
The error object contains all information that defines the error handling behavior in NumPy. seterrobj is
used internally by the other functions that set error handling behavior (seterr, seterrcall).
Parameters errobj : list
The error object, a list containing three elements: [internal numpy buffer size, error
mask, error callback function].
The error mask is a single integer that holds the treatment information on all four float-
ing point errors. The information for each error type is contained in three bits of the
integer. If we print it in base 8, we can see what treatment is set for “invalid”, “under”,
“over”, and “divide” (in that order). The printed string can be interpreted with
• 0 : ‘ignore’
• 1 : ‘warn’
• 2 : ‘raise’
• 3 : ‘call’
• 4 : ‘print’
• 5 : ‘log’
See also:

geterrobj, seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall, getbufsize, setbufsize
Notes
Examples
>>> old_errobj = np.geterrobj() # first get the defaults

>>> old_errobj
[10000, 0, None]

...
>>> new_errobj = [20000, 12, err_handler]
>>> np.seterrobj(new_errobj)
>>> np.base_repr(12, 8) # int for divide=4 ('print') and over=1 ('warn')
'14'
>>> np.geterr()
{'over': 'warn', 'divide': 'print', 'invalid': 'ignore', 'under': 'ignore'}
>>> np.geterrcall() is err_handler
True
numpy.geterrobj()
Return the current object that defines floating-point error handling.
The error object contains all information that defines the error handling behavior in NumPy. geterrobj
is used internally by the other functions that get and set error handling behavior (geterr, seterr,
geterrcall, seterrcall).
Returns errobj : list
The error object, a list containing three elements: [internal numpy buffer size, error
mask, error callback function].
The error mask is a single integer that holds the treatment information on all four float-
ing point errors. The information for each error type is contained in three bits of the
integer. If we print it in base 8, we can see what treatment is set for “invalid”, “under”,
“over”, and “divide” (in that order). The printed string can be interpreted with
• 0 : ‘ignore’
• 1 : ‘warn’
• 2 : ‘raise’
• 3 : ‘call’
• 4 : ‘print’
• 5 : ‘log’
See also:
seterrobj, seterr, geterr, seterrcall, geterrcall, getbufsize, setbufsize
3.10. Floating point error handling 537

Notes
Examples
>>> np.geterrobj() # first get the defaults

[10000, 0, None]

...
>>> old_bufsize = np.setbufsize(20000)
>>> old_err = np.seterr(divide='raise')
>>> old_handler = np.seterrcall(err_handler)
>>> np.geterrobj()
[20000, 2, <function err_handler at 0x91dcaac>]
>>> old_err = np.seterr(all='ignore')

>>> np.base_repr(np.geterrobj()[1], 8)
'0'
>>> old_err = np.seterr(divide='warn', over='log', under='call',
invalid='print')
>>> np.base_repr(np.geterrobj()[1], 8)
'4351'
3.11 Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft)
3.11.1 Standard FFTs
fft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.

ifft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the one-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier
Transform.
fft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform
ifft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Trans-
form.
fftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.
ifftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the N-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Trans-
form.
numpy.fft.fft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)

Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.
This function computes the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) with the efficient Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm [CT].
Input array, can be complex.
n : int, optional

Length of the transformed axis of the output. If n is smaller than the length of the input,
the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If n is not given, the
length of the input along the axis specified by axis is used.
Axis over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
norm : {None, “ortho”}, optional
Normalization mode (see numpy.fft). Default is None.
Returns out : complex ndarray
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axis indicated by axis, or the
last one if axis is not specified.
Raises IndexError
if axes is larger than the last axis of a.
See also:
numpy.fft for definition of the DFT and conventions used.

ifft The inverse of fft.
fft2 The two-dimensional FFT.
fftn The n-dimensional FFT.
rfftn The n-dimensional FFT of real input.
fftfreq Frequency bins for given FFT parameters.
Notes
FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) refers to a way the discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) can be calculated efficiently,
by using symmetries in the calculated terms. The symmetry is highest when n is a power of 2, and the transform
is therefore most efficient for these sizes.
The DFT is defined, with the conventions used in this implementation, in the documentation for the numpy.
fft module.
References
[CT2930]
Examples
>>> np.fft.fft(np.exp(2j * np.pi * np.arange(8) / 8))

array([ -3.44505240e-16 +1.14383329e-17j,
8.00000000e+00 -5.71092652e-15j,
2.33482938e-16 +1.22460635e-16j,
1.64863782e-15 +1.77635684e-15j,
9.95839695e-17 +2.33482938e-16j,
0.00000000e+00 +1.66837030e-15j,
3.11. Discrete Fourier Transform (numpy.fft) 539

1.14383329e-17 +1.22460635e-16j,
-1.64863782e-15 +1.77635684e-15j])
In this example, real input has an FFT which is Hermitian, i.e., symmetric in the real part and anti-symmetric in
the imaginary part, as described in the numpy.fft documentation:

>>> t = np.arange(256)
>>> sp = np.fft.fft(np.sin(t))
>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(t.shape[-1])
>>> plt.plot(freq, sp.real, freq, sp.imag)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x...>, <matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x.
˓→..>]
>>> plt.show()
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numpy.fft.ifft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)

Compute the one-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
This function computes the inverse of the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier transform computed by
fft. In other words, ifft(fft(a)) == a to within numerical accuracy. For a general description of the
algorithm and definitions, see numpy.fft.
The input should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fft, i.e.,
• a[0] should contain the zero frequency term,
• a[1:n//2] should contain the positive-frequency terms,
• a[n//2 + 1:] should contain the negative-frequency terms, in increasing order starting from the most
negative frequency.
For an even number of input points, A[n//2] represents the sum of the values at the positive and negative
Nyquist frequencies, as the two are aliased together. See numpy.fft for details.
n : int, optional

Length of the transformed axis of the output. If n is smaller than the length of the input,
the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If n is not given,
the length of the input along the axis specified by axis is used. See notes about padding
issues.
Axis over which to compute the inverse DFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
last one if axis is not specified.
Raises IndexError
If axes is larger than the last axis of a.
See also:
numpy.fft An introduction, with definitions and general explanations.

fft The one-dimensional (forward) FFT, of which ifft is the inverse
ifft2 The two-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifftn The n-dimensional inverse FFT.
Notes
If the input parameter n is larger than the size of the input, the input is padded by appending zeros at the end.
Even though this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If a different padding is desired, it
must be performed before calling ifft.
Examples
>>> np.fft.ifft([0, 4, 0, 0])

array([ 1.+0.j, 0.+1.j, -1.+0.j, 0.-1.j])
Create and plot a band-limited signal with random phases:

>>> t = np.arange(400)
>>> n = np.zeros((400,), dtype=complex)
>>> n[40:60] = np.exp(1j*np.random.uniform(0, 2*np.pi, (20,)))
>>> s = np.fft.ifft(n)
>>> plt.plot(t, s.real, 'b-', t, s.imag, 'r--')
...
>>> plt.legend(('real', 'imaginary'))
...
>>> plt.show()

0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02 real
imaginary
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numpy.fft.fft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1), norm=None)

Compute the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform
This function computes the n-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any axes in an M-dimensional array
by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). By default, the transform is computed over the last two axes of
the input array, i.e., a 2-dimensional FFT.
Input array, can be complex
s : sequence of ints, optional
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to
axis 1, etc.). This corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along each axis, if the given
shape is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is
padded with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes specified by
axes is used.
axes : sequence of ints, optional
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last two axes are used. A repeated
index in axes means the transform over that axis is performed multiple times. A one-
element sequence means that a one-dimensional FFT is performed.
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axes indicated by axes, or
the last two axes if axes is not given.
Raises ValueError
If s and axes have different length, or axes not given and len(s) != 2.
IndexError

If an element of axes is larger than than the number of axes of a.

See also:
numpy.fft Overall view of discrete Fourier transforms, with definitions and conventions used.
ifft2 The inverse two-dimensional FFT.
fft The one-dimensional FFT.
fftshift Shifts zero-frequency terms to the center of the array. For two-dimensional input, swaps first and
third quadrants, and second and fourth quadrants.
Notes
fft2 is just fftn with a different default for axes.

The output, analogously to fft, contains the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of the transformed
axes, the positive frequency terms in the first half of these axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle
of the axes and the negative frequency terms in the second half of the axes, in order of decreasingly negative
frequency.
See fftn for details and a plotting example, and numpy.fft for definitions and conventions used.
Examples
>>> a = np.mgrid[:5, :5][0]

>>> np.fft.fft2(a)
array([[ 50.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ,
0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ],
[-12.5+17.20477401j, 0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ,
0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ],
[-12.5 +4.0614962j , 0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ,
0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ],
[-12.5 -4.0614962j , 0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ,
0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ],
[-12.5-17.20477401j, 0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ,
0.0 +0.j , 0.0 +0.j ]])
numpy.fft.ifft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1), norm=None)

Compute the 2-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
This function computes the inverse of the 2-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes
in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words, ifft2(fft2(a))
== a to within numerical accuracy. By default, the inverse transform is computed over the last two axes of the
input array.
The input, analogously to ifft, should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fft2, i.e. it should have
the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of the two axes, the positive frequency terms in the first half
of these axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of the axes and the negative frequency terms in
the second half of both axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.

Shape (length of each axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1] to axis 1, etc.).
This corresponds to n for ifft(x, n). Along each axis, if the given shape is smaller
than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros.
if s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes specified by axes is used. See
notes for issue on ifft zero padding.
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last two axes are used. A repeated
index in axes means the transform over that axis is performed multiple times. A one-
element sequence means that a one-dimensional FFT is performed.
the last two axes if axes is not given.
Raises ValueError
If s and axes have different length, or axes not given and len(s) != 2.
IndexError
See also:
fft2 The forward 2-dimensional FFT, of which ifft2 is the inverse.
ifftn The inverse of the n-dimensional FFT.
ifft The one-dimensional inverse FFT.
Notes
ifft2 is just ifftn with a different default for axes.

See ifftn for details and a plotting example, and numpy.fft for definition and conventions used.
Zero-padding, analogously with ifft, is performed by appending zeros to the input along the specified dimen-
sion. Although this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If another form of zero padding
is desired, it must be performed before ifft2 is called.
Examples
>>> a = 4 * np.eye(4)
>>> np.fft.ifft2(a)
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]])

numpy.fft.fftn(a, s=None, axes=None, norm=None)

Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform.
This function computes the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes in an M-
dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
axis 1, etc.). This corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along any axis, if the given shape
is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded
with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes specified by axes is
used.
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used, or
all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the transform over
that axis is performed multiple times.
by a combination of s and a, as explained in the parameters section above.
Raises ValueError
If s and axes have different length.
IndexError
See also:
ifftn The inverse of fftn, the inverse n-dimensional FFT.
fft The one-dimensional FFT, with definitions and conventions used.
fft2 The two-dimensional FFT.
fftshift Shifts zero-frequency terms to centre of array
Notes
The output, analogously to fft, contains the term for zero frequency in the low-order corner of all axes, the
positive frequency terms in the first half of all axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of all axes
and the negative frequency terms in the second half of all axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.
See numpy.fft for details, definitions and conventions used.

Examples
>>> a = np.mgrid[:3, :3, :3][0]

>>> np.fft.fftn(a, axes=(1, 2))
array([[[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 9.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 18.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
>>> np.fft.fftn(a, (2, 2), axes=(0, 1))
array([[[ 2.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[-2.+0.j, -2.+0.j, -2.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])

>>> [X, Y] = np.meshgrid(2 * np.pi * np.arange(200) / 12,
... 2 * np.pi * np.arange(200) / 34)
>>> S = np.sin(X) + np.cos(Y) + np.random.uniform(0, 1, X.shape)
>>> FS = np.fft.fftn(S)
>>> plt.imshow(np.log(np.abs(np.fft.fftshift(FS))**2))
<matplotlib.image.AxesImage object at 0x...>
>>> plt.show()
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numpy.fft.ifftn(a, s=None, axes=None, norm=None)

Compute the N-dimensional inverse discrete Fourier Transform.
This function computes the inverse of the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes
in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words, ifftn(fftn(a))
== a to within numerical accuracy. For a description of the definitions and conventions used, see numpy.fft.
The input, analogously to ifft, should be ordered in the same way as is returned by fftn, i.e. it should have
the term for zero frequency in all axes in the low-order corner, the positive frequency terms in the first half of all

axes, the term for the Nyquist frequency in the middle of all axes and the negative frequency terms in the second
half of all axes, in order of decreasingly negative frequency.
axis 1, etc.). This corresponds to n for ifft(x, n). Along any axis, if the given
shape is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is
padded with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes specified by
axes is used. See notes for issue on ifft zero padding.
Axes over which to compute the IFFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used,
or all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the inverse
transform over that axis is performed multiple times.
by a combination of s or a, as explained in the parameters section above.
Raises ValueError
IndexError
See also:
fftn The forward n-dimensional FFT, of which ifftn is the inverse.
ifft The one-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifft2 The two-dimensional inverse FFT.
ifftshift Undoes fftshift, shifts zero-frequency terms to beginning of array.
Notes
See numpy.fft for definitions and conventions used.

Zero-padding, analogously with ifft, is performed by appending zeros to the input along the specified dimen-
sion. Although this is the common approach, it might lead to surprising results. If another form of zero padding
is desired, it must be performed before ifftn is called.

Examples
>>> a = np.eye(4)
>>> np.fft.ifftn(np.fft.fftn(a, axes=(0,)), axes=(1,))
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j]])
Create and plot an image with band-limited frequency content:

>>> n = np.zeros((200,200), dtype=complex)
>>> n[60:80, 20:40] = np.exp(1j*np.random.uniform(0, 2*np.pi, (20, 20)))
>>> im = np.fft.ifftn(n).real
>>> plt.imshow(im)
>>> plt.show()
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3.11.2 Real FFTs
rfft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform

for real input.
irfft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the inverse of the n-point DFT for real input.
rfft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional FFT of a real array.
irfft2(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the 2-dimensional inverse FFT of a real array.
rfftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for
real input.
irfftn(a[, s, axes, norm]) Compute the inverse of the N-dimensional FFT of real in-
put.

numpy.fft.rfft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)

Compute the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.
This function computes the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of a real-valued array by
means of an efficient algorithm called the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
Input array
n : int, optional
Number of points along transformation axis in the input to use. If n is smaller than the
length of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger, the input is padded with zeros. If
n is not given, the length of the input along the axis specified by axis is used.
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axis indicated by axis, or
the last one if axis is not specified. If n is even, the length of the transformed axis is
(n/2)+1. If n is odd, the length is (n+1)/2.
Raises IndexError
If axis is larger than the last axis of a.
See also:
numpy.fft For definition of the DFT and conventions used.

irfft The inverse of rfft.
fft The one-dimensional FFT of general (complex) input.
Notes
When the DFT is computed for purely real input, the output is Hermitian-symmetric, i.e. the negative frequency
terms are just the complex conjugates of the corresponding positive-frequency terms, and the negative-frequency
terms are therefore redundant. This function does not compute the negative frequency terms, and the length of
the transformed axis of the output is therefore n//2 + 1.
When A = rfft(a) and fs is the sampling frequency, A[0] contains the zero-frequency term 0*fs, which is
real due to Hermitian symmetry.
If n is even, A[-1] contains the term representing both positive and negative Nyquist frequency (+fs/2 and
-fs/2), and must also be purely real. If n is odd, there is no term at fs/2; A[-1] contains the largest positive
frequency (fs/2*(n-1)/n), and is complex in the general case.
If the input a contains an imaginary part, it is silently discarded.

Examples
>>> np.fft.fft([0, 1, 0, 0])

array([ 1.+0.j, 0.-1.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+1.j])
>>> np.fft.rfft([0, 1, 0, 0])
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.-1.j, -1.+0.j])
Notice how the final element of the fft output is the complex conjugate of the second element, for real input.
For rfft, this symmetry is exploited to compute only the non-negative frequency terms.
numpy.fft.irfft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)
Compute the inverse of the n-point DFT for real input.
This function computes the inverse of the one-dimensional n-point discrete Fourier Transform of real input
computed by rfft. In other words, irfft(rfft(a), len(a)) == a to within numerical accuracy.
(See Notes below for why len(a) is necessary here.)
The input is expected to be in the form returned by rfft, i.e. the real zero-frequency term followed by the
complex positive frequency terms in order of increasing frequency. Since the discrete Fourier Transform of
real input is Hermitian-symmetric, the negative frequency terms are taken to be the complex conjugates of the
corresponding positive frequency terms.
The input array.
n : int, optional
Length of the transformed axis of the output. For n output points, n//2+1 input points
are necessary. If the input is longer than this, it is cropped. If it is shorter than this, it is
padded with zeros. If n is not given, it is determined from the length of the input along
the axis specified by axis.
Axis over which to compute the inverse FFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
last one if axis is not specified. The length of the transformed axis is n, or, if n is not
given, 2*(m-1) where m is the length of the transformed axis of the input. To get an
odd number of output points, n must be specified.
Raises IndexError
See also:
numpy.fft For definition of the DFT and conventions used.

rfft The one-dimensional FFT of real input, of which irfft is inverse.
irfft2 The inverse of the two-dimensional FFT of real input.

irfftn The inverse of the n-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
Returns the real valued n-point inverse discrete Fourier transform of a, where a contains the non-negative fre-
quency terms of a Hermitian-symmetric sequence. n is the length of the result, not the input.
If you specify an n such that a must be zero-padded or truncated, the extra/removed values will be
added/removed at high frequencies. One can thus resample a series to m points via Fourier interpolation by:
a_resamp = irfft(rfft(a), m).
Examples
>>> np.fft.ifft([1, -1j, -1, 1j])

array([ 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
>>> np.fft.irfft([1, -1j, -1])
array([ 0., 1., 0., 0.])
Notice how the last term in the input to the ordinary ifft is the complex conjugate of the second term, and the
output has zero imaginary part everywhere. When calling irfft, the negative frequencies are not specified,
and the output array is purely real.
numpy.fft.rfft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1), norm=None)
Compute the 2-dimensional FFT of a real array.
Parameters a : array
Input array, taken to be real.
Shape of the FFT.
Axes over which to compute the FFT.
The result of the real 2-D FFT.
See also:
rfftn Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.
Notes
This is really just rfftn with different default behavior. For more details see rfftn.
numpy.fft.irfft2(a, s=None, axes=(-2, -1), norm=None)
Compute the 2-dimensional inverse FFT of a real array.

The input array

Shape of the inverse FFT.
The axes over which to compute the inverse fft. Default is the last two axes.
The result of the inverse real 2-D FFT.
See also:
irfftn Compute the inverse of the N-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
This is really irfftn with different defaults. For more details see irfftn.
numpy.fft.rfftn(a, s=None, axes=None, norm=None)
Compute the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input.
This function computes the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform over any number of axes in an M-
dimensional real array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). By default, all axes are transformed,
with the real transform performed over the last axis, while the remaining transforms are complex.
Input array, taken to be real.
Shape (length along each transformed axis) to use from the input. (s[0] refers to axis
0, s[1] to axis 1, etc.). The final element of s corresponds to n for rfft(x, n),
while for the remaining axes, it corresponds to n for fft(x, n). Along any axis, if
the given shape is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger,
the input is padded with zeros. if s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes
specified by axes is used.
Axes over which to compute the FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used, or
all axes if s is also not specified.
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axes indicated by axes, or by
a combination of s and a, as explained in the parameters section above. The length of

the last axis transformed will be s[-1]//2+1, while the remaining transformed axes
will have lengths according to s, or unchanged from the input.
Raises ValueError
IndexError
See also:
irfftn The inverse of rfftn, i.e. the inverse of the n-dimensional FFT of real input.
rfft The one-dimensional FFT of real input.
rfft2 The two-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
The transform for real input is performed over the last transformation axis, as by rfft, then the transform over
the remaining axes is performed as by fftn. The order of the output is as for rfft for the final transformation
axis, and as for fftn for the remaining transformation axes.
See fft for details, definitions and conventions used.
Examples
>>> a = np.ones((2, 2, 2))

>>> np.fft.rfftn(a)
array([[[ 8.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
>>> np.fft.rfftn(a, axes=(2, 0))

array([[[ 4.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 4.+0.j, 0.+0.j]],
[[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j]]])
numpy.fft.irfftn(a, s=None, axes=None, norm=None)

Compute the inverse of the N-dimensional FFT of real input.
This function computes the inverse of the N-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform for real input over any
number of axes in an M-dimensional array by means of the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). In other words,
irfftn(rfftn(a), a.shape) == a to within numerical accuracy. (The a.shape is necessary like
len(a) is for irfft, and for the same reason.)
The input should be ordered in the same way as is returned by rfftn, i.e. as for irfft for the final transfor-
mation axis, and as for ifftn along all the other axes.

Input array.
Shape (length of each transformed axis) of the output (s[0] refers to axis 0, s[1]
to axis 1, etc.). s is also the number of input points used along this axis, except for
the last axis, where s[-1]//2+1 points of the input are used. Along any axis, if the
shape indicated by s is smaller than that of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger,
the input is padded with zeros. If s is not given, the shape of the input along the axes
specified by axes is used.
Axes over which to compute the inverse FFT. If not given, the last len(s) axes are used,
or all axes if s is also not specified. Repeated indices in axes means that the inverse
transform over that axis is performed multiple times.
by a combination of s or a, as explained in the parameters section above. The length of
each transformed axis is as given by the corresponding element of s, or the length of the
input in every axis except for the last one if s is not given. In the final transformed axis
the length of the output when s is not given is 2*(m-1) where m is the length of the
final transformed axis of the input. To get an odd number of output points in the final
axis, s must be specified.
Raises ValueError
IndexError
See also:
rfftn The forward n-dimensional FFT of real input, of which ifftn is the inverse.
irfft The inverse of the one-dimensional FFT of real input.
irfft2 The inverse of the two-dimensional FFT of real input.
Notes
See fft for definitions and conventions used.

See rfft for definitions and conventions used for real input.

Examples
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 2, 2))

>>> a[0, 0, 0] = 3 * 2 * 2
>>> np.fft.irfftn(a)
array([[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]],
[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]],
[[ 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1.]]])
3.11.3 Hermitian FFTs
hfft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the FFT of a signal that has Hermitian symmetry,
i.e., a real spectrum.
ihfft(a[, n, axis, norm]) Compute the inverse FFT of a signal that has Hermitian
symmetry.
numpy.fft.hfft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)

Compute the FFT of a signal that has Hermitian symmetry, i.e., a real spectrum.
The input array.
n : int, optional
Length of the transformed axis of the output. For n output points, n//2 + 1 input
points are necessary. If the input is longer than this, it is cropped. If it is shorter than
this, it is padded with zeros. If n is not given, it is determined from the length of the
input along the axis specified by axis.
The truncated or zero-padded input, transformed along the axis indicated by axis, or
the last one if axis is not specified. The length of the transformed axis is n, or, if n is
not given, 2*m - 2 where m is the length of the transformed axis of the input. To get
an odd number of output points, n must be specified, for instance as 2*m - 1 in the
typical case,
Raises IndexError
See also:
rfft Compute the one-dimensional FFT for real input.

ihfft The inverse of hfft.
Notes
hfft/ihfft are a pair analogous to rfft/irfft, but for the opposite case: here the signal has Hermitian
symmetry in the time domain and is real in the frequency domain. So here it’s hfft for which you must supply
the length of the result if it is to be odd.
• even: ihfft(hfft(a, 2*len(a) - 2) == a, within roundoff error,
• odd: ihfft(hfft(a, 2*len(a) - 1) == a, within roundoff error.
Examples
>>> signal = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2])

>>> np.fft.fft(signal)
array([ 15.+0.j, -4.+0.j, 0.+0.j, -1.-0.j, 0.+0.j, -4.+0.j])
>>> np.fft.hfft(signal[:4]) # Input first half of signal
array([ 15., -4., 0., -1., 0., -4.])
>>> np.fft.hfft(signal, 6) # Input entire signal and truncate
array([ 15., -4., 0., -1., 0., -4.])
>>> signal = np.array([[1, 1.j], [-1.j, 2]])

>>> np.conj(signal.T) - signal # check Hermitian symmetry
array([[ 0.-0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.-0.j]])
>>> freq_spectrum = np.fft.hfft(signal)
>>> freq_spectrum
array([[ 1., 1.],
[ 2., -2.]])
numpy.fft.ihfft(a, n=None, axis=-1, norm=None)

Compute the inverse FFT of a signal that has Hermitian symmetry.
Input array.
n : int, optional
Length of the inverse FFT, the number of points along transformation axis in the input
to use. If n is smaller than the length of the input, the input is cropped. If it is larger,
the input is padded with zeros. If n is not given, the length of the input along the axis
specified by axis is used.
Axis over which to compute the inverse FFT. If not given, the last axis is used.
last one if axis is not specified. The length of the transformed axis is n//2 + 1.

See also:
hfft, irfft
Notes
hfft/ihfft are a pair analogous to rfft/irfft, but for the opposite case: here the signal has Hermitian
symmetry in the time domain and is real in the frequency domain. So here it’s hfft for which you must supply
the length of the result if it is to be odd:
• even: ihfft(hfft(a, 2*len(a) - 2) == a, within roundoff error,
• odd: ihfft(hfft(a, 2*len(a) - 1) == a, within roundoff error.
Examples
>>> spectrum = np.array([ 15, -4, 0, -1, 0, -4])

>>> np.fft.ifft(spectrum)
array([ 1.+0.j, 2.-0.j, 3.+0.j, 4.+0.j, 3.+0.j, 2.-0.j])
>>> np.fft.ihfft(spectrum)
array([ 1.-0.j, 2.-0.j, 3.-0.j, 4.-0.j])
3.11.4 Helper routines
fftfreq(n[, d]) Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies.

rfftfreq(n[, d]) Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies
(for usage with rfft, irfft).
fftshift(x[, axes]) Shift the zero-frequency component to the center of the
spectrum.
ifftshift(x[, axes]) The inverse of fftshift.
numpy.fft.fftfreq(n, d=1.0)
Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies.
The returned float array f contains the frequency bin centers in cycles per unit of the sample spacing (with zero
at the start). For instance, if the sample spacing is in seconds, then the frequency unit is cycles/second.
Given a window length n and a sample spacing d:
f = [0, 1, ..., n/2-1, -n/2, ..., -1] / (d*n) if n is even

f = [0, 1, ..., (n-1)/2, -(n-1)/2, ..., -1] / (d*n) if n is odd
Parameters n : int
Window length.
d : scalar, optional
Sample spacing (inverse of the sampling rate). Defaults to 1.
Returns f : ndarray
Array of length n containing the sample frequencies.

Examples
>>> signal = np.array([-2, 8, 6, 4, 1, 0, 3, 5], dtype=float)

>>> fourier = np.fft.fft(signal)
>>> n = signal.size
>>> timestep = 0.1
>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(n, d=timestep)
>>> freq
array([ 0. , 1.25, 2.5 , 3.75, -5. , -3.75, -2.5 , -1.25])
numpy.fft.rfftfreq(n, d=1.0)
Return the Discrete Fourier Transform sample frequencies (for usage with rfft, irfft).
The returned float array f contains the frequency bin centers in cycles per unit of the sample spacing (with zero
at the start). For instance, if the sample spacing is in seconds, then the frequency unit is cycles/second.
Given a window length n and a sample spacing d:
f = [0, 1, ..., n/2-1, n/2] / (d*n) if n is even

f = [0, 1, ..., (n-1)/2-1, (n-1)/2] / (d*n) if n is odd
Unlike fftfreq (but like scipy.fftpack.rfftfreq) the Nyquist frequency component is considered
to be positive.
Parameters n : int
Window length.
d : scalar, optional
Sample spacing (inverse of the sampling rate). Defaults to 1.
Returns f : ndarray
Array of length n//2 + 1 containing the sample frequencies.
Examples
>>> signal = np.array([-2, 8, 6, 4, 1, 0, 3, 5, -3, 4], dtype=float)

>>> fourier = np.fft.rfft(signal)
>>> n = signal.size
>>> sample_rate = 100
>>> freq = np.fft.fftfreq(n, d=1./sample_rate)
>>> freq
array([ 0., 10., 20., 30., 40., -50., -40., -30., -20., -10.])
>>> freq = np.fft.rfftfreq(n, d=1./sample_rate)
>>> freq
array([ 0., 10., 20., 30., 40., 50.])
numpy.fft.fftshift(x, axes=None)
Shift the zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum.
This function swaps half-spaces for all axes listed (defaults to all). Note that y[0] is the Nyquist component
only if len(x) is even.
Input array.
axes : int or shape tuple, optional

Axes over which to shift. Default is None, which shifts all axes.
Returns y : ndarray
The shifted array.
See also:
ifftshift The inverse of fftshift.
Examples
>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(10, 0.1)

>>> freqs
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4., -5., -4., -3., -2., -1.])
>>> np.fft.fftshift(freqs)
array([-5., -4., -3., -2., -1., 0., 1., 2., 3., 4.])
Shift the zero-frequency component only along the second axis:
>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(9, d=1./9).reshape(3, 3)

>>> freqs
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
>>> np.fft.fftshift(freqs, axes=(1,))
array([[ 2., 0., 1.],
[-4., 3., 4.],
[-1., -3., -2.]])
numpy.fft.ifftshift(x, axes=None)
The inverse of fftshift. Although identical for even-length x, the functions differ by one sample for odd-
length x.
Input array.
axes : int or shape tuple, optional
Axes over which to calculate. Defaults to None, which shifts all axes.
Returns y : ndarray
The shifted array.
See also:
fftshift Shift zero-frequency component to the center of the spectrum.
Examples
>>> freqs = np.fft.fftfreq(9, d=1./9).reshape(3, 3)

>>> freqs
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
>>> np.fft.ifftshift(np.fft.fftshift(freqs))

array([[ 0., 1., 2.],

[ 3., 4., -4.],
[-3., -2., -1.]])
3.11.5 Background information
Fourier analysis is fundamentally a method for expressing a function as a sum of periodic components, and for re-
covering the function from those components. When both the function and its Fourier transform are replaced with
discretized counterparts, it is called the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). The DFT has become a mainstay of nu-
merical computing in part because of a very fast algorithm for computing it, called the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT),
which was known to Gauss (1805) and was brought to light in its current form by Cooley and Tukey [CT600]. Press
et al. [NR600] provide an accessible introduction to Fourier analysis and its applications.
Because the discrete Fourier transform separates its input into components that contribute at discrete frequencies, it
has a great number of applications in digital signal processing, e.g., for filtering, and in this context the discretized
input to the transform is customarily referred to as a signal, which exists in the time domain. The output is called a
spectrum or transform and exists in the frequency domain.
3.11.6 Implementation details
There are many ways to define the DFT, varying in the sign of the exponent, normalization, etc. In this implementation,
the DFT is defined as
𝑛−1 {︂ }︂
∑︁ 𝑚𝑘
𝐴𝑘 = 𝑎𝑚 exp −2𝜋𝑖 𝑘 = 0, . . . , 𝑛 − 1.
𝑚=0
𝑛
The DFT is in general defined for complex inputs and outputs, and a single-frequency component at linear frequency
𝑓 is represented by a complex exponential 𝑎𝑚 = exp{2𝜋𝑖 𝑓 𝑚∆𝑡}, where ∆𝑡 is the sampling interval.
The values in the result follow so-called “standard” order: If A = fft(a, n), then A[0] contains the zero-
frequency term (the sum of the signal), which is always purely real for real inputs. Then A[1:n/2] contains the
positive-frequency terms, and A[n/2+1:] contains the negative-frequency terms, in order of decreasingly negative
frequency. For an even number of input points, A[n/2] represents both positive and negative Nyquist frequency,
and is also purely real for real input. For an odd number of input points, A[(n-1)/2] contains the largest positive
frequency, while A[(n+1)/2] contains the largest negative frequency. The routine np.fft.fftfreq(n) returns
an array giving the frequencies of corresponding elements in the output. The routine np.fft.fftshift(A) shifts
transforms and their frequencies to put the zero-frequency components in the middle, and np.fft.ifftshift(A)
undoes that shift.
When the input a is a time-domain signal and A = fft(a), np.abs(A) is its amplitude spectrum and np.
abs(A)**2 is its power spectrum. The phase spectrum is obtained by np.angle(A).
The inverse DFT is defined as
𝑛−1 {︂ }︂
1 ∑︁ 𝑚𝑘
𝑎𝑚 = 𝐴𝑘 exp 2𝜋𝑖 𝑚 = 0, . . . , 𝑛 − 1.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑘=0
It differs from the forward transform by the sign of the exponential argument and the default normalization by 1/𝑛.
3.11.7 Normalization
The default normalization has the direct transforms unscaled and the inverse transforms are scaled by 1/𝑛. It is
possible to obtain unitary transforms by setting the keyword
√ argument norm to "ortho" (default is None) so that
both direct and inverse transforms will be scaled by 1/ 𝑛.

3.11.8 Real and Hermitian transforms
When the input is purely real, its transform is Hermitian, i.e., the component at frequency 𝑓𝑘 is the complex conjugate
of the component at frequency −𝑓𝑘 , which means that for real inputs there is no information in the negative frequency
components that is not already available from the positive frequency components. The family of rfft functions is
designed to operate on real inputs, and exploits this symmetry by computing only the positive frequency components,
up to and including the Nyquist frequency. Thus, n input points produce n/2+1 complex output points. The inverses
of this family assumes the same symmetry of its input, and for an output of n points uses n/2+1 input points.
Correspondingly, when the spectrum is purely real, the signal is Hermitian. The hfft family of functions exploits
this symmetry by using n/2+1 complex points in the input (time) domain for n real points in the frequency domain.
In higher dimensions, FFTs are used, e.g., for image analysis and filtering. The computational efficiency of the FFT
means that it can also be a faster way to compute large convolutions, using the property that a convolution in the time
domain is equivalent to a point-by-point multiplication in the frequency domain.
3.11.9 Higher dimensions
In two dimensions, the DFT is defined as

𝑀 −1 𝑁 −1 {︂ (︂ )︂}︂
∑︁ ∑︁ 𝑚𝑘 𝑛𝑙
𝐴𝑘𝑙 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛 exp −2𝜋𝑖 + 𝑘 = 0, . . . , 𝑀 − 1; 𝑙 = 0, . . . , 𝑁 − 1,
𝑚=0 𝑛=0
𝑀 𝑁
which extends in the obvious way to higher dimensions, and the inverses in higher dimensions also extend in the same
way.
3.11.10 References
3.11.11 Examples
For examples, see the various functions.
3.12 Financial functions
3.12.1 Simple financial functions
fv(rate, nper, pmt, pv[, when]) Compute the future value.

pv(rate, nper, pmt[, fv, when]) Compute the present value.
npv(rate, values) Returns the NPV (Net Present Value) of a cash flow series.
pmt(rate, nper, pv[, fv, when]) Compute the payment against loan principal plus interest.
ppmt(rate, per, nper, pv[, fv, when]) Compute the payment against loan principal.
ipmt(rate, per, nper, pv[, fv, when]) Compute the interest portion of a payment.
irr(values) Return the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
mirr(values, finance_rate, reinvest_rate) Modified internal rate of return.
nper(rate, pmt, pv[, fv, when]) Compute the number of periodic payments.
rate(nper, pmt, pv, fv[, when, guess, tol, . . . ]) Compute the rate of interest per period.
numpy.fv(rate, nper, pmt, pv, when=’end’)

Compute the future value.
3.12. Financial functions 561

Given:
• a present value, pv
• an interest rate compounded once per period, of which there are
• nper total
• a (fixed) payment, pmt, paid either
• at the beginning (when = {‘begin’, 1}) or the end (when = {‘end’, 0}) of each period
Return: the value at the end of the nper periods
Parameters rate : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )

Rate of interest as decimal (not per cent) per period
nper : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Number of compounding periods
pmt : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Payment
pv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Present value
when : {{‘begin’, 1}, {‘end’, 0}}, {string, int}, optional
When payments are due (‘begin’ (1) or ‘end’ (0)). Defaults to {‘end’, 0}.
Future values. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any input is array_like,
returns future values for each input element. If multiple inputs are array_like, they all
Notes
The future value is computed by solving the equation:
fv +
pv*(1+rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) == 0
or, when rate == 0:
fv + pv + pmt * nper == 0
References
[WRW3132]

Examples
What is the future value after 10 years of saving $100 now, with an additional monthly savings of $100. Assume
the interest rate is 5% (annually) compounded monthly?
>>> np.fv(0.05/12, 10*12, -100, -100)

15692.928894335748
By convention, the negative sign represents cash flow out (i.e. money not available today). Thus, saving $100 a
month at 5% annual interest leads to $15,692.93 available to spend in 10 years.
If any input is array_like, returns an array of equal shape. Let’s compare different interest rates from the example
above.
>>> a = np.array((0.05, 0.06, 0.07))/12

>>> np.fv(a, 10*12, -100, -100)
array([ 15692.92889434, 16569.87435405, 17509.44688102])
numpy.pv(rate, nper, pmt, fv=0, when=’end’)

Compute the present value.
Given:
• a future value, fv
• nper total
• a (fixed) payment, pmt, paid either
• at the beginning (when = {‘begin’, 1}) or the end (when = {‘end’, 0}) of each period
Return: the value now
Parameters rate : array_like

Rate of interest (per period)
nper : array_like
pmt : array_like
Payment
fv : array_like, optional
Future value
When payments are due (‘begin’ (1) or ‘end’ (0))
Returns out : ndarray, float
Present value of a series of payments or investments.
Notes
The present value is computed by solving the equation:

fv +
pv*(1 + rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) = 0
or, when rate = 0:
fv + pv + pmt * nper = 0
for pv, which is then returned.
References
[WRW130131]
Examples
What is the present value (e.g., the initial investment) of an investment that needs to total $15692.93 after 10
years of saving $100 every month? Assume the interest rate is 5% (annually) compounded monthly.
>>> np.pv(0.05/12, 10*12, -100, 15692.93)

-100.00067131625819
By convention, the negative sign represents cash flow out (i.e., money not available today). Thus, to end up with
$15,692.93 in 10 years saving $100 a month at 5% annual interest, one’s initial deposit should also be $100.
If any input is array_like, pv returns an array of equal shape. Let’s compare different interest rates in the
example above:
>>> a = np.array((0.05, 0.04, 0.03))/12

>>> np.pv(a, 10*12, -100, 15692.93)
array([ -100.00067132, -649.26771385, -1273.78633713])
So, to end up with the same $15692.93 under the same $100 per month “savings plan,” for annual interest rates
of 4% and 3%, one would need initial investments of $649.27 and $1273.79, respectively.
numpy.npv(rate, values)
Returns the NPV (Net Present Value) of a cash flow series.
Parameters rate : scalar
The discount rate.
values : array_like, shape(M, )
The values of the time series of cash flows. The (fixed) time interval between cash flow
“events” must be the same as that for which rate is given (i.e., if rate is per year, then
precisely a year is understood to elapse between each cash flow event). By convention,
investments or “deposits” are negative, income or “withdrawals” are positive; values
must begin with the initial investment, thus values[0] will typically be negative.
Returns out : float
The NPV of the input cash flow series values at the discount rate.

Notes
Returns the result of: [G104105]

𝑀 −1
∑︁ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑡=0
(1 + 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒)𝑡
References
[G104105]
Examples
>>> np.npv(0.281,[-100, 39, 59, 55, 20])

-0.0084785916384548798
(Compare with the Example given for numpy.lib.financial.irr)

numpy.pmt(rate, nper, pv, fv=0, when=’end’)
Compute the payment against loan principal plus interest.
Given:
• a present value, pv (e.g., an amount borrowed)
• a future value, fv (e.g., 0)
• nper total
• and (optional) specification of whether payment is made at the beginning (when = {‘begin’, 1}) or the
end (when = {‘end’, 0}) of each period
Return: the (fixed) periodic payment.

nper : array_like
pv : array_like
Present value
Future value (default = 0)
when : {{‘begin’, 1}, {‘end’, 0}}, {string, int}
Payment against loan plus interest. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any
input is array_like, returns payment for each input element. If multiple inputs are ar-
ray_like, they all must have the same shape.

Notes
The payment is computed by solving the equation:
fv +
pv*(1 + rate)**nper +
pmt*(1 + rate*when)/rate*((1 + rate)**nper - 1) == 0
or, when rate == 0:
fv + pv + pmt * nper == 0
for pmt.
Note that computing a monthly mortgage payment is only one use for this function. For example, pmt returns the
periodic deposit one must make to achieve a specified future balance given an initial deposit, a fixed, periodically
compounded interest rate, and the total number of periods.
References
[WRW108109]
Examples
What is the monthly payment needed to pay off a $200,000 loan in 15 years at an annual interest rate of 7.5%?
>>> np.pmt(0.075/12, 12*15, 200000)

-1854.0247200054619
In order to pay-off (i.e., have a future-value of 0) the $200,000 obtained today, a monthly payment of $1,854.02
would be required. Note that this example illustrates usage of fv having a default value of 0.
numpy.ppmt(rate, per, nper, pv, fv=0, when=’end’)
Compute the payment against loan principal.
per : array_like, int
Amount paid against the loan changes. The per is the period of interest.
nper : array_like
pv : array_like
Present value
Future value
when : {{‘begin’, 1}, {‘end’, 0}}, {string, int}

See also:
pmt, pv, ipmt
numpy.ipmt(rate, per, nper, pv, fv=0, when=’end’)
Compute the interest portion of a payment.
Parameters rate : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Rate of interest as decimal (not per cent) per period
per : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Interest paid against the loan changes during the life or the loan. The per is the payment
period to calculate the interest amount.
nper : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
pv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, )
Present value
fv : scalar or array_like of shape(M, ), optional
Future value
When payments are due (‘begin’ (1) or ‘end’ (0)). Defaults to {‘end’, 0}.
Interest portion of payment. If all input is scalar, returns a scalar float. If any input
is array_like, returns interest payment for each input element. If multiple inputs are
array_like, they all must have the same shape.
See also:
ppmt, pmt, pv
Notes
The total payment is made up of payment against principal plus interest.

pmt = ppmt + ipmt
Examples
What is the amortization schedule for a 1 year loan of $2500 at 8.24% interest per year compounded monthly?
>>> principal = 2500.00
The ‘per’ variable represents the periods of the loan. Remember that financial equations start the period count
at 1!
>>> per = np.arange(1*12) + 1

>>> ipmt = np.ipmt(0.0824/12, per, 1*12, principal)
>>> ppmt = np.ppmt(0.0824/12, per, 1*12, principal)
Each element of the sum of the ‘ipmt’ and ‘ppmt’ arrays should equal ‘pmt’.

>>> pmt = np.pmt(0.0824/12, 1*12, principal)

>>> np.allclose(ipmt + ppmt, pmt)
True
>>> fmt = '{0:2d} {1:8.2f} {2:8.2f} {3:8.2f}'

>>> for payment in per:
... index = payment - 1
... principal = principal + ppmt[index]
... print(fmt.format(payment, ppmt[index], ipmt[index], principal))
1 -200.58 -17.17 2299.42
2 -201.96 -15.79 2097.46
3 -203.35 -14.40 1894.11
4 -204.74 -13.01 1689.37
5 -206.15 -11.60 1483.22
6 -207.56 -10.18 1275.66
7 -208.99 -8.76 1066.67
8 -210.42 -7.32 856.25
9 -211.87 -5.88 644.38
10 -213.32 -4.42 431.05
11 -214.79 -2.96 216.26
12 -216.26 -1.49 -0.00
>>> interestpd = np.sum(ipmt)

>>> np.round(interestpd, 2)
-112.98
numpy.irr(values)
Return the Internal Rate of Return (IRR).
This is the “average” periodically compounded rate of return that gives a net present value of 0.0; for a more
complete explanation, see Notes below.
decimal.Decimal type is not supported.
Parameters values : array_like, shape(N,)
Input cash flows per time period. By convention, net “deposits” are negative and net
“withdrawals” are positive. Thus, for example, at least the first element of values, which
represents the initial investment, will typically be negative.
Returns out : float
Internal Rate of Return for periodic input values.
Notes
The IRR is perhaps best understood through an example (illustrated using np.irr in the Examples section below).
Suppose one invests 100 units and then makes the following withdrawals at regular (fixed) intervals: 39, 59, 55,
20. Assuming the ending value is 0, one’s 100 unit investment yields 173 units; however, due to the combi-
nation of compounding and the periodic withdrawals, the “average” rate of return is neither simply 0.73/4 nor
(1.73)^0.25-1. Rather, it is the solution (for 𝑟) of the equation:
39 59 55 20
−100 + + 2
+ 3
+ =0
1 + 𝑟 (1 + 𝑟) (1 + 𝑟) (1 + 𝑟)4

In general, for values = [𝑣0 , 𝑣1 , ...𝑣𝑀 ], irr is the solution of the equation: [G6465]
𝑀
∑︁ 𝑣𝑡
=0
𝑡=0
(1 + 𝑖𝑟𝑟)𝑡
References
[G6465]
Examples
>>> round(irr([-100, 39, 59, 55, 20]), 5)

0.28095
>>> round(irr([-100, 0, 0, 74]), 5)
-0.0955
>>> round(irr([-100, 100, 0, -7]), 5)
-0.0833
>>> round(irr([-100, 100, 0, 7]), 5)
0.06206
>>> round(irr([-5, 10.5, 1, -8, 1]), 5)
0.0886
(Compare with the Example given for numpy.lib.financial.npv)

numpy.mirr(values, finance_rate, reinvest_rate)
Modified internal rate of return.
Parameters values : array_like
Cash flows (must contain at least one positive and one negative value) or nan is returned.
The first value is considered a sunk cost at time zero.
finance_rate : scalar
Interest rate paid on the cash flows
reinvest_rate : scalar
Interest rate received on the cash flows upon reinvestment
Returns out : float
Modified internal rate of return
numpy.nper(rate, pmt, pv, fv=0, when=’end’)
Compute the number of periodic payments.
decimal.Decimal type is not supported.
pmt : array_like
Payment
pv : array_like
Present value

Future value
Notes
The number of periods nper is computed by solving the equation:
fv + pv*(1+rate)**nper + pmt*(1+rate*when)/rate*((1+rate)**nper-1) = 0
but if rate = 0 then:
fv + pv + pmt*nper = 0
Examples
If you only had $150/month to pay towards the loan, how long would it take to pay-off a loan of $8,000 at 7%
annual interest?
>>> print(round(np.nper(0.07/12, -150, 8000), 5))

64.07335
So, over 64 months would be required to pay off the loan.

The same analysis could be done with several different interest rates and/or payments and/or total amounts to
produce an entire table.
>>> np.nper(*(np.ogrid[0.07/12: 0.08/12: 0.01/12,

... -150 : -99 : 50 ,
... 8000 : 9001 : 1000]))
array([[[ 64.07334877, 74.06368256],
[ 108.07548412, 127.99022654]],
[[ 66.12443902, 76.87897353],
[ 114.70165583, 137.90124779]]])
numpy.rate(nper, pmt, pv, fv, when=’end’, guess=None, tol=None, maxiter=100)

Compute the rate of interest per period.
Parameters nper : array_like
pmt : array_like
Payment
pv : array_like
Present value
fv : array_like
Future value


guess : Number, optional
Starting guess for solving the rate of interest, default 0.1
tol : Number, optional
Required tolerance for the solution, default 1e-6
maxiter : int, optional
Maximum iterations in finding the solution
Notes
The rate of interest is computed by iteratively solving the (non-linear) equation:
fv + pv*(1+rate)**nper + pmt*(1+rate*when)/rate * ((1+rate)**nper - 1) = 0
for rate.
References
Wheeler, D. A., E. Rathke, and R. Weir (Eds.) (2009, May). Open Document Format for Office Appli-
cations (OpenDocument)v1.2, Part 2: Recalculated Formula (OpenFormula) Format - Annotated Version,
Pre-Draft 12. Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). Billerica,
MA, USA. [ODT Document]. Available: http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/documents.php?wg_abbrev=
office-formula OpenDocument-formula-20090508.odt
3.13 Functional programming
apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args, . . . ) Apply a function to 1-D slices along the given axis.
apply_over_axes(func, a, axes) Apply a function repeatedly over multiple axes.
vectorize(pyfunc[, otypes, doc, excluded, . . . ]) Generalized function class.
frompyfunc(func, nin, nout) Takes an arbitrary Python function and returns a NumPy
ufunc.
piecewise(x, condlist, funclist, *args, **kw) Evaluate a piecewise-defined function.
numpy.apply_along_axis(func1d, axis, arr, *args, **kwargs)

Apply a function to 1-D slices along the given axis.
Execute func1d(a, *args) where func1d operates on 1-D arrays and a is a 1-D slice of arr along axis.
This is equivalent to (but faster than) the following use of ndindex and s_, which sets each of ii, jj, and
kk to a tuple of indices:

f = func1d(arr[ii + s_[:,] + kk])
Nj = f.shape
out[ii + jj + kk] = f[jj]
3.13. Functional programming 571

Equivalently, eliminating the inner loop, this can be expressed as:

out[ii + s_[...,] + kk] = func1d(arr[ii + s_[:,] + kk])
Parameters func1d : function (M,) -> (Nj. . . )

This function should accept 1-D arrays. It is applied to 1-D slices of arr along the
specified axis.
axis : integer
Axis along which arr is sliced.
arr : ndarray (Ni. . . , M, Nk. . . )
Input array.
args : any
Additional arguments to func1d.
kwargs : any
Additional named arguments to func1d.
The output array. The shape of out is identical to the shape of arr, except along the
axis dimension. This axis is removed, and replaced with new dimensions equal to the
shape of the return value of func1d. So if func1d returns a scalar out will have one fewer
dimensions than arr.
See also:
apply_over_axes Apply a function repeatedly over multiple axes.
Examples
>>> def my_func(a):

... """Average first and last element of a 1-D array"""
... return (a[0] + a[-1]) * 0.5
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])
array([ 4., 5., 6.])
array([ 2., 5., 8.])
For a function that returns a 1D array, the number of dimensions in outarr is the same as arr.
>>> b = np.array([[8,1,7], [4,3,9], [5,2,6]])

>>> np.apply_along_axis(sorted, 1, b)
array([[1, 7, 8],
[3, 4, 9],
[2, 5, 6]])

For a function that returns a higher dimensional array, those dimensions are inserted in place of the axis dimen-
sion.
>>> b = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]])

>>> np.apply_along_axis(np.diag, -1, b)
array([[[1, 0, 0],
[0, 2, 0],
[0, 0, 3]],
[[4, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 6]],
[[7, 0, 0],
[0, 8, 0],
[0, 0, 9]]])
numpy.apply_over_axes(func, a, axes)
Apply a function repeatedly over multiple axes.
func is called as res = func(a, axis), where axis is the first element of axes. The result res of the function call must
have either the same dimensions as a or one less dimension. If res has one less dimension than a, a dimension
is inserted before axis. The call to func is then repeated for each axis in axes, with res as the first argument.
Parameters func : function
This function must take two arguments, func(a, axis).
a : array_like
Input array.
axes : array_like
Axes over which func is applied; the elements must be integers.
Returns apply_over_axis : ndarray
The output array. The number of dimensions is the same as a, but the shape can be
different. This depends on whether func changes the shape of its output with respect to
its input.
See also:
apply_along_axis Apply a function to 1-D slices of an array along the given axis.
Notes
This function is equivalent to tuple axis arguments to reorderable ufuncs with keepdims=True. Tuple axis
arguments to ufuncs have been available since version 1.7.0.
Examples
>>> a
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],
[[12, 13, 14, 15],

[16, 17, 18, 19],

[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
Sum over axes 0 and 2. The result has same number of dimensions as the original array:
>>> np.apply_over_axes(np.sum, a, [0,2])

array([[[ 60],
[ 92],
[124]]])
Tuple axis arguments to ufuncs are equivalent:
>>> np.sum(a, axis=(0,2), keepdims=True)

array([[[ 60],
[ 92],
[124]]])
class numpy.vectorize(pyfunc, otypes=None, doc=None, excluded=None, cache=False, signa-

ture=None)
Generalized function class.
Define a vectorized function which takes a nested sequence of objects or numpy arrays as inputs and returns an
single or tuple of numpy array as output. The vectorized function evaluates pyfunc over successive tuples of the
input arrays like the python map function, except it uses the broadcasting rules of numpy.
The data type of the output of vectorized is determined by calling the function with the first element of the input.
This can be avoided by specifying the otypes argument.
Parameters pyfunc : callable
A python function or method.
otypes : str or list of dtypes, optional
The output data type. It must be specified as either a string of typecode characters or a
list of data type specifiers. There should be one data type specifier for each output.
doc : str, optional
The docstring for the function. If None, the docstring will be the pyfunc.__doc__.
excluded : set, optional
Set of strings or integers representing the positional or keyword arguments for which
the function will not be vectorized. These will be passed directly to pyfunc unmodified.
cache : bool, optional
If True, then cache the first function call that determines the number of outputs if otypes
is not provided.
signature : string, optional
Generalized universal function signature, e.g., (m,n),(n)->(m) for vectorized
matrix-vector multiplication. If provided, pyfunc will be called with (and expected
to return) arrays with shapes given by the size of corresponding core dimensions. By
default, pyfunc is assumed to take scalars as input and output.

Returns vectorized : callable

Vectorized function.
See also:
frompyfunc Takes an arbitrary Python function and returns a ufunc
Notes
The vectorize function is provided primarily for convenience, not for performance. The implementation is
essentially a for loop.
If otypes is not specified, then a call to the function with the first argument will be used to determine the number
of outputs. The results of this call will be cached if cache is True to prevent calling the function twice. However,
to implement the cache, the original function must be wrapped which will slow down subsequent calls, so only
do this if your function is expensive.
The new keyword argument interface and excluded argument support further degrades performance.
References
[R575575]
Examples
>>> def myfunc(a, b):

... "Return a-b if a>b, otherwise return a+b"
... if a > b:
... return a - b
... else:
... return a + b
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc)

>>> vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)
array([3, 4, 1, 2])
The docstring is taken from the input function to vectorize unless it is specified:
>>> vfunc.__doc__
'Return a-b if a>b, otherwise return a+b'
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc, doc='Vectorized `myfunc`')
>>> vfunc.__doc__
'Vectorized `myfunc`'
The output type is determined by evaluating the first element of the input, unless it is specified:
>>> out = vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)

>>> type(out[0])
>>> vfunc = np.vectorize(myfunc, otypes=[float])
>>> out = vfunc([1, 2, 3, 4], 2)
>>> type(out[0])

The excluded argument can be used to prevent vectorizing over certain arguments. This can be useful for array-
like arguments of a fixed length such as the coefficients for a polynomial as in polyval:
>>> def mypolyval(p, x):

... _p = list(p)
... res = _p.pop(0)
... while _p:
... res = res*x + _p.pop(0)
... return res
>>> vpolyval = np.vectorize(mypolyval, excluded=['p'])
>>> vpolyval(p=[1, 2, 3], x=[0, 1])
array([3, 6])
Positional arguments may also be excluded by specifying their position:
>>> vpolyval.excluded.add(0)
>>> vpolyval([1, 2, 3], x=[0, 1])
array([3, 6])
The signature argument allows for vectorizing functions that act on non-scalar arrays of fixed length. For
example, you can use it for a vectorized calculation of Pearson correlation coefficient and its p-value:
>>> import scipy.stats

>>> pearsonr = np.vectorize(scipy.stats.pearsonr,
... signature='(n),(n)->(),()')
>>> pearsonr([[0, 1, 2, 3]], [[1, 2, 3, 4], [4, 3, 2, 1]])
(array([ 1., -1.]), array([ 0., 0.]))
Or for a vectorized convolution:
>>> convolve = np.vectorize(np.convolve, signature='(n),(m)->(k)')

>>> convolve(np.eye(4), [1, 2, 1])
array([[ 1., 2., 1., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 2., 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1., 2., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 1., 2., 1.]])
Methods
__call__(*args, **kwargs) Return arrays with the results of pyfunc broadcast (vec-
torized) over args and kwargs not in excluded.
vectorize.__call__(*args, **kwargs)
Return arrays with the results of pyfunc broadcast (vectorized) over args and kwargs not in excluded.
numpy.frompyfunc(func, nin, nout)
Takes an arbitrary Python function and returns a NumPy ufunc.
Can be used, for example, to add broadcasting to a built-in Python function (see Examples section).
Parameters func : Python function object
An arbitrary Python function.
nin : int
The number of input arguments.

nout : int
The number of objects returned by func.
Returns out : ufunc
Returns a NumPy universal function (ufunc) object.
See also:
vectorize evaluates pyfunc over input arrays using broadcasting rules of numpy
Notes
The returned ufunc always returns PyObject arrays.
Examples
Use frompyfunc to add broadcasting to the Python function oct:
>>> oct_array = np.frompyfunc(oct, 1, 1)

>>> oct_array(np.array((10, 30, 100)))
array([012, 036, 0144], dtype=object)
>>> np.array((oct(10), oct(30), oct(100))) # for comparison
array(['012', '036', '0144'],
dtype='|S4')
numpy.piecewise(x, condlist, funclist, *args, **kw)

Evaluate a piecewise-defined function.
Given a set of conditions and corresponding functions, evaluate each function on the input data wherever its
condition is true.
Parameters x : ndarray or scalar
The input domain.
condlist : list of bool arrays or bool scalars
Each boolean array corresponds to a function in funclist. Wherever condlist[i] is True,
funclist[i](x) is used as the output value.
Each boolean array in condlist selects a piece of x, and should therefore be of the same
shape as x.
The length of condlist must correspond to that of funclist. If one extra function is given,
i.e. if len(funclist) == len(condlist) + 1, then that extra function is the
default value, used wherever all conditions are false.
funclist : list of callables, f(x,*args,**kw), or scalars
Each function is evaluated over x wherever its corresponding condition is True. It should
take a 1d array as input and give an 1d array or a scalar value as output. If, instead of
a callable, a scalar is provided then a constant function (lambda x: scalar) is
assumed.
args : tuple, optional

Any further arguments given to piecewise are passed to the functions upon execu-
tion, i.e., if called piecewise(..., ..., 1, 'a'), then each function is called
as f(x, 1, 'a').
kw : dict, optional
Keyword arguments used in calling piecewise are passed to the functions upon ex-
ecution, i.e., if called piecewise(..., ..., alpha=1), then each function is
called as f(x, alpha=1).
The output is the same shape and type as x and is found by calling the functions in
funclist on the appropriate portions of x, as defined by the boolean arrays in condlist.
Portions not covered by any condition have a default value of 0.
See also:
choose, select, where
Notes
This is similar to choose or select, except that functions are evaluated on elements of x that satisfy the corre-
sponding condition from condlist.
The result is:
|--
|funclist[0](x[condlist[0]])
out = |funclist[1](x[condlist[1]])
|...
|funclist[n2](x[condlist[n2]])
|--
Examples
Define the sigma function, which is -1 for x < 0 and +1 for x >= 0.
>>> x = np.linspace(-2.5, 2.5, 6)

>>> np.piecewise(x, [x < 0, x >= 0], [-1, 1])
array([-1., -1., -1., 1., 1., 1.])
Define the absolute value, which is -x for x <0 and x for x >= 0.
>>> np.piecewise(x, [x < 0, x >= 0], [lambda x: -x, lambda x: x])

array([ 2.5, 1.5, 0.5, 0.5, 1.5, 2.5])
Apply the same function to a scalar value.
>>> y = -2
>>> np.piecewise(y, [y < 0, y >= 0], [lambda x: -x, lambda x: x])
array(2)

3.14 NumPy-specific help functions
3.14.1 Finding help
lookfor(what[, module, import_modules, . . . ]) Do a keyword search on docstrings.
numpy.lookfor(what, module=None, import_modules=True, regenerate=False, output=None)

Do a keyword search on docstrings.
A list of of objects that matched the search is displayed, sorted by relevance. All given keywords need to be
found in the docstring for it to be returned as a result, but the order does not matter.
Parameters what : str
String containing words to look for.
module : str or list, optional
Name of module(s) whose docstrings to go through.
import_modules : bool, optional
Whether to import sub-modules in packages. Default is True.
regenerate : bool, optional
Whether to re-generate the docstring cache. Default is False.
output : file-like, optional
File-like object to write the output to. If omitted, use a pager.
See also:
source, info
Notes
Relevance is determined only roughly, by checking if the keywords occur in the function name, at the start of a
docstring, etc.
Examples
>>> np.lookfor('binary representation')

Search results for 'binary representation'
------------------------------------------
numpy.binary_repr
Return the binary representation of the input number as a string.
numpy.core.setup_common.long_double_representation
Given a binary dump as given by GNU od -b, look for long double
numpy.base_repr
Return a string representation of a number in the given base system.
...
3.14. NumPy-specific help functions 579

3.14.2 Reading help
info([object, maxwidth, output, toplevel]) Get help information for a function, class, or module.
source(object[, output]) Print or write to a file the source code for a NumPy object.
numpy.info(object=None, maxwidth=76, output=<_io.TextIOWrapper name=’<stdout>’ mode=’w’

encoding=’ANSI_X3.4-1968’>, toplevel=’numpy’)
Get help information for a function, class, or module.
Parameters object : object or str, optional
Input object or name to get information about. If object is a numpy object, its doc-
string is given. If it is a string, available modules are searched for matching objects. If
None, information about info itself is returned.
maxwidth : int, optional
Printing width.
output : file like object, optional
File like object that the output is written to, default is stdout. The object has to be
opened in ‘w’ or ‘a’ mode.
toplevel : str, optional
Start search at this level.
See also:
source, lookfor
Notes
When used interactively with an object, np.info(obj) is equivalent to help(obj) on the Python prompt
or obj? on the IPython prompt.
Examples
>>> np.info(np.polyval)
polyval(p, x)
Evaluate the polynomial p at x.
...
When using a string for object it is possible to get multiple results.
>>> np.info('fft')
*** Found in numpy ***
Core FFT routines
...
*** Found in numpy.fft ***
fft(a, n=None, axis=-1)
...
*** Repeat reference found in numpy.fft.fftpack ***
*** Total of 3 references found. ***

numpy.source(object, output=<_io.TextIOWrapper name=’<stdout>’ mode=’w’ encoding=’ANSI_X3.4-

1968’>)
Print or write to a file the source code for a NumPy object.
The source code is only returned for objects written in Python. Many functions and classes are defined in C and
will therefore not return useful information.
Parameters object : numpy object
Input object. This can be any object (function, class, module, . . . ).
output : file object, optional
If output not supplied then source code is printed to screen (sys.stdout). File object must
be created with either write ‘w’ or append ‘a’ modes.
See also:
lookfor, info
Examples
>>> np.source(np.interp)
In file: /usr/lib/python2.6/dist-packages/numpy/lib/function_base.py
def interp(x, xp, fp, left=None, right=None):
""".... (full docstring printed)"""
if isinstance(x, (float, int, number)):
return compiled_interp([x], xp, fp, left, right).item()
else:
return compiled_interp(x, xp, fp, left, right)
The source code is only returned for objects written in Python.
>>> np.source(np.array)
Not available for this object.
3.15 Indexing routines
See also:
Indexing
3.15.1 Generating index arrays
c_ Translates slice objects to concatenation along the second

axis.
r_ Translates slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
s_ A nicer way to build up index tuples for arrays.
nonzero(a) Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
where(condition, [x, y]) Return elements, either from x or y, depending on condi-
tion.
indices(dimensions[, dtype]) Return an array representing the indices of a grid.
ix_(*args) Construct an open mesh from multiple sequences.
3.15. Indexing routines 581


ogrid nd_grid instance which returns an open multi-dimensional
“meshgrid”.
ravel_multi_index(multi_index, dims[, mode, . . . ]) Converts a tuple of index arrays into an array of flat indices,
applying boundary modes to the multi-index.
unravel_index(indices, dims[, order]) Converts a flat index or array of flat indices into a tuple of
coordinate arrays.
diag_indices(n[, ndim]) Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an array.
diag_indices_from(arr) Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an n-
dimensional array.
mask_indices(n, mask_func[, k]) Return the indices to access (n, n) arrays, given a masking
function.
tril_indices(n[, k, m]) Return the indices for the lower-triangle of an (n, m) array.
tril_indices_from(arr[, k]) Return the indices for the lower-triangle of arr.
triu_indices(n[, k, m]) Return the indices for the upper-triangle of an (n, m) array.
triu_indices_from(arr[, k]) Return the indices for the upper-triangle of arr.
numpy.c_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.CClass object>

Translates slice objects to concatenation along the second axis.
This is short-hand for np.r_['-1,2,0', index expression], which is useful because of its common
occurrence. In particular, arrays will be stacked along their last axis after being upgraded to at least 2-D with
1’s post-pended to the shape (column vectors made out of 1-D arrays).
See also:
column_stack Stack 1-D arrays as columns into a 2-D array.

r_ For more detailed documentation.
Examples
>>> np.c_[np.array([1,2,3]), np.array([4,5,6])]

array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> np.c_[np.array([[1,2,3]]), 0, 0, np.array([[4,5,6]])]
array([[1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6]])
numpy.r_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.RClass object>

Translates slice objects to concatenation along the first axis.
This is a simple way to build up arrays quickly. There are two use cases.
1. If the index expression contains comma separated arrays, then stack them along their first axis.
2. If the index expression contains slice notation or scalars then create a 1-D array with a range indicated by
the slice notation.
If slice notation is used, the syntax start:stop:step is equivalent to np.arange(start, stop,
step) inside of the brackets. However, if step is an imaginary number (i.e. 100j) then its integer
portion is interpreted as a number-of-points desired and the start and stop are inclusive. In other words
start:stop:stepj is interpreted as np.linspace(start, stop, step, endpoint=1) inside
of the brackets. After expansion of slice notation, all comma separated sequences are concatenated together.
Optional character strings placed as the first element of the index expression can be used to change the output.
The strings ‘r’ or ‘c’ result in matrix output. If the result is 1-D and ‘r’ is specified a 1 x N (row) matrix is

produced. If the result is 1-D and ‘c’ is specified, then a N x 1 (column) matrix is produced. If the result is 2-D
then both provide the same matrix result.
A string integer specifies which axis to stack multiple comma separated arrays along. A string of two comma-
separated integers allows indication of the minimum number of dimensions to force each entry into as the second
integer (the axis to concatenate along is still the first integer).
A string with three comma-separated integers allows specification of the axis to concatenate along, the minimum
number of dimensions to force the entries to, and which axis should contain the start of the arrays which are less
than the specified number of dimensions. In other words the third integer allows you to specify where the 1’s
should be placed in the shape of the arrays that have their shapes upgraded. By default, they are placed in the
front of the shape tuple. The third argument allows you to specify where the start of the array should be instead.
Thus, a third argument of ‘0’ would place the 1’s at the end of the array shape. Negative integers specify where
in the new shape tuple the last dimension of upgraded arrays should be placed, so the default is ‘-1’.
Parameters Not a function, so takes no parameters
Returns A concatenated ndarray or matrix.
See also:

c_ Translates slice objects to concatenation along the second axis.
Examples
>>> np.r_[np.array([1,2,3]), 0, 0, np.array([4,5,6])]

array([1, 2, 3, 0, 0, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.r_[-1:1:6j, [0]*3, 5, 6]
array([-1. , -0.6, -0.2, 0.2, 0.6, 1. , 0. , 0. , 0. , 5. , 6. ])
String integers specify the axis to concatenate along or the minimum number of dimensions to force entries into.
>>> a = np.array([[0, 1, 2], [3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.r_['-1', a, a] # concatenate along last axis
array([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.r_['0,2', [1,2,3], [4,5,6]] # concatenate along first axis, dim>=2
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.r_['0,2,0', [1,2,3], [4,5,6]]

array([[1],
[2],
[3],
[4],
[5],
[6]])
>>> np.r_['1,2,0', [1,2,3], [4,5,6]]
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
Using ‘r’ or ‘c’ as a first string argument creates a matrix.

>>> np.r_['r',[1,2,3], [4,5,6]]
matrix([[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]])

numpy.s_ = <numpy.lib.index_tricks.IndexExpression object>

A nicer way to build up index tuples for arrays.
Note: Use one of the two predefined instances index_exp or s_ rather than directly using IndexExpression.
For any index combination, including slicing and axis insertion, a[indices] is the same as a[np.
index_exp[indices]] for any array a. However, np.index_exp[indices] can be used anywhere
in Python code and returns a tuple of slice objects that can be used in the construction of complex index expres-
sions.
Parameters maketuple : bool
If True, always returns a tuple.
See also:
index_exp Predefined instance that always returns a tuple: index_exp = IndexExpression(maketuple=True).

s_ Predefined instance without tuple conversion: s_ = IndexExpression(maketuple=False).
Notes
You can do all this with slice() plus a few special objects, but there’s a lot to remember and this version is simpler
because it uses the standard array indexing syntax.
Examples
>>> np.s_[2::2]
slice(2, None, 2)
>>> np.index_exp[2::2]
(slice(2, None, 2),)
>>> np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])[np.s_[2::2]]

array([2, 4])
numpy.nonzero(a)
Returns a tuple of arrays, one for each dimension of a, containing the indices of the non-zero elements in that
dimension. The values in a are always tested and returned in row-major, C-style order. The corresponding
non-zero values can be obtained with:
a[nonzero(a)]
To group the indices by element, rather than dimension, use:
transpose(nonzero(a))
The result of this is always a 2-D array, with a row for each non-zero element.
Input array.


See also:
Examples
>>> x = np.array([[1,0,0], [0,2,0], [1,1,0]])

>>> x
array([[1, 0, 0],
[0, 2, 0],
[1, 1, 0]])
>>> np.nonzero(x)
(array([0, 1, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 0, 1]))
>>> x[np.nonzero(x)]
array([1, 2, 1, 1])
>>> np.transpose(np.nonzero(x))
array([[0, 0],
[1, 1],
[2, 0],
[2, 1])
condition a > 3 is a boolean array and since False is interpreted as 0, np.nonzero(a > 3) yields the indices of the
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6],[7,8,9]])
>>> a > 3
array([[False, False, False],
[ True, True, True],
[ True, True, True]])
>>> np.nonzero(a > 3)
(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
The nonzero method of the boolean array can also be called.
>>> (a > 3).nonzero()

(array([1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]))
numpy.where(condition[, x, y ])
Return elements, either from x or y, depending on condition.
If only condition is given, return condition.nonzero().
Parameters condition : array_like, bool
When True, yield x, otherwise yield y.
x, y : array_like, optional

Values from which to choose. x, y and condition need to be broadcastable to some

shape.
Returns out : ndarray or tuple of ndarrays
If both x and y are specified, the output array contains elements of x where condition is
True, and elements from y elsewhere.
If only condition is given, return the tuple condition.nonzero(), the indices
where condition is True.
See also:
nonzero, choose
Notes
If x and y are given and input arrays are 1-D, where is equivalent to:
[xv if c else yv for (c,xv,yv) in zip(condition,x,y)]
Examples
>>> np.where([[True, False], [True, True]],

... [[1, 2], [3, 4]],
... [[9, 8], [7, 6]])
array([[1, 8],
[3, 4]])
>>> np.where([[0, 1], [1, 0]])

(array([0, 1]), array([1, 0]))
>>> np.where( x > 5 )
(array([2, 2, 2]), array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> x[np.where( x > 3.0 )] # Note: result is 1D.
array([ 4., 5., 6., 7., 8.])
>>> np.where(x < 5, x, -1) # Note: broadcasting.
array([[ 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 4., -1.],
[-1., -1., -1.]])
Find the indices of elements of x that are in goodvalues.
>>> goodvalues = [3, 4, 7]

>>> ix = np.isin(x, goodvalues)
>>> ix
array([[False, False, False],
[ True, True, False],
[False, True, False]])
>>> np.where(ix)
(array([1, 1, 2]), array([0, 1, 1]))
numpy.indices(dimensions, dtype=<class ’int’>)

Return an array representing the indices of a grid.

Compute an array where the subarrays contain index values 0,1,. . . varying only along the corresponding axis.
Parameters dimensions : sequence of ints
The shape of the grid.
Data type of the result.
Returns grid : ndarray
The array of grid indices, grid.shape = (len(dimensions),) +
tuple(dimensions).
See also:
mgrid, meshgrid
Notes
The output shape is obtained by prepending the number of dimensions in front of the tuple of dimensions, i.e. if
dimensions is a tuple (r0, ..., rN-1) of length N, the output shape is (N,r0,...,rN-1).
The subarrays grid[k] contains the N-D array of indices along the k-th axis. Explicitly:
grid[k,i0,i1,...,iN-1] = ik
Examples
>>> grid = np.indices((2, 3))

>>> grid.shape
(2, 2, 3)
>>> grid[0] # row indices
array([[0, 0, 0],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> grid[1] # column indices
array([[0, 1, 2],
[0, 1, 2]])
The indices can be used as an index into an array.
>>> row, col = np.indices((2, 3))
>>> x[row, col]
array([[0, 1, 2],
[4, 5, 6]])
Note that it would be more straightforward in the above example to extract the required elements directly with
x[:2, :3].
numpy.ix_(*args)
Construct an open mesh from multiple sequences.
This function takes N 1-D sequences and returns N outputs with N dimensions each, such that the shape is 1 in
all but one dimension and the dimension with the non-unit shape value cycles through all N dimensions.
Using ix_ one can quickly construct index arrays that will index the cross product. a[np.ix_([1,3],[2,
5])] returns the array [[a[1,2] a[1,5]], [a[3,2] a[3,5]]].

Parameters args : 1-D sequences

Each sequence should be of integer or boolean type. Boolean sequences will be in-
terpreted as boolean masks for the corresponding dimension (equivalent to passing in
np.nonzero(boolean_sequence)).
Returns out : tuple of ndarrays
N arrays with N dimensions each, with N the number of input sequences. Together
these arrays form an open mesh.
See also:
ogrid, mgrid, meshgrid
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(10).reshape(2, 5)
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8, 9]])
>>> ixgrid = np.ix_([0, 1], [2, 4])
>>> ixgrid
(array([[0],
[1]]), array([[2, 4]]))
>>> ixgrid[0].shape, ixgrid[1].shape
((2, 1), (1, 2))
>>> a[ixgrid]
array([[2, 4],
[7, 9]])
>>> ixgrid = np.ix_([True, True], [2, 4])

>>> a[ixgrid]
array([[2, 4],
[7, 9]])
>>> ixgrid = np.ix_([True, True], [False, False, True, False, True])
>>> a[ixgrid]
array([[2, 4],
[7, 9]])
numpy.ravel_multi_index(multi_index, dims, mode=’raise’, order=’C’)

Converts a tuple of index arrays into an array of flat indices, applying boundary modes to the multi-index.
Parameters multi_index : tuple of array_like
A tuple of integer arrays, one array for each dimension.
dims : tuple of ints
The shape of array into which the indices from multi_index apply.
Specifies how out-of-bounds indices are handled. Can specify either one mode or a
tuple of modes, one mode per index.
• ‘raise’ – raise an error (default)
• ‘wrap’ – wrap around
• ‘clip’ – clip to the range

In ‘clip’ mode, a negative index which would normally wrap will clip to 0 instead.
Determines whether the multi-index should be viewed as indexing in row-major (C-
style) or column-major (Fortran-style) order.
Returns raveled_indices : ndarray
An array of indices into the flattened version of an array of dimensions dims.
See also:
unravel_index
Notes
Examples
>>> arr = np.array([[3,6,6],[4,5,1]])

>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (7,6))
array([22, 41, 37])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (7,6), order='F')
array([31, 41, 13])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (4,6), mode='clip')
array([22, 23, 19])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index(arr, (4,4), mode=('clip','wrap'))
array([12, 13, 13])
>>> np.ravel_multi_index((3,1,4,1), (6,7,8,9))

1621
numpy.unravel_index(indices, dims, order=’C’)

Converts a flat index or array of flat indices into a tuple of coordinate arrays.
Parameters indices : array_like
An integer array whose elements are indices into the flattened version of an array of
dimensions dims. Before version 1.6.0, this function accepted just one index value.
dims : tuple of ints
The shape of the array to use for unraveling indices.
Determines whether the indices should be viewed as indexing in row-major (C-style) or
column-major (Fortran-style) order.
Returns unraveled_coords : tuple of ndarray
Each array in the tuple has the same shape as the indices array.
See also:
ravel_multi_index

Examples
>>> np.unravel_index([22, 41, 37], (7,6))

(array([3, 6, 6]), array([4, 5, 1]))
>>> np.unravel_index([31, 41, 13], (7,6), order='F')
(array([3, 6, 6]), array([4, 5, 1]))
>>> np.unravel_index(1621, (6,7,8,9))

(3, 1, 4, 1)
numpy.diag_indices(n, ndim=2)
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an array.
This returns a tuple of indices that can be used to access the main diagonal of an array a with a.ndim >= 2
dimensions and shape (n, n, . . . , n). For a.ndim = 2 this is the usual diagonal, for a.ndim > 2 this is the
set of indices to access a[i, i, ..., i] for i = [0..n-1].
Parameters n : int
The size, along each dimension, of the arrays for which the returned indices can be
used.
ndim : int, optional
The number of dimensions.
See also:
diag_indices_from
Notes
Examples
Create a set of indices to access the diagonal of a (4, 4) array:
>>> di = np.diag_indices(4)
>>> di
(array([0, 1, 2, 3]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
>>> a[di] = 100
>>> a
array([[100, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 100, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 100, 11],
[ 12, 13, 14, 100]])
Now, we create indices to manipulate a 3-D array:

>>> d3 = np.diag_indices(2, 3)
>>> d3
(array([0, 1]), array([0, 1]), array([0, 1]))
And use it to set the diagonal of an array of zeros to 1:
>>> a = np.zeros((2, 2, 2), dtype=int)

>>> a[d3] = 1
>>> a
array([[[1, 0],
[0, 0]],
[[0, 0],
[0, 1]]])
numpy.diag_indices_from(arr)
Return the indices to access the main diagonal of an n-dimensional array.
See diag_indices for full details.
Parameters arr : array, at least 2-D
See also:
diag_indices
Notes

numpy.mask_indices(n, mask_func, k=0)
Return the indices to access (n, n) arrays, given a masking function.
Assume mask_func is a function that, for a square array a of size (n, n) with a possible offset argument k,
when called as mask_func(a, k) returns a new array with zeros in certain locations (functions like triu
or tril do precisely this). Then this function returns the indices where the non-zero values would be located.
Parameters n : int
The returned indices will be valid to access arrays of shape (n, n).
mask_func : callable
A function whose call signature is similar to that of triu, tril. That is,
mask_func(x, k) returns a boolean array, shaped like x. k is an optional argument
to the function.
k : scalar
An optional argument which is passed through to mask_func. Functions like triu,
tril take a second argument that is interpreted as an offset.
Returns indices : tuple of arrays.
The n arrays of indices corresponding to the locations where mask_func(np.
ones((n, n)), k) is True.
See also:
triu, tril, triu_indices, tril_indices

Notes
Examples
These are the indices that would allow you to access the upper triangular part of any 3x3 array:
>>> iu = np.mask_indices(3, np.triu)
For example, if a is a 3x3 array:
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8]])
>>> a[iu]
array([0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 8])
An offset can be passed also to the masking function. This gets us the indices starting on the first diagonal right
of the main one:
>>> iu1 = np.mask_indices(3, np.triu, 1)
with which we now extract only three elements:
>>> a[iu1]
array([1, 2, 5])
numpy.tril_indices(n, k=0, m=None)

Return the indices for the lower-triangle of an (n, m) array.
Parameters n : int
The row dimension of the arrays for which the returned indices will be valid.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see tril for details).
m : int, optional
The column dimension of the arrays for which the returned arrays will be valid. By
default m is taken equal to n.
Returns inds : tuple of arrays
The indices for the triangle. The returned tuple contains two arrays, each with the
indices along one dimension of the array.
See also:
triu_indices similar function, for upper-triangular.

mask_indices generic function accepting an arbitrary mask function.
tril, triu

Notes
Examples
Compute two different sets of indices to access 4x4 arrays, one for the lower triangular part starting at the main
diagonal, and one starting two diagonals further right:
>>> il1 = np.tril_indices(4)

>>> il2 = np.tril_indices(4, 2)
Here is how they can be used with a sample array:
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
Both for indexing:
>>> a[il1]
array([ 0, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15])
And for assigning values:
>>> a[il1] = -1
>>> a
array([[-1, 1, 2, 3],
[-1, -1, 6, 7],
[-1, -1, -1, 11],
[-1, -1, -1, -1]])
These cover almost the whole array (two diagonals right of the main one):
>>> a[il2] = -10

>>> a
array([[-10, -10, -10, 3],
[-10, -10, -10, -10],
[-10, -10, -10, -10],
[-10, -10, -10, -10]])
numpy.tril_indices_from(arr, k=0)
Return the indices for the lower-triangle of arr.
See tril_indices for full details.
The indices will be valid for square arrays whose dimensions are the same as arr.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see tril for details).

See also:
tril_indices, tril
Notes

numpy.triu_indices(n, k=0, m=None)
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of an (n, m) array.
Parameters n : int
The size of the arrays for which the returned indices will be valid.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see triu for details).
m : int, optional
The column dimension of the arrays for which the returned arrays will be valid. By
default m is taken equal to n.
Returns inds : tuple, shape(2) of ndarrays, shape(n)
The indices for the triangle. The returned tuple contains two arrays, each with the
indices along one dimension of the array. Can be used to slice a ndarray of shape(n, n).
See also:
tril_indices similar function, for lower-triangular.

mask_indices generic function accepting an arbitrary mask function.
triu, tril
Notes
Examples
Compute two different sets of indices to access 4x4 arrays, one for the upper triangular part starting at the main
diagonal, and one starting two diagonals further right:
>>> iu1 = np.triu_indices(4)

>>> iu2 = np.triu_indices(4, 2)
Here is how they can be used with a sample array:
>>> a
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],

[ 8, 9, 10, 11],
[12, 13, 14, 15]])
Both for indexing:
>>> a[iu1]
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 15])
And for assigning values:
>>> a[iu1] = -1
>>> a
array([[-1, -1, -1, -1],
[ 4, -1, -1, -1],
[ 8, 9, -1, -1],
[12, 13, 14, -1]])
These cover only a small part of the whole array (two diagonals right of the main one):
>>> a[iu2] = -10

>>> a
array([[ -1, -1, -10, -10],
[ 4, -1, -1, -10],
[ 8, 9, -1, -1],
[ 12, 13, 14, -1]])
numpy.triu_indices_from(arr, k=0)
Return the indices for the upper-triangle of arr.
See triu_indices for full details.
Parameters arr : ndarray, shape(N, N)
The indices will be valid for square arrays.
k : int, optional
Diagonal offset (see triu for details).
Returns triu_indices_from : tuple, shape(2) of ndarray, shape(N)
Indices for the upper-triangle of arr.
See also:
triu_indices, triu
Notes
3.15.2 Indexing-like operations
take(a, indices[, axis, out, mode]) Take elements from an array along an axis.
choose(a, choices[, out, mode]) Construct an array from an index array and a set of arrays
to choose from.


compress(condition, a[, axis, out]) Return selected slices of an array along given axis.
diag(v[, k]) Extract a diagonal or construct a diagonal array.
diagonal(a[, offset, axis1, axis2]) Return specified diagonals.
select(condlist, choicelist[, default]) Return an array drawn from elements in choicelist, depend-
ing on conditions.
lib.stride_tricks.as_strided(x[, shape, . . . ]) Create a view into the array with the given shape and
strides.
numpy.take(a, indices, axis=None, out=None, mode=’raise’)

Take elements from an array along an axis.
When axis is not None, this function does the same thing as “fancy” indexing (indexing arrays using arrays);
however, it can be easier to use if you need elements along a given axis. A call such as np.take(arr,
indices, axis=3) is equivalent to arr[:,:,:,indices,...].
Explained without fancy indexing, this is equivalent to the following use of ndindex, which sets each of ii,
jj, and kk to a tuple of indices:

Nj = indices.shape
out[ii + jj + kk] = a[ii + (indices[jj],) + kk]
Parameters a : array_like (Ni. . . , M, Nk. . . )

The source array.
indices : array_like (Nj. . . )
The indices of the values to extract.
Also allow scalars for indices.
The axis over which to select values. By default, the flattened input array is used.
out : ndarray, optional (Ni. . . , Nj. . . , Nk. . . )
If provided, the result will be placed in this array. It should be of the appropriate shape
and dtype.
‘clip’ mode means that all indices that are too large are replaced by the index that ad-
dresses the last element along that axis. Note that this disables indexing with negative
numbers.

The returned array has the same type as a.
See also:
compress Take elements using a boolean mask

ndarray.take equivalent method
Notes
By eliminating the inner loop in the description above, and using s_ to build simple slice objects, take can be
expressed in terms of applying fancy indexing to each 1-d slice:

for kk in ndindex(Nj):
out[ii + s_[...,] + kk] = a[ii + s_[:,] + kk][indices]
For this reason, it is equivalent to (but faster than) the following use of apply_along_axis:
out = np.apply_along_axis(lambda a_1d: a_1d[indices], axis, a)
Examples
>>> a = [4, 3, 5, 7, 6, 8]
>>> indices = [0, 1, 4]
>>> np.take(a, indices)
array([4, 3, 6])
In this example if a is an ndarray, “fancy” indexing can be used.
>>> a = np.array(a)
>>> a[indices]
array([4, 3, 6])
If indices is not one dimensional, the output also has these dimensions.
>>> np.take(a, [[0, 1], [2, 3]])

array([[4, 3],
[5, 7]])
numpy.choose(a, choices, out=None, mode=’raise’)

Construct an array from an index array and a set of arrays to choose from.
First of all, if confused or uncertain, definitely look at the Examples - in its full generality, this function is less
simple than it might seem from the following code description (below ndi = numpy.lib.index_tricks):
np.choose(a,c) == np.array([c[a[I]][I] for I in ndi.ndindex(a.shape)]).
But this omits some subtleties. Here is a fully general summary:
Given an “index” array (a) of integers and a sequence of n arrays (choices), a and each choice array are first
broadcast, as necessary, to arrays of a common shape; calling these Ba and Bchoices[i], i = 0,. . . ,n-1 we have
that, necessarily, Ba.shape == Bchoices[i].shape for each i. Then, a new array with shape Ba.
shape is created as follows:

• if mode=raise (the default), then, first of all, each element of a (and thus Ba) must be in the range [0,
n-1]; now, suppose that i (in that range) is the value at the (j0, j1, . . . , jm) position in Ba - then the value at
the same position in the new array is the value in Bchoices[i] at that same position;
• if mode=wrap, values in a (and thus Ba) may be any (signed) integer; modular arithmetic is used to map
integers outside the range [0, n-1] back into that range; and then the new array is constructed as above;
• if mode=clip, values in a (and thus Ba) may be any (signed) integer; negative integers are mapped to 0;
values greater than n-1 are mapped to n-1; and then the new array is constructed as above.
Parameters a : int array

This array must contain integers in [0, n-1], where n is the number of choices, unless
mode=wrap or mode=clip, in which cases any integers are permissible.
choices : sequence of arrays
Choice arrays. a and all of the choices must be broadcastable to the same shape. If
choices is itself an array (not recommended), then its outermost dimension (i.e., the one
corresponding to choices.shape[0]) is taken as defining the “sequence”.
shape and dtype.
mode : {‘raise’ (default), ‘wrap’, ‘clip’}, optional
Specifies how indices outside [0, n-1] will be treated:
• ‘raise’ : an exception is raised
• ‘wrap’ : value becomes value mod n
• ‘clip’ : values < 0 are mapped to 0, values > n-1 are mapped to n-1
Returns merged_array : array
The merged result.
Raises ValueError: shape mismatch
If a and each choice array are not all broadcastable to the same shape.
See also:
ndarray.choose equivalent method
Notes
To reduce the chance of misinterpretation, even though the following “abuse” is nominally supported, choices
should neither be, nor be thought of as, a single array, i.e., the outermost sequence-like container should be
either a list or a tuple.
Examples
>>> choices = [[0, 1, 2, 3], [10, 11, 12, 13],

... [20, 21, 22, 23], [30, 31, 32, 33]]
>>> np.choose([2, 3, 1, 0], choices
... # the first element of the result will be the first element of the

... # third (2+1) "array" in choices, namely, 20; the second element
... # will be the second element of the fourth (3+1) choice array, i.e.,
... # 31, etc.
... )
array([20, 31, 12, 3])
>>> np.choose([2, 4, 1, 0], choices, mode='clip') # 4 goes to 3 (4-1)
array([20, 31, 12, 3])
>>> # because there are 4 choice arrays
>>> np.choose([2, 4, 1, 0], choices, mode='wrap') # 4 goes to (4 mod 4)
array([20, 1, 12, 3])
>>> # i.e., 0
A couple examples illustrating how choose broadcasts:
>>> a = [[1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1]]

>>> choices = [-10, 10]
>>> np.choose(a, choices)
array([[ 10, -10, 10],
[-10, 10, -10],
[ 10, -10, 10]])
>>> # With thanks to Anne Archibald

>>> a = np.array([0, 1]).reshape((2,1,1))
>>> c1 = np.array([1, 2, 3]).reshape((1,3,1))
>>> c2 = np.array([-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]).reshape((1,1,5))
>>> np.choose(a, (c1, c2)) # result is 2x3x5, res[0,:,:]=c1, res[1,:,:]=c2
array([[[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2],
[ 3, 3, 3, 3, 3]],
[[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5],
[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5],
[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]]])
numpy.compress(condition, a, axis=None, out=None)

Return selected slices of an array along given axis.
When working along a given axis, a slice along that axis is returned in output for each index where condition
evaluates to True. When working on a 1-D array, compress is equivalent to extract.
Parameters condition : 1-D array of bools
Array that selects which entries to return. If len(condition) is less than the size of a
along the given axis, then output is truncated to the length of the condition array.
a : array_like
Array from which to extract a part.
Axis along which to take slices. If None (default), work on the flattened array.
Output array. Its type is preserved and it must be of the right shape to hold the output.
Returns compressed_array : ndarray
A copy of a without the slices along axis for which condition is false.
See also:

take, choose, diag, diagonal, select

ndarray.compress Equivalent method in ndarray
np.extract Equivalent method when working on 1-D arrays
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4], [5, 6]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2],
[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.compress([0, 1], a, axis=0)
array([[3, 4]])
>>> np.compress([False, True, True], a, axis=0)
array([[3, 4],
[5, 6]])
>>> np.compress([False, True], a, axis=1)
array([[2],
[4],
[6]])
Working on the flattened array does not return slices along an axis but selects elements.
>>> np.compress([False, True], a)

array([2])
numpy.diagonal(a, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1)

Return specified diagonals.
If a is 2-D, returns the diagonal of a with the given offset, i.e., the collection of elements of the form a[i,
i+offset]. If a has more than two dimensions, then the axes specified by axis1 and axis2 are used to
determine the 2-D sub-array whose diagonal is returned. The shape of the resulting array can be determined by
removing axis1 and axis2 and appending an index to the right equal to the size of the resulting diagonals.
In versions of NumPy prior to 1.7, this function always returned a new, independent array containing a copy of
the values in the diagonal.
In NumPy 1.7 and 1.8, it continues to return a copy of the diagonal, but depending on this fact is deprecated.
Writing to the resulting array continues to work as it used to, but a FutureWarning is issued.
Starting in NumPy 1.9 it returns a read-only view on the original array. Attempting to write to the resulting
array will produce an error.
In some future release, it will return a read/write view and writing to the returned array will alter your original
array. The returned array will have the same type as the input array.
If you don’t write to the array returned by this function, then you can just ignore all of the above.
If you depend on the current behavior, then we suggest copying the returned array explicitly, i.e., use np.
diagonal(a).copy() instead of just np.diagonal(a). This will work with both past and future ver-
sions of NumPy.
Array from which the diagonals are taken.

Offset of the diagonal from the main diagonal. Can be positive or negative. Defaults to
main diagonal (0).
axis1 : int, optional
Axis to be used as the first axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the diagonals should
be taken. Defaults to first axis (0).
axis2 : int, optional
Axis to be used as the second axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the diagonals
should be taken. Defaults to second axis (1).
Returns array_of_diagonals : ndarray
If a is 2-D and not a matrix, a 1-D array of the same type as a containing the diagonal
is returned. If a is a matrix, a 1-D array containing the diagonal is returned in order
to maintain backward compatibility. If a.ndim > 2, then the dimensions specified
by axis1 and axis2 are removed, and a new axis inserted at the end corresponding to the
diagonal.
Raises ValueError
If the dimension of a is less than 2.
See also:
diag MATLAB work-a-like for 1-D and 2-D arrays.

diagflat Create diagonal arrays.
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> a.diagonal()
array([0, 3])
>>> a.diagonal(1)
array([1])
A 3-D example:
>>> a = np.arange(8).reshape(2,2,2); a
array([[[0, 1],
[2, 3]],
[[4, 5],
[6, 7]]])
>>> a.diagonal(0, # Main diagonals of two arrays created by skipping
... 0, # across the outer(left)-most axis last and
... 1) # the "middle" (row) axis first.
array([[0, 6],
[1, 7]])
The sub-arrays whose main diagonals we just obtained; note that each corresponds to fixing the right-most
(column) axis, and that the diagonals are “packed” in rows.

>>> a[:,:,0] # main diagonal is [0 6]

array([[0, 2],
[4, 6]])
>>> a[:,:,1] # main diagonal is [1 7]
array([[1, 3],
[5, 7]])
numpy.select(condlist, choicelist, default=0)

Return an array drawn from elements in choicelist, depending on conditions.
Parameters condlist : list of bool ndarrays
The list of conditions which determine from which array in choicelist the output ele-
ments are taken. When multiple conditions are satisfied, the first one encountered in
condlist is used.
choicelist : list of ndarrays
The list of arrays from which the output elements are taken. It has to be of the same
length as condlist.
default : scalar, optional
The element inserted in output when all conditions evaluate to False.
Returns output : ndarray
The output at position m is the m-th element of the array in choicelist where the m-th
element of the corresponding array in condlist is True.
See also:
where Return elements from one of two arrays depending on condition.
take, choose, compress, diag, diagonal
Examples
>>> condlist = [x<3, x>5]
>>> choicelist = [x, x**2]
>>> np.select(condlist, choicelist)
array([ 0, 1, 2, 0, 0, 0, 36, 49, 64, 81])
numpy.lib.stride_tricks.as_strided(x, shape=None, strides=None, subok=False, write-

able=True)
Create a view into the array with the given shape and strides.
Warning: This function has to be used with extreme care, see notes.
Parameters x : ndarray
Array to create a new.
shape : sequence of int, optional
The shape of the new array. Defaults to x.shape.

strides : sequence of int, optional

The strides of the new array. Defaults to x.strides.
If True, subclasses are preserved.
writeable : bool, optional
If set to False, the returned array will always be readonly. Otherwise it will be writable
if the original array was. It is advisable to set this to False if possible (see Notes).
Returns view : ndarray
See also:
broadcast_to broadcast an array to a given shape.

reshape reshape an array.
Notes
as_strided creates a view into the array given the exact strides and shape. This means it manipulates the
internal data structure of ndarray and, if done incorrectly, the array elements can point to invalid memory and can
corrupt results or crash your program. It is advisable to always use the original x.strides when calculating
new strides to avoid reliance on a contiguous memory layout.
Furthermore, arrays created with this function often contain self overlapping memory, so that two elements
are identical. Vectorized write operations on such arrays will typically be unpredictable. They may even give
different results for small, large, or transposed arrays. Since writing to these arrays has to be tested and done
with great care, you may want to use writeable=False to avoid accidental write operations.
For these reasons it is advisable to avoid as_strided when possible.
3.15.3 Inserting data into arrays
place(arr, mask, vals) Change elements of an array based on conditional and input
values.
put(a, ind, v[, mode]) Replaces specified elements of an array with given values.
putmask(a, mask, values) Changes elements of an array based on conditional and in-
put values.
fill_diagonal(a, val[, wrap]) Fill the main diagonal of the given array of any dimension-
ality.
numpy.place(arr, mask, vals)

Change elements of an array based on conditional and input values.
Similar to np.copyto(arr, vals, where=mask), the difference is that place uses the first N ele-
ments of vals, where N is the number of True values in mask, while copyto uses the elements where mask is
True.
Note that extract does the exact opposite of place.


Array to put data into.
mask : array_like
Boolean mask array. Must have the same size as a.
vals : 1-D sequence
Values to put into a. Only the first N elements are used, where N is the number of True
values in mask. If vals is smaller than N, it will be repeated, and if elements of a are to
be masked, this sequence must be non-empty.
See also:
copyto, put, take, extract
Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(6).reshape(2, 3)

>>> np.place(arr, arr>2, [44, 55])
>>> arr
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[44, 55, 44]])
numpy.put(a, ind, v, mode=’raise’)

Replaces specified elements of an array with given values.
The indexing works on the flattened target array. put is roughly equivalent to:
a.flat[ind] = v
Target array.
ind : array_like
Target indices, interpreted as integers.
v : array_like
Values to place in a at target indices. If v is shorter than ind it will be repeated as
necessary.
‘clip’ mode means that all indices that are too large are replaced by the index that ad-
dresses the last element along that axis. Note that this disables indexing with negative
numbers.
See also:
putmask, place

Examples
>>> np.put(a, [0, 2], [-44, -55])
>>> a
array([-44, 1, -55, 3, 4])
>>> np.put(a, 22, -5, mode='clip')
>>> a
array([ 0, 1, 2, 3, -5])
numpy.putmask(a, mask, values)

Changes elements of an array based on conditional and input values.
Sets a.flat[n] = values[n] for each n where mask.flat[n]==True.
If values is not the same size as a and mask then it will repeat. This gives behavior different from a[mask] =
values.
Target array.
mask : array_like
Boolean mask array. It has to be the same shape as a.
values : array_like
Values to put into a where mask is True. If values is smaller than a it will be repeated.
See also:
place, put, take, copyto
Examples
>>> np.putmask(x, x>2, x**2)
>>> x
array([[ 0, 1, 2],
[ 9, 16, 25]])
If values is smaller than a it is repeated:
>>> np.putmask(x, x>1, [-33, -44])
>>> x
array([ 0, 1, -33, -44, -33])
numpy.fill_diagonal(a, val, wrap=False)

Fill the main diagonal of the given array of any dimensionality.
For an array a with a.ndim >= 2, the diagonal is the list of locations with indices a[i, ..., i] all
identical. This function modifies the input array in-place, it does not return a value.
Parameters a : array, at least 2-D.
Array whose diagonal is to be filled, it gets modified in-place.

val : scalar
Value to be written on the diagonal, its type must be compatible with that of the array a.
wrap : bool
For tall matrices in NumPy version up to 1.6.2, the diagonal “wrapped” after N columns.
You can have this behavior with this option. This affects only tall matrices.
See also:
diag_indices, diag_indices_from
Notes

This functionality can be obtained via diag_indices, but internally this version uses a much faster imple-
mentation that never constructs the indices and uses simple slicing.
Examples
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3), int)

>>> np.fill_diagonal(a, 5)
>>> a
array([[5, 0, 0],
[0, 5, 0],
[0, 0, 5]])
The same function can operate on a 4-D array:
>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3, 3, 3), int)

>>> np.fill_diagonal(a, 4)
We only show a few blocks for clarity:
>>> a[0, 0]
array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a[1, 1]
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> a[2, 2]
array([[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 4]])
The wrap option affects only tall matrices:
>>> # tall matrices no wrap

>>> a = np.zeros((5, 3),int)
>>> fill_diagonal(a, 4)
>>> a
array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],

[0, 0, 4],
[0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 0]])
>>> # tall matrices wrap

>>> a = np.zeros((5, 3),int)
>>> fill_diagonal(a, 4, wrap=True)
>>> a
array([[4, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0],
[0, 0, 4],
[0, 0, 0],
[4, 0, 0]])
>>> # wide matrices

>>> a = np.zeros((3, 5),int)
>>> fill_diagonal(a, 4, wrap=True)
>>> a
array([[4, 0, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 4, 0, 0, 0],
[0, 0, 4, 0, 0]])
3.15.4 Iterating over arrays
nditer Efficient multi-dimensional iterator object to iterate over

arrays.
ndenumerate(arr) Multidimensional index iterator.
ndindex(*shape) An N-dimensional iterator object to index arrays.
flatiter Flat iterator object to iterate over arrays.
lib.Arrayterator(var[, buf_size]) Buffered iterator for big arrays.
class numpy.nditer
Efficient multi-dimensional iterator object to iterate over arrays. To get started using this object, see the intro-
ductory guide to array iteration.
Parameters op : ndarray or sequence of array_like
The array(s) to iterate over.
flags : sequence of str, optional
Flags to control the behavior of the iterator.
• “buffered” enables buffering when required.
• “c_index” causes a C-order index to be tracked.
• “f_index” causes a Fortran-order index to be tracked.
• “multi_index” causes a multi-index, or a tuple of indices with one per iteration di-
mension, to be tracked.
• “common_dtype” causes all the operands to be converted to a common data type,
with copying or buffering as necessary.
• “copy_if_overlap” causes the iterator to determine if read operands have overlap with
write operands, and make temporary copies as necessary to avoid overlap. False

positives (needless copying) are possible in some cases.

• “delay_bufalloc” delays allocation of the buffers until a reset() call is made. Allows
“allocate” operands to be initialized before their values are copied into the buffers.
• “external_loop” causes the values given to be one-dimensional arrays with multiple
values instead of zero-dimensional arrays.
• “grow_inner” allows the value array sizes to be made larger than the buffer size
when both “buffered” and “external_loop” is used.
• “ranged” allows the iterator to be restricted to a sub-range of the iterindex values.
• “refs_ok” enables iteration of reference types, such as object arrays.
• “reduce_ok” enables iteration of “readwrite” operands which are broadcasted, also
known as reduction operands.
• “zerosize_ok” allows itersize to be zero.
op_flags : list of list of str, optional
This is a list of flags for each operand. At minimum, one of “readonly”, “readwrite”, or
“writeonly” must be specified.
• “readonly” indicates the operand will only be read from.
• “readwrite” indicates the operand will be read from and written to.
• “writeonly” indicates the operand will only be written to.
• “no_broadcast” prevents the operand from being broadcasted.
• “contig” forces the operand data to be contiguous.
• “aligned” forces the operand data to be aligned.
• “nbo” forces the operand data to be in native byte order.
• “copy” allows a temporary read-only copy if required.
• “updateifcopy” allows a temporary read-write copy if required.
• “allocate” causes the array to be allocated if it is None in the op parameter.
• “no_subtype” prevents an “allocate” operand from using a subtype.
• “arraymask” indicates that this operand is the mask to use for selecting elements when
writing to operands with the ‘writemasked’ flag set. The iterator does not enforce
this, but when writing from a buffer back to the array, it only copies those elements
indicated by this mask.
• ‘writemasked’ indicates that only elements where the chosen ‘arraymask’ operand is
True will be written to.
• “overlap_assume_elementwise” can be used to mark operands that are accessed only
in the iterator order, to allow less conservative copying when “copy_if_overlap” is
present.
op_dtypes : dtype or tuple of dtype(s), optional
The required data type(s) of the operands. If copying or buffering is enabled, the data
will be converted to/from their original types.

Controls the iteration order. ‘C’ means C order, ‘F’ means Fortran order, ‘A’ means ‘F’
order if all the arrays are Fortran contiguous, ‘C’ order otherwise, and ‘K’ means as
close to the order the array elements appear in memory as possible. This also affects the
element memory order of “allocate” operands, as they are allocated to be compatible
with iteration order. Default is ‘K’.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur when making a copy or buffering. Setting
this to ‘unsafe’ is not recommended, as it can adversely affect accumulations.
allowed.
op_axes : list of list of ints, optional
If provided, is a list of ints or None for each operands. The list of axes for an operand
is a mapping from the dimensions of the iterator to the dimensions of the operand. A
value of -1 can be placed for entries, causing that dimension to be treated as “newaxis”.
itershape : tuple of ints, optional
The desired shape of the iterator. This allows “allocate” operands with a dimension
mapped by op_axes not corresponding to a dimension of a different operand to get a
value not equal to 1 for that dimension.
buffersize : int, optional
When buffering is enabled, controls the size of the temporary buffers. Set to 0 for the
default value.
Notes
nditer supersedes flatiter. The iterator implementation behind nditer is also exposed by the NumPy
C API.
The Python exposure supplies two iteration interfaces, one which follows the Python iterator protocol, and
another which mirrors the C-style do-while pattern. The native Python approach is better in most cases, but if
you need the iterator’s coordinates or index, use the C-style pattern.
Examples
Here is how we might write an iter_add function, using the Python iterator protocol:
def iter_add_py(x, y, out=None):

addop = np.add
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], [],
[['readonly'], ['readonly'], ['writeonly','allocate']])
for (a, b, c) in it:
addop(a, b, out=c)

Here is the same function, but following the C-style pattern:
def iter_add(x, y, out=None):

addop = np.add
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], [],

[['readonly'], ['readonly'], ['writeonly','allocate']])
while not it.finished:

addop(it[0], it[1], out=it[2])
it.iternext()
Here is an example outer product function:
def outer_it(x, y, out=None):

mulop = np.multiply
it = np.nditer([x, y, out], ['external_loop'],

[['readonly'], ['readonly'], ['writeonly', 'allocate']],
op_axes=[range(x.ndim)+[-1]*y.ndim,
[-1]*x.ndim+range(y.ndim),
None])
for (a, b, c) in it:

mulop(a, b, out=c)
>>> a = np.arange(2)+1
>>> b = np.arange(3)+1
>>> outer_it(a,b)
array([[1, 2, 3],
[2, 4, 6]])
Here is an example function which operates like a “lambda” ufunc:
def luf(lamdaexpr, *args, **kwargs):

"luf(lambdaexpr, op1, ..., opn, out=None, order='K', casting='safe',
˓→buffersize=0)"
nargs = len(args)
op = (kwargs.get('out',None),) + args
it = np.nditer(op, ['buffered','external_loop'],
[['writeonly','allocate','no_broadcast']] +
[['readonly','nbo','aligned']]*nargs,
order=kwargs.get('order','K'),
casting=kwargs.get('casting','safe'),
buffersize=kwargs.get('buffersize',0))
while not it.finished:
it[0] = lamdaexpr(*it[1:])
it.iternext()
>>> b = np.ones(5)
>>> luf(lambda i,j:i*i + j/2, a, b)
array([ 0.5, 1.5, 4.5, 9.5, 16.5])

Attributes
dtypes (tuple of dtype(s)) The data types of the values provided in value. This may be different
from the operand data types if buffering is enabled.
finished (bool) Whether the iteration over the operands is finished or not.
has_delayed_bufalloc
(bool) If True, the iterator was created with the “delay_bufalloc” flag, and no reset() function
was called on it yet.
has_index (bool) If True, the iterator was created with either the “c_index” or the “f_index” flag, and
the property index can be used to retrieve it.
has_multi_index
(bool) If True, the iterator was created with the “multi_index” flag, and the property
multi_index can be used to retrieve it.
index When the “c_index” or “f_index” flag was used, this property provides access to the index.
Raises a ValueError if accessed and has_index is False.
itera- (bool) Whether iteration requires access to the Python API, for example if one of the
tionneed- operands is an object array.
sapi
iterindex (int) An index which matches the order of iteration.
itersize (int) Size of the iterator.
itviews Structured view(s) of operands in memory, matching the reordered and optimized iterator
access pattern.
multi_index When the “multi_index” flag was used, this property provides access to the index. Raises a
ValueError if accessed accessed and has_multi_index is False.
ndim (int) The iterator’s dimension.
nop (int) The number of iterator operands.
operands (tuple of operand(s)) The array(s) to be iterated over.
shape (tuple of ints) Shape tuple, the shape of the iterator.
value Value of operands at current iteration. Normally, this is a tuple of array scalars, but if the
flag “external_loop” is used, it is a tuple of one dimensional arrays.
Methods
copy() Get a copy of the iterator in its current state.

debug_print() Print the current state of the nditer instance and de-
bug info to stdout.
enable_external_loop() When the “external_loop” was not used during con-
struction, but is desired, this modifies the iterator to be-
have as if the flag was specified.
iternext() Check whether iterations are left, and perform a single
internal iteration without returning the result.
remove_axis(i) Removes axis i from the iterator.
remove_multi_index() When the “multi_index” flag was specified, this re-
moves it, allowing the internal iteration structure to be
optimized further.
reset() Reset the iterator to its initial state.
nditer.copy()
Get a copy of the iterator in its current state.

Examples
>>> y = x + 1
>>> it = np.nditer([x, y])
>>> it.next()
(array(0), array(1))
>>> it2 = it.copy()
>>> it2.next()
(array(1), array(2))
nditer.debug_print()
Print the current state of the nditer instance and debug info to stdout.
nditer.enable_external_loop()
When the “external_loop” was not used during construction, but is desired, this modifies the iterator to
behave as if the flag was specified.
nditer.iternext()
Check whether iterations are left, and perform a single internal iteration without returning the result. Used
in the C-style pattern do-while pattern. For an example, see nditer.
Returns iternext : bool
Whether or not there are iterations left.
nditer.remove_axis(i)
Removes axis i from the iterator. Requires that the flag “multi_index” be enabled.
nditer.remove_multi_index()
When the “multi_index” flag was specified, this removes it, allowing the internal iteration structure to be
optimized further.
nditer.reset()
Reset the iterator to its initial state.
class numpy.ndindex(*shape)
An N-dimensional iterator object to index arrays.
Given the shape of an array, an ndindex instance iterates over the N-dimensional index of the array. At each
iteration a tuple of indices is returned, the last dimension is iterated over first.
Parameters ‘*args‘ : ints
The size of each dimension of the array.
See also:
ndenumerate, flatiter
Examples
>>> for index in np.ndindex(3, 2, 1):

... print(index)
(0, 0, 0)
(0, 1, 0)
(1, 0, 0)
(1, 1, 0)
(2, 0, 0)
(2, 1, 0)

Methods
ndincr() Increment the multi-dimensional index by one.

next() Standard iterator method, updates the index and returns
the index tuple.
ndindex.ndincr()
Increment the multi-dimensional index by one.
This method is for backward compatibility only: do not use.
ndindex.next()
Standard iterator method, updates the index and returns the index tuple.
Returns val : tuple of ints
Returns a tuple containing the indices of the current iteration.
class numpy.flatiter
Flat iterator object to iterate over arrays.
A flatiter iterator is returned by x.flat for any array x. It allows iterating over the array as if it were a
1-D array, either in a for-loop or by calling its next method.
Iteration is done in row-major, C-style order (the last index varying the fastest). The iterator can also be indexed
using basic slicing or advanced indexing.
See also:
ndarray.flat Return a flat iterator over an array.

ndarray.flatten Returns a flattened copy of an array.
Notes
A flatiter iterator can not be constructed directly from Python code by calling the flatiter constructor.
Examples
>>> fl = x.flat
>>> type(fl)
<type 'numpy.flatiter'>
>>> for item in fl:
... print(item)
...
0
1
2
3
4
5

>>> fl[2:4]
array([2, 3])
Attributes
coords An N-dimensional tuple of current coordinates.
Methods
copy() Get a copy of the iterator as a 1-D array.
flatiter.copy()
Get a copy of the iterator as a 1-D array.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> fl = x.flat
>>> fl.copy()
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
class numpy.lib.Arrayterator(var, buf_size=None)

Buffered iterator for big arrays.
Arrayterator creates a buffered iterator for reading big arrays in small contiguous blocks. The class is
useful for objects stored in the file system. It allows iteration over the object without reading everything in
memory; instead, small blocks are read and iterated over.
Arrayterator can be used with any object that supports multidimensional slices. This includes NumPy
arrays, but also variables from Scientific.IO.NetCDF or pynetcdf for example.
Parameters var : array_like
The object to iterate over.
buf_size : int, optional
The buffer size. If buf_size is supplied, the maximum amount of data that will be read
into memory is buf_size elements. Default is None, which will read as many element as
possible into memory.
See also:
ndenumerate Multidimensional array iterator.

flatiter Flat array iterator.
memmap Create a memory-map to an array stored in a binary file on disk.

Notes
The algorithm works by first finding a “running dimension”, along which the blocks will be extracted. Given
an array of dimensions (d1, d2, ..., dn), e.g. if buf_size is smaller than d1, the first dimension will
be used. If, on the other hand, d1 < buf_size < d1*d2 the second dimension will be used, and so on.
Blocks are extracted along this dimension, and when the last block is returned the process continues from the
next dimension, until all elements have been read.
Examples
>>> a = np.arange(3 * 4 * 5 * 6).reshape(3, 4, 5, 6)

>>> a_itor = np.lib.Arrayterator(a, 2)
>>> a_itor.shape
(3, 4, 5, 6)
Now we can iterate over a_itor, and it will return arrays of size two. Since buf_size was smaller than any
dimension, the first dimension will be iterated over first:
>>> for subarr in a_itor:

... if not subarr.all():
... print(subarr, subarr.shape)
...
[[[[0 1]]]] (1, 1, 1, 2)
Attributes
shape The shape of the array to be iterated over.

flat A 1-D flat iterator for Arrayterator objects.
var
buf_size
start
stop
step
3.16 Input and output
3.16.1 NumPy binary files (NPY, NPZ)
load(file[, mmap_mode, allow_pickle, . . . ]) Load arrays or pickled objects from .npy, .npz or pick-
led files.
save(file, arr[, allow_pickle, fix_imports]) Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format.
savez(file, *args, **kwds) Save several arrays into a single file in uncompressed .npz
format.
savez_compressed(file, *args, **kwds) Save several arrays into a single file in compressed .npz
format.
3.16. Input and output 615

numpy.load(file, mmap_mode=None, allow_pickle=True, fix_imports=True, encoding=’ASCII’)

Load arrays or pickled objects from .npy, .npz or pickled files.
Parameters file : file-like object, string, or pathlib.Path
The file to read. File-like objects must support the seek() and read() methods.
Pickled files require that the file-like object support the readline() method as well.
mmap_mode : {None, ‘r+’, ‘r’, ‘w+’, ‘c’}, optional
If not None, then memory-map the file, using the given mode (see numpy.memmap for
a detailed description of the modes). A memory-mapped array is kept on disk. However,
it can be accessed and sliced like any ndarray. Memory mapping is especially useful for
accessing small fragments of large files without reading the entire file into memory.
allow_pickle : bool, optional
Allow loading pickled object arrays stored in npy files. Reasons for disallowing pick-
les include security, as loading pickled data can execute arbitrary code. If pickles are
disallowed, loading object arrays will fail. Default: True
fix_imports : bool, optional
Only useful when loading Python 2 generated pickled files on Python 3, which includes
npy/npz files containing object arrays. If fix_imports is True, pickle will try to map the
old Python 2 names to the new names used in Python 3.
What encoding to use when reading Python 2 strings. Only useful when loading Python
2 generated pickled files in Python 3, which includes npy/npz files containing object
arrays. Values other than ‘latin1’, ‘ASCII’, and ‘bytes’ are not allowed, as they can
corrupt numerical data. Default: ‘ASCII’
Returns result : array, tuple, dict, etc.
Data stored in the file. For .npz files, the returned instance of NpzFile class must be
closed to avoid leaking file descriptors.
Raises IOError
If the input file does not exist or cannot be read.
ValueError
The file contains an object array, but allow_pickle=False given.
See also:
save, savez, savez_compressed, loadtxt
memmap Create a memory-map to an array stored in a file on disk.
lib.format.open_memmap Create or load a memory-mapped .npy file.
Notes
• If the file contains pickle data, then whatever object is stored in the pickle is returned.
• If the file is a .npy file, then a single array is returned.
• If the file is a .npz file, then a dictionary-like object is returned, containing {filename: array}
key-value pairs, one for each file in the archive.

• If the file is a .npz file, the returned value supports the context manager protocol in a similar fashion to
the open function:
with load('foo.npz') as data:

a = data['a']
The underlying file descriptor is closed when exiting the ‘with’ block.
Examples
Store data to disk, and load it again:
>>> np.save('/tmp/123', np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]))

>>> np.load('/tmp/123.npy')
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
Store compressed data to disk, and load it again:
>>> a=np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])

>>> b=np.array([1, 2])
>>> np.savez('/tmp/123.npz', a=a, b=b)
>>> data = np.load('/tmp/123.npz')
>>> data['a']
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> data['b']
array([1, 2])
>>> data.close()
Mem-map the stored array, and then access the second row directly from disk:
>>> X = np.load('/tmp/123.npy', mmap_mode='r')

>>> X[1, :]
memmap([4, 5, 6])
numpy.save(file, arr, allow_pickle=True, fix_imports=True)

Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format.
Parameters file : file, str, or pathlib.Path
File or filename to which the data is saved. If file is a file-object, then the filename is
unchanged. If file is a string or Path, a .npy extension will be appended to the file
name if it does not already have one.
arr : array_like
Array data to be saved.
allow_pickle : bool, optional
Allow saving object arrays using Python pickles. Reasons for disallowing pickles in-
clude security (loading pickled data can execute arbitrary code) and portability (pickled
objects may not be loadable on different Python installations, for example if the stored
objects require libraries that are not available, and not all pickled data is compatible
between Python 2 and Python 3). Default: True
fix_imports : bool, optional

Only useful in forcing objects in object arrays on Python 3 to be pickled in a Python 2

compatible way. If fix_imports is True, pickle will try to map the new Python 3 names
to the old module names used in Python 2, so that the pickle data stream is readable
with Python 2.
See also:
savez Save several arrays into a .npz archive
savetxt, load
Notes
For a description of the .npy format, see the module docstring of numpy.lib.format or the NumPy En-
hancement Proposal http://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/neps/npy-format.html
Examples

>>> outfile = TemporaryFile()
>>> np.save(outfile, x)
>>> outfile.seek(0) # Only needed here to simulate closing & reopening file
>>> np.load(outfile)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
numpy.savez(file, *args, **kwds)

Save several arrays into a single file in uncompressed .npz format.
If arguments are passed in with no keywords, the corresponding variable names, in the .npz file, are ‘arr_0’,
‘arr_1’, etc. If keyword arguments are given, the corresponding variable names, in the .npz file will match the
keyword names.
Parameters file : str or file
Either the file name (string) or an open file (file-like object) where the data will be saved.
If file is a string or a Path, the .npz extension will be appended to the file name if it is
not already there.
args : Arguments, optional
Arrays to save to the file. Since it is not possible for Python to know the names of the
arrays outside savez, the arrays will be saved with names “arr_0”, “arr_1”, and so on.
These arguments can be any expression.
kwds : Keyword arguments, optional
Arrays to save to the file. Arrays will be saved in the file with the keyword names.
Returns None
See also:
save Save a single array to a binary file in NumPy format.

savetxt Save an array to a file as plain text.

savez_compressed Save several arrays into a compressed .npz archive
Notes
The .npz file format is a zipped archive of files named after the variables they contain. The archive is not com-
pressed and each file in the archive contains one variable in .npy format. For a description of the .npy for-
mat, see numpy.lib.format or the NumPy Enhancement Proposal http://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/neps/
npy-format.html
When opening the saved .npz file with load a NpzFile object is returned. This is a dictionary-like object
which can be queried for its list of arrays (with the .files attribute), and for the arrays themselves.
Examples

>>> y = np.sin(x)
Using savez with *args, the arrays are saved with default names.
>>> np.savez(outfile, x, y)
>>> outfile.seek(0) # Only needed here to simulate closing & reopening file
>>> npzfile = np.load(outfile)
>>> npzfile.files
['arr_1', 'arr_0']
>>> npzfile['arr_0']
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
Using savez with **kwds, the arrays are saved with the keyword names.

>>> np.savez(outfile, x=x, y=y)
>>> outfile.seek(0)
>>> npzfile = np.load(outfile)
>>> npzfile.files
['y', 'x']
>>> npzfile['x']
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
numpy.savez_compressed(file, *args, **kwds)

Save several arrays into a single file in compressed .npz format.
If keyword arguments are given, then filenames are taken from the keywords. If arguments are passed in with
no keywords, then stored file names are arr_0, arr_1, etc.
Either the file name (string) or an open file (file-like object) where the data will be saved.
If file is a string or a Path, the .npz extension will be appended to the file name if it is
not already there.
args : Arguments, optional

Arrays to save to the file. Since it is not possible for Python to know the names of the
arrays outside savez, the arrays will be saved with names “arr_0”, “arr_1”, and so on.
These arguments can be any expression.
kwds : Keyword arguments, optional
Arrays to save to the file. Arrays will be saved in the file with the keyword names.
Returns None
See also:
numpy.save Save a single array to a binary file in NumPy format.

numpy.savetxt Save an array to a file as plain text.
numpy.savez Save several arrays into an uncompressed .npz file format
numpy.load Load the files created by savez_compressed.
Notes
The .npz file format is a zipped archive of files named after the variables they contain. The archive is com-
pressed with zipfile.ZIP_DEFLATED and each file in the archive contains one variable in .npy for-
mat. For a description of the .npy format, see numpy.lib.format or the NumPy Enhancement Proposal
http://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/neps/npy-format.html
When opening the saved .npz file with load a NpzFile object is returned. This is a dictionary-like object
which can be queried for its list of arrays (with the .files attribute), and for the arrays themselves.
Examples
>>> test_array = np.random.rand(3, 2)

>>> test_vector = np.random.rand(4)
>>> np.savez_compressed('/tmp/123', a=test_array, b=test_vector)
>>> loaded = np.load('/tmp/123.npz')
>>> print(np.array_equal(test_array, loaded['a']))
True
>>> print(np.array_equal(test_vector, loaded['b']))
True
The format of these binary file types is documented in http://docs.scipy.org/doc/numpy/neps/npy-format.html
3.16.2 Text files
loadtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, delimiter, . . . ]) Load data from a text file.

savetxt(fname, X[, fmt, delimiter, newline, . . . ]) Save an array to a text file.
genfromtxt(fname[, dtype, comments, . . . ]) Load data from a text file, with missing values handled as
specified.
fromregex(file, regexp, dtype[, encoding]) Construct an array from a text file, using regular expression
parsing.
fromstring(string[, dtype, count, sep]) A new 1-D array initialized from text data in a string.
ndarray.tolist() Return the array as a (possibly nested) list.

numpy.savetxt(fname, X, fmt=’%.18e’, delimiter=’ ’, newline=’\n’, header=”, footer=”, comments=’# ’,

encoding=None)
Save an array to a text file.
Parameters fname : filename or file handle
If the filename ends in .gz, the file is automatically saved in compressed gzip format.
loadtxt understands gzipped files transparently.
X : 1D or 2D array_like
Data to be saved to a text file.
fmt : str or sequence of strs, optional
A single format (%10.5f), a sequence of formats, or a multi-format string, e.g. ‘Iteration
%d – %10.5f’, in which case delimiter is ignored. For complex X, the legal options for
fmt are:
1. a single specifier, fmt=’%.4e’, resulting in numbers formatted like ‘ (%s+%sj)’ %
(fmt, fmt)
2. a full string specifying every real and imaginary part, e.g. ‘ %.4e %+.4ej %.4e
%+.4ej %.4e %+.4ej’ for 3 columns
3. a list of specifiers, one per column - in this case, the real and imaginary part must
have separate specifiers, e.g. [‘%.3e + %.3ej’, ‘(%.15e%+.15ej)’] for 2 columns
delimiter : str, optional
String or character separating columns.
newline : str, optional
String or character separating lines.
header : str, optional
String that will be written at the beginning of the file.
footer : str, optional
String that will be written at the end of the file.
comments : str, optional
String that will be prepended to the header and footer strings, to mark them as
comments. Default: ‘# ‘, as expected by e.g. numpy.loadtxt.
encoding : {None, str}, optional
Encoding used to encode the outputfile. Does not apply to output streams. If the en-
coding is something other than ‘bytes’ or ‘latin1’ you will not be able to load the file in
NumPy versions < 1.14. Default is ‘latin1’.
See also:
save Save an array to a binary file in NumPy .npy format

savez Save several arrays into an uncompressed .npz archive

savez_compressed Save several arrays into a compressed .npz archive
Notes
Further explanation of the fmt parameter (%[flag]width[.precision]specifier):

flags: - : left justify
+ : Forces to precede result with + or -.
0 : Left pad the number with zeros instead of space (see width).
width: Minimum number of characters to be printed. The value is not truncated if it has more characters.
precision:
• For integer specifiers (eg. d,i,o,x), the minimum number of digits.
• For e, E and f specifiers, the number of digits to print after the decimal point.
• For g and G, the maximum number of significant digits.
• For s, the maximum number of characters.
specifiers: c : character
d or i : signed decimal integer
e or E : scientific notation with e or E.
f : decimal floating point
g,G : use the shorter of e,E or f
o : signed octal
s : string of characters
u : unsigned decimal integer
x,X : unsigned hexadecimal integer
This explanation of fmt is not complete, for an exhaustive specification see [R561561].
References
[R561561]
Examples
>>> x = y = z = np.arange(0.0,5.0,1.0)
>>> np.savetxt('test.out', x, delimiter=',') # X is an array
>>> np.savetxt('test.out', (x,y,z)) # x,y,z equal sized 1D arrays
>>> np.savetxt('test.out', x, fmt='%1.4e') # use exponential notation

numpy.genfromtxt(fname, dtype=<class ’float’>, comments=’#’, delimiter=None, skip_header=0,

skip_footer=0, converters=None, missing_values=None, filling_values=None, usec-
ols=None, names=None, excludelist=None, deletechars=None, replace_space=’_’,
autostrip=False, case_sensitive=True, defaultfmt=’f%i’, unpack=None, use-
mask=False, loose=True, invalid_raise=True, max_rows=None, encoding=’bytes’)
Load data from a text file, with missing values handled as specified.
Each line past the first skip_header lines is split at the delimiter character, and characters following the comments
character are discarded.
Parameters fname : file, str, pathlib.Path, list of str, generator
File, filename, list, or generator to read. If the filename extension is gz or bz2, the file
is first decompressed. Note that generators must return byte strings in Python 3k. The
strings in a list or produced by a generator are treated as lines.
Data type of the resulting array. If None, the dtypes will be determined by the contents
of each column, individually.
comments : str, optional
The character used to indicate the start of a comment. All the characters occurring on a
line after a comment are discarded
delimiter : str, int, or sequence, optional
The string used to separate values. By default, any consecutive whitespaces act as
delimiter. An integer or sequence of integers can also be provided as width(s) of each
field.
skiprows : int, optional
skiprows was removed in numpy 1.10. Please use skip_header instead.
skip_header : int, optional
The number of lines to skip at the beginning of the file.
skip_footer : int, optional
The number of lines to skip at the end of the file.
converters : variable, optional
The set of functions that convert the data of a column to a value. The converters can also
be used to provide a default value for missing data: converters = {3: lambda
s: float(s or 0)}.
missing : variable, optional
missing was removed in numpy 1.10. Please use missing_values instead.
missing_values : variable, optional
The set of strings corresponding to missing data.
filling_values : variable, optional
The set of values to be used as default when the data are missing.
usecols : sequence, optional
Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1, 4,
5) will extract the 2nd, 5th and 6th columns.

names : {None, True, str, sequence}, optional

If names is True, the field names are read from the first line after the first skip_header
lines. This line can optionally be proceeded by a comment delimeter. If names is a
sequence or a single-string of comma-separated names, the names will be used to define
the field names in a structured dtype. If names is None, the names of the dtype fields
will be used, if any.
excludelist : sequence, optional
A list of names to exclude. This list is appended to the default list [‘return’,’file’,’print’].
Excluded names are appended an underscore: for example, file would become file_.
deletechars : str, optional
A string combining invalid characters that must be deleted from the names.
defaultfmt : str, optional
A format used to define default field names, such as “f%i” or “f_%02i”.
autostrip : bool, optional
Whether to automatically strip white spaces from the variables.
replace_space : char, optional
Character(s) used in replacement of white spaces in the variables names. By default,
use a ‘_’.
case_sensitive : {True, False, ‘upper’, ‘lower’}, optional
If True, field names are case sensitive. If False or ‘upper’, field names are converted to
upper case. If ‘lower’, field names are converted to lower case.
unpack : bool, optional
If True, the returned array is transposed, so that arguments may be unpacked using x,
y, z = loadtxt(...)
usemask : bool, optional
If True, return a masked array. If False, return a regular array.
loose : bool, optional
If True, do not raise errors for invalid values.
invalid_raise : bool, optional
If True, an exception is raised if an inconsistency is detected in the number of columns.
If False, a warning is emitted and the offending lines are skipped.
max_rows : int, optional
The maximum number of rows to read. Must not be used with skip_footer at the same
time. If given, the value must be at least 1. Default is to read the entire file.
Encoding used to decode the inputfile. Does not apply when fname is a file object.
The special value ‘bytes’ enables backward compatibility workarounds that ensure that
you receive byte arrays when possible and passes latin1 encoded strings to converters.
Override this value to receive unicode arrays and pass strings as input to converters. If
set to None the system default is used. The default value is ‘bytes’.


Data read from the text file. If usemask is True, this is a masked array.
See also:
numpy.loadtxt equivalent function when no data is missing.
Notes
• When spaces are used as delimiters, or when no delimiter has been given as input, there should not be any
missing data between two fields.
• When the variables are named (either by a flexible dtype or with names, there must not be any header in
the file (else a ValueError exception is raised).
• Individual values are not stripped of spaces by default. When using a custom converter, make sure the
function does remove spaces.
References
[R3434]
Examples
>>> from io import StringIO

Comma delimited file with mixed dtype
>>> s = StringIO("1,1.3,abcde")
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=[('myint','i8'),('myfloat','f8'),
... ('mystring','S5')], delimiter=",")
>>> data
array((1, 1.3, 'abcde'),
dtype=[('myint', '<i8'), ('myfloat', '<f8'), ('mystring', '|S5')])
Using dtype = None
>>> s.seek(0) # needed for StringIO example only

>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=None,
... names = ['myint','myfloat','mystring'], delimiter=",")
>>> data
Specifying dtype and names
>>> s.seek(0)
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype="i8,f8,S5",
... names=['myint','myfloat','mystring'], delimiter=",")
>>> data


An example with fixed-width columns
>>> s = StringIO("11.3abcde")
>>> data = np.genfromtxt(s, dtype=None, names=['intvar','fltvar','strvar'],
... delimiter=[1,3,5])
>>> data
dtype=[('intvar', '<i8'), ('fltvar', '<f8'), ('strvar', '|S5')])
numpy.fromregex(file, regexp, dtype, encoding=None)

Construct an array from a text file, using regular expression parsing.
The returned array is always a structured array, and is constructed from all matches of the regular expression in
the file. Groups in the regular expression are converted to fields of the structured array.
File name or file object to read.
regexp : str or regexp
Regular expression used to parse the file. Groups in the regular expression correspond
to fields in the dtype.
dtype : dtype or list of dtypes
Dtype for the structured array.
Encoding used to decode the inputfile. Does not apply to input streams.
The output array, containing the part of the content of file that was matched by regexp.
output is always a structured array.
Raises TypeError
When dtype is not a valid dtype for a structured array.
See also:
fromstring, loadtxt
Notes
Dtypes for structured arrays can be specified in several forms, but all forms specify at least the data type and
field name. For details see doc.structured_arrays.
Examples
>>> f = open('test.dat', 'w')

>>> f.write("1312 foo\n1534 bar\n444 qux")
>>> f.close()

>>> regexp = r"(\d+)\s+(...)" # match [digits, whitespace, anything]

>>> output = np.fromregex('test.dat', regexp,
... [('num', np.int64), ('key', 'S3')])
>>> output
array([(1312L, 'foo'), (1534L, 'bar'), (444L, 'qux')],
dtype=[('num', '<i8'), ('key', '|S3')])
>>> output['num']
array([1312, 1534, 444], dtype=int64)
3.16.3 Raw binary files
fromfile(file[, dtype, count, sep]) Construct an array from data in a text or binary file.
3.16.4 String formatting
array2string(a[, max_line_width, precision, . . . ]) Return a string representation of an array.

array_repr(arr[, max_line_width, precision, . . . ]) Return the string representation of an array.
array_str(a[, max_line_width, precision, . . . ]) Return a string representation of the data in an array.
format_float_positional(x[, precision, . . . ]) Format a floating-point scalar as a decimal string in posi-
tional notation.
format_float_scientific(x[, precision, . . . ]) Format a floating-point scalar as a decimal string in scien-
tific notation.
numpy.array2string(a, max_line_width=None, precision=None, suppress_small=None, separator=’

’, prefix=”, style=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, formatter=None, thresh-
old=None, edgeitems=None, sign=None, floatmode=None, suffix=”, **kwarg)
Return a string representation of an array.
Input array.
max_line_width : int, optional
The maximum number of columns the string should span. Newline characters splits the
string appropriately after array elements.
precision : int or None, optional
Floating point precision. Default is the current printing precision (usually 8), which can
be altered using set_printoptions.
suppress_small : bool, optional
Represent very small numbers as zero. A number is “very small” if it is smaller than
the current printing precision.
separator : str, optional
Inserted between elements.
prefix : str, optional
suffix: str, optional

The length of the prefix and suffix strings are used to respectively align and wrap the
output. An array is typically printed as:
prefix + array2string(a) + suffix
The output is left-padded by the length of the prefix string, and wrapping is forced at
the column max_line_width - len(suffix).
style : _NoValue, optional
formatter : dict of callables, optional
If not None, the keys should indicate the type(s) that the respective formatting function
applies to. Callables should return a string. Types that are not specified (by their cor-
responding keys) are handled by the default formatters. Individual types for which a
formatter can be set are:
- 'bool'
- 'int'
- 'timedelta' : a `numpy.timedelta64`
- 'datetime' : a `numpy.datetime64`
- 'float'
- 'longfloat' : 128-bit floats
- 'complexfloat'
- 'longcomplexfloat' : composed of two 128-bit floats
- 'void' : type `numpy.void`
- 'numpystr' : types `numpy.string_` and `numpy.unicode_`
- 'str' : all other strings
Other keys that can be used to set a group of types at once are:
- 'all' : sets all types

- 'int_kind' : sets 'int'
- 'float_kind' : sets 'float' and 'longfloat'
- 'complex_kind' : sets 'complexfloat' and 'longcomplexfloat'
- 'str_kind' : sets 'str' and 'numpystr'
threshold : int, optional

Total number of array elements which trigger summarization rather than full repr.
edgeitems : int, optional
Number of array items in summary at beginning and end of each dimension.
sign : string, either ‘-‘, ‘+’, or ‘ ‘, optional
Controls printing of the sign of floating-point types. If ‘+’, always print the sign of
positive values. If ‘ ‘, always prints a space (whitespace character) in the sign position
of positive values. If ‘-‘, omit the sign character of positive values.
floatmode : str, optional
Controls the interpretation of the precision option for floating-point types. Can take the
following values:
• ‘fixed’ [Always print exactly precision fractional digits,] even if this would print
more or fewer digits than necessary to specify the value uniquely.

• ‘unique [Print the minimum number of fractional digits necessary] to represent each
value uniquely. Different elements may have a different number of digits. The
value of the precision option is ignored.
• ‘maxprec’ [Print at most precision fractional digits, but if] an element can be
uniquely represented with fewer digits only print it with that many.
• ‘maxprec_equal’ [Print at most precision fractional digits,] but if every element in
the array can be uniquely represented with an equal number of fewer digits, use
that many digits for all elements.
legacy : string or False, optional
If set to the string ‘1.13’ enables 1.13 legacy printing mode. This approximates numpy
1.13 print output by including a space in the sign position of floats and different behavior
for 0d arrays. If set to False, disables legacy mode. Unrecognized strings will be ignored
with a warning for forward compatibility.
Returns array_str : str
String representation of the array.
Raises TypeError
if a callable in formatter does not return a string.
See also:
array_str, array_repr, set_printoptions, get_printoptions
Notes
If a formatter is specified for a certain type, the precision keyword is ignored for that type.
This is a very flexible function; array_repr and array_str are using array2string internally so
keywords with the same name should work identically in all three functions.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1e-16,1,2,3])
>>> print(np.array2string(x, precision=2, separator=',',
... suppress_small=True))
[ 0., 1., 2., 3.]
>>> x = np.arange(3.)
>>> np.array2string(x, formatter={'float_kind':lambda x: "%.2f" % x})
'[0.00 1.00 2.00]'
>>> np.array2string(x, formatter={'int':lambda x: hex(x)})
'[0x0L 0x1L 0x2L]'
numpy.array_repr(arr, max_line_width=None, precision=None, suppress_small=None)

Return the string representation of an array.

Input array.
The maximum number of columns the string should span. Newline characters split the
string appropriately after array elements.
precision : int, optional
Represent very small numbers as zero, default is False. Very small is defined by preci-
sion, if the precision is 8 then numbers smaller than 5e-9 are represented as zero.
Returns string : str
The string representation of an array.
See also:
array_str, array2string, set_printoptions
Examples
>>> np.array_repr(np.array([1,2]))
'array([1, 2])'
>>> np.array_repr(np.ma.array([0.]))
'MaskedArray([ 0.])'
>>> np.array_repr(np.array([], np.int32))
'array([], dtype=int32)'
>>> x = np.array([1e-6, 4e-7, 2, 3])

>>> np.array_repr(x, precision=6, suppress_small=True)
'array([ 0.000001, 0. , 2. , 3. ])'
numpy.array_str(a, max_line_width=None, precision=None, suppress_small=None)

Return a string representation of the data in an array.
The data in the array is returned as a single string. This function is similar to array_repr, the difference
being that array_repr also returns information on the kind of array and its data type.
Input array.
Inserts newlines if text is longer than max_line_width. The default is, indirectly, 75.
precision : int, optional
Represent numbers “very close” to zero as zero; default is False. Very close is defined
by precision: if the precision is 8, e.g., numbers smaller (in absolute value) than 5e-9
are represented as zero.

See also:
array2string, array_repr, set_printoptions
Examples
>>> np.array_str(np.arange(3))
'[0 1 2]'
numpy.format_float_positional(x, precision=None, unique=True, fractional=True, trim=’k’,

sign=False, pad_left=None, pad_right=None)
Format a floating-point scalar as a decimal string in positional notation.
Provides control over rounding, trimming and padding. Uses and assumes IEEE unbiased rounding. Uses the
“Dragon4” algorithm.
Parameters x : python float or numpy floating scalar
Value to format.
precision : non-negative integer or None, optional
Maximum number of digits to print. May be None if unique is True, but must be an
integer if unique is False.
unique : boolean, optional
If True, use a digit-generation strategy which gives the shortest representation which
uniquely identifies the floating-point number from other values of the same type, by
judicious rounding. If precision was omitted, print out all necessary digits, otherwise
digit generation is cut off after precision digits and the remaining value is rounded. If
False, digits are generated as if printing an infinite-precision value and stopping after
precision digits, rounding the remaining value.
fractional : boolean, optional
If True, the cutoff of precision digits refers to the total number of digits after the dec-
imal point, including leading zeros. If False, precision refers to the total number of
significant digits, before or after the decimal point, ignoring leading zeros.
trim : one of ‘k’, ‘.’, ‘0’, ‘-‘, optional
Controls post-processing trimming of trailing digits, as follows: k : keep trailing
zeros, keep decimal point (no trimming) . : trim all trailing zeros, leave decimal
point 0 : trim all but the zero before the decimal point. Insert the
zero if it is missing.
• : trim trailing zeros and any trailing decimal point
sign : boolean, optional

Whether to show the sign for positive values.
pad_left : non-negative integer, optional
Pad the left side of the string with whitespace until at least that many characters are to
the left of the decimal point.
pad_right : non-negative integer, optional

Pad the right side of the string with whitespace until at least that many characters are to
the right of the decimal point.
Returns rep : string
The string representation of the floating point value
See also:
format_float_scientific
Examples
>>> np.format_float_scientific(np.float32(np.pi))
'3.1415927'
>>> np.format_float_positional(np.float16(np.pi))
'3.14'
>>> np.format_float_positional(np.float16(0.3))
'0.3'
>>> np.format_float_positional(np.float16(0.3), unique=False, precision=10)
'0.3000488281'
numpy.format_float_scientific(x, precision=None, unique=True, trim=’k’, sign=False,

pad_left=None, exp_digits=None)
Format a floating-point scalar as a decimal string in scientific notation.
Provides control over rounding, trimming and padding. Uses and assumes IEEE unbiased rounding. Uses the
“Dragon4” algorithm.
Parameters x : python float or numpy floating scalar
Value to format.
precision : non-negative integer or None, optional
Maximum number of digits to print. May be None if unique is True, but must be an
integer if unique is False.
unique : boolean, optional
If True, use a digit-generation strategy which gives the shortest representation which
uniquely identifies the floating-point number from other values of the same type, by
judicious rounding. If precision was omitted, print all necessary digits, otherwise digit
generation is cut off after precision digits and the remaining value is rounded. If False,
digits are generated as if printing an infinite-precision value and stopping after precision
digits, rounding the remaining value.
trim : one of ‘k’, ‘.’, ‘0’, ‘-‘, optional
Controls post-processing trimming of trailing digits, as follows: k : keep trailing
zeros, keep decimal point (no trimming) . : trim all trailing zeros, leave decimal
point 0 : trim all but the zero before the decimal point. Insert the
zero if it is missing.
• : trim trailing zeros and any trailing decimal point
sign : boolean, optional

Whether to show the sign for positive values.

pad_left : non-negative integer, optional

Pad the left side of the string with whitespace until at least that many characters are to
the left of the decimal point.
exp_digits : non-negative integer, optional
Pad the exponent with zeros until it contains at least this many digits. If omitted, the
exponent will be at least 2 digits.
Returns rep : string
The string representation of the floating point value
See also:
format_float_positional
Examples
>>> np.format_float_scientific(np.float32(np.pi))
'3.1415927e+00'
>>> s = np.float32(1.23e24)
>>> np.format_float_scientific(s, unique=False, precision=15)
'1.230000071797338e+24'
>>> np.format_float_scientific(s, exp_digits=4)
'1.23e+0024'
3.16.5 Memory mapping files
memmap Create a memory-map to an array stored in a binary file on

disk.
3.16.6 Text formatting options
set_printoptions([precision, threshold, . . . ]) Set printing options.

get_printoptions() Return the current print options.
set_string_function(f[, repr]) Set a Python function to be used when pretty printing ar-
rays.
numpy.set_printoptions(precision=None, threshold=None, edgeitems=None, linewidth=None, sup-

press=None, nanstr=None, infstr=None, formatter=None, sign=None, float-
mode=None, **kwarg)
Set printing options.
These options determine the way floating point numbers, arrays and other NumPy objects are displayed.
Parameters precision : int or None, optional
Number of digits of precision for floating point output (default 8). May be None if
floatmode is not fixed, to print as many digits as necessary to uniquely specify the value.
threshold : int, optional
Total number of array elements which trigger summarization rather than full repr (de-
fault 1000).

edgeitems : int, optional

Number of array items in summary at beginning and end of each dimension (default 3).
linewidth : int, optional
The number of characters per line for the purpose of inserting line breaks (default 75).
suppress : bool, optional
If True, always print floating point numbers using fixed point notation, in which case
numbers equal to zero in the current precision will print as zero. If False, then scientific
notation is used when absolute value of the smallest number is < 1e-4 or the ratio of the
maximum absolute value to the minimum is > 1e3. The default is False.
nanstr : str, optional
String representation of floating point not-a-number (default nan).
infstr : str, optional
String representation of floating point infinity (default inf).
sign : string, either ‘-‘, ‘+’, or ‘ ‘, optional
Controls printing of the sign of floating-point types. If ‘+’, always print the sign of
positive values. If ‘ ‘, always prints a space (whitespace character) in the sign position
of positive values. If ‘-‘, omit the sign character of positive values. (default ‘-‘)
formatter : dict of callables, optional
If not None, the keys should indicate the type(s) that the respective formatting function
applies to. Callables should return a string. Types that are not specified (by their cor-
responding keys) are handled by the default formatters. Individual types for which a
formatter can be set are:
- 'bool'
- 'int'
- 'timedelta' : a `numpy.timedelta64`
- 'datetime' : a `numpy.datetime64`
- 'float'
- 'longfloat' : 128-bit floats
- 'complexfloat'
- 'longcomplexfloat' : composed of two 128-bit floats
- 'numpystr' : types `numpy.string_` and `numpy.unicode_`
- 'object' : `np.object_` arrays
- 'str' : all other strings
Other keys that can be used to set a group of types at once are:
- 'all' : sets all types

- 'int_kind' : sets 'int'
- 'float_kind' : sets 'float' and 'longfloat'
- 'complex_kind' : sets 'complexfloat' and 'longcomplexfloat'
- 'str_kind' : sets 'str' and 'numpystr'
floatmode : str, optional

Controls the interpretation of the precision option for floating-point types. Can take the
following values:
• ‘fixed’ [Always print exactly precision fractional digits,] even if this would print
more or fewer digits than necessary to specify the value uniquely.

• ‘unique [Print the minimum number of fractional digits necessary] to represent each
value uniquely. Different elements may have a different number of digits. The
value of the precision option is ignored.
• ‘maxprec’ [Print at most precision fractional digits, but if] an element can be
uniquely represented with fewer digits only print it with that many.
• ‘maxprec_equal’ [Print at most precision fractional digits,] but if every element in
the array can be uniquely represented with an equal number of fewer digits, use
that many digits for all elements.
legacy : string or False, optional
If set to the string ‘1.13’ enables 1.13 legacy printing mode. This approximates numpy
1.13 print output by including a space in the sign position of floats and different behavior
for 0d arrays. If set to False, disables legacy mode. Unrecognized strings will be ignored
with a warning for forward compatibility.
See also:
get_printoptions, set_string_function, array2string
Notes
formatter is always reset with a call to set_printoptions.
Examples
Floating point precision can be set:
>>> np.set_printoptions(precision=4)
>>> print(np.array([1.123456789]))
[ 1.1235]
Long arrays can be summarised:
>>> np.set_printoptions(threshold=5)
>>> print(np.arange(10))
[0 1 2 ..., 7 8 9]
Small results can be suppressed:
>>> eps = np.finfo(float).eps

>>> x = np.arange(4.)
>>> x**2 - (x + eps)**2
array([ -4.9304e-32, -4.4409e-16, 0.0000e+00, 0.0000e+00])
>>> np.set_printoptions(suppress=True)
>>> x**2 - (x + eps)**2
array([-0., -0., 0., 0.])
A custom formatter can be used to display array elements as desired:
>>> np.set_printoptions(formatter={'all':lambda x: 'int: '+str(-x)})

>>> x

array([int: 0, int: -1, int: -2])

>>> np.set_printoptions() # formatter gets reset
>>> x
array([0, 1, 2])
To put back the default options, you can use:
>>> np.set_printoptions(edgeitems=3,infstr='inf',
... linewidth=75, nanstr='nan', precision=8,
... suppress=False, threshold=1000, formatter=None)
numpy.get_printoptions()
Return the current print options.
Returns print_opts : dict
Dictionary of current print options with keys
• precision : int
• threshold : int
• edgeitems : int
• linewidth : int
• suppress : bool
• nanstr : str
• infstr : str
• formatter : dict of callables
• sign : str
For a full description of these options, see set_printoptions.
See also:
set_printoptions, set_string_function
numpy.set_string_function(f, repr=True)
Set a Python function to be used when pretty printing arrays.
Parameters f : function or None
Function to be used to pretty print arrays. The function should expect a single array
argument and return a string of the representation of the array. If None, the function is
reset to the default NumPy function to print arrays.
repr : bool, optional
If True (default), the function for pretty printing (__repr__) is set, if False the func-
tion that returns the default string representation (__str__) is set.
See also:
set_printoptions, get_printoptions

Examples
>>> def pprint(arr):

... return 'HA! - What are you going to do now?'
...
>>> np.set_string_function(pprint)
>>> a
HA! - What are you going to do now?
>>> print(a)
[0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9]
We can reset the function to the default:
>>> np.set_string_function(None)
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
repr affects either pretty printing or normal string representation. Note that __repr__ is still affected by
setting __str__ because the width of each array element in the returned string becomes equal to the length of
the result of __str__().
>>> np.set_string_function(lambda x:'random', repr=False)
>>> x.__str__()
'random'
>>> x.__repr__()
'array([ 0, 1, 2, 3])'
3.16.7 Base-n representations
binary_repr(num[, width]) Return the binary representation of the input number as a

string.
base_repr(number[, base, padding]) Return a string representation of a number in the given base
system.
numpy.base_repr(number, base=2, padding=0)

Return a string representation of a number in the given base system.
Parameters number : int
The value to convert. Positive and negative values are handled.
base : int, optional
Convert number to the base number system. The valid range is 2-36, the default value
is 2.
padding : int, optional
Number of zeros padded on the left. Default is 0 (no padding).
Returns out : str
String representation of number in base system.
See also:

binary_repr Faster version of base_repr for base 2.
Examples
>>> np.base_repr(5)
'101'
>>> np.base_repr(6, 5)
'11'
>>> np.base_repr(7, base=5, padding=3)
'00012'
>>> np.base_repr(10, base=16)

'A'
>>> np.base_repr(32, base=16)
'20'
3.16.8 Data sources
DataSource([destpath]) A generic data source file (file, http, ftp, . . . ).
class numpy.DataSource(destpath=’.’)
A generic data source file (file, http, ftp, . . . ).
DataSources can be local files or remote files/URLs. The files may also be compressed or uncompressed.
DataSource hides some of the low-level details of downloading the file, allowing you to simply pass in a valid
file path (or URL) and obtain a file object.
Parameters destpath : str or None, optional
Path to the directory where the source file gets downloaded to for use. If destpath is
None, a temporary directory will be created. The default path is the current directory.
Notes
URLs require a scheme string (http://) to be used, without it they will fail:
>>> repos = DataSource()
>>> repos.exists('www.google.com/index.html')
False
>>> repos.exists('http://www.google.com/index.html')
True
Temporary directories are deleted when the DataSource is deleted.
Examples
>>> ds = DataSource('/home/guido')
>>> urlname = 'http://www.google.com/index.html'
>>> gfile = ds.open('http://www.google.com/index.html') # remote file
>>> ds.abspath(urlname)
'/home/guido/www.google.com/site/index.html'

>>> ds = DataSource(None) # use with temporary file

>>> ds.open('/home/guido/foobar.txt')
<open file '/home/guido.foobar.txt', mode 'r' at 0x91d4430>
>>> ds.abspath('/home/guido/foobar.txt')
'/tmp/tmpy4pgsP/home/guido/foobar.txt'
Methods
abspath(path) Return absolute path of file in the DataSource directory.

exists(path) Test if path exists.
open(path[, mode, encoding, newline]) Open and return file-like object.
DataSource.abspath(path)
Return absolute path of file in the DataSource directory.
If path is an URL, then abspath will return either the location the file exists locally or the location it
would exist when opened using the open method.
Parameters path : str
Can be a local file or a remote URL.
Returns out : str
Complete path, including the DataSource destination directory.
Notes
The functionality is based on os.path.abspath.

DataSource.exists(path)
Test if path exists.
Test if path exists as (and in this order):
• a local file.
• a remote URL that has been downloaded and stored locally in the DataSource directory.
• a remote URL that has not been downloaded, but is valid and accessible.

Can be a local file or a remote URL.
Returns out : bool
True if path exists.
Notes
When path is an URL, exists will return True if it’s either stored locally in the DataSource direc-
tory, or is a valid remote URL. DataSource does not discriminate between the two, the file is accessible
if it exists in either location.

DataSource.open(path, mode=’r’, encoding=None, newline=None)

Open and return file-like object.
If path is an URL, it will be downloaded, stored in the DataSource directory and opened from there.
Local file path or URL to open.
mode : {‘r’, ‘w’, ‘a’}, optional
Mode to open path. Mode ‘r’ for reading, ‘w’ for writing, ‘a’ to append. Available
modes depend on the type of object specified by path. Default is ‘r’.
encoding : {None, str}, optional
Open text file with given encoding. The default encoding will be what io.open uses.
newline : {None, str}, optional
Newline to use when reading text file.
Returns out : file object
File object.
3.17 Linear algebra (numpy.linalg)
3.17.1 Matrix and vector products
dot(a, b[, out]) Dot product of two arrays.

linalg.multi_dot(arrays) Compute the dot product of two or more arrays in a sin-
gle function call, while automatically selecting the fastest
evaluation order.
vdot(a, b) Return the dot product of two vectors.
inner(a, b) Inner product of two arrays.
outer(a, b[, out]) Compute the outer product of two vectors.
matmul(a, b[, out]) Matrix product of two arrays.
tensordot(a, b[, axes]) Compute tensor dot product along specified axes for arrays
>= 1-D.
einsum(subscripts, *operands[, out, dtype, . . . ]) Evaluates the Einstein summation convention on the
operands.
einsum_path(subscripts, *operands[, optimize]) Evaluates the lowest cost contraction order for an einsum
expression by considering the creation of intermediate ar-
rays.
linalg.matrix_power(M, n) Raise a square matrix to the (integer) power n.
kron(a, b) Kronecker product of two arrays.
numpy.dot(a, b, out=None)
Dot product of two arrays. Specifically,
• If both a and b are 1-D arrays, it is inner product of vectors (without complex conjugation).
• If both a and b are 2-D arrays, it is matrix multiplication, but using matmul or a @ b is preferred.
• If either a or b is 0-D (scalar), it is equivalent to multiply and using numpy.multiply(a, b) or
a * b is preferred.

• If a is an N-D array and b is a 1-D array, it is a sum product over the last axis of a and b.
• If a is an N-D array and b is an M-D array (where M>=2), it is a sum product over the last axis of a and
the second-to-last axis of b:
dot(a, b)[i,j,k,m] = sum(a[i,j,:] * b[k,:,m])
First argument.
b : array_like
Second argument.
to be flexible.
Returns the dot product of a and b. If a and b are both scalars or both 1-D arrays then a
scalar is returned; otherwise an array is returned. If out is given, then it is returned.
Raises ValueError
If the last dimension of a is not the same size as the second-to-last dimension of b.
See also:
vdot Complex-conjugating dot product.

matmul ‘@’ operator as method with out parameter.
Examples
>>> np.dot(3, 4)
12
Neither argument is complex-conjugated:
>>> np.dot([2j, 3j], [2j, 3j])

(-13+0j)
For 2-D arrays it is the matrix product:
>>> a = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]

>>> b = [[4, 1], [2, 2]]
>>> np.dot(a, b)
array([[4, 1],
[2, 2]])
3.17. Linear algebra (numpy.linalg) 641

>>> a = np.arange(3*4*5*6).reshape((3,4,5,6))
>>> b = np.arange(3*4*5*6)[::-1].reshape((5,4,6,3))
>>> np.dot(a, b)[2,3,2,1,2,2]
499128
>>> sum(a[2,3,2,:] * b[1,2,:,2])
499128
numpy.linalg.multi_dot(arrays)
Compute the dot product of two or more arrays in a single function call, while automatically selecting the fastest
evaluation order.
multi_dot chains numpy.dot and uses optimal parenthesization of the matrices [R8182] [R8282]. De-
pending on the shapes of the matrices, this can speed up the multiplication a lot.
If the first argument is 1-D it is treated as a row vector. If the last argument is 1-D it is treated as a column
vector. The other arguments must be 2-D.
Think of multi_dot as:
def multi_dot(arrays): return functools.reduce(np.dot, arrays)

If the first argument is 1-D it is treated as row vector. If the last argument is 1-D it is
treated as column vector. The other arguments must be 2-D.
Returns the dot product of the supplied arrays.
See also:
dot dot multiplication with two arguments.
Notes
The cost for a matrix multiplication can be calculated with the following function:
def cost(A, B):

return A.shape[0] * A.shape[1] * B.shape[1]
Let’s assume we have three matrices 𝐴10𝑥100 , 𝐵100𝑥5 , 𝐶5𝑥50 .

The costs for the two different parenthesizations are as follows:
cost((AB)C) = 10*100*5 + 10*5*50 = 5000 + 2500 = 7500

cost(A(BC)) = 10*100*50 + 100*5*50 = 50000 + 25000 = 75000
References
[R8182], [R8282]

Examples
multi_dot allows you to write:

>>> from numpy.linalg import multi_dot
>>> # Prepare some data
>>> A = np.random.random(10000, 100)
>>> B = np.random.random(100, 1000)
>>> C = np.random.random(1000, 5)
>>> D = np.random.random(5, 333)
>>> # the actual dot multiplication
>>> multi_dot([A, B, C, D])
instead of:
>>> np.dot(np.dot(np.dot(A, B), C), D)
>>> # or
>>> A.dot(B).dot(C).dot(D)
numpy.vdot(a, b)
Return the dot product of two vectors.
The vdot(a, b) function handles complex numbers differently than dot(a, b). If the first argument is complex the
complex conjugate of the first argument is used for the calculation of the dot product.
Note that vdot handles multidimensional arrays differently than dot: it does not perform a matrix product,
but flattens input arguments to 1-D vectors first. Consequently, it should only be used for vectors.
If a is complex the complex conjugate is taken before calculation of the dot product.
b : array_like
Second argument to the dot product.
Dot product of a and b. Can be an int, float, or complex depending on the types of a
and b.
See also:
dot Return the dot product without using the complex conjugate of the first argument.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j,3+4j])
>>> b = np.array([5+6j,7+8j])
>>> np.vdot(a, b)
(70-8j)
>>> np.vdot(b, a)
(70+8j)
Note that higher-dimensional arrays are flattened!

>>> a = np.array([[1, 4], [5, 6]])
>>> b = np.array([[4, 1], [2, 2]])
>>> np.vdot(a, b)

30
>>> np.vdot(b, a)
30
>>> 1*4 + 4*1 + 5*2 + 6*2
30
numpy.inner(a, b)
Raises ValueError
See also:

Notes
or explicitly:
= sum(a[i0,...,ir-1,:]*b[j0,...,js-1,:])
np.inner(a,b) = a*b
Examples

>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> b = np.array([0,1,0])
>>> np.inner(a, b)
2
>>> np.inner(a, b)
array([[ 14, 38, 62],
[ 86, 110, 134]])
array([[ 7., 0.],
[ 0., 7.]])
numpy.outer(a, b, out=None)
[R107107] is:
[[a0*b0 a0*b1 ... a0*bN ]

[a1*b0 .
[ ... .
[aM*b0 aM*bN ]]

b : (N,) array_like
out[i, j] = a[i] * b[j]
See also:
inner
References
[R107107]

Examples

>>> rl
array([[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.],
[-2., -1., 0., 1., 2.]])
>>> im
array([[ 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 0.+2.j],
[ 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 0.+1.j],
[ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 0.-1.j],
[ 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 0.-2.j]])
>>> grid = rl + im
>>> grid
array([[-2.+2.j, -1.+2.j, 0.+2.j, 1.+2.j, 2.+2.j],
[-2.+1.j, -1.+1.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+1.j, 2.+1.j],
[-2.+0.j, -1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j],
[-2.-1.j, -1.-1.j, 0.-1.j, 1.-1.j, 2.-1.j],
[-2.-2.j, -1.-2.j, 0.-2.j, 1.-2.j, 2.-2.j]])

>>> np.outer(x, [1, 2, 3])
[b, bb, bbb],
numpy.matmul(a, b, out=None)
Matrix product of two arrays.
The behavior depends on the arguments in the following way.
• If both arguments are 2-D they are multiplied like conventional matrices.
• If either argument is N-D, N > 2, it is treated as a stack of matrices residing in the last two indexes and
broadcast accordingly.
• If the first argument is 1-D, it is promoted to a matrix by prepending a 1 to its dimensions. After matrix
multiplication the prepended 1 is removed.
• If the second argument is 1-D, it is promoted to a matrix by appending a 1 to its dimensions. After matrix
multiplication the appended 1 is removed.
Multiplication by a scalar is not allowed, use * instead. Note that multiplying a stack of matrices with a vector
will result in a stack of vectors, but matmul will not recognize it as such.
matmul differs from dot in two important ways.
• Multiplication by scalars is not allowed.
• Stacks of matrices are broadcast together as if the matrices were elements.

Warning: This function is preliminary and included in NumPy 1.10.0 for testing and documentation. Its
semantics will not change, but the number and order of the optional arguments will.

First argument.
b : array_like
Second argument.
to be flexible.
Returns the dot product of a and b. If a and b are both 1-D arrays then a scalar is
returned; otherwise an array is returned. If out is given, then it is returned.
Raises ValueError
If the last dimension of a is not the same size as the second-to-last dimension of b.
If scalar value is passed.
See also:
vdot Complex-conjugating dot product.

dot alternative matrix product with different broadcasting rules.
Notes
The matmul function implements the semantics of the @ operator introduced in Python 3.5 following PEP465.
Examples
For 2-D arrays it is the matrix product:
>>> a = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]

>>> b = [[4, 1], [2, 2]]
>>> np.matmul(a, b)
array([[4, 1],
[2, 2]])
For 2-D mixed with 1-D, the result is the usual.

>>> a = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]

>>> b = [1, 2]
>>> np.matmul(a, b)
array([1, 2])
>>> np.matmul(b, a)
array([1, 2])
Broadcasting is conventional for stacks of arrays
>>> a = np.arange(2*2*4).reshape((2,2,4))
>>> b = np.arange(2*2*4).reshape((2,4,2))
>>> np.matmul(a,b).shape
(2, 2, 2)
>>> np.matmul(a,b)[0,1,1]
98
>>> sum(a[0,1,:] * b[0,:,1])
98
Vector, vector returns the scalar inner product, but neither argument is complex-conjugated:
>>> np.matmul([2j, 3j], [2j, 3j])

(-13+0j)
Scalar multiplication raises an error.
>>> np.matmul([1,2], 3)
...
ValueError: Scalar operands are not allowed, use '*' instead
numpy.tensordot(a, b, axes=2)
Compute tensor dot product along specified axes for arrays >= 1-D.
Given two tensors (arrays of dimension greater than or equal to one), a and b, and an array_like object containing
two array_like objects, (a_axes, b_axes), sum the products of a’s and b’s elements (components) over the
axes specified by a_axes and b_axes. The third argument can be a single non-negative integer_like scalar,
N; if it is such, then the last N dimensions of a and the first N dimensions of b are summed over.
Parameters a, b : array_like, len(shape) >= 1
Tensors to “dot”.
axes : int or (2,) array_like
• integer_like If an int N, sum over the last N axes of a and the first N axes of b in order. The
sizes of the corresponding axes must match.
• (2,) array_like Or, a list of axes to be summed over, first sequence applying to a, second to
b. Both elements array_like must be of the same length.
See also:
dot, einsum
Notes
Three common use cases are:

• axes = 0 : tensor product 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏

• axes = 1 : tensor dot product 𝑎 · 𝑏

• axes = 2 : (default) tensor double contraction 𝑎 : 𝑏
When axes is integer_like, the sequence for evaluation will be: first the -Nth axis in a and 0th axis in b, and the
-1th axis in a and Nth axis in b last.
When there is more than one axis to sum over - and they are not the last (first) axes of a (b) - the argument axes
should consist of two sequences of the same length, with the first axis to sum over given first in both sequences,
the second axis second, and so forth.
Examples
A “traditional” example:
>>> a = np.arange(60.).reshape(3,4,5)
>>> b = np.arange(24.).reshape(4,3,2)
>>> c = np.tensordot(a,b, axes=([1,0],[0,1]))
>>> c.shape
(5, 2)
>>> c
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> # A slower but equivalent way of computing the same...
>>> d = np.zeros((5,2))
>>> for i in range(5):
... for j in range(2):
... for k in range(3):
... for n in range(4):
... d[i,j] += a[k,n,i] * b[n,k,j]
>>> c == d
array([[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True],
[ True, True]])
An extended example taking advantage of the overloading of + and *:
>>> a = np.array(range(1, 9))

>>> a.shape = (2, 2, 2)
>>> A = np.array(('a', 'b', 'c', 'd'), dtype=object)
>>> A.shape = (2, 2)
>>> a; A
array([[[1, 2],
[3, 4]],
[[5, 6],
[7, 8]]])
array([[a, b],
[c, d]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A) # third argument default is 2 for double-contraction

array([abbcccdddd, aaaaabbbbbbcccccccdddddddd], dtype=object)

>>> np.tensordot(a, A, 1)
array([[[acc, bdd],
[aaacccc, bbbdddd]],
[[aaaaacccccc, bbbbbdddddd],
[aaaaaaacccccccc, bbbbbbbdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, 0) # tensor product (result too long to incl.)

array([[[[[a, b],
[c, d]],
...
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, (0, 1))

array([[[abbbbb, cddddd],
[aabbbbbb, ccdddddd]],
[[aaabbbbbbb, cccddddddd],
[aaaabbbbbbbb, ccccdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, (2, 1))

array([[[abb, cdd],
[aaabbbb, cccdddd]],
[[aaaaabbbbbb, cccccdddddd],
[aaaaaaabbbbbbbb, cccccccdddddddd]]], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, ((0, 1), (0, 1)))

array([abbbcccccddddddd, aabbbbccccccdddddddd], dtype=object)
>>> np.tensordot(a, A, ((2, 1), (1, 0)))

array([acccbbdddd, aaaaacccccccbbbbbbdddddddd], dtype=object)
numpy.einsum(subscripts, *operands, out=None, dtype=None, order=’K’, casting=’safe’, opti-

mize=False)
Evaluates the Einstein summation convention on the operands.
Using the Einstein summation convention, many common multi-dimensional array operations can be represented
in a simple fashion. This function provides a way to compute such summations. The best way to understand this
function is to try the examples below, which show how many common NumPy functions can be implemented
as calls to einsum.
Parameters subscripts : str
Specifies the subscripts for summation.
operands : list of array_like
These are the arrays for the operation.
out : {ndarray, None}, optional
If provided, the calculation is done into this array.
dtype : {data-type, None}, optional
If provided, forces the calculation to use the data type specified. Note that you may
have to also give a more liberal casting parameter to allow the conversions. Default is
None.
Controls the memory layout of the output. ‘C’ means it should be C contiguous. ‘F’
means it should be Fortran contiguous, ‘A’ means it should be ‘F’ if the inputs are all

‘F’, ‘C’ otherwise. ‘K’ means it should be as close to the layout as the inputs as is
possible, including arbitrarily permuted axes. Default is ‘K’.
Controls what kind of data casting may occur. Setting this to ‘unsafe’ is not recom-
mended, as it can adversely affect accumulations.
allowed.
Default is ‘safe’.
optimize : {False, True, ‘greedy’, ‘optimal’}, optional
Controls if intermediate optimization should occur. No optimization will occur if False
and True will default to the ‘greedy’ algorithm. Also accepts an explicit contraction
list from the np.einsum_path function. See np.einsum_path for more details.
Default is False.
The calculation based on the Einstein summation convention.
See also:
einsum_path, dot, inner, outer, tensordot, linalg.multi_dot
Notes

The subscripts string is a comma-separated list of subscript labels, where each label refers to a dimension of
the corresponding operand. Repeated subscripts labels in one operand take the diagonal. For example, np.
einsum('ii', a) is equivalent to np.trace(a).
Whenever a label is repeated, it is summed, so np.einsum('i,i', a, b) is equivalent to np.inner(a,
b). If a label appears only once, it is not summed, so np.einsum('i', a) produces a view of a with no
changes.
The order of labels in the output is by default alphabetical. This means that np.einsum('ij', a) doesn’t
affect a 2D array, while np.einsum('ji', a) takes its transpose.
The output can be controlled by specifying output subscript labels as well. This specifies the label order,
and allows summing to be disallowed or forced when desired. The call np.einsum('i->', a) is like
np.sum(a, axis=-1), and np.einsum('ii->i', a) is like np.diag(a). The difference is that
einsum does not allow broadcasting by default.
To enable and control broadcasting, use an ellipsis. Default NumPy-style broadcasting is done by adding an
ellipsis to the left of each term, like np.einsum('...ii->...i', a). To take the trace along the first
and last axes, you can do np.einsum('i...i', a), or to do a matrix-matrix product with the left-most
indices instead of rightmost, you can do np.einsum('ij...,jk...->ik...', a, b).

When there is only one operand, no axes are summed, and no output parameter is provided, a view into the
operand is returned instead of a new array. Thus, taking the diagonal as np.einsum('ii->i', a) produces
a view.
An alternative way to provide the subscripts and operands is as einsum(op0, sublist0, op1,
sublist1, ..., [sublistout]). The examples below have corresponding einsum calls with the
two parameter methods.
Views returned from einsum are now writeable whenever the input array is writeable. For example, np.
einsum('ijk...->kji...', a) will now have the same effect as np.swapaxes(a, 0, 2) and
np.einsum('ii->i', a) will return a writeable view of the diagonal of a 2D array.
Added the optimize argument which will optimize the contraction order of an einsum expression. For a
contraction with three or more operands this can greatly increase the computational efficiency at the cost of a
larger memory footprint during computation.
See np.einsum_path for more details.
Examples
>>> c = np.arange(6).reshape(2,3)
>>> np.einsum('ii', a)
60
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,0])
60
>>> np.trace(a)
60
>>> np.einsum('ii->i', a)
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,0], [0])
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.diag(a)
array([ 0, 6, 12, 18, 24])
>>> np.einsum('ij,j', a, b)
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,1], b, [1])
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.dot(a, b)
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.einsum('...j,j', a, b)
array([ 30, 80, 130, 180, 230])
>>> np.einsum('ji', c)
array([[0, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> np.einsum(c, [1,0])
array([[0, 3],

[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> c.T
array([[0, 3],
[1, 4],
[2, 5]])
>>> np.einsum('..., ...', 3, c)

array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.einsum(',ij', 3, C)
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.einsum(3, [Ellipsis], c, [Ellipsis])
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.multiply(3, c)
array([[ 0, 3, 6],
[ 9, 12, 15]])
>>> np.einsum('i,i', b, b)
30
>>> np.einsum(b, [0], b, [0])
30
>>> np.inner(b,b)
30
>>> np.einsum('i,j', np.arange(2)+1, b)

array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.einsum(np.arange(2)+1, [0], b, [1])
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.outer(np.arange(2)+1, b)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 4],
[0, 2, 4, 6, 8]])
>>> np.einsum('i...->...', a)
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,Ellipsis], [Ellipsis])
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> np.sum(a, axis=0)
array([50, 55, 60, 65, 70])
>>> a = np.arange(60.).reshape(3,4,5)
>>> b = np.arange(24.).reshape(4,3,2)
>>> np.einsum('ijk,jil->kl', a, b)
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> np.einsum(a, [0,1,2], b, [1,0,3], [2,3])
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],

[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> np.tensordot(a,b, axes=([1,0],[0,1]))
array([[ 4400., 4730.],
[ 4532., 4874.],
[ 4664., 5018.],
[ 4796., 5162.],
[ 4928., 5306.]])
>>> b = np.arange(12).reshape((4,3))
>>> np.einsum('ki,jk->ij', a, b)
array([[10, 28, 46, 64],
[13, 40, 67, 94]])
>>> np.einsum('ki,...k->i...', a, b)
array([[10, 28, 46, 64],
[13, 40, 67, 94]])
>>> np.einsum('k...,jk', a, b)
array([[10, 28, 46, 64],
[13, 40, 67, 94]])
>>> # since version 1.10.0

>>> a = np.zeros((3, 3))
>>> np.einsum('ii->i', a)[:] = 1
>>> a
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
numpy.einsum_path(subscripts, *operands, optimize=’greedy’)

Evaluates the lowest cost contraction order for an einsum expression by considering the creation of intermediate
arrays.
Parameters subscripts : str
Specifies the subscripts for summation.
*operands : list of array_like
These are the arrays for the operation.
optimize : {bool, list, tuple, ‘greedy’, ‘optimal’}
Choose the type of path. If a tuple is provided, the second argument is assumed to be the
maximum intermediate size created. If only a single argument is provided the largest
input or output array size is used as a maximum intermediate size.
• if a list is given that starts with einsum_path, uses this as the contraction path
• if False no optimization is taken
• if True defaults to the ‘greedy’ algorithm
• ‘optimal’ An algorithm that combinatorially explores all possible ways of contracting
the listed tensors and choosest the least costly path. Scales exponentially with the
number of terms in the contraction.
• ‘greedy’ An algorithm that chooses the best pair contraction at each step. Effectively,
this algorithm searches the largest inner, Hadamard, and then outer products at each
step. Scales cubically with the number of terms in the contraction. Equivalent to the
‘optimal’ path for most contractions.

Default is ‘greedy’.
Returns path : list of tuples
A list representation of the einsum path.
string_repr : str
A printable representation of the einsum path.
See also:
einsum, linalg.multi_dot
Notes
The resulting path indicates which terms of the input contraction should be contracted first, the result of this
contraction is then appended to the end of the contraction list. This list can then be iterated over until all
intermediate contractions are complete.
Examples
We can begin with a chain dot example. In this case, it is optimal to contract the b and c tensors first as
reprsented by the first element of the path (1, 2). The resulting tensor is added to the end of the contraction
and the remaining contraction (0, 1) is then completed.
>>> a = np.random.rand(2, 2)
>>> b = np.random.rand(2, 5)
>>> c = np.random.rand(5, 2)
>>> path_info = np.einsum_path('ij,jk,kl->il', a, b, c, optimize='greedy')
>>> print(path_info[0])
['einsum_path', (1, 2), (0, 1)]
Complete contraction: ij,jk,kl->il
Naive scaling: 4
Optimized scaling: 3
Naive FLOP count: 1.600e+02
Optimized FLOP count: 5.600e+01
Theoretical speedup: 2.857
Largest intermediate: 4.000e+00 elements
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
scaling current remaining
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 kl,jk->jl ij,jl->il
3 jl,ij->il il->il
A more complex index transformation example.
>>> I = np.random.rand(10, 10, 10, 10)

>>> C = np.random.rand(10, 10)
>>> path_info = np.einsum_path('ea,fb,abcd,gc,hd->efgh', C, C, I, C, C,
optimize='greedy')
['einsum_path', (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 2), (0, 1)]
Complete contraction: ea,fb,abcd,gc,hd->efgh

Naive scaling: 8
Optimized scaling: 5
Naive FLOP count: 8.000e+08
Optimized FLOP count: 8.000e+05
Theoretical speedup: 1000.000
Largest intermediate: 1.000e+04 elements
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
scaling current remaining
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 abcd,ea->bcde fb,gc,hd,bcde->efgh
5 bcde,fb->cdef gc,hd,cdef->efgh
5 cdef,gc->defg hd,defg->efgh
5 defg,hd->efgh efgh->efgh
numpy.linalg.matrix_power(M, n)
Raise a square matrix to the (integer) power n.
For positive integers n, the power is computed by repeated matrix squarings and matrix multiplications. If n ==
0, the identity matrix of the same shape as M is returned. If n < 0, the inverse is computed and then raised to
the abs(n).
Parameters M : ndarray or matrix object
Matrix to be “powered.” Must be square, i.e. M.shape == (m, m), with m a posi-
tive integer.
n : int
The exponent can be any integer or long integer, positive, negative, or zero.
Returns M**n : ndarray or matrix object
The return value is the same shape and type as M; if the exponent is positive or zero
then the type of the elements is the same as those of M. If the exponent is negative the
elements are floating-point.
Raises LinAlgError
If the matrix is not numerically invertible.
See also:
matrix Provides an equivalent function as the exponentiation operator (**, not ^).
Examples
>>> from numpy import linalg as LA

>>> i = np.array([[0, 1], [-1, 0]]) # matrix equiv. of the imaginary unit
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, 3) # should = -i
array([[ 0, -1],
[ 1, 0]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(np.matrix(i), 3) # matrix arg returns matrix
matrix([[ 0, -1],
[ 1, 0]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, 0)
array([[1, 0],
[0, 1]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(i, -3) # should = 1/(-i) = i, but w/ f.p. elements

array([[ 0., 1.],

[-1., 0.]])
Somewhat more sophisticated example
>>> q = np.zeros((4, 4))

>>> q[0:2, 0:2] = -i
>>> q[2:4, 2:4] = i
>>> q # one of the three quaternion units not equal to 1
array([[ 0., -1., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., -1., 0.]])
>>> LA.matrix_power(q, 2) # = -np.eye(4)
array([[-1., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., -1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., -1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., -1.]])
numpy.kron(a, b)
Kronecker product of two arrays.
Computes the Kronecker product, a composite array made of blocks of the second array scaled by the first.
See also:
outer The outer product
Notes
The function assumes that the number of dimensions of a and b are the same, if necessary prepending the
smallest with ones. If a.shape = (r0,r1,..,rN) and b.shape = (s0,s1,. . . ,sN), the Kronecker product has shape
(r0*s0, r1*s1, . . . , rN*SN). The elements are products of elements from a and b, organized explicitly by:
kron(a,b)[k0,k1,...,kN] = a[i0,i1,...,iN] * b[j0,j1,...,jN]
where:
kt = it * st + jt, t = 0,...,N
In the common 2-D case (N=1), the block structure can be visualized:
[[ a[0,0]*b, a[0,1]*b, ... , a[0,-1]*b ],

[ ... ... ],
[ a[-1,0]*b, a[-1,1]*b, ... , a[-1,-1]*b ]]
Examples
>>> np.kron([1,10,100], [5,6,7])

array([ 5, 6, 7, 50, 60, 70, 500, 600, 700])

>>> np.kron([5,6,7], [1,10,100])

array([ 5, 50, 500, 6, 60, 600, 7, 70, 700])
>>> np.kron(np.eye(2), np.ones((2,2)))

array([[ 1., 1., 0., 0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 1., 1.]])
>>> a = np.arange(100).reshape((2,5,2,5))
>>> b = np.arange(24).reshape((2,3,4))
>>> c = np.kron(a,b)
>>> c.shape
(2, 10, 6, 20)
>>> I = (1,3,0,2)
>>> J = (0,2,1)
>>> J1 = (0,) + J # extend to ndim=4
>>> S1 = (1,) + b.shape
>>> K = tuple(np.array(I) * np.array(S1) + np.array(J1))
>>> c[K] == a[I]*b[J]
True
3.17.2 Decompositions
linalg.cholesky(a) Cholesky decomposition.

linalg.qr(a[, mode]) Compute the qr factorization of a matrix.
linalg.svd(a[, full_matrices, compute_uv]) Singular Value Decomposition.
numpy.linalg.cholesky(a)
Cholesky decomposition.
Return the Cholesky decomposition, L * L.H, of the square matrix a, where L is lower-triangular and .H is
the conjugate transpose operator (which is the ordinary transpose if a is real-valued). a must be Hermitian
(symmetric if real-valued) and positive-definite. Only L is actually returned.
Parameters a : (. . . , M, M) array_like
Hermitian (symmetric if all elements are real), positive-definite input matrix.
Returns L : (. . . , M, M) array_like
Upper or lower-triangular Cholesky factor of a. Returns a matrix object if a is a matrix
object.
Raises LinAlgError
If the decomposition fails, for example, if a is not positive-definite.
Notes

Broadcasting rules apply, see the numpy.linalg documentation for details.

The Cholesky decomposition is often used as a fast way of solving
𝐴x = b
(when A is both Hermitian/symmetric and positive-definite).

First, we solve for y in
𝐿y = b,
and then for x in
𝐿.𝐻x = y.
Examples
>>> A = np.array([[1,-2j],[2j,5]])
>>> A
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> L = np.linalg.cholesky(A)
>>> L
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
>>> np.dot(L, L.T.conj()) # verify that L * L.H = A
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> A = [[1,-2j],[2j,5]] # what happens if A is only array_like?
>>> np.linalg.cholesky(A) # an ndarray object is returned
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
>>> # But a matrix object is returned if A is a matrix object
>>> LA.cholesky(np.matrix(A))
matrix([[ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 1.+0.j]])
numpy.linalg.qr(a, mode=’reduced’)
Compute the qr factorization of a matrix.
Factor the matrix a as qr, where q is orthonormal and r is upper-triangular.
Parameters a : array_like, shape (M, N)
Matrix to be factored.
mode : {‘reduced’, ‘complete’, ‘r’, ‘raw’, ‘full’, ‘economic’}, optional
If K = min(M, N), then
• ‘reduced’ : returns q, r with dimensions (M, K), (K, N) (default)
• ‘complete’ : returns q, r with dimensions (M, M), (M, N)
• ‘r’ : returns r only with dimensions (K, N)
• ‘raw’ : returns h, tau with dimensions (N, M), (K,)
• ‘full’ : alias of ‘reduced’, deprecated
• ‘economic’ : returns h from ‘raw’, deprecated.

The options ‘reduced’, ‘complete, and ‘raw’ are new in numpy 1.8, see the notes for
more information. The default is ‘reduced’, and to maintain backward compatibility
with earlier versions of numpy both it and the old default ‘full’ can be omitted. Note
that array h returned in ‘raw’ mode is transposed for calling Fortran. The ‘economic’
mode is deprecated. The modes ‘full’ and ‘economic’ may be passed using only the
first letter for backwards compatibility, but all others must be spelled out. See the Notes
for more explanation.
Returns q : ndarray of float or complex, optional
A matrix with orthonormal columns. When mode = ‘complete’ the result is an orthogo-
nal/unitary matrix depending on whether or not a is real/complex. The determinant may
be either +/- 1 in that case.
r : ndarray of float or complex, optional
The upper-triangular matrix.
(h, tau) : ndarrays of np.double or np.cdouble, optional
The array h contains the Householder reflectors that generate q along with r. The tau
array contains scaling factors for the reflectors. In the deprecated ‘economic’ mode only
h is returned.
Raises LinAlgError
If factoring fails.
Notes
This is an interface to the LAPACK routines dgeqrf, zgeqrf, dorgqr, and zungqr.
For more information on the qr factorization, see for example: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_factorization
Subclasses of ndarray are preserved except for the ‘raw’ mode. So if a is of type matrix, all the return values
will be matrices too.
New ‘reduced’, ‘complete’, and ‘raw’ options for mode were added in NumPy 1.8.0 and the old option ‘full’
was made an alias of ‘reduced’. In addition the options ‘full’ and ‘economic’ were deprecated. Because ‘full’
was the previous default and ‘reduced’ is the new default, backward compatibility can be maintained by letting
mode default. The ‘raw’ option was added so that LAPACK routines that can multiply arrays by q using the
Householder reflectors can be used. Note that in this case the returned arrays are of type np.double or np.cdouble
and the h array is transposed to be FORTRAN compatible. No routines using the ‘raw’ return are currently
exposed by numpy, but some are available in lapack_lite and just await the necessary work.
Examples
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6)
>>> q, r = np.linalg.qr(a)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(q, r)) # a does equal qr
True
>>> r2 = np.linalg.qr(a, mode='r')
>>> r3 = np.linalg.qr(a, mode='economic')
>>> np.allclose(r, r2) # mode='r' returns the same r as mode='full'
True
>>> # But only triu parts are guaranteed equal when mode='economic'
>>> np.allclose(r, np.triu(r3[:6,:6], k=0))
True

Example illustrating a common use of qr: solving of least squares problems

What are the least-squares-best m and y0 in y = y0 + mx for the following data: {(0,1), (1,0), (1,2), (2,1)}.
(Graph the points and you’ll see that it should be y0 = 0, m = 1.) The answer is provided by solving the
over-determined matrix equation Ax = b, where:
A = array([[0, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [2, 1]])

x = array([[y0], [m]])
b = array([[1], [0], [2], [1]])
If A = qr such that q is orthonormal (which is always possible via Gram-Schmidt), then x = inv(r) *
(q.T) * b. (In numpy practice, however, we simply use lstsq.)
>>> A = np.array([[0, 1], [1, 1], [1, 1], [2, 1]])

>>> A
array([[0, 1],
[1, 1],
[1, 1],
[2, 1]])
>>> b = np.array([1, 0, 2, 1])
>>> q, r = LA.qr(A)
>>> p = np.dot(q.T, b)
>>> np.dot(LA.inv(r), p)
array([ 1.1e-16, 1.0e+00])
numpy.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=True, compute_uv=True)

Singular Value Decomposition.
When a is a 2D array, it is factorized as u @ np.diag(s) @ vh = (u * s) @ vh, where u and vh are
2D unitary arrays and s is a 1D array of a’s singular values. When a is higher-dimensional, SVD is applied in
stacked mode as explained below.
Parameters a : (. . . , M, N) array_like
A real or complex array with a.ndim >= 2.
full_matrices : bool, optional
If True (default), u and vh have the shapes (..., M, M) and (..., N, N), re-
spectively. Otherwise, the shapes are (..., M, K) and (..., K, N), respec-
tively, where K = min(M, N).
compute_uv : bool, optional
Whether or not to compute u and vh in addition to s. True by default.
Returns u : { (. . . , M, M), (. . . , M, K) } array
Unitary array(s). The first a.ndim - 2 dimensions have the same size as those of
the input a. The size of the last two dimensions depends on the value of full_matrices.
Only returned when compute_uv is True.
s : (. . . , K) array
Vector(s) with the singular values, within each vector sorted in descending order. The
first a.ndim - 2 dimensions have the same size as those of the input a.
vh : { (. . . , N, N), (. . . , K, N) } array
Unitary array(s). The first a.ndim - 2 dimensions have the same size as those of
the input a. The size of the last two dimensions depends on the value of full_matrices.
Only returned when compute_uv is True.

Raises LinAlgError
If SVD computation does not converge.
Notes
Changed in version 1.8.0: Broadcasting rules apply, see the numpy.linalg documentation for details.
The decomposition is performed using LAPACK routine _gesdd.
SVD is usually described for the factorization of a 2D matrix 𝐴. The higher-dimensional case will be discussed
below. In the 2D case, SVD is written as 𝐴 = 𝑈 𝑆𝑉 𝐻 , where 𝐴 = 𝑎, 𝑈 = 𝑢, 𝑆 = np.diag(𝑠) and 𝑉 𝐻 = 𝑣ℎ.
The 1D array s contains the singular values of a and u and vh are unitary. The rows of vh are the eigenvectors of
𝐴𝐻 𝐴 and the columns of u are the eigenvectors of 𝐴𝐴𝐻 . In both cases the corresponding (possibly non-zero)
eigenvalues are given by s**2.
If a has more than two dimensions, then broadcasting rules apply, as explained in Linear algebra on several
matrices at once. This means that SVD is working in “stacked” mode: it iterates over all indices of the first
a.ndim - 2 dimensions and for each combination SVD is applied to the last two indices. The matrix a can be
reconstructed from the decomposition with either (u * s[..., None, :]) @ vh or u @ (s[...,
None] * vh). (The @ operator can be replaced by the function np.matmul for python versions below 3.5.)
If a is a matrix object (as opposed to an ndarray), then so are all the return values.
Examples
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6) + 1j*np.random.randn(9, 6)

>>> b = np.random.randn(2, 7, 8, 3) + 1j*np.random.randn(2, 7, 8, 3)
Reconstruction based on full SVD, 2D case:
>>> u, s, vh = np.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=True)

>>> u.shape, s.shape, vh.shape
((9, 9), (6,), (6, 6))
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(u[:, :6] * s, vh))
True
>>> smat = np.zeros((9, 6), dtype=complex)
>>> smat[:6, :6] = np.diag(s)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(u, np.dot(smat, vh)))
True
Reconstruction based on reduced SVD, 2D case:
>>> u, s, vh = np.linalg.svd(a, full_matrices=False)

((9, 6), (6,), (6, 6))
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(u * s, vh))
True
>>> smat = np.diag(s)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(u, np.dot(smat, vh)))
True
Reconstruction based on full SVD, 4D case:
>>> u, s, vh = np.linalg.svd(b, full_matrices=True)


((2, 7, 8, 8), (2, 7, 3), (2, 7, 3, 3))

>>> np.allclose(b, np.matmul(u[..., :3] * s[..., None, :], vh))
True
>>> np.allclose(b, np.matmul(u[..., :3], s[..., None] * vh))
True
Reconstruction based on reduced SVD, 4D case:
>>> u, s, vh = np.linalg.svd(b, full_matrices=False)

((2, 7, 8, 3), (2, 7, 3), (2, 7, 3, 3))
>>> np.allclose(b, np.matmul(u * s[..., None, :], vh))
True
>>> np.allclose(b, np.matmul(u, s[..., None] * vh))
True
3.17.3 Matrix eigenvalues
linalg.eig(a) Compute the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of a square

array.
linalg.eigh(a[, UPLO]) Return the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian or
symmetric matrix.
linalg.eigvals(a) Compute the eigenvalues of a general matrix.
linalg.eigvalsh(a[, UPLO]) Compute the eigenvalues of a Hermitian or real symmetric
matrix.
numpy.linalg.eig(a)
Compute the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of a square array.
Parameters a : (. . . , M, M) array
Matrices for which the eigenvalues and right eigenvectors will be computed
Returns w : (. . . , M) array
The eigenvalues, each repeated according to its multiplicity. The eigenvalues are not
necessarily ordered. The resulting array will be of complex type, unless the imaginary
part is zero in which case it will be cast to a real type. When a is real the resulting
eigenvalues will be real (0 imaginary part) or occur in conjugate pairs
v : (. . . , M, M) array
The normalized (unit “length”) eigenvectors, such that the column v[:,i] is the eigen-
vector corresponding to the eigenvalue w[i].
Raises LinAlgError
If the eigenvalue computation does not converge.
See also:
eigvals eigenvalues of a non-symmetric array.

eigh eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a symmetric or Hermitian (conjugate symmetric) array.
eigvalsh eigenvalues of a symmetric or Hermitian (conjugate symmetric) array.

Notes

This is implemented using the _geev LAPACK routines which compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
general square arrays.
The number w is an eigenvalue of a if there exists a vector v such that dot(a,v) = w * v. Thus, the arrays
a, w, and v satisfy the equations dot(a[:,:], v[:,i]) = w[i] * v[:,i] for 𝑖 ∈ {0, ..., 𝑀 − 1}.
The array v of eigenvectors may not be of maximum rank, that is, some of the columns may be linearly depen-
dent, although round-off error may obscure that fact. If the eigenvalues are all different, then theoretically the
eigenvectors are linearly independent. Likewise, the (complex-valued) matrix of eigenvectors v is unitary if the
matrix a is normal, i.e., if dot(a, a.H) = dot(a.H, a), where a.H denotes the conjugate transpose of
a.
Finally, it is emphasized that v consists of the right (as in right-hand side) eigenvectors of a. A vector y satisfying
dot(y.T, a) = z * y.T for some number z is called a left eigenvector of a, and, in general, the left and
right eigenvectors of a matrix are not necessarily the (perhaps conjugate) transposes of each other.
References
G. Strang, Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 2nd Ed., Orlando, FL, Academic Press, Inc., 1980, Various pp.
Examples
(Almost) trivial example with real e-values and e-vectors.
>>> w, v = LA.eig(np.diag((1, 2, 3)))

>>> w; v
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
array([[ 1., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.]])
Real matrix possessing complex e-values and e-vectors; note that the e-values are complex conjugates of each
other.
>>> w, v = LA.eig(np.array([[1, -1], [1, 1]]))

>>> w; v
array([ 1. + 1.j, 1. - 1.j])
array([[ 0.70710678+0.j , 0.70710678+0.j ],
[ 0.00000000-0.70710678j, 0.00000000+0.70710678j]])
Complex-valued matrix with real e-values (but complex-valued e-vectors); note that a.conj().T = a, i.e., a is
Hermitian.
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1j], [-1j, 1]])

>>> w, v = LA.eig(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 2.00000000e+00+0.j, 5.98651912e-36+0.j]) # i.e., {2, 0}

array([[ 0.00000000+0.70710678j, 0.70710678+0.j ],

[ 0.70710678+0.j , 0.00000000+0.70710678j]])
Be careful about round-off error!
>>> a = np.array([[1 + 1e-9, 0], [0, 1 - 1e-9]])

>>> # Theor. e-values are 1 +/- 1e-9
>>> w, v = LA.eig(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 1., 1.])
array([[ 1., 0.],
[ 0., 1.]])
numpy.linalg.eigh(a, UPLO=’L’)
Return the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Hermitian or symmetric matrix.
Returns two objects, a 1-D array containing the eigenvalues of a, and a 2-D square array or matrix (depending
on the input type) of the corresponding eigenvectors (in columns).
Parameters a : (. . . , M, M) array
Hermitian/Symmetric matrices whose eigenvalues and eigenvectors are to be computed.
UPLO : {‘L’, ‘U’}, optional
Specifies whether the calculation is done with the lower triangular part of a (‘L’, default)
or the upper triangular part (‘U’). Irrespective of this value only the real parts of the
diagonal will be considered in the computation to preserve the notion of a Hermitian
matrix. It therefore follows that the imaginary part of the diagonal will always be treated
as zero.
Returns w : (. . . , M) ndarray
The eigenvalues in ascending order, each repeated according to its multiplicity.
v : {(. . . , M, M) ndarray, (. . . , M, M) matrix}
The column v[:, i] is the normalized eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue
w[i]. Will return a matrix object if a is a matrix object.
Raises LinAlgError
See also:
eigvalsh eigenvalues of symmetric or Hermitian arrays.

eig eigenvalues and right eigenvectors for non-symmetric arrays.
eigvals eigenvalues of non-symmetric arrays.
Notes

The eigenvalues/eigenvectors are computed using LAPACK routines _syevd, _heevd

The eigenvalues of real symmetric or complex Hermitian matrices are always real. [R7575] The array v of
(column) eigenvectors is unitary and a, w, and v satisfy the equations dot(a, v[:, i]) = w[i] *
v[:, i].
References
[R7575]
Examples

>>> a = np.array([[1, -2j], [2j, 5]])
>>> a
array([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> w, v = LA.eigh(a)
>>> w; v
array([ 0.17157288, 5.82842712])
array([[-0.92387953+0.j , -0.38268343+0.j ],
[ 0.00000000+0.38268343j, 0.00000000-0.92387953j]])
>>> np.dot(a, v[:, 0]) - w[0] * v[:, 0] # verify 1st e-val/vec pair
array([2.77555756e-17 + 0.j, 0. + 1.38777878e-16j])
>>> np.dot(a, v[:, 1]) - w[1] * v[:, 1] # verify 2nd e-val/vec pair
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
>>> A = np.matrix(a) # what happens if input is a matrix object

>>> A
matrix([[ 1.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 5.+0.j]])
>>> w, v = LA.eigh(A)
>>> w; v
array([ 0.17157288, 5.82842712])
matrix([[-0.92387953+0.j , -0.38268343+0.j ],
[ 0.00000000+0.38268343j, 0.00000000-0.92387953j]])
>>> # demonstrate the treatment of the imaginary part of the diagonal

>>> a = np.array([[5+2j, 9-2j], [0+2j, 2-1j]])
>>> a
array([[ 5.+2.j, 9.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 2.-1.j]])
>>> # with UPLO='L' this is numerically equivalent to using LA.eig() with:
>>> b = np.array([[5.+0.j, 0.-2.j], [0.+2.j, 2.-0.j]])
>>> b
array([[ 5.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 2.+0.j]])
>>> wa, va = LA.eigh(a)
>>> wb, vb = LA.eig(b)
>>> wa; wb
array([ 1., 6.])
array([ 6.+0.j, 1.+0.j])
>>> va; vb
array([[-0.44721360-0.j , -0.89442719+0.j ],
[ 0.00000000+0.89442719j, 0.00000000-0.4472136j ]])

array([[ 0.89442719+0.j , 0.00000000-0.4472136j],

[ 0.00000000-0.4472136j, 0.89442719+0.j ]])
numpy.linalg.eigvals(a)
Compute the eigenvalues of a general matrix.
Main difference between eigvals and eig: the eigenvectors aren’t returned.
A complex- or real-valued matrix whose eigenvalues will be computed.
Returns w : (. . . , M,) ndarray
The eigenvalues, each repeated according to its multiplicity. They are not necessarily
ordered, nor are they necessarily real for real matrices.
Raises LinAlgError
See also:
eig eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of general arrays

eigvalsh eigenvalues of symmetric or Hermitian arrays.
eigh eigenvalues and eigenvectors of symmetric/Hermitian arrays.
Notes

This is implemented using the _geev LAPACK routines which compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
general square arrays.
Examples
Illustration, using the fact that the eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal elements, that multiplying
a matrix on the left by an orthogonal matrix, Q, and on the right by Q.T (the transpose of Q), preserves the
eigenvalues of the “middle” matrix. In other words, if Q is orthogonal, then Q * A * Q.T has the same
eigenvalues as A:

>>> x = np.random.random()
>>> Q = np.array([[np.cos(x), -np.sin(x)], [np.sin(x), np.cos(x)]])
>>> LA.norm(Q[0, :]), LA.norm(Q[1, :]), np.dot(Q[0, :],Q[1, :])
(1.0, 1.0, 0.0)
Now multiply a diagonal matrix by Q on one side and by Q.T on the other:
>>> D = np.diag((-1,1))
>>> LA.eigvals(D)
array([-1., 1.])
>>> A = np.dot(Q, D)
>>> A = np.dot(A, Q.T)

>>> LA.eigvals(A)
array([ 1., -1.])
numpy.linalg.eigvalsh(a, UPLO=’L’)
Compute the eigenvalues of a Hermitian or real symmetric matrix.
Main difference from eigh: the eigenvectors are not computed.
A complex- or real-valued matrix whose eigenvalues are to be computed.
UPLO : {‘L’, ‘U’}, optional
Specifies whether the calculation is done with the lower triangular part of a (‘L’, default)
or the upper triangular part (‘U’). Irrespective of this value only the real parts of the
diagonal will be considered in the computation to preserve the notion of a Hermitian
matrix. It therefore follows that the imaginary part of the diagonal will always be treated
as zero.
Returns w : (. . . , M,) ndarray
The eigenvalues in ascending order, each repeated according to its multiplicity.
Raises LinAlgError
See also:
eigh eigenvalues and eigenvectors of symmetric/Hermitian arrays.

eigvals eigenvalues of general real or complex arrays.
eig eigenvalues and right eigenvectors of general real or complex arrays.
Notes

The eigenvalues are computed using LAPACK routines _syevd, _heevd
Examples

>>> a = np.array([[1, -2j], [2j, 5]])
>>> LA.eigvalsh(a)
array([ 0.17157288, 5.82842712])
>>> # demonstrate the treatment of the imaginary part of the diagonal

>>> a = np.array([[5+2j, 9-2j], [0+2j, 2-1j]])
>>> a
array([[ 5.+2.j, 9.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 2.-1.j]])
>>> # with UPLO='L' this is numerically equivalent to using LA.eigvals()
>>> # with:
>>> b = np.array([[5.+0.j, 0.-2.j], [0.+2.j, 2.-0.j]])

>>> b
array([[ 5.+0.j, 0.-2.j],
[ 0.+2.j, 2.+0.j]])
>>> wa = LA.eigvalsh(a)
>>> wb = LA.eigvals(b)
>>> wa; wb
array([ 1., 6.])
array([ 6.+0.j, 1.+0.j])
3.17.4 Norms and other numbers
linalg.norm(x[, ord, axis, keepdims]) Matrix or vector norm.

linalg.cond(x[, p]) Compute the condition number of a matrix.
linalg.det(a) Compute the determinant of an array.
linalg.matrix_rank(M[, tol, hermitian]) Return matrix rank of array using SVD method
linalg.slogdet(a) Compute the sign and (natural) logarithm of the determi-
nant of an array.
trace(a[, offset, axis1, axis2, dtype, out]) Return the sum along diagonals of the array.
numpy.linalg.norm(x, ord=None, axis=None, keepdims=False)

Matrix or vector norm.
This function is able to return one of eight different matrix norms, or one of an infinite number of vector norms
(described below), depending on the value of the ord parameter.
Input array. If axis is None, x must be 1-D or 2-D.
ord : {non-zero int, inf, -inf, ‘fro’, ‘nuc’}, optional
Order of the norm (see table under Notes). inf means numpy’s inf object.
axis : {int, 2-tuple of ints, None}, optional
If axis is an integer, it specifies the axis of x along which to compute the vector norms.
If axis is a 2-tuple, it specifies the axes that hold 2-D matrices, and the matrix norms of
these matrices are computed. If axis is None then either a vector norm (when x is 1-D)
or a matrix norm (when x is 2-D) is returned.
If this is set to True, the axes which are normed over are left in the result as dimensions
with size one. With this option the result will broadcast correctly against the original x.
Returns n : float or ndarray
Norm of the matrix or vector(s).
Notes
For values of ord <= 0, the result is, strictly speaking, not a mathematical ‘norm’, but it may still be useful
for various numerical purposes.
The following norms can be calculated:

ord norm for matrices norm for vectors

None Frobenius norm 2-norm
‘fro’ Frobenius norm –
‘nuc’ nuclear norm –
inf max(sum(abs(x), axis=1)) max(abs(x))
-inf min(sum(abs(x), axis=1)) min(abs(x))
0 – sum(x != 0)
1 max(sum(abs(x), axis=0)) as below
-1 min(sum(abs(x), axis=0)) as below
2 2-norm (largest sing. value) as below
-2 smallest singular value as below
other – sum(abs(x)**ord)**(1./ord)
The Frobenius norm is given by [R8585]:

||𝐴||𝐹 = [ 𝑖,𝑗 𝑎𝑏𝑠(𝑎𝑖,𝑗 )2 ]1/2
∑︀
The nuclear norm is the sum of the singular values.
References
[R8585]
Examples

>>> a = np.arange(9) - 4
>>> a
array([-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> b = a.reshape((3, 3))
>>> b
array([[-4, -3, -2],
[-1, 0, 1],
[ 2, 3, 4]])
>>> LA.norm(a)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(b)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(b, 'fro')
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(a, np.inf)
4.0
>>> LA.norm(b, np.inf)
9.0
>>> LA.norm(a, -np.inf)
0.0
>>> LA.norm(b, -np.inf)
2.0
>>> LA.norm(a, 1)
20.0
>>> LA.norm(b, 1)

7.0
>>> LA.norm(a, -1)
-4.6566128774142013e-010
>>> LA.norm(b, -1)
6.0
>>> LA.norm(a, 2)
7.745966692414834
>>> LA.norm(b, 2)
7.3484692283495345
>>> LA.norm(a, -2)

nan
>>> LA.norm(b, -2)
1.8570331885190563e-016
>>> LA.norm(a, 3)
5.8480354764257312
>>> LA.norm(a, -3)
nan
Using the axis argument to compute vector norms:
>>> c = np.array([[ 1, 2, 3],

... [-1, 1, 4]])
>>> LA.norm(c, axis=0)
array([ 1.41421356, 2.23606798, 5. ])
>>> LA.norm(c, axis=1)
array([ 3.74165739, 4.24264069])
>>> LA.norm(c, ord=1, axis=1)
array([ 6., 6.])
Using the axis argument to compute matrix norms:
>>> m = np.arange(8).reshape(2,2,2)
>>> LA.norm(m, axis=(1,2))
array([ 3.74165739, 11.22497216])
>>> LA.norm(m[0, :, :]), LA.norm(m[1, :, :])
(3.7416573867739413, 11.224972160321824)
numpy.linalg.cond(x, p=None)
Compute the condition number of a matrix.
This function is capable of returning the condition number using one of seven different norms, depending on the
value of p (see Parameters below).
Parameters x : (. . . , M, N) array_like
The matrix whose condition number is sought.
p : {None, 1, -1, 2, -2, inf, -inf, ‘fro’}, optional
Order of the norm:

p norm for matrices

None 2-norm, computed directly using the SVD
‘fro’ Frobenius norm
inf max(sum(abs(x), axis=1))
-inf min(sum(abs(x), axis=1))
1 max(sum(abs(x), axis=0))
-1 min(sum(abs(x), axis=0))
2 2-norm (largest sing. value)
-2 smallest singular value
inf means the numpy.inf object, and the Frobenius norm is the root-of-sum-of-squares
norm.
Returns c : {float, inf}
The condition number of the matrix. May be infinite.
See also:
numpy.linalg.norm
Notes
The condition number of x is defined as the norm of x times the norm of the inverse of x [R7373]; the norm can
be the usual L2-norm (root-of-sum-of-squares) or one of a number of other matrix norms.
References
[R7373]
Examples

>>> a = np.array([[1, 0, -1], [0, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1]])
>>> a
array([[ 1, 0, -1],
[ 0, 1, 0],
[ 1, 0, 1]])
>>> LA.cond(a)
1.4142135623730951
>>> LA.cond(a, 'fro')
3.1622776601683795
>>> LA.cond(a, np.inf)
2.0
>>> LA.cond(a, -np.inf)
1.0
>>> LA.cond(a, 1)
2.0
>>> LA.cond(a, -1)
1.0
>>> LA.cond(a, 2)
1.4142135623730951
>>> LA.cond(a, -2)

0.70710678118654746
>>> min(LA.svd(a, compute_uv=0))*min(LA.svd(LA.inv(a), compute_uv=0))
0.70710678118654746
numpy.linalg.det(a)
Compute the determinant of an array.
Input array to compute determinants for.
Returns det : (. . . ) array_like
Determinant of a.
See also:
slogdet Another way to representing the determinant, more suitable for large matrices where under-
flow/overflow may occur.
Notes

The determinant is computed via LU factorization using the LAPACK routine z/dgetrf.
Examples
The determinant of a 2-D array [[a, b], [c, d]] is ad - bc:
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.linalg.det(a)
-2.0
Computing determinants for a stack of matrices:
>>> a = np.array([ [[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[1, 2], [2, 1]], [[1, 3], [3, 1]] ])
>>> a.shape
(3, 2, 2)
>>> np.linalg.det(a)
array([-2., -3., -8.])
numpy.linalg.matrix_rank(M, tol=None, hermitian=False)

Return matrix rank of array using SVD method
Rank of the array is the number of singular values of the array that are greater than tol.
Changed in version 1.14: Can now operate on stacks of matrices
Parameters M : {(M,), (. . . , M, N)} array_like
input vector or stack of matrices
tol : (. . . ) array_like, float, optional

threshold below which SVD values are considered zero. If tol is None, and S is an array
with singular values for M, and eps is the epsilon value for datatype of S, then tol is
set to S.max() * max(M.shape) * eps.
Changed in version 1.14: Broadcasted against the stack of matrices
hermitian : bool, optional
If True, M is assumed to be Hermitian (symmetric if real-valued), enabling a more
efficient method for finding singular values. Defaults to False.
Notes
The default threshold to detect rank deficiency is a test on the magnitude of the singular values of M. By default,
we identify singular values less than S.max() * max(M.shape) * eps as indicating rank deficiency
(with the symbols defined above). This is the algorithm MATLAB uses [1]. It also appears in Numerical recipes
in the discussion of SVD solutions for linear least squares [2].
This default threshold is designed to detect rank deficiency accounting for the numerical errors of the SVD
computation. Imagine that there is a column in M that is an exact (in floating point) linear combination of
other columns in M. Computing the SVD on M will not produce a singular value exactly equal to 0 in general:
any difference of the smallest SVD value from 0 will be caused by numerical imprecision in the calculation of
the SVD. Our threshold for small SVD values takes this numerical imprecision into account, and the default
threshold will detect such numerical rank deficiency. The threshold may declare a matrix M rank deficient even
if the linear combination of some columns of M is not exactly equal to another column of M but only numerically
very close to another column of M.
We chose our default threshold because it is in wide use. Other thresholds are possible. For example, elsewhere
in the 2007 edition of Numerical recipes there is an alternative threshold of S.max() * np.finfo(M.
dtype).eps / 2. * np.sqrt(m + n + 1.). The authors describe this threshold as being based on
“expected roundoff error” (p 71).
The thresholds above deal with floating point roundoff error in the calculation of the SVD. However, you may
have more information about the sources of error in M that would make you consider other tolerance values to
detect effective rank deficiency. The most useful measure of the tolerance depends on the operations you intend
to use on your matrix. For example, if your data come from uncertain measurements with uncertainties greater
than floating point epsilon, choosing a tolerance near that uncertainty may be preferable. The tolerance may be
absolute if the uncertainties are absolute rather than relative.
References
[R7778], [R7878]
Examples
>>> from numpy.linalg import matrix_rank

>>> matrix_rank(np.eye(4)) # Full rank matrix
4
>>> I=np.eye(4); I[-1,-1] = 0. # rank deficient matrix
>>> matrix_rank(I)
3
>>> matrix_rank(np.ones((4,))) # 1 dimension - rank 1 unless all 0
1

>>> matrix_rank(np.zeros((4,)))
0
numpy.linalg.slogdet(a)
Compute the sign and (natural) logarithm of the determinant of an array.
If an array has a very small or very large determinant, then a call to det may overflow or underflow. This
routine is more robust against such issues, because it computes the logarithm of the determinant rather than the
determinant itself.
Input array, has to be a square 2-D array.
Returns sign : (. . . ) array_like
A number representing the sign of the determinant. For a real matrix, this is 1, 0, or -1.
For a complex matrix, this is a complex number with absolute value 1 (i.e., it is on the
unit circle), or else 0.
logdet : (. . . ) array_like
The natural log of the absolute value of the determinant.
If the determinant is zero, then sign will be 0 and logdet will be
-Inf. In all cases, the determinant is equal to sign * np.exp(logdet).
See also:
det
Notes

The determinant is computed via LU factorization using the LAPACK routine z/dgetrf.
Examples
The determinant of a 2-D array [[a, b], [c, d]] is ad - bc:

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
>>> (sign, logdet) = np.linalg.slogdet(a)
>>> (sign, logdet)
(-1, 0.69314718055994529)
>>> sign * np.exp(logdet)
-2.0
Computing log-determinants for a stack of matrices:

>>> a = np.array([ [[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[1, 2], [2, 1]], [[1, 3], [3, 1]] ])
>>> a.shape
(3, 2, 2)
>>> sign, logdet = np.linalg.slogdet(a)
>>> (sign, logdet)

(array([-1., -1., -1.]), array([ 0.69314718, 1.09861229, 2.07944154]))

>>> sign * np.exp(logdet)
array([-2., -3., -8.])
This routine succeeds where ordinary det does not:
>>> np.linalg.det(np.eye(500) * 0.1)

0.0
>>> np.linalg.slogdet(np.eye(500) * 0.1)
(1, -1151.2925464970228)
numpy.trace(a, offset=0, axis1=0, axis2=1, dtype=None, out=None)

If a is 2-D, the sum along its diagonal with the given offset is returned, i.e., the sum of elements a[i,
i+offset] for all i.
If a has more than two dimensions, then the axes specified by axis1 and axis2 are used to determine the 2-D
sub-arrays whose traces are returned. The shape of the resulting array is the same as that of a with axis1 and
axis2 removed.
Input array, from which the diagonals are taken.
Offset of the diagonal from the main diagonal. Can be both positive and negative.
Defaults to 0.
axis1, axis2 : int, optional
Axes to be used as the first and second axis of the 2-D sub-arrays from which the
diagonals should be taken. Defaults are the first two axes of a.
Determines the data-type of the returned array and of the accumulator where the ele-
ments are summed. If dtype has the value None and a is of integer type of precision less
than the default integer precision, then the default integer precision is used. Otherwise,
the precision is the same as that of a.
Array into which the output is placed. Its type is preserved and it must be of the right
shape to hold the output.
Returns sum_along_diagonals : ndarray
If a is 2-D, the sum along the diagonal is returned. If a has larger dimensions, then an
array of sums along diagonals is returned.
See also:
diag, diagonal, diagflat
Examples
>>> np.trace(np.eye(3))
3.0

>>> np.trace(a)
array([6, 8])
>>> a = np.arange(24).reshape((2,2,2,3))
>>> np.trace(a).shape
(2, 3)
3.17.5 Solving equations and inverting matrices
linalg.solve(a, b) Solve a linear matrix equation, or system of linear scalar

equations.
linalg.tensorsolve(a, b[, axes]) Solve the tensor equation a x = b for x.
linalg.lstsq(a, b[, rcond]) Return the least-squares solution to a linear matrix equa-
tion.
linalg.inv(a) Compute the (multiplicative) inverse of a matrix.
linalg.pinv(a[, rcond]) Compute the (Moore-Penrose) pseudo-inverse of a matrix.
linalg.tensorinv(a[, ind]) Compute the ‘inverse’ of an N-dimensional array.
numpy.linalg.solve(a, b)
Solve a linear matrix equation, or system of linear scalar equations.
Computes the “exact” solution, x, of the well-determined, i.e., full rank, linear matrix equation ax = b.
Coefficient matrix.
b : {(. . . , M,), (. . . , M, K)}, array_like
Ordinate or “dependent variable” values.
Returns x : {(. . . , M,), (. . . , M, K)} ndarray
Solution to the system a x = b. Returned shape is identical to b.
Raises LinAlgError
If a is singular or not square.
Notes

The solutions are computed using LAPACK routine _gesv
a must be square and of full-rank, i.e., all rows (or, equivalently, columns) must be linearly independent; if either
is not true, use lstsq for the least-squares best “solution” of the system/equation.
References
[R8989]

Examples
Solve the system of equations 3 * x0 + x1 = 9 and x0 + 2 * x1 = 8:
>>> a = np.array([[3,1], [1,2]])

>>> b = np.array([9,8])
>>> x = np.linalg.solve(a, b)
>>> x
array([ 2., 3.])
Check that the solution is correct:
>>> np.allclose(np.dot(a, x), b)

True
numpy.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b, axes=None)
Solve the tensor equation a x = b for x.
It is assumed that all indices of x are summed over in the product, together with the rightmost indices of a, as is
done in, for example, tensordot(a, x, axes=b.ndim).
Coefficient tensor, of shape b.shape + Q. Q, a tuple, equals the shape of that sub-
tensor of a consisting of the appropriate number of its rightmost indices, and must be
such that prod(Q) == prod(b.shape) (in which sense a is said to be ‘square’).
b : array_like
Right-hand tensor, which can be of any shape.
axes : tuple of ints, optional
Axes in a to reorder to the right, before inversion. If None (default), no reordering is
done.
Returns x : ndarray, shape Q
Raises LinAlgError
If a is singular or not ‘square’ (in the above sense).
See also:
numpy.tensordot, tensorinv, numpy.einsum
Examples
>>> a = np.eye(2*3*4)
>>> a.shape = (2*3, 4, 2, 3, 4)
>>> b = np.random.randn(2*3, 4)
>>> x = np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b)
>>> x.shape
(2, 3, 4)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(a, x, axes=3), b)
True
numpy.linalg.lstsq(a, b, rcond=’warn’)
Return the least-squares solution to a linear matrix equation.

Solves the equation a x = b by computing a vector x that minimizes the Euclidean 2-norm || b - a x ||^2. The
equation may be under-, well-, or overdetermined (i.e., the number of linearly independent rows of a can be
less than, equal to, or greater than its number of linearly independent columns). If a is square and of full rank,
then x (but for round-off error) is the “exact” solution of the equation.
Parameters a : (M, N) array_like
“Coefficient” matrix.
b : {(M,), (M, K)} array_like
Ordinate or “dependent variable” values. If b is two-dimensional, the least-squares
solution is calculated for each of the K columns of b.
Cut-off ratio for small singular values of a. For the purposes of rank determination, sin-
gular values are treated as zero if they are smaller than rcond times the largest singular
value of a.
Changed in version 1.14.0: If not set, a FutureWarning is given. The previous default
of -1 will use the machine precision as rcond parameter, the new default will use the
machine precision times max(M, N). To silence the warning and use the new default,
use rcond=None, to keep using the old behavior, use rcond=-1.
Returns x : {(N,), (N, K)} ndarray
Least-squares solution. If b is two-dimensional, the solutions are in the K columns of x.
residuals : {(1,), (K,), (0,)} ndarray
Sums of residuals; squared Euclidean 2-norm for each column in b - a*x. If the rank
of a is < N or M <= N, this is an empty array. If b is 1-dimensional, this is a (1,) shape
array. Otherwise the shape is (K,).
rank : int
Rank of matrix a.
s : (min(M, N),) ndarray
Singular values of a.
Raises LinAlgError
If computation does not converge.
Notes
If b is a matrix, then all array results are returned as matrices.
Examples
Fit a line, y = mx + c, through some noisy data-points:
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3])

>>> y = np.array([-1, 0.2, 0.9, 2.1])
By examining the coefficients, we see that the line should have a gradient of roughly 1 and cut the y-axis at,
more or less, -1.

We can rewrite the line equation as y = Ap, where A = [[x 1]] and p = [[m], [c]]. Now use
lstsq to solve for p:
>>> A = np.vstack([x, np.ones(len(x))]).T

>>> A
array([[ 0., 1.],
[ 1., 1.],
[ 2., 1.],
[ 3., 1.]])
>>> m, c = np.linalg.lstsq(A, y)[0]

>>> print(m, c)
1.0 -0.95
Plot the data along with the fitted line:

>>> plt.plot(x, y, 'o', label='Original data', markersize=10)
>>> plt.plot(x, m*x + c, 'r', label='Fitted line')
>>> plt.legend()
>>> plt.show()
2.0 Original data

Fitted line
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
numpy.linalg.inv(a)
Compute the (multiplicative) inverse of a matrix.
Given a square matrix a, return the matrix ainv satisfying dot(a, ainv) = dot(ainv, a) = eye(a.
shape[0]).
Matrix to be inverted.
Returns ainv : (. . . , M, M) ndarray or matrix
(Multiplicative) inverse of the matrix a.
Raises LinAlgError
If a is not square or inversion fails.

Notes

Examples
>>> from numpy.linalg import inv

>>> a = np.array([[1., 2.], [3., 4.]])
>>> ainv = inv(a)
>>> np.allclose(np.dot(a, ainv), np.eye(2))
True
>>> np.allclose(np.dot(ainv, a), np.eye(2))
True
If a is a matrix object, then the return value is a matrix as well:
>>> ainv = inv(np.matrix(a))

>>> ainv
matrix([[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]])
Inverses of several matrices can be computed at once:
>>> a = np.array([[[1., 2.], [3., 4.]], [[1, 3], [3, 5]]])

>>> inv(a)
array([[[-2. , 1. ],
[ 1.5, -0.5]],
[[-5. , 2. ],
[ 3. , -1. ]]])
numpy.linalg.pinv(a, rcond=1e-15)
Compute the (Moore-Penrose) pseudo-inverse of a matrix.
Calculate the generalized inverse of a matrix using its singular-value decomposition (SVD) and including all
large singular values.
Changed in version 1.14: Can now operate on stacks of matrices
Parameters a : (. . . , M, N) array_like
Matrix or stack of matrices to be pseudo-inverted.
rcond : (. . . ) array_like of float
Cutoff for small singular values. Singular values smaller (in modulus) than rcond *
largest_singular_value (again, in modulus) are set to zero. Broadcasts against the stack
of matrices
Returns B : (. . . , N, M) ndarray
The pseudo-inverse of a. If a is a matrix instance, then so is B.
Raises LinAlgError
If the SVD computation does not converge.

Notes
The pseudo-inverse of a matrix A, denoted 𝐴+ , is defined as: “the matrix that ‘solves’ [the least-squares prob-
¯ is said solution, then 𝐴+ is that matrix such that 𝑥
lem] 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏,” i.e., if 𝑥 ¯ = 𝐴+ 𝑏.
It can be shown that if 𝑄1 Σ𝑄𝑇2 = 𝐴 is the singular value decomposition of A, then 𝐴+ = 𝑄2 Σ+ 𝑄𝑇1 , where
𝑄1,2 are orthogonal matrices, Σ is a diagonal matrix consisting of A’s so-called singular values, (followed,
typically, by zeros), and then Σ+ is simply the diagonal matrix consisting of the reciprocals of A’s singular
values (again, followed by zeros). [R8787]
References
[R8787]
Examples
The following example checks that a * a+ * a == a and a+ * a * a+ == a+:
>>> a = np.random.randn(9, 6)
>>> B = np.linalg.pinv(a)
>>> np.allclose(a, np.dot(a, np.dot(B, a)))
True
>>> np.allclose(B, np.dot(B, np.dot(a, B)))
True
numpy.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=2)
Compute the ‘inverse’ of an N-dimensional array.
The result is an inverse for a relative to the tensordot operation tensordot(a, b, ind), i. e., up to
floating-point accuracy, tensordot(tensorinv(a), a, ind) is the “identity” tensor for the tensordot
operation.
Tensor to ‘invert’. Its shape must be ‘square’, i. e., prod(a.shape[:ind]) ==
prod(a.shape[ind:]).
ind : int, optional
Number of first indices that are involved in the inverse sum. Must be a positive integer,
default is 2.
Returns b : ndarray
a’s tensordot inverse, shape a.shape[ind:] + a.shape[:ind].
Raises LinAlgError
If a is singular or not ‘square’ (in the above sense).
See also:
numpy.tensordot, tensorsolve

Examples
>>> a = np.eye(4*6)
>>> a.shape = (4, 6, 8, 3)
>>> ainv = np.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=2)
>>> ainv.shape
(8, 3, 4, 6)
>>> b = np.random.randn(4, 6)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(ainv, b), np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b))
True
>>> a = np.eye(4*6)
>>> a.shape = (24, 8, 3)
>>> ainv = np.linalg.tensorinv(a, ind=1)
>>> ainv.shape
(8, 3, 24)
>>> b = np.random.randn(24)
>>> np.allclose(np.tensordot(ainv, b, 1), np.linalg.tensorsolve(a, b))
True
3.17.6 Exceptions
linalg.LinAlgError Generic Python-exception-derived object raised by linalg

functions.
exception numpy.linalg.LinAlgError
Generic Python-exception-derived object raised by linalg functions.
General purpose exception class, derived from Python’s exception.Exception class, programmatically raised in
linalg functions when a Linear Algebra-related condition would prevent further correct execution of the function.
Parameters None
Examples

>>> LA.inv(np.zeros((2,2)))
File "...linalg.py", line 350,
in inv return wrap(solve(a, identity(a.shape[0], dtype=a.dtype)))
File "...linalg.py", line 249,
in solve
raise LinAlgError('Singular matrix')
numpy.linalg.LinAlgError: Singular matrix
3.17.7 Linear algebra on several matrices at once

Several of the linear algebra routines listed above are able to compute results for several matrices at once, if they are
stacked into the same array.

This is indicated in the documentation via input parameter specifications such as a : (..., M, M)
array_like. This means that if for instance given an input array a.shape == (N, M, M), it is interpreted
as a “stack” of N matrices, each of size M-by-M. Similar specification applies to return values, for instance the
determinant has det : (...) and will in this case return an array of shape det(a).shape == (N,). This
generalizes to linear algebra operations on higher-dimensional arrays: the last 1 or 2 dimensions of a multidimensional
array are interpreted as vectors or matrices, as appropriate for each operation.
3.18 Logic functions
3.18.1 Truth value testing
all(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Test whether all array elements along a given axis evaluate
to True.
any(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Test whether any array element along a given axis evaluates
to True.
numpy.all(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Test whether all array elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Axis or axes along which a logical AND reduction is performed. The default (axis =
None) is to perform a logical AND over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may
be negative, in which case it counts from the last to the first axis.
If this is a tuple of ints, a reduction is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single
expected output and its type is preserved (e.g., if dtype(out) is float, the result will
consist of 0.0’s and 1.0’s). See doc.ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”) for more
details.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the all
method of sub-classes of ndarray, however any non-default value will be. If the
sub-classes sum method does not implement keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns all : ndarray, bool
A new boolean or array is returned unless out is specified, in which case a reference to
out is returned.
See also:
ndarray.all equivalent method

any Test whether any element along a given axis evaluates to True.
Notes
Not a Number (NaN), positive infinity and negative infinity evaluate to True because these are not equal to zero.
Examples
>>> np.all([[True,False],[True,True]])
False
>>> np.all([[True,False],[True,True]], axis=0)

>>> np.all([-1, 4, 5])

True
>>> np.all([1.0, np.nan])

True
>>> o=np.array([False])
>>> z=np.all([-1, 4, 5], out=o)
>>> id(z), id(o), z
(28293632, 28293632, array([ True]))
numpy.any(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Test whether any array element along a given axis evaluates to True.
Returns single boolean unless axis is not None
Axis or axes along which a logical OR reduction is performed. The default (axis =
None) is to perform a logical OR over all the dimensions of the input array. axis may be
negative, in which case it counts from the last to the first axis.
If this is a tuple of ints, a reduction is performed on multiple axes, instead of a single
expected output and its type is preserved (e.g., if it is of type float, then it will remain so,
returning 1.0 for True and 0.0 for False, regardless of the type of a). See doc.ufuncs
(Section “Output arguments”) for details.
3.18. Logic functions 685

If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the any
Returns any : bool or ndarray
A new boolean or ndarray is returned unless out is specified, in which case a refer-
ence to out is returned.
See also:
ndarray.any equivalent method

all Test whether all elements along a given axis evaluate to True.
Notes
Not a Number (NaN), positive infinity and negative infinity evaluate to True because these are not equal to zero.
Examples
>>> np.any([[True, False], [True, True]])

True
>>> np.any([[True, False], [False, False]], axis=0)

>>> np.any([-1, 0, 5])

True
>>> np.any(np.nan)
True
>>> o=np.array([False])
>>> z=np.any([-1, 4, 5], out=o)
>>> z, o
(array([ True]), array([ True]))
>>> # Check now that z is a reference to o
>>> z is o
True
>>> id(z), id(o) # identity of z and o
(191614240, 191614240)
3.18.2 Array contents
isfinite(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for finiteness (not infinity or not Not a
Number).
isinf(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for positive or negative infinity.
isnan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for NaN and return result as a boolean
array.


isnat(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Test element-wise for NaT (not a time) and return result as
a boolean array.
isneginf(x[, out]) Test element-wise for negative infinity, return result as bool
array.
isposinf(x[, out]) Test element-wise for positive infinity, return result as bool
array.
numpy.isfinite(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'isfinite'>
Test element-wise for finiteness (not infinity or not Not a Number).
The result is returned as a boolean array.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray, bool
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is finite; oth-
erwise the value is False (input is either positive infinity, negative infinity or Not a
Number).
For array input, the result is a boolean array with the same dimensions as the input and
the values are True if the corresponding element of the input is finite; otherwise the
values are False (element is either positive infinity, negative infinity or Not a Number).
See also:
isinf, isneginf, isposinf, isnan
Notes
Not a Number, positive infinity and negative infinity are considered to be non-finite.
NumPy uses the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point for Arithmetic (IEEE 754). This means that Not a
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Also that positive infinity is not equivalent to negative infinity. But infinity
is equivalent to positive infinity. Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input,
or if first and second arguments have different shapes.

Examples
>>> np.isfinite(1)
True
>>> np.isfinite(0)
True
>>> np.isfinite(np.nan)
False
>>> np.isfinite(np.inf)
False
>>> np.isfinite(np.NINF)
False
>>> np.isfinite([np.log(-1.),1.,np.log(0)])
>>> x = np.array([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])

>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isfinite(x, y)
array([0, 1, 0])
>>> y
array([0, 1, 0])
numpy.isinf(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'isinf'>
Test element-wise for positive or negative infinity.
Returns a boolean array of the same shape as x, True where x == +/-inf, otherwise False.
Input values
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : bool (scalar) or boolean ndarray
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is positive or
negative infinity; otherwise the value is False.
For array input, the result is a boolean array with the same shape as the input and the
values are True where the corresponding element of the input is positive or negative
infinity; elsewhere the values are False. If a second argument was supplied the result is
stored there. If the type of that array is a numeric type the result is represented as zeros
and ones, if the type is boolean then as False and True, respectively. The return value y
is then a reference to that array.
See also:

isneginf, isposinf, isnan, isfinite
Notes
NumPy uses the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point for Arithmetic (IEEE 754).
Errors result if the second argument is supplied when the first argument is a scalar, or if the first and second
arguments have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isinf(np.inf)
True
>>> np.isinf(np.nan)
False
>>> np.isinf(np.NINF)
True
>>> np.isinf([np.inf, -np.inf, 1.0, np.nan])
array([ True, True, False, False])

>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isinf(x, y)
array([1, 0, 1])
>>> y
array([1, 0, 1])
numpy.isnan(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'isnan'>
Test element-wise for NaN and return result as a boolean array.
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray or bool
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is NaN; other-
wise the value is False.
For array input, the result is a boolean array of the same dimensions as the input and the
values are True if the corresponding element of the input is NaN; otherwise the values
are False.

See also:
isinf, isneginf, isposinf, isfinite, isnat
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity.
Examples
>>> np.isnan(np.nan)
True
>>> np.isnan(np.inf)
False
>>> np.isnan([np.log(-1.),1.,np.log(0)])
array([ True, False, False])
numpy.isnat(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'isnat'>
Test element-wise for NaT (not a time) and return result as a boolean array.
Input array with datetime or timedelta data type.
outputs.
**kwargs
For scalar input, the result is a new boolean with value True if the input is NaT; other-
wise the value is False.
For array input, the result is a boolean array of the same dimensions as the input and the
values are True if the corresponding element of the input is NaT; otherwise the values
are False.
See also:
isnan, isinf, isneginf, isposinf, isfinite

Examples
>>> np.isnat(np.datetime64("NaT"))
True
>>> np.isnat(np.datetime64("2016-01-01"))
False
>>> np.isnat(np.array(["NaT", "2016-01-01"], dtype="datetime64[ns]"))
numpy.isneginf(x, out=None)
Test element-wise for negative infinity, return result as bool array.
The input array.
A boolean array with the same shape and type as x to store the result.
A boolean array with the same dimensions as the input. If second argument is not sup-
plied then a numpy boolean array is returned with values True where the corresponding
element of the input is negative infinity and values False where the element of the input
is not negative infinity.
If a second argument is supplied the result is stored there. If the type of that array is a
numeric type the result is represented as zeros and ones, if the type is boolean then as
False and True. The return value out is then a reference to that array.
See also:
isinf, isposinf, isnan, isfinite
Notes
Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input, or if first and second arguments
have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isneginf(np.NINF)
array(True, dtype=bool)
>>> np.isneginf(np.inf)
array(False, dtype=bool)
>>> np.isneginf(np.PINF)
>>> np.isneginf([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])
array([ True, False, False])

>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isneginf(x, y)
array([1, 0, 0])

>>> y
array([1, 0, 0])
numpy.isposinf(x, out=None)
Test element-wise for positive infinity, return result as bool array.
The input array.
A boolean array with the same shape as x to store the result.
A boolean array with the same dimensions as the input. If second argument is not
supplied then a boolean array is returned with values True where the corresponding
element of the input is positive infinity and values False where the element of the input
is not positive infinity.
If a second argument is supplied the result is stored there. If the type of that array is a
numeric type the result is represented as zeros and ones, if the type is boolean then as
False and True. The return value out is then a reference to that array.
See also:
isinf, isneginf, isfinite, isnan
Notes
Errors result if the second argument is also supplied when x is a scalar input, or if first and second arguments
have different shapes.
Examples
>>> np.isposinf(np.PINF)
>>> np.isposinf(np.inf)
>>> np.isposinf(np.NINF)
>>> np.isposinf([-np.inf, 0., np.inf])
array([False, False, True])

>>> y = np.array([2, 2, 2])
>>> np.isposinf(x, y)
array([0, 0, 1])
>>> y
array([0, 0, 1])

3.18.3 Array type testing
iscomplex(x) Returns a bool array, where True if input element is com-

plex.
iscomplexobj(x) Check for a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
isfortran(a) Returns True if the array is Fortran contiguous but not C
contiguous.
isreal(x) Returns a bool array, where True if input element is real.
isrealobj(x) Return True if x is a not complex type or an array of com-
plex numbers.
isscalar(num) Returns True if the type of num is a scalar type.
numpy.iscomplex(x)
Returns a bool array, where True if input element is complex.
What is tested is whether the input has a non-zero imaginary part, not if the input type is complex.
Input array.
Returns out : ndarray of bools
Output array.
See also:
isreal
iscomplexobj Return True if x is a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
Examples
>>> np.iscomplex([1+1j, 1+0j, 4.5, 3, 2, 2j])

array([ True, False, False, False, False, True])
numpy.iscomplexobj(x)
Check for a complex type or an array of complex numbers.
The type of the input is checked, not the value. Even if the input has an imaginary part equal to zero,
iscomplexobj evaluates to True.
Parameters x : any
The input can be of any type and shape.
Returns iscomplexobj : bool
The return value, True if x is of a complex type or has at least one complex element.
See also:
isrealobj, iscomplex
Examples

>>> np.iscomplexobj(1)
False
>>> np.iscomplexobj(1+0j)
True
>>> np.iscomplexobj([3, 1+0j, True])
True
numpy.isfortran(a)
Returns True if the array is Fortran contiguous but not C contiguous.
This function is obsolete and, because of changes due to relaxed stride checking, its return value for the same
array may differ for versions of NumPy >= 1.10.0 and previous versions. If you only want to check if an array
is Fortran contiguous use a.flags.f_contiguous instead.
Input array.
Examples
np.array allows to specify whether the array is written in C-contiguous order (last index varies the fastest), or
FORTRAN-contiguous order in memory (first index varies the fastest).
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order='C')
>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(a)
False
>>> b = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order='FORTRAN')

>>> b
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(b)
True
The transpose of a C-ordered array is a FORTRAN-ordered array.

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], order='C')
>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],
[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(a)
False
>>> b = a.T
>>> b
array([[1, 4],
[2, 5],
[3, 6]])
>>> np.isfortran(b)
True
C-ordered arrays evaluate as False even if they are also FORTRAN-ordered.

>>> np.isfortran(np.array([1, 2], order='FORTRAN'))
False

numpy.isreal(x)
Returns a bool array, where True if input element is real.
If element has complex type with zero complex part, the return value for that element is True.
Input array.
Boolean array of same shape as x.
See also:
iscomplex
isrealobj Return True if x is not a complex type.
Examples
>>> np.isreal([1+1j, 1+0j, 4.5, 3, 2, 2j])

array([False, True, True, True, True, False])
numpy.isrealobj(x)
Return True if x is a not complex type or an array of complex numbers.
The type of the input is checked, not the value. So even if the input has an imaginary part equal to zero,
isrealobj evaluates to False if the data type is complex.
Parameters x : any
The input can be of any type and shape.
Returns y : bool
The return value, False if x is of a complex type.
See also:
iscomplexobj, isreal
Examples
>>> np.isrealobj(1)
True
>>> np.isrealobj(1+0j)
False
>>> np.isrealobj([3, 1+0j, True])
False
numpy.isscalar(num)
Returns True if the type of num is a scalar type.
Parameters num : any
Input argument, can be of any type and shape.
Returns val : bool
True if num is a scalar type, False if it is not.

Examples
>>> np.isscalar(3.1)
True
>>> np.isscalar([3.1])
False
>>> np.isscalar(False)
True
>>> np.isscalar('numpy')
True
NumPy supports PEP 3141 numbers:
>>> from fractions import Fraction

>>> isscalar(Fraction(5, 17))
True
>>> from numbers import Number
>>> isscalar(Number())
True
3.18.4 Logical operations
logical_and(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 AND x2 element-wise.
logical_or(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 OR x2 element-wise.
logical_not(x, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of NOT x element-wise.
logical_xor(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Compute the truth value of x1 XOR x2, element-wise.
numpy.logical_and(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logical_and'>
Compute the truth value of x1 AND x2 element-wise.
Input arrays. x1 and x2 must be of the same shape.
outputs.
**kwargs
Boolean result with the same shape as x1 and x2 of the logical AND operation on cor-
responding elements of x1 and x2.
See also:

logical_or, logical_not, logical_xor, bitwise_and
Examples
>>> np.logical_and(True, False)

False
>>> np.logical_and([True, False], [False, False])
array([False, False])
>>> np.logical_and(x>1, x<4)
array([False, False, True, True, False])
numpy.logical_or(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logical_or'>
Compute the truth value of x1 OR x2 element-wise.
Logical OR is applied to the elements of x1 and x2. They have to be of the same shape.
outputs.
**kwargs
Boolean result with the same shape as x1 and x2 of the logical OR operation on elements
of x1 and x2.
See also:
logical_and, logical_not, logical_xor, bitwise_or
Examples
>>> np.logical_or(True, False)

True
>>> np.logical_or([True, False], [False, False])
>>> np.logical_or(x < 1, x > 3)
array([ True, False, False, False, True])

numpy.logical_not(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logical_not'>
Compute the truth value of NOT x element-wise.
Logical NOT is applied to the elements of x.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : bool or ndarray of bool
Boolean result with the same shape as x of the NOT operation on elements of x.
See also:
logical_and, logical_or, logical_xor
Examples
>>> np.logical_not(3)
False
>>> np.logical_not([True, False, 0, 1])
array([False, True, True, False])
>>> np.logical_not(x<3)
array([False, False, False, True, True])
numpy.logical_xor(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logical_xor'>
Compute the truth value of x1 XOR x2, element-wise.
Logical XOR is applied to the elements of x1 and x2. They must be broadcastable to
the same shape.
outputs.

**kwargs
Returns y : bool or ndarray of bool
Boolean result of the logical XOR operation applied to the elements of x1 and x2; the
shape is determined by whether or not broadcasting of one or both arrays was required.
See also:
logical_and, logical_or, logical_not, bitwise_xor
Examples
>>> np.logical_xor(True, False)

True
>>> np.logical_xor([True, True, False, False], [True, False, True, False])
array([False, True, True, False])
>>> np.logical_xor(x < 1, x > 3)
array([ True, False, False, False, True])
Simple example showing support of broadcasting
>>> np.logical_xor(0, np.eye(2))

array([[ True, False],
[False, True]])
3.18.5 Comparison
allclose(a, b[, rtol, atol, equal_nan]) Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a
tolerance.
isclose(a, b[, rtol, atol, equal_nan]) Returns a boolean array where two arrays are element-wise
equal within a tolerance.
array_equal(a1, a2) True if two arrays have the same shape and elements, False
otherwise.
array_equiv(a1, a2) Returns True if input arrays are shape consistent and all
elements equal.
numpy.allclose(a, b, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08, equal_nan=False)

Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
The tolerance values are positive, typically very small numbers. The relative difference (rtol * abs(b)) and the
absolute difference atol are added together to compare against the absolute difference between a and b.
If either array contains one or more NaNs, False is returned. Infs are treated as equal if they are in the same
place and of the same sign in both arrays.

rtol : float
The relative tolerance parameter (see Notes).
atol : float
The absolute tolerance parameter (see Notes).
equal_nan : bool
Whether to compare NaN’s as equal. If True, NaN’s in a will be considered equal to
NaN’s in b in the output array.
Returns allclose : bool
Returns True if the two arrays are equal within the given tolerance; False otherwise.
See also:
isclose, all, any, equal
Notes
If the following equation is element-wise True, then allclose returns True.

absolute(a - b) <= (atol + rtol * absolute(b))
The above equation is not symmetric in a and b, so that allclose(a, b) might be different from
allclose(b, a) in some rare cases.
The comparison of a and b uses standard broadcasting, which means that a and b need not have the same shape
in order for allclose(a, b) to evaluate to True. The same is true for equal but not array_equal.
Examples
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-7], [1.00001e10,1e-8])

False
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.00001e10,1e-9])
True
>>> np.allclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.0001e10,1e-9])
False
>>> np.allclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan])
False
>>> np.allclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan], equal_nan=True)
True
numpy.isclose(a, b, rtol=1e-05, atol=1e-08, equal_nan=False)

Returns a boolean array where two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
The tolerance values are positive, typically very small numbers. The relative difference (rtol * abs(b)) and the
absolute difference atol are added together to compare against the absolute difference between a and b.
rtol : float
The relative tolerance parameter (see Notes).

atol : float
The absolute tolerance parameter (see Notes).
equal_nan : bool
Whether to compare NaN’s as equal. If True, NaN’s in a will be considered equal to
NaN’s in b in the output array.
Returns a boolean array of where a and b are equal within the given tolerance. If both a
and b are scalars, returns a single boolean value.
See also:
allclose
Notes

For finite values, isclose uses the following equation to test whether two floating point values are equivalent.
absolute(a - b) <= (atol + rtol * absolute(b))
The above equation is not symmetric in a and b, so that isclose(a, b) might be different from isclose(b, a) in
some rare cases.
Examples
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-7], [1.00001e10,1e-8])

array([True, False])
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.00001e10,1e-9])
array([True, True])
>>> np.isclose([1e10,1e-8], [1.0001e10,1e-9])
>>> np.isclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan])
array([True, False])
>>> np.isclose([1.0, np.nan], [1.0, np.nan], equal_nan=True)
array([True, True])
numpy.array_equal(a1, a2)
True if two arrays have the same shape and elements, False otherwise.
Parameters a1, a2 : array_like
Input arrays.
Returns b : bool
Returns True if the arrays are equal.
See also:
allclose Returns True if two arrays are element-wise equal within a tolerance.
array_equiv Returns True if input arrays are shape consistent and all elements equal.

Examples
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 2])

True
>>> np.array_equal(np.array([1, 2]), np.array([1, 2]))
True
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 2, 3])
False
>>> np.array_equal([1, 2], [1, 4])
False
numpy.array_equiv(a1, a2)
Returns True if input arrays are shape consistent and all elements equal.
Shape consistent means they are either the same shape, or one input array can be broadcasted to create the same
shape as the other one.
Parameters a1, a2 : array_like
Input arrays.
Returns out : bool
True if equivalent, False otherwise.
Examples
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [1, 2])

True
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [1, 3])
False
Showing the shape equivalence:
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2], [1, 2]])

True
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2, 1, 2], [1, 2, 1, 2]])
False
>>> np.array_equiv([1, 2], [[1, 2], [1, 3]])

False
greater(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 > x2) element-wise.
greater_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
less(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 < x2) element-wise.
less_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the truth value of (x1 =< x2) element-wise.
equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.
not_equal(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
numpy.greater(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'greater'>
Return the truth value of (x1 > x2) element-wise.
Input arrays. If x1.shape != x2.shape, they must be broadcastable to a common

shape (which may be the shape of one or the other).

outputs.
**kwargs
Returns out : bool or ndarray of bool
Array of bools, or a single bool if x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
greater_equal, less, less_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.greater([4,2],[2,2])
If the inputs are ndarrays, then np.greater is equivalent to ‘>’.

>>> a = np.array([4,2])
>>> b = np.array([2,2])
>>> a > b
numpy.greater_equal(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, or-

der=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc
'greater_equal'>
Return the truth value of (x1 >= x2) element-wise.
outputs.
**kwargs


See also:
greater, less, less_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.greater_equal([4, 2, 1], [2, 2, 2])

array([ True, True, False])
numpy.less(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'less'>
Return the truth value of (x1 < x2) element-wise.
outputs.
**kwargs
See also:
greater, less_equal, greater_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.less([1, 2], [2, 2])

numpy.less_equal(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'less_equal'>
Return the truth value of (x1 =< x2) element-wise.

outputs.
**kwargs
See also:
greater, less, greater_equal, equal, not_equal
Examples
>>> np.less_equal([4, 2, 1], [2, 2, 2])

array([False, True, True])
numpy.equal(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'equal'>
Return (x1 == x2) element-wise.
outputs.
**kwargs
See also:
not_equal, greater_equal, less_equal, greater, less

Examples
>>> np.equal([0, 1, 3], np.arange(3))

array([ True, True, False])
What is compared are values, not types. So an int (1) and an array of length one can evaluate as True:
>>> np.equal(1, np.ones(1))

array([ True])
numpy.not_equal(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'not_equal'>
Return (x1 != x2) element-wise.
Input arrays.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns not_equal : ndarray bool, scalar bool
For each element in x1, x2, return True if x1 is not equal to x2 and False otherwise.
See also:
equal, greater, greater_equal, less, less_equal
Examples
>>> np.not_equal([1.,2.], [1., 3.])

>>> np.not_equal([1, 2], [[1, 3],[1, 4]])
[False, True]])
3.19 Mathematical functions
3.19.1 Trigonometric functions

sin(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric sine, element-wise.

cos(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Cosine element-wise.
tan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute tangent element-wise.
arcsin(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse sine, element-wise.
arccos(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric inverse cosine, element-wise.
arctan(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Trigonometric inverse tangent, element-wise.
hypot(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Given the “legs” of a right triangle, return its hypotenuse.
arctan2(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise arc tangent of x1/x2 choosing the quadrant
correctly.
degrees(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from radians to degrees.
radians(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from degrees to radians.
unwrap(p[, discont, axis]) Unwrap by changing deltas between values to 2*pi com-
plement.
deg2rad(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from degrees to radians.
rad2deg(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Convert angles from radians to degrees.
numpy.sin(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'sin'>
Trigonometric sine, element-wise.
Angle, in radians (2𝜋 rad equals 360 degrees).
outputs.
**kwargs
The sine of each element of x.
See also:
arcsin, sinh, cos
Notes
The sine is one of the fundamental functions of trigonometry (the mathematical study of triangles). Consider
a circle of radius 1 centered on the origin. A ray comes in from the +𝑥 axis, makes an angle at the origin
(measured counter-clockwise from that axis), and departs from the origin. The 𝑦 coordinate of the outgoing
ray’s intersection with the unit circle is the sine of that angle. It ranges from -1 for 𝑥 = 3𝜋/2 to +1 for 𝜋/2.
The function has zeroes where the angle is a multiple of 𝜋. Sines of angles between 𝜋 and 2𝜋 are negative. The
numerous properties of the sine and related functions are included in any standard trigonometry text.
3.19. Mathematical functions 707

Examples
Print sine of one angle:
>>> np.sin(np.pi/2.)
1.0
Print sines of an array of angles given in degrees:
>>> np.sin(np.array((0., 30., 45., 60., 90.)) * np.pi / 180. )

array([ 0. , 0.5 , 0.70710678, 0.8660254 , 1. ])
Plot the sine function:
>>> import matplotlib.pylab as plt

>>> x = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, 201)
>>> plt.plot(x, np.sin(x))
>>> plt.xlabel('Angle [rad]')
>>> plt.ylabel('sin(x)')
>>> plt.axis('tight')
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.5
sin(x)
0.0
0.5
1.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Angle [rad]
numpy.cos(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'cos'>
Cosine element-wise.
Input array in radians.
outputs.

**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding cosine values.
Notes
If out is provided, the function writes the result into it, and returns a reference to out. (See Examples)
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972.
Examples
>>> np.cos(np.array([0, np.pi/2, np.pi]))

array([ 1.00000000e+00, 6.12303177e-17, -1.00000000e+00])
>>>
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter
>>> out2 = np.cos([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>>
>>> # Example of ValueError due to provision of shape mis-matched òut`
>>> np.cos(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
ValueError: invalid return array shape
numpy.tan(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'tan'>
Compute tangent element-wise.
Equivalent to np.sin(x)/np.cos(x) element-wise.
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs


Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding tangent values.
Notes
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972.
Examples
>>> from math import pi

>>> np.tan(np.array([-pi,pi/2,pi]))
array([ 1.22460635e-16, 1.63317787e+16, -1.22460635e-16])
>>>
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter illustrating
>>> # that what is returned is a reference to said parameter
>>> out2 = np.cos([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True
>>>
>>> np.cos(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.arcsin(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arcsin'>
Inverse sine, element-wise.
y-coordinate on the unit circle.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns angle : ndarray

The inverse sine of each element in x, in radians and in the closed interval [-pi/2,
pi/2]. If x is a scalar, a scalar is returned, otherwise an array.
See also:
sin, cos, arccos, tan, arctan, arctan2, emath.arcsin
Notes
arcsin is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑧) = 𝑥. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arcsin always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arcsin is a complex analytic function that has, by convention, the branch cuts [-inf,
-1] and [1, inf] and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse sine is also known as asin or sin^{-1}.
References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 10th printing, New York: Dover,
1964, pp. 79ff. http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
Examples
>>> np.arcsin(1) # pi/2

1.5707963267948966
>>> np.arcsin(-1) # -pi/2
-1.5707963267948966
>>> np.arcsin(0)
0.0
numpy.arccos(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arccos'>
Trigonometric inverse cosine, element-wise.
The inverse of cos so that, if y = cos(x), then x = arccos(y).
x-coordinate on the unit circle. For real arguments, the domain is [-1, 1].
outputs.
**kwargs


The angle of the ray intersecting the unit circle at the given x-coordinate in radians [0,
pi]. If x is a scalar then a scalar is returned, otherwise an array of the same shape as x is
returned.
See also:
cos, arctan, arcsin, emath.arccos
Notes
arccos is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that cos(z) = x. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [0, pi].
For real-valued input data types, arccos always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
as a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arccos is a complex analytic function that has branch cuts [-inf, -1] and [1, inf]
and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse cos is also known as acos or cos^-1.
References
M. Abramowitz and I.A. Stegun, “Handbook of Mathematical Functions”, 10th printing, 1964, pp. 79. http:
//www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
Examples
We expect the arccos of 1 to be 0, and of -1 to be pi:
>>> np.arccos([1, -1])

array([ 0. , 3.14159265])
Plot arccos:

>>> x = np.linspace(-1, 1, num=100)
>>> plt.plot(x, np.arccos(x))
>>> plt.show()
numpy.arctan(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arctan'>
Trigonometric inverse tangent, element-wise.
The inverse of tan, so that if y = tan(x) then x = arctan(y).

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
outputs.
**kwargs
Out has the same shape as x. Its real part is in [-pi/2, pi/2] (arctan(+/-inf)
returns +/-pi/2). It is a scalar if x is a scalar.
See also:
arctan2 The “four quadrant” arctan of the angle formed by (x, y) and the positive x-axis.
angle Argument of complex values.
Notes
arctan is a multi-valued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that tan(z) = x. The
convention is to return the angle z whose real part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arctan always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arctan is a complex analytic function that has [1j, infj] and [-1j, -infj] as branch
cuts, and is continuous from the left on the former and from the right on the latter.
The inverse tangent is also known as atan or tan^{-1}.

References
Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A., Handbook of Mathematical Functions, 10th printing, New York: Dover,
1964, pp. 79. http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/
Examples
We expect the arctan of 0 to be 0, and of 1 to be pi/4:
>>> np.arctan([0, 1])

array([ 0. , 0.78539816])
>>> np.pi/4
0.78539816339744828
Plot arctan:

>>> x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
>>> plt.plot(x, np.arctan(x))
>>> plt.show()
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
numpy.hypot(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'hypot'>
Given the “legs” of a right triangle, return its hypotenuse.
Equivalent to sqrt(x1**2 + x2**2), element-wise. If x1 or x2 is scalar_like (i.e., unambiguously cast-
able to a scalar type), it is broadcast for use with each element of the other argument. (See Examples)
Leg of the triangle(s).

outputs.
**kwargs
Returns z : ndarray
The hypotenuse of the triangle(s).
Examples
>>> np.hypot(3*np.ones((3, 3)), 4*np.ones((3, 3)))

array([[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.]])
Example showing broadcast of scalar_like argument:
>>> np.hypot(3*np.ones((3, 3)), [4])

array([[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.],
[ 5., 5., 5.]])
numpy.arctan2(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arctan2'>
Element-wise arc tangent of x1/x2 choosing the quadrant correctly.
The quadrant (i.e., branch) is chosen so that arctan2(x1, x2) is the signed angle in radians between the
ray ending at the origin and passing through the point (1,0), and the ray ending at the origin and passing through
the point (x2, x1). (Note the role reversal: the “y-coordinate” is the first function parameter, the “x-coordinate”
is the second.) By IEEE convention, this function is defined for x2 = +/-0 and for either or both of x1 and x2 =
+/-inf (see Notes for specific values).
This function is not defined for complex-valued arguments; for the so-called argument of complex values, use
angle.
Parameters x1 : array_like, real-valued
y-coordinates.
x2 : array_like, real-valued
x-coordinates. x2 must be broadcastable to match the shape of x1 or vice versa.
outputs.

**kwargs
Array of angles in radians, in the range [-pi, pi].
See also:
arctan, tan, angle
Notes
arctan2 is identical to the atan2 function of the underlying C library. The following special values are defined
in the C standard: [R7]
x1 x2 arctan2(x1,x2)
+/- 0 +0 +/- 0
+/- 0 -0 +/- pi
>0 +/-inf +0 / +pi
<0 +/-inf -0 / -pi
+/-inf +inf +/- (pi/4)
+/-inf -inf +/- (3*pi/4)
Note that +0 and -0 are distinct floating point numbers, as are +inf and -inf.
References
[R7]
Examples
Consider four points in different quadrants:
>>> x = np.array([-1, +1, +1, -1])

>>> y = np.array([-1, -1, +1, +1])
>>> np.arctan2(y, x) * 180 / np.pi
array([-135., -45., 45., 135.])
Note the order of the parameters. arctan2 is defined also when x2 = 0 and at several other special points,
obtaining values in the range [-pi, pi]:
>>> np.arctan2([1., -1.], [0., 0.])

array([ 1.57079633, -1.57079633])
>>> np.arctan2([0., 0., np.inf], [+0., -0., np.inf])
array([ 0. , 3.14159265, 0.78539816])
numpy.degrees(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'degrees'>
Convert angles from radians to degrees.

Input array in radians.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray of floats
The corresponding degree values; if out was supplied this is a reference to it.
See also:
rad2deg equivalent function
Examples
Convert a radian array to degrees
>>> rad = np.arange(12.)*np.pi/6

>>> np.degrees(rad)
array([ 0., 30., 60., 90., 120., 150., 180., 210., 240.,
270., 300., 330.])
>>> out = np.zeros((rad.shape))

>>> r = degrees(rad, out)
>>> np.all(r == out)
True
numpy.radians(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'radians'>
Convert angles from degrees to radians.
Input array in degrees.
outputs.

**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding radian values.
See also:
deg2rad equivalent function
Examples
Convert a degree array to radians
>>> deg = np.arange(12.) * 30.

>>> np.radians(deg)
array([ 0. , 0.52359878, 1.04719755, 1.57079633, 2.0943951 ,
2.61799388, 3.14159265, 3.66519143, 4.1887902 , 4.71238898,
5.23598776, 5.75958653])
>>> out = np.zeros((deg.shape))

>>> ret = np.radians(deg, out)
>>> ret is out
True
numpy.unwrap(p, discont=3.141592653589793, axis=-1)

Unwrap by changing deltas between values to 2*pi complement.
Unwrap radian phase p by changing absolute jumps greater than discont to their 2*pi complement along the
given axis.
Parameters p : array_like
Input array.
discont : float, optional
Maximum discontinuity between values, default is pi.
Axis along which unwrap will operate, default is the last axis.
Output array.
See also:
rad2deg, deg2rad
Notes
If the discontinuity in p is smaller than pi, but larger than discont, no unwrapping is done because taking the
2*pi complement would only make the discontinuity larger.

Examples
>>> phase = np.linspace(0, np.pi, num=5)

>>> phase[3:] += np.pi
>>> phase
array([ 0. , 0.78539816, 1.57079633, 5.49778714, 6.28318531])
>>> np.unwrap(phase)
array([ 0. , 0.78539816, 1.57079633, -0.78539816, 0. ])
numpy.deg2rad(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'deg2rad'>
Convert angles from degrees to radians.
Angles in degrees.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding angle in radians.
See also:
rad2deg Convert angles from radians to degrees.

unwrap Remove large jumps in angle by wrapping.
Notes

deg2rad(x) is x * pi / 180.
Examples
>>> np.deg2rad(180)
3.1415926535897931
numpy.rad2deg(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'rad2deg'>
Convert angles from radians to degrees.

Angle in radians.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding angle in degrees.
See also:
deg2rad Convert angles from degrees to radians.

unwrap Remove large jumps in angle by wrapping.
Notes

rad2deg(x) is 180 * x / pi.
Examples
>>> np.rad2deg(np.pi/2)
90.0
3.19.2 Hyperbolic functions
sinh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Hyperbolic sine, element-wise.

cosh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
tanh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Compute hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
arcsinh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic sine element-wise.
arccosh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
arctanh(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Inverse hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
numpy.sinh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'sinh'>
Hyperbolic sine, element-wise.
Equivalent to 1/2 * (np.exp(x) - np.exp(-x)) or -1j * np.sin(1j*x).

Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding hyperbolic sine values.
Notes
References
M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York, NY: Dover, 1972, pg. 83.
Examples
>>> np.sinh(0)
0.0
>>> np.sinh(np.pi*1j/2)
1j
>>> np.sinh(np.pi*1j) # (exact value is 0)
1.2246063538223773e-016j
>>> # Discrepancy due to vagaries of floating point arithmetic.
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter

>>> out2 = np.sinh([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True

>>> np.sinh(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.cosh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'cosh'>
Hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
Equivalent to 1/2 * (np.exp(x) + np.exp(-x)) and np.cos(1j*x).

Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Output array of same shape as x.
Examples
>>> np.cosh(0)
1.0
The hyperbolic cosine describes the shape of a hanging cable:

>>> x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 1000)
>>> plt.plot(x, np.cosh(x))
>>> plt.show()
25
20
15
10
5
0
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
numpy.tanh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'tanh'>
Compute hyperbolic tangent element-wise.

Equivalent to np.sinh(x)/np.cosh(x) or -1j * np.tan(1j*x).

Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The corresponding hyperbolic tangent values.
Notes
References
[R569], [R570]
Examples
>>> np.tanh((0, np.pi*1j, np.pi*1j/2))

array([ 0. +0.00000000e+00j, 0. -1.22460635e-16j, 0. +1.63317787e+16j])
>>> # Example of providing the optional output parameter illustrating

>>> # that what is returned is a reference to said parameter
>>> out2 = np.tanh([0.1], out1)
>>> out2 is out1
True

>>> np.tanh(np.zeros((3,3)),np.zeros((2,2)))
numpy.arcsinh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arcsinh'>
Inverse hyperbolic sine element-wise.

Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Array of of the same shape as x.
Notes
arcsinh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that sinh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arcsinh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
as a real number or infinity, it returns nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, arccos is a complex analytical function that has branch cuts [1j, infj] and [-1j,
-infj] and is continuous from the right on the former and from the left on the latter.
The inverse hyperbolic sine is also known as asinh or sinh^-1.
References
[R5], [R6]
Examples
>>> np.arcsinh(np.array([np.e, 10.0]))

array([ 1.72538256, 2.99822295])
numpy.arccosh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arccosh'>
Inverse hyperbolic cosine, element-wise.
Input array.
outputs.


**kwargs
Returns arccosh : ndarray
Array of the same shape as x.
See also:
cosh, arcsinh, sinh, arctanh, tanh
Notes
arccosh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that cosh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi, pi] and the real part in [0, inf].
For real-valued input data types, arccosh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arccosh is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 1] and is
continuous from above on it.
References
[R3], [R4]
Examples
>>> np.arccosh([np.e, 10.0])

array([ 1.65745445, 2.99322285])
>>> np.arccosh(1)
0.0
numpy.arctanh(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'arctanh'>
Inverse hyperbolic tangent element-wise.
Input array.
outputs.

**kwargs
Array of the same shape as x.
See also:
emath.arctanh
Notes
arctanh is a multivalued function: for each x there are infinitely many numbers z such that tanh(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi/2, pi/2].
For real-valued input data types, arctanh always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed
For complex-valued input, arctanh is a complex analytical function that has branch cuts [-1, -inf] and [1, inf]
and is continuous from above on the former and from below on the latter.
The inverse hyperbolic tangent is also known as atanh or tanh^-1.
References
[R8], [R9]
Examples
>>> np.arctanh([0, -0.5])

array([ 0. , -0.54930614])
3.19.3 Rounding
around(a[, decimals, out]) Evenly round to the given number of decimals.

round_(a[, decimals, out]) Round an array to the given number of decimals.
rint(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Round elements of the array to the nearest integer.
fix(x[, out]) Round to nearest integer towards zero.
floor(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the floor of the input, element-wise.
ceil(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the ceiling of the input, element-wise.
trunc(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the truncated value of the input, element-wise.
numpy.around(a, decimals=0, out=None)

Evenly round to the given number of decimals.
Input data.
decimals : int, optional
Number of decimal places to round to (default: 0). If decimals is negative, it specifies

the number of positions to the left of the decimal point.

Alternative output array in which to place the result. It must have the same shape as
the expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if necessary. See
doc.ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”) for details.
Returns rounded_array : ndarray
An array of the same type as a, containing the rounded values. Unless out was specified,
a new array is created. A reference to the result is returned.
The real and imaginary parts of complex numbers are rounded separately. The result of
rounding a float is a float.
See also:
ndarray.round equivalent method
ceil, fix, floor, rint, trunc
Notes
For values exactly halfway between rounded decimal values, NumPy rounds to the nearest even value. Thus
1.5 and 2.5 round to 2.0, -0.5 and 0.5 round to 0.0, etc. Results may also be surprising due to the inexact
representation of decimal fractions in the IEEE floating point standard [R1011] and errors introduced when
scaling by powers of ten.
References
[R1011], [R1111]
Examples
>>> np.around([0.37, 1.64])

array([ 0., 2.])
>>> np.around([0.37, 1.64], decimals=1)
array([ 0.4, 1.6])
>>> np.around([.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5]) # rounds to nearest even value
array([ 0., 2., 2., 4., 4.])
>>> np.around([1,2,3,11], decimals=1) # ndarray of ints is returned
array([ 1, 2, 3, 11])
>>> np.around([1,2,3,11], decimals=-1)
array([ 0, 0, 0, 10])
numpy.round_(a, decimals=0, out=None)

Round an array to the given number of decimals.
Refer to around for full documentation.
See also:
around equivalent function

numpy.rint(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'rint'>
Round elements of the array to the nearest integer.
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns out : ndarray or scalar
Output array is same shape and type as x.
See also:
ceil, floor, trunc
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])

>>> np.rint(a)
array([-2., -2., -0., 0., 2., 2., 2.])
numpy.fix(x, out=None)
Round to nearest integer towards zero.
Round an array of floats element-wise to nearest integer towards zero. The rounded values are returned as floats.
An array of floats to be rounded
y : ndarray, optional
Output array
Returns out : ndarray of floats
The array of rounded numbers
See also:
trunc, floor, ceil
around Round to given number of decimals

Examples
>>> np.fix(3.14)
3.0
>>> np.fix(3)
3.0
>>> np.fix([2.1, 2.9, -2.1, -2.9])
array([ 2., 2., -2., -2.])
numpy.floor(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'floor'>
Return the floor of the input, element-wise.
The floor of the scalar x is the largest integer i, such that i <= x. It is often denoted as ⌊𝑥⌋.
Input data.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray or scalar
The floor of each element in x.
See also:
ceil, trunc, rint
Notes
Some spreadsheet programs calculate the “floor-towards-zero”, in other words floor(-2.5) == -2.
NumPy instead uses the definition of floor where floor(-2.5) == -3.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])

>>> np.floor(a)
array([-2., -2., -1., 0., 1., 1., 2.])
numpy.ceil(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'ceil'>
Return the ceiling of the input, element-wise.
The ceil of the scalar x is the smallest integer i, such that i >= x. It is often denoted as ⌈𝑥⌉.

Input data.
outputs.
**kwargs
The ceiling of each element in x, with float dtype.
See also:
floor, trunc, rint
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])

>>> np.ceil(a)
array([-1., -1., -0., 1., 2., 2., 2.])
numpy.trunc(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'trunc'>
Return the truncated value of the input, element-wise.
The truncated value of the scalar x is the nearest integer i which is closer to zero than x is. In short, the fractional
part of the signed number x is discarded.
Input data.
outputs.
**kwargs
The truncated value of each element in x.

See also:
ceil, floor, rint
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([-1.7, -1.5, -0.2, 0.2, 1.5, 1.7, 2.0])

>>> np.trunc(a)
array([-1., -1., -0., 0., 1., 1., 2.])
3.19.4 Sums, products, differences
prod(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of array elements over a given axis.
sum(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Sum of array elements over a given axis.
nanprod(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the product of array elements over a given axis treat-
ing Not a Numbers (NaNs) as ones.
nansum(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Return the sum of array elements over a given axis treating
Not a Numbers (NaNs) as zero.
cumprod(a[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of elements along a given
axis.
cumsum(a[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of the elements along a given
axis.
nancumprod(a[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative product of array elements over a
given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as one.
nancumsum(a[, axis, dtype, out]) Return the cumulative sum of array elements over a given
axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as zero.
diff(a[, n, axis]) Calculate the n-th discrete difference along the given axis.
ediff1d(ary[, to_end, to_begin]) The differences between consecutive elements of an array.
gradient(f, *varargs, **kwargs) Return the gradient of an N-dimensional array.
cross(a, b[, axisa, axisb, axisc, axis]) Return the cross product of two (arrays of) vectors.
trapz(y[, x, dx, axis]) Integrate along the given axis using the composite trape-
zoidal rule.
numpy.prod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the product of array elements over a given axis.
Input data.
Axis or axes along which a product is performed. The default, axis=None, will calculate
the product of all the elements in the input array. If axis is negative it counts from the
last to the first axis.

If axis is a tuple of ints, a product is performed on all of the axes specified in the tuple
instead of a single axis or all the axes as before.
The type of the returned array, as well as of the accumulator in which the elements
are multiplied. The dtype of a is used by default unless a has an integer dtype of less
precision than the default platform integer. In that case, if a is signed then the platform
integer is used while if a is unsigned then an unsigned integer of the same precision as
the platform integer is used.
expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if necessary.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the prod
Returns product_along_axis : ndarray, see dtype parameter above.
An array shaped as a but with the specified axis removed. Returns a reference to out if
specified.
See also:
ndarray.prod equivalent method

Notes
Arithmetic is modular when using integer types, and no error is raised on overflow. That means that, on a 32-bit
platform:
>>> x = np.array([536870910, 536870910, 536870910, 536870910])

>>> np.prod(x) # random
16
The product of an empty array is the neutral element 1:
>>> np.prod([])
1.0
Examples
By default, calculate the product of all elements:
>>> np.prod([1.,2.])
2.0
Even when the input array is two-dimensional:

>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]])
24.0
But we can also specify the axis over which to multiply:
>>> np.prod([[1.,2.],[3.,4.]], axis=1)

array([ 2., 12.])
If the type of x is unsigned, then the output type is the unsigned platform integer:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.uint8)

>>> np.prod(x).dtype == np.uint
True
If x is of a signed integer type, then the output type is the default platform integer:
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype=np.int8)

>>> np.prod(x).dtype == int
True
numpy.sum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Sum of array elements over a given axis.
Elements to sum.
Axis or axes along which a sum is performed. The default, axis=None, will sum all of
the elements of the input array. If axis is negative it counts from the last to the first axis.
If axis is a tuple of ints, a sum is performed on all of the axes specified in the tuple
The type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are
summed. The dtype of a is used by default unless a has an integer dtype of less pre-
cision than the default platform integer. In that case, if a is signed then the platform
integer is used while if a is unsigned then an unsigned integer of the same precision as
the platform integer is used.
expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if necessary.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the sum
Returns sum_along_axis : ndarray

An array with the same shape as a, with the specified axis removed. If a is a 0-d array,
or if axis is None, a scalar is returned. If an output array is specified, a reference to out
is returned.
See also:
ndarray.sum Equivalent method.

cumsum Cumulative sum of array elements.
trapz Integration of array values using the composite trapezoidal rule.
mean, average
Notes
The sum of an empty array is the neutral element 0:
>>> np.sum([])
0.0
Examples
>>> np.sum([0.5, 1.5])

2.0
>>> np.sum([0.5, 0.7, 0.2, 1.5], dtype=np.int32)
1
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]])
6
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]], axis=0)
array([0, 6])
>>> np.sum([[0, 1], [0, 5]], axis=1)
array([1, 5])
If the accumulator is too small, overflow occurs:
>>> np.ones(128, dtype=np.int8).sum(dtype=np.int8)

-128
numpy.nanprod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the product of array elements over a given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as ones.
One is returned for slices that are all-NaN or empty.
Array containing numbers whose product is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.
Axis along which the product is computed. The default is to compute the product of the
flattened array.


summed. By default, the dtype of a is used. An exception is when a has an integer
type with less precision than the platform (u)intp. In that case, the default will be either
(u)int32 or (u)int64 depending on whether the platform is 32 or 64 bits. For inexact
inputs, dtype must be inexact.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. The default is None. If provided, it
must have the same shape as the expected output, but the type will be cast if necessary.
See doc.ufuncs for details. The casting of NaN to integer can yield unexpected
results.
If True, the axes which are reduced are left in the result as dimensions with size one.
With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original arr.
Returns nanprod : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case it is
returned.
See also:
numpy.prod Product across array propagating NaNs.

isnan Show which elements are NaN.
Examples
>>> np.nanprod(1)
1
>>> np.nanprod([1])
1
>>> np.nanprod([1, np.nan])
1.0
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])
>>> np.nanprod(a)
6.0
>>> np.nanprod(a, axis=0)
array([ 3., 2.])
numpy.nansum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the sum of array elements over a given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as zero.
In NumPy versions <= 1.8.0 Nan is returned for slices that are all-NaN or empty. In later versions zero is
returned.
Array containing numbers whose sum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.
Axis along which the sum is computed. The default is to compute the sum of the
flattened array.


summed. By default, the dtype of a is used. An exception is when a has an integer
type with less precision than the platform (u)intp. In that case, the default will be either
(u)int32 or (u)int64 depending on whether the platform is 32 or 64 bits. For inexact
inputs, dtype must be inexact.
Alternate output array in which to place the result. The default is None. If provided, it
See doc.ufuncs for details. The casting of NaN to integer can yield unexpected
results.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original a.
If the value is anything but the default, then keepdims will be passed through to the
mean or sum methods of sub-classes of ndarray. If the sub-classes methods does
not implement keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns nansum : ndarray.
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which it is returned.
The result has the same size as a, and the same shape as a if axis is not None or a is a
1-d array.
See also:
numpy.sum Sum across array propagating NaNs.

isfinite Show which elements are not NaN or +/-inf.
Notes
If both positive and negative infinity are present, the sum will be Not A Number (NaN).
Examples
>>> np.nansum(1)
1
>>> np.nansum([1])
1
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan])
1.0
>>> a = np.array([[1, 1], [1, np.nan]])
>>> np.nansum(a)
3.0

>>> np.nansum(a, axis=0)

array([ 2., 1.])
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.inf])
inf
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.NINF])
-inf
>>> np.nansum([1, np.nan, np.inf, -np.inf]) # both +/- infinity present
nan
numpy.cumprod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of elements along a given axis.
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative product is computed. By default the input is flattened.
Type of the returned array, as well as of the accumulator in which the elements are
multiplied. If dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer
dtype with a precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the
default platform integer is used instead.
buffer length as the expected output but the type of the resulting values will be cast if
necessary.
Returns cumprod : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a refer-
ence to out is returned.
See also:
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1,2,3])
>>> np.cumprod(a) # intermediate results 1, 1*2
... # total product 1*2*3 = 6
array([1, 2, 6])
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.cumprod(a, dtype=float) # specify type of output
array([ 1., 2., 6., 24., 120., 720.])
The cumulative product for each column (i.e., over the rows) of a:

>>> np.cumprod(a, axis=0)

array([[ 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 10, 18]])
The cumulative product for each row (i.e. over the columns) of a:
>>> np.cumprod(a,axis=1)
array([[ 1, 2, 6],
[ 4, 20, 120]])
numpy.cumsum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative sum of the elements along a given axis.
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative sum is computed. The default (None) is to compute
the cumsum over the flattened array.
Type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are summed. If
dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer dtype with a
precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the default platform
integer is used.
buffer length as the expected output but the type will be cast if necessary. See doc.
ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”) for more details.
Returns cumsum_along_axis : ndarray.
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case a ref-
erence to out is returned. The result has the same size as a, and the same shape as a if
axis is not None or a is a 1-d array.
See also:
sum Sum array elements.

trapz Integration of array values using the composite trapezoidal rule.
diff Calculate the n-th discrete difference along given axis.
Notes
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])

>>> a
array([[1, 2, 3],

[4, 5, 6]])
>>> np.cumsum(a)
array([ 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21])
>>> np.cumsum(a, dtype=float) # specifies type of output value(s)
array([ 1., 3., 6., 10., 15., 21.])
>>> np.cumsum(a,axis=0) # sum over rows for each of the 3 columns

array([[1, 2, 3],
[5, 7, 9]])
>>> np.cumsum(a,axis=1) # sum over columns for each of the 2 rows
array([[ 1, 3, 6],
[ 4, 9, 15]])
numpy.nancumprod(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative product of array elements over a given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as one. The
cumulative product does not change when NaNs are encountered and leading NaNs are replaced by ones.
Ones are returned for slices that are all-NaN or empty.
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative product is computed. By default the input is flattened.
Type of the returned array, as well as of the accumulator in which the elements are
multiplied. If dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer
dtype with a precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the
default platform integer is used instead.
buffer length as the expected output but the type of the resulting values will be cast if
necessary.
Returns nancumprod : ndarray
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which case it is
returned.
See also:
numpy.cumprod Cumulative product across array propagating NaNs.

Examples
>>> np.nancumprod(1)
array([1])
>>> np.nancumprod([1])
array([1])
>>> np.nancumprod([1, np.nan])

array([ 1., 1.])

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])
>>> np.nancumprod(a)
array([ 1., 2., 6., 6.])
>>> np.nancumprod(a, axis=0)
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 2.]])
>>> np.nancumprod(a, axis=1)
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 3., 3.]])
numpy.nancumsum(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None)

Return the cumulative sum of array elements over a given axis treating Not a Numbers (NaNs) as zero. The
cumulative sum does not change when NaNs are encountered and leading NaNs are replaced by zeros.
Zeros are returned for slices that are all-NaN or empty.
Input array.
Axis along which the cumulative sum is computed. The default (None) is to compute
the cumsum over the flattened array.
Type of the returned array and of the accumulator in which the elements are summed. If
dtype is not specified, it defaults to the dtype of a, unless a has an integer dtype with a
precision less than that of the default platform integer. In that case, the default platform
integer is used.
buffer length as the expected output but the type will be cast if necessary. See doc.
ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”) for more details.
Returns nancumsum : ndarray.
A new array holding the result is returned unless out is specified, in which it is returned.
The result has the same size as a, and the same shape as a if axis is not None or a is a
1-d array.
See also:
numpy.cumsum Cumulative sum across array propagating NaNs.

Examples
>>> np.nancumsum(1)
array([1])
>>> np.nancumsum([1])
array([1])
>>> np.nancumsum([1, np.nan])

array([ 1., 1.])

>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])
>>> np.nancumsum(a)
array([ 1., 3., 6., 6.])
>>> np.nancumsum(a, axis=0)
array([[ 1., 2.],
[ 4., 2.]])
>>> np.nancumsum(a, axis=1)
array([[ 1., 3.],
[ 3., 3.]])
numpy.diff(a, n=1, axis=-1)

Calculate the n-th discrete difference along the given axis.
The first difference is given by out[n] = a[n+1] - a[n] along the given axis, higher differences are
calculated by using diff recursively.
Input array
n : int, optional
The number of times values are differenced. If zero, the input is returned as-is.
The axis along which the difference is taken, default is the last axis.
Returns diff : ndarray
The n-th differences. The shape of the output is the same as a except along axis where
the dimension is smaller by n. The type of the output is the same as the type of the
difference between any two elements of a. This is the same as the type of a in most
cases. A notable exception is datetime64, which results in a timedelta64 output
array.
See also:
gradient, ediff1d, cumsum
Notes
Type is preserved for boolean arrays, so the result will contain False when consecutive elements are the same
and True when they differ.
For unsigned integer arrays, the results will also be unsigned. This should not be surprising, as the result is
consistent with calculating the difference directly:
>>> u8_arr = np.array([1, 0], dtype=np.uint8)

>>> np.diff(u8_arr)
>>> u8_arr[1,...] - u8_arr[0,...]
array(255, np.uint8)
If this is not desirable, then the array should be cast to a larger integer type first:
>>> i16_arr = u8_arr.astype(np.int16)

>>> np.diff(i16_arr)
array([-1], dtype=int16)

Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 0])

>>> np.diff(x)
array([ 1, 2, 3, -7])
>>> np.diff(x, n=2)
array([ 1, 1, -10])
>>> x = np.array([[1, 3, 6, 10], [0, 5, 6, 8]])

>>> np.diff(x)
array([[2, 3, 4],
[5, 1, 2]])
>>> np.diff(x, axis=0)
array([[-1, 2, 0, -2]])
>>> x = np.arange('1066-10-13', '1066-10-16', dtype=np.datetime64)

>>> np.diff(x)
array([1, 1], dtype='timedelta64[D]')
numpy.ediff1d(ary, to_end=None, to_begin=None)

The differences between consecutive elements of an array.
Parameters ary : array_like
If necessary, will be flattened before the differences are taken.
to_end : array_like, optional
Number(s) to append at the end of the returned differences.
to_begin : array_like, optional
Number(s) to prepend at the beginning of the returned differences.
Returns ediff1d : ndarray
The differences. Loosely, this is ary.flat[1:] - ary.flat[:-1].
See also:
diff, gradient
Notes
When applied to masked arrays, this function drops the mask information if the to_begin and/or to_end param-
eters are used.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 0])

>>> np.ediff1d(x)
array([ 1, 2, 3, -7])
>>> np.ediff1d(x, to_begin=-99, to_end=np.array([88, 99]))

array([-99, 1, 2, 3, -7, 88, 99])

The returned array is always 1D.
>>> y = [[1, 2, 4], [1, 6, 24]]

>>> np.ediff1d(y)
array([ 1, 2, -3, 5, 18])
numpy.gradient(f, *varargs, **kwargs)

Return the gradient of an N-dimensional array.
The gradient is computed using second order accurate central differences in the interior points and either first
or second order accurate one-sides (forward or backwards) differences at the boundaries. The returned gradient
hence has the same shape as the input array.
Parameters f : array_like
An N-dimensional array containing samples of a scalar function.
varargs : list of scalar or array, optional
Spacing between f values. Default unitary spacing for all dimensions. Spacing can be
specified using:
1. single scalar to specify a sample distance for all dimensions.
2. N scalars to specify a constant sample distance for each dimension. i.e. dx, dy, dz,
...
3. N arrays to specify the coordinates of the values along each dimension of F. The
length of the array must match the size of the corresponding dimension
4. Any combination of N scalars/arrays with the meaning of 2. and 3.
If axis is given, the number of varargs must equal the number of axes. Default: 1.
edge_order : {1, 2}, optional
Gradient is calculated using N-th order accurate differences at the boundaries. Default:
1.
Gradient is calculated only along the given axis or axes The default (axis = None) is to
calculate the gradient for all the axes of the input array. axis may be negative, in which
case it counts from the last to the first axis.
Returns gradient : ndarray or list of ndarray
A set of ndarrays (or a single ndarray if there is only one dimension) corresponding to
the derivatives of f with respect to each dimension. Each derivative has the same shape
as f.
Notes
Assuming that 𝑓 ∈ 𝐶 3 (i.e., 𝑓 has at least 3 continuous derivatives) and let be ℎ* a non homogeneous stepsize,
the spacing the finite difference coefficients are computed by minimising the consistency error 𝜂𝑖 :
(1)
𝜂 𝑖 = 𝑓𝑖 − [𝛼𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝛽𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 + ℎ𝑑 ) + 𝛾𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 − ℎ𝑠 )]

By substituting 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 + ℎ𝑑 ) and 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 − ℎ𝑠 ) with their Taylor series expansion, this translates into solving the
following the linear system:
⎧
⎨ 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾 =0
−𝛽ℎ𝑑 + 𝛾ℎ𝑠 = 1
𝛽ℎ2𝑑 + 𝛾ℎ2𝑠 = 0
⎩
(1)
The resulting approximation of 𝑓𝑖 is the following:
(︀ )︀
ℎ2𝑠 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 + ℎ𝑑 ) + ℎ2𝑑 − ℎ2𝑠 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 ) − ℎ2𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖 − ℎ𝑠 ) ℎ𝑑 ℎ2𝑠 + ℎ𝑠 ℎ2𝑑
(︂ )︂
(1)
𝑓ˆ𝑖 = +𝒪
ℎ𝑠 ℎ𝑑 (ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑠 ) ℎ𝑑 + ℎ𝑠
It is worth noting that if ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑑 (i.e., data are evenly spaced) we find the standard second order approximation:
(1) 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖+1 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥𝑖−1 )

𝑓ˆ𝑖 = + 𝒪 ℎ2
(︀ )︀
2ℎ
With a similar procedure the forward/backward approximations used for boundaries can be derived.
References
[R3638], [R3738], [R3838]
Examples
>>> f = np.array([1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16], dtype=float)

>>> np.gradient(f)
array([ 1. , 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5. ])
>>> np.gradient(f, 2)
array([ 0.5 , 0.75, 1.25, 1.75, 2.25, 2.5 ])
Spacing can be also specified with an array that represents the coordinates of the values F along the dimensions.
For instance a uniform spacing:
>>> x = np.arange(f.size)
>>> np.gradient(f, x)
array([ 1. , 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5. ])
Or a non uniform one:
>>> x = np.array([0., 1., 1.5, 3.5, 4., 6.], dtype=float)

>>> np.gradient(f, x)
array([ 1. , 3. , 3.5, 6.7, 6.9, 2.5])
For two dimensional arrays, the return will be two arrays ordered by axis. In this example the first array stands
for the gradient in rows and the second one in columns direction:
>>> np.gradient(np.array([[1, 2, 6], [3, 4, 5]], dtype=float))

[array([[ 2., 2., -1.],
[ 2., 2., -1.]]), array([[ 1. , 2.5, 4. ],
[ 1. , 1. , 1. ]])]
In this example the spacing is also specified: uniform for axis=0 and non uniform for axis=1

>>> dx = 2.
>>> y = [1., 1.5, 3.5]
>>> np.gradient(np.array([[1, 2, 6], [3, 4, 5]], dtype=float), dx, y)
[array([[ 1. , 1. , -0.5],
[ 1. , 1. , -0.5]]), array([[ 2. , 2. , 2. ],
[ 2. , 1.7, 0.5]])]
It is possible to specify how boundaries are treated using edge_order
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> f = x**2
>>> np.gradient(f, edge_order=1)
array([ 1., 2., 4., 6., 7.])
>>> np.gradient(f, edge_order=2)
array([-0., 2., 4., 6., 8.])
The axis keyword can be used to specify a subset of axes of which the gradient is calculated
>>> np.gradient(np.array([[1, 2, 6], [3, 4, 5]], dtype=float), axis=0)

array([[ 2., 2., -1.],
[ 2., 2., -1.]])
numpy.cross(a, b, axisa=-1, axisb=-1, axisc=-1, axis=None)

Return the cross product of two (arrays of) vectors.
The cross product of a and b in 𝑅3 is a vector perpendicular to both a and b. If a and b are arrays of vectors,
the vectors are defined by the last axis of a and b by default, and these axes can have dimensions 2 or 3. Where
the dimension of either a or b is 2, the third component of the input vector is assumed to be zero and the cross
product calculated accordingly. In cases where both input vectors have dimension 2, the z-component of the
cross product is returned.
Components of the first vector(s).
b : array_like
Components of the second vector(s).
axisa : int, optional
Axis of a that defines the vector(s). By default, the last axis.
axisb : int, optional
Axis of b that defines the vector(s). By default, the last axis.
axisc : int, optional
Axis of c containing the cross product vector(s). Ignored if both input vectors have
dimension 2, as the return is scalar. By default, the last axis.
If defined, the axis of a, b and c that defines the vector(s) and cross product(s). Overrides
axisa, axisb and axisc.
Returns c : ndarray
Vector cross product(s).
Raises ValueError

When the dimension of the vector(s) in a and/or b does not equal 2 or 3.

See also:
inner Inner product

outer Outer product.
ix_ Construct index arrays.
Notes

Supports full broadcasting of the inputs.
Examples
Vector cross-product.
>>> x = [1, 2, 3]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([-3, 6, -3])
One vector with dimension 2.
>>> x = [1, 2]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([12, -6, -3])
Equivalently:
>>> x = [1, 2, 0]
>>> y = [4, 5, 6]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([12, -6, -3])
Both vectors with dimension 2.
>>> x = [1,2]
>>> y = [4,5]
>>> np.cross(x, y)
-3
Multiple vector cross-products. Note that the direction of the cross product vector is defined by the right-hand
rule.
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])

>>> y = np.array([[4,5,6], [1,2,3]])
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([[-3, 6, -3],
[ 3, -6, 3]])
The orientation of c can be changed using the axisc keyword.

>>> np.cross(x, y, axisc=0)

array([[-3, 3],
[ 6, -6],
[-3, 3]])
Change the vector definition of x and y using axisa and axisb.
>>> x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7, 8, 9]])

>>> y = np.array([[7, 8, 9], [4,5,6], [1,2,3]])
>>> np.cross(x, y)
array([[ -6, 12, -6],
[ 0, 0, 0],
[ 6, -12, 6]])
>>> np.cross(x, y, axisa=0, axisb=0)
array([[-24, 48, -24],
[-30, 60, -30],
[-36, 72, -36]])
numpy.trapz(y, x=None, dx=1.0, axis=-1)

Integrate along the given axis using the composite trapezoidal rule.
Integrate y (x) along given axis.
Parameters y : array_like
Input array to integrate.
x : array_like, optional
The sample points corresponding to the y values. If x is None, the sample points are
assumed to be evenly spaced dx apart. The default is None.
dx : scalar, optional
The spacing between sample points when x is None. The default is 1.
The axis along which to integrate.
Returns trapz : float
Definite integral as approximated by trapezoidal rule.
See also:
sum, cumsum
Notes
Image [R572572] illustrates trapezoidal rule – y-axis locations of points will be taken from y array, by default
x-axis distances between points will be 1.0, alternatively they can be provided with x array or with dx scalar.
Return value will be equal to combined area under the red lines.
References
[R571572], [R572572]

Examples
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3])
4.0
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3], x=[4,6,8])
8.0
>>> np.trapz([1,2,3], dx=2)
8.0
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.trapz(a, axis=0)
array([ 1.5, 2.5, 3.5])
>>> np.trapz(a, axis=1)
array([ 2., 8.])
3.19.5 Exponents and logarithms
exp(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate the exponential of all elements in the input array.
expm1(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate exp(x) - 1 for all elements in the array.
exp2(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate 2**p for all p in the input array.
log(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Natural logarithm, element-wise.
log10(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the base 10 logarithm of the input array, element-
wise.
log2(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Base-2 logarithm of x.
log1p(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the natural logarithm of one plus the input array,
element-wise.
logaddexp(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs.
logaddexp2(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs in
base-2.
numpy.exp(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'exp'>
Calculate the exponential of all elements in the input array.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs


Output array, element-wise exponential of x.
See also:
expm1 Calculate exp(x) - 1 for all elements in the array.

exp2 Calculate 2**x for all elements in the array.
Notes
The irrational number e is also known as Euler’s number. It is approximately 2.718281, and is the base of the
natural logarithm, ln (this means that, if 𝑥 = ln 𝑦 = log𝑒 𝑦, then 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑦. For real input, exp(x) is always
positive.
For complex arguments, x = a + ib, we can write 𝑒𝑥 = 𝑒𝑎 𝑒𝑖𝑏 . The first term, 𝑒𝑎 , is already known (it is
the real argument, described above). The second term, 𝑒𝑖𝑏 , is cos 𝑏 + 𝑖 sin 𝑏, a function with magnitude 1 and a
periodic phase.
References
[R28], [R29]
Examples
Plot the magnitude and phase of exp(x) in the complex plane:
>>> x = np.linspace(-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, 100)

>>> xx = x + 1j * x[:, np.newaxis] # a + ib over complex plane
>>> out = np.exp(xx)
>>> plt.subplot(121)
>>> plt.imshow(np.abs(out),
... extent=[-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, -2*np.pi, 2*np.pi], cmap='gray')
>>> plt.title('Magnitude of exp(x)')
>>> plt.subplot(122)
>>> plt.imshow(np.angle(out),
... extent=[-2*np.pi, 2*np.pi, -2*np.pi, 2*np.pi], cmap='hsv')
>>> plt.title('Phase (angle) of exp(x)')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.expm1(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'expm1'>
Calculate exp(x) - 1 for all elements in the array.
Input values.

Magnitude of exp(x) Phase (angle) of exp(x)

5.0 5.0
2.5 2.5
0.0 0.0
2.5 2.5
5.0 5.0
5 0 5 5 0 5
outputs.
**kwargs
Element-wise exponential minus one: out = exp(x) - 1.
See also:
log1p log(1 + x), the inverse of expm1.
Notes
This function provides greater precision than exp(x) - 1 for small values of x.
Examples
The true value of exp(1e-10) - 1 is 1.00000000005e-10 to about 32 significant digits. This example
shows the superiority of expm1 in this case.
>>> np.expm1(1e-10)
1.00000000005e-10
>>> np.exp(1e-10) - 1
1.000000082740371e-10

numpy.exp2(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'exp2'>
Calculate 2**p for all p in the input array.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Element-wise 2 to the power x.
See also:
power
Notes
Examples
>>> np.exp2([2, 3])

array([ 4., 8.])
numpy.log(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'log'>
Natural logarithm, element-wise.
The natural logarithm log is the inverse of the exponential function, so that log(exp(x)) = x. The natural
logarithm is logarithm in base e.
Input value.
outputs.

**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The natural logarithm of x, element-wise.
See also:
log10, log2, log1p, emath.log
Notes
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that exp(z) = x. The
convention is to return the z whose imaginary part lies in [-pi, pi].
For real-valued input data types, log always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
For complex-valued input, log is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is continuous
from above on it. log handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number, conforming
to the C99 standard.
References
[R91], [R92]
Examples
>>> np.log([1, np.e, np.e**2, 0])

array([ 0., 1., 2., -Inf])
numpy.log10(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'log10'>
Return the base 10 logarithm of the input array, element-wise.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs

Returns y : ndarray
The logarithm to the base 10 of x, element-wise. NaNs are returned where x is negative.
See also:
emath.log10
Notes
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that 10**z = x. The
For real-valued input data types, log10 always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as
a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, log10 is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is con-
tinuous from above on it. log10 handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number,
conforming to the C99 standard.
References
[R93], [R94]
Examples
>>> np.log10([1e-15, -3.])

array([-15., NaN])
numpy.log2(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'log2'>
Base-2 logarithm of x.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
Base-2 logarithm of x.
See also:
log, log10, log1p, emath.log2

Notes

Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that 2**z = x. The
For real-valued input data types, log2 always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as a
For complex-valued input, log2 is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, 0] and is continuous
from above on it. log2 handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number, conforming
to the C99 standard.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2, 2**4])

>>> np.log2(x)
array([-Inf, 0., 1., 4.])
>>> xi = np.array([0+1.j, 1, 2+0.j, 4.j])

>>> np.log2(xi)
array([ 0.+2.26618007j, 0.+0.j , 1.+0.j , 2.+2.26618007j])
numpy.log1p(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'log1p'>
Return the natural logarithm of one plus the input array, element-wise.
Calculates log(1 + x).
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
Natural logarithm of 1 + x, element-wise.
See also:
expm1 exp(x) - 1, the inverse of log1p.

Notes
For real-valued input, log1p is accurate also for x so small that 1 + x == 1 in floating-point accuracy.
Logarithm is a multivalued function: for each x there is an infinite number of z such that exp(z) = 1 + x. The
For real-valued input data types, log1p always returns real output. For each value that cannot be expressed as
a real number or infinity, it yields nan and sets the invalid floating point error flag.
For complex-valued input, log1p is a complex analytical function that has a branch cut [-inf, -1] and is con-
tinuous from above on it. log1p handles the floating-point negative zero as an infinitesimal negative number,
conforming to the C99 standard.
References
[R95], [R96]
Examples
>>> np.log1p(1e-99)
1e-99
>>> np.log(1 + 1e-99)
0.0
numpy.logaddexp(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logaddexp'>
Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs.
Calculates log(exp(x1) + exp(x2)). This function is useful in statistics where the calculated proba-
bilities of events may be so small as to exceed the range of normal floating point numbers. In such cases the
logarithm of the calculated probability is stored. This function allows adding probabilities stored in such a
fashion.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Logarithm of exp(x1) + exp(x2).
See also:

logaddexp2 Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of inputs in base 2.
Notes
Examples
>>> prob1 = np.log(1e-50)

>>> prob2 = np.log(2.5e-50)
>>> prob12 = np.logaddexp(prob1, prob2)
>>> prob12
-113.87649168120691
>>> np.exp(prob12)
3.5000000000000057e-50
numpy.logaddexp2(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'logaddexp2'>
Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs in base-2.
Calculates log2(2**x1 + 2**x2). This function is useful in machine learning when the calculated prob-
abilities of events may be so small as to exceed the range of normal floating point numbers. In such cases the
base-2 logarithm of the calculated probability can be used instead. This function allows adding probabilities
stored in such a fashion.
Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Base-2 logarithm of 2**x1 + 2**x2.
See also:
logaddexp Logarithm of the sum of exponentiations of the inputs.
Notes

Examples
>>> prob1 = np.log2(1e-50)

>>> prob2 = np.log2(2.5e-50)
>>> prob12 = np.logaddexp2(prob1, prob2)
>>> prob1, prob2, prob12
(-166.09640474436813, -164.77447664948076, -164.28904982231052)
>>> 2**prob12
3.4999999999999914e-50
3.19.6 Other special functions
i0(x) Modified Bessel function of the first kind, order 0.

sinc(x) Return the sinc function.
numpy.i0(x)
Modified Bessel function of the first kind, order 0.
Usually denoted 𝐼0 . This function does broadcast, but will not “up-cast” int dtype arguments unless accompa-
nied by at least one float or complex dtype argument (see Raises below).
Parameters x : array_like, dtype float or complex
Argument of the Bessel function.
Returns out : ndarray, shape = x.shape, dtype = x.dtype
The modified Bessel function evaluated at each of the elements of x.
Raises TypeError: array cannot be safely cast to required type
If argument consists exclusively of int dtypes.
See also:
scipy.special.iv, scipy.special.ive
Notes
We use the algorithm published by Clenshaw [R5860] and referenced by Abramowitz and Stegun [R5960],
for which the function domain is partitioned into the two intervals [0,8] and (8,inf), and Chebyshev polyno-
mial expansions are employed in each interval. Relative error on the domain [0,30] using IEEE arithmetic is
documented [R6060] as having a peak of 5.8e-16 with an rms of 1.4e-16 (n = 30000).
References
[R5860], [R5960], [R6060]
Examples

>>> np.i0([0.])
array(1.0)
>>> np.i0([0., 1. + 2j])
array([ 1.00000000+0.j , 0.18785373+0.64616944j])
numpy.sinc(x)
Return the sinc function.
The sinc function is sin(𝜋𝑥)/(𝜋𝑥).
Parameters x : ndarray
Array (possibly multi-dimensional) of values for which to to calculate sinc(x).
sinc(x), which has the same shape as the input.
Notes
sinc(0) is the limit value 1.

The name sinc is short for “sine cardinal” or “sinus cardinalis”.
The sinc function is used in various signal processing applications, including in anti-aliasing, in the construction
of a Lanczos resampling filter, and in interpolation.
For bandlimited interpolation of discrete-time signals, the ideal interpolation kernel is proportional to the sinc
function.
References
[R565566], [R566566]
Examples
>>> x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 41)

>>> np.sinc(x)
array([ -3.89804309e-17, -4.92362781e-02, -8.40918587e-02,
-8.90384387e-02, -5.84680802e-02, 3.89804309e-17,
6.68206631e-02, 1.16434881e-01, 1.26137788e-01,
8.50444803e-02, -3.89804309e-17, -1.03943254e-01,
-1.89206682e-01, -2.16236208e-01, -1.55914881e-01,
3.89804309e-17, 2.33872321e-01, 5.04551152e-01,
7.56826729e-01, 9.35489284e-01, 1.00000000e+00,
9.35489284e-01, 7.56826729e-01, 5.04551152e-01,
2.33872321e-01, 3.89804309e-17, -1.55914881e-01,
-2.16236208e-01, -1.89206682e-01, -1.03943254e-01,
-3.89804309e-17, 8.50444803e-02, 1.26137788e-01,
1.16434881e-01, 6.68206631e-02, 3.89804309e-17,
-5.84680802e-02, -8.90384387e-02, -8.40918587e-02,
-4.92362781e-02, -3.89804309e-17])

>>> plt.plot(x, np.sinc(x))

>>> plt.title("Sinc Function")
<matplotlib.text.Text object at 0x...>
>>> plt.ylabel("Amplitude")
>>> plt.xlabel("X")
>>> plt.show()
It works in 2-D as well:
>>> x = np.linspace(-4, 4, 401)

>>> xx = np.outer(x, x)
>>> plt.imshow(np.sinc(xx))
3.19.7 Floating point routines
signbit(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Returns element-wise True where signbit is set (less than
zero).
copysign(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Change the sign of x1 to that of x2, element-wise.
frexp(x[, out1, out2], / [[, out, where, . . . ]) Decompose the elements of x into mantissa and twos expo-
nent.
ldexp(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Returns x1 * 2**x2, element-wise.
nextafter(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the next floating-point value after x1 towards x2,
element-wise.
spacing(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the distance between x and the nearest adjacent
number.
numpy.signbit(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'signbit'>
Returns element-wise True where signbit is set (less than zero).
The input value(s).
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns result : ndarray of bool
Output array, or reference to out if that was supplied.

Examples
>>> np.signbit(-1.2)
True
>>> np.signbit(np.array([1, -2.3, 2.1]))
numpy.copysign(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'copysign'>
Change the sign of x1 to that of x2, element-wise.
If both arguments are arrays or sequences, they have to be of the same length. If x2 is a scalar, its sign will be
copied to all elements of x1.
Parameters x1 : array_like
Values to change the sign of.
x2 : array_like
The sign of x2 is copied to x1.
outputs.
**kwargs
The values of x1 with the sign of x2.
Examples
>>> np.copysign(1.3, -1)

-1.3
>>> 1/np.copysign(0, 1)
inf
>>> 1/np.copysign(0, -1)
-inf
>>> np.copysign([-1, 0, 1], -1.1)

array([-1., -0., -1.])
>>> np.copysign([-1, 0, 1], np.arange(3)-1)
array([-1., 0., 1.])
numpy.frexp(x[, out1, out2 ], / [, out=(None, None) ], *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’,

dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'frexp'>
Decompose the elements of x into mantissa and twos exponent.

Returns (mantissa, exponent), where x = mantissa * 2**exponent‘. The mantissa is lies in the open interval(-1,
1), while the twos exponent is a signed integer.
Array of numbers to be decomposed.
out1 : ndarray, optional
Output array for the mantissa. Must have the same shape as x.
out2 : ndarray, optional
Output array for the exponent. Must have the same shape as x.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns (mantissa, exponent) : tuple of ndarrays, (float, int)
mantissa is a float array with values between -1 and 1. exponent is an int array which
represents the exponent of 2.
See also:
ldexp Compute y = x1 * 2**x2, the inverse of frexp.
Notes
Complex dtypes are not supported, they will raise a TypeError.
Examples
>>> y1, y2 = np.frexp(x)
>>> y1
array([ 0. , 0.5 , 0.5 , 0.75 , 0.5 , 0.625, 0.75 , 0.875,
0.5 ])
>>> y2
array([0, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4])
>>> y1 * 2**y2
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4., 5., 6., 7., 8.])
numpy.ldexp(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'ldexp'>
Returns x1 * 2**x2, element-wise.
The mantissas x1 and twos exponents x2 are used to construct floating point numbers x1 * 2**x2.

Array of multipliers.
x2 : array_like, int
Array of twos exponents.
outputs.
**kwargs
The result of x1 * 2**x2.
See also:
frexp Return (y1, y2) from x = y1 * 2**y2, inverse to ldexp.
Notes
Complex dtypes are not supported, they will raise a TypeError.

ldexp is useful as the inverse of frexp, if used by itself it is more clear to simply use the expression x1 *
2**x2.
Examples
>>> np.ldexp(5, np.arange(4))

array([ 5., 10., 20., 40.], dtype=float32)
>>> np.ldexp(*np.frexp(x))
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3., 4., 5.])
numpy.nextafter(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'nextafter'>
Return the next floating-point value after x1 towards x2, element-wise.
Values to find the next representable value of.
x2 : array_like
The direction where to look for the next representable value of x1.

outputs.
**kwargs
The next representable values of x1 in the direction of x2.
Examples
>>> eps = np.finfo(np.float64).eps

>>> np.nextafter(1, 2) == eps + 1
True
>>> np.nextafter([1, 2], [2, 1]) == [eps + 1, 2 - eps]
array([ True, True])
numpy.spacing(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'spacing'>
Return the distance between x and the nearest adjacent number.
Values to find the spacing of.
outputs.
**kwargs
The spacing of values of x1.
Notes
It can be considered as a generalization of EPS: spacing(np.float64(1)) == np.finfo(np.

float64).eps, and there should not be any representable number between x + spacing(x) and x for
any finite x.
Spacing of +- inf and NaN is NaN.

Examples
>>> np.spacing(1) == np.finfo(np.float64).eps

True
3.19.8 Arithmetic operations
add(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Add arguments element-wise.
reciprocal(x, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return the reciprocal of the argument, element-wise.
positive(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Numerical positive, element-wise.
negative(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Numerical negative, element-wise.
multiply(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Multiply arguments element-wise.
divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
power(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) First array elements raised to powers from second array,
element-wise.
subtract(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Subtract arguments, element-wise.
true_divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
floor_divide(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the largest integer smaller or equal to the division
of the inputs.
float_power(x1, x2, /[, out, where, . . . ]) First array elements raised to powers from second array,
element-wise.
mod(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return element-wise remainder of division.
modf(x[, out1, out2], / [[, out, where, . . . ]) Return the fractional and integral parts of an array, element-
wise.
remainder(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Return element-wise remainder of division.
divmod(x1, x2[, out1, out2], / [[, out, . . . ]) Return element-wise quotient and remainder simultane-
ously.
numpy.add(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'add'>
Add arguments element-wise.
The arrays to be added. If x1.shape != x2.shape, they must be broadcastable to
a common shape (which may be the shape of one or the other).
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns add : ndarray or scalar

The sum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 + x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.add(1.0, 4.0)

5.0
>>> x1 = np.arange(9.0).reshape((3, 3))
>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.add(x1, x2)
array([[ 0., 2., 4.],
[ 3., 5., 7.],
[ 6., 8., 10.]])
numpy.reciprocal(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'reciprocal'>
Return the reciprocal of the argument, element-wise.
Calculates 1/x.
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
Return array.
Notes
Note: This function is not designed to work with integers.
For integer arguments with absolute value larger than 1 the result is always zero because of the way Python
handles integer division. For integer zero the result is an overflow.

Examples
>>> np.reciprocal(2.)
0.5
>>> np.reciprocal([1, 2., 3.33])
array([ 1. , 0.5 , 0.3003003])
numpy.positive(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'positive'>
Numerical positive, element-wise.
Parameters x : array_like or scalar
Input array.
Returned array or scalar: y = +x.
Notes
Equivalent to x.copy(), but only defined for types that support arithmetic.
numpy.negative(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,
subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'negative'>
Numerical negative, element-wise.
Parameters x : array_like or scalar
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returned array or scalar: y = -x.
Examples
>>> np.negative([1.,-1.])
array([-1., 1.])

numpy.multiply(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'multiply'>
Multiply arguments element-wise.
Input arrays to be multiplied.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The product of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 * x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.multiply(2.0, 4.0)

8.0

>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.multiply(x1, x2)
array([[ 0., 1., 4.],
[ 0., 4., 10.],
[ 0., 7., 16.]])
numpy.divide(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'true_divide'>
Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
Instead of the Python traditional ‘floor division’, this returns a true division. True division adjusts the output
type to present the best answer, regardless of input types.
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.

outputs.
**kwargs
Result is scalar if both inputs are scalar, ndarray otherwise.
Notes
The floor division operator // was added in Python 2.2 making // and / equivalent operators. The default floor
division operation of / can be replaced by true division with from __future__ import division.
In Python 3.0, // is the floor division operator and / the true division operator. The true_divide(x1,
x2) function is equivalent to true division in Python.
Examples
>>> np.true_divide(x, 4)
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 , 0.75, 1. ])
>>> x/4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> from __future__ import division

>>> x/4
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 , 0.75, 1. ])
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
numpy.power(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'power'>
First array elements raised to powers from second array, element-wise.
Raise each base in x1 to the positionally-corresponding power in x2. x1 and x2 must be broadcastable to the
same shape. Note that an integer type raised to a negative integer power will raise a ValueError.
The bases.
x2 : array_like
The exponents.

outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The bases in x1 raised to the exponents in x2.
See also:
float_power power function that promotes integers to float
Examples
Cube each element in a list.
>>> x1 = range(6)
>>> x1
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.power(x1, 3)
array([ 0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125])
Raise the bases to different exponents.
>>> x2 = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0]

>>> np.power(x1, x2)
array([ 0., 1., 8., 27., 16., 5.])
The effect of broadcasting.
>>> x2 = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1], [1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])

>>> x2
array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1],
[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.power(x1, x2)
array([[ 0, 1, 8, 27, 16, 5],
[ 0, 1, 8, 27, 16, 5]])
numpy.subtract(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'subtract'>
Subtract arguments, element-wise.
The arrays to be subtracted from each other.

outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The difference of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns a scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
Notes
Equivalent to x1 - x2 in terms of array broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.subtract(1.0, 4.0)

-3.0

>>> x2 = np.arange(3.0)
>>> np.subtract(x1, x2)
array([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 3., 3., 3.],
[ 6., 6., 6.]])
numpy.true_divide(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'true_divide'>
Returns a true division of the inputs, element-wise.
Instead of the Python traditional ‘floor division’, this returns a true division. True division adjusts the output
type to present the best answer, regardless of input types.
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
outputs.
**kwargs


Result is scalar if both inputs are scalar, ndarray otherwise.
Notes
The floor division operator // was added in Python 2.2 making // and / equivalent operators. The default floor
division operation of / can be replaced by true division with from __future__ import division.
In Python 3.0, // is the floor division operator and / the true division operator. The true_divide(x1,
x2) function is equivalent to true division in Python.
Examples
>>> np.true_divide(x, 4)
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 , 0.75, 1. ])
>>> x/4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> from __future__ import division

>>> x/4
array([ 0. , 0.25, 0.5 , 0.75, 1. ])
>>> x//4
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 1])
numpy.floor_divide(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, or-

der=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc
'floor_divide'>
Return the largest integer smaller or equal to the division of the inputs. It is equivalent to the Python // operator
and pairs with the Python % (remainder), function so that b = a % b + b * (a // b) up to roundoff.
Numerator.
x2 : array_like
Denominator.
outputs.
**kwargs


Returns y : ndarray
y = floor(x1/x2)
See also:
remainder Remainder complementary to floor_divide.

divmod Simultaneous floor division and remainder.
divide Standard division.
floor Round a number to the nearest integer toward minus infinity.
ceil Round a number to the nearest integer toward infinity.
Examples
>>> np.floor_divide(7,3)
2
>>> np.floor_divide([1., 2., 3., 4.], 2.5)
array([ 0., 0., 1., 1.])
numpy.float_power(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'float_power'>
First array elements raised to powers from second array, element-wise.
Raise each base in x1 to the positionally-corresponding power in x2. x1 and x2 must be broadcastable to the
same shape. This differs from the power function in that integers, float16, and float32 are promoted to floats
with a minimum precision of float64 so that the result is always inexact. The intent is that the function will
return a usable result for negative powers and seldom overflow for positive powers.
The bases.
x2 : array_like
The exponents.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The bases in x1 raised to the exponents in x2.

See also:
power power function that preserves type
Examples
Cube each element in a list.
>>> x1 = range(6)
>>> x1
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.float_power(x1, 3)
array([ 0., 1., 8., 27., 64., 125.])
Raise the bases to different exponents.
>>> x2 = [1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 3.0, 2.0, 1.0]

>>> np.float_power(x1, x2)
array([ 0., 1., 8., 27., 16., 5.])
The effect of broadcasting.
>>> x2 = np.array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1], [1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])

>>> x2
array([[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1],
[1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.float_power(x1, x2)
array([[ 0., 1., 8., 27., 16., 5.],
[ 0., 1., 8., 27., 16., 5.]])
numpy.fmod(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'fmod'>
Return the element-wise remainder of division.
This is the NumPy implementation of the C library function fmod, the remainder has the same sign as the
dividend x1. It is equivalent to the Matlab(TM) rem function and should not be confused with the Python
modulus operator x1 % x2.
Dividend.
x2 : array_like
Divisor.
outputs.
**kwargs


The remainder of the division of x1 by x2.
See also:
remainder Equivalent to the Python % operator.
divide
Notes
The result of the modulo operation for negative dividend and divisors is bound by conventions. For fmod, the
sign of result is the sign of the dividend, while for remainder the sign of the result is the sign of the divisor.
The fmod function is equivalent to the Matlab(TM) rem function.
Examples
>>> np.fmod([-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3], 2)

array([-1, 0, -1, 1, 0, 1])
>>> np.remainder([-3, -2, -1, 1, 2, 3], 2)
array([1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1])
>>> np.fmod([5, 3], [2, 2.])

array([ 1., 1.])
>>> a = np.arange(-3, 3).reshape(3, 2)
>>> a
array([[-3, -2],
[-1, 0],
[ 1, 2]])
>>> np.fmod(a, [2,2])
array([[-1, 0],
[-1, 0],
[ 1, 0]])
numpy.mod(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'remainder'>
Return element-wise remainder of division.
Computes the remainder complementary to the floor_divide function. It is equivalent to the Python mod-
ulus operator‘‘x1 % x2‘‘ and has the same sign as the divisor x2. The MATLAB function equivalent to np.
remainder is mod.
Warning: This should not be confused with:

• Python 3.7’s math.remainder and C’s remainder, which computes the IEEE remainder, which are
the complement to round(x1 / x2).
• The MATLAB rem function and or the C % operator which is the complement to int(x1 / x2).
Dividend array.

x2 : array_like
Divisor array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The element-wise remainder of the quotient floor_divide(x1, x2). Returns a
scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
floor_divide Equivalent of Python // operator.

fmod Equivalent of the MATLAB rem function.
divide, floor
Notes
Returns 0 when x2 is 0 and both x1 and x2 are (arrays of) integers.
Examples
>>> np.remainder([4, 7], [2, 3])

array([0, 1])
>>> np.remainder(np.arange(7), 5)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1])
numpy.modf(x[, out1, out2 ], / [, out=(None, None) ], *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’,

dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'modf'>
Return the fractional and integral parts of an array, element-wise.
The fractional and integral parts are negative if the given number is negative.
Input array.

outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y1 : ndarray
Fractional part of x.
y2 : ndarray
Integral part of x.
See also:
divmod divmod(x, 1) is equivalent to modf with the return values switched, except it always has a posi-
tive remainder.
Notes
For integer input the return values are floats.
Examples
>>> np.modf([0, 3.5])

(array([ 0. , 0.5]), array([ 0., 3.]))
>>> np.modf(-0.5)
(-0.5, -0)
numpy.remainder(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'remainder'>
Return element-wise remainder of division.
Computes the remainder complementary to the floor_divide function. It is equivalent to the Python mod-
ulus operator‘‘x1 % x2‘‘ and has the same sign as the divisor x2. The MATLAB function equivalent to np.
remainder is mod.
Warning: This should not be confused with:

• Python 3.7’s math.remainder and C’s remainder, which computes the IEEE remainder, which are
the complement to round(x1 / x2).
• The MATLAB rem function and or the C % operator which is the complement to int(x1 / x2).
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like

Divisor array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The element-wise remainder of the quotient floor_divide(x1, x2). Returns a
scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
floor_divide Equivalent of Python // operator.

fmod Equivalent of the MATLAB rem function.
divide, floor
Notes
Returns 0 when x2 is 0 and both x1 and x2 are (arrays of) integers.
Examples
>>> np.remainder([4, 7], [2, 3])

array([0, 1])
>>> np.remainder(np.arange(7), 5)
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1])
numpy.divmod(x1, x2[, out1, out2 ], / [, out=(None, None) ], *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, or-

der=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'divmod'>
Return element-wise quotient and remainder simultaneously.
np.divmod(x, y) is equivalent to (x // y, x % y), but faster because it avoids redundant work. It is
used to implement the Python built-in function divmod on NumPy arrays.
Dividend array.
x2 : array_like
Divisor array.


outputs.
**kwargs
Returns out1 : ndarray
Element-wise quotient resulting from floor division.
out2 : ndarray
Element-wise remainder from floor division.
See also:
floor_divide Equivalent to Python’s // operator.

remainder Equivalent to Python’s % operator.
modf Equivalent to divmod(x, 1) for positive x with the return values switched.
Examples
>>> np.divmod(np.arange(5), 3)
(array([0, 0, 0, 1, 1]), array([0, 1, 2, 0, 1]))
3.19.9 Handling complex numbers
angle(z[, deg]) Return the angle of the complex argument.

real(val) Return the real part of the complex argument.
imag(val) Return the imaginary part of the complex argument.
conj(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the complex conjugate, element-wise.
numpy.angle(z, deg=0)
Return the angle of the complex argument.
Parameters z : array_like
A complex number or sequence of complex numbers.
deg : bool, optional
Return angle in degrees if True, radians if False (default).
Returns angle : ndarray or scalar
The counterclockwise angle from the positive real axis on the complex plane, with dtype
as numpy.float64.

See also:
arctan2, absolute
Examples
>>> np.angle([1.0, 1.0j, 1+1j]) # in radians

array([ 0. , 1.57079633, 0.78539816])
>>> np.angle(1+1j, deg=True) # in degrees
45.0
numpy.real(val)
Return the real part of the complex argument.
Parameters val : array_like
Input array.
The real component of the complex argument. If val is real, the type of val is used for
the output. If val has complex elements, the returned type is float.
See also:
real_if_close, imag, angle
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j, 3+4j, 5+6j])

>>> a.real
array([ 1., 3., 5.])
>>> a.real = 9
>>> a
array([ 9.+2.j, 9.+4.j, 9.+6.j])
>>> a.real = np.array([9, 8, 7])
>>> a
array([ 9.+2.j, 8.+4.j, 7.+6.j])
>>> np.real(1 + 1j)
1.0
numpy.imag(val)
Return the imaginary part of the complex argument.
Parameters val : array_like
Input array.
The imaginary component of the complex argument. If val is real, the type of val is
used for the output. If val has complex elements, the returned type is float.
See also:
real, angle, real_if_close

Examples
>>> a = np.array([1+2j, 3+4j, 5+6j])

>>> a.imag
array([ 2., 4., 6.])
>>> a.imag = np.array([8, 10, 12])
>>> a
array([ 1. +8.j, 3.+10.j, 5.+12.j])
>>> np.imag(1 + 1j)
1.0
numpy.conj(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'conjugate'>
The complex conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part.
Input value.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The complex conjugate of x, with same dtype as y.
Examples
>>> np.conjugate(1+2j)
(1-2j)
>>> x = np.eye(2) + 1j * np.eye(2)

>>> np.conjugate(x)
array([[ 1.-1.j, 0.-0.j],
[ 0.-0.j, 1.-1.j]])
3.19.10 Miscellaneous
convolve(a, v[, mode]) Returns the discrete, linear convolution of two one-
dimensional sequences.


clip(a, a_min, a_max[, out]) Clip (limit) the values in an array.
sqrt(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the positive square-root of an array, element-wise.
cbrt(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the cube-root of an array, element-wise.
square(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Return the element-wise square of the input.
absolute(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Calculate the absolute value element-wise.
sign(x, /[, out, where, casting, order, . . . ]) Returns an element-wise indication of the sign of a number.
heaviside(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Compute the Heaviside step function.
maximum(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise maximum of array elements.
minimum(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise minimum of array elements.
fmax(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise maximum of array elements.
fmin(x1, x2, /[, out, where, casting, . . . ]) Element-wise minimum of array elements.
nan_to_num(x[, copy]) Replace nan with zero and inf with large finite numbers.
real_if_close(a[, tol]) If complex input returns a real array if complex parts are
close to zero.
interp(x, xp, fp[, left, right, period]) One-dimensional linear interpolation.
numpy.convolve(a, v, mode=’full’)
Returns the discrete, linear convolution of two one-dimensional sequences.
The convolution operator is often seen in signal processing, where it models the effect of a linear time-invariant
system on a signal [R2626]. In probability theory, the sum of two independent random variables is distributed
according to the convolution of their individual distributions.
If v is longer than a, the arrays are swapped before computation.
Parameters a : (N,) array_like
First one-dimensional input array.
v : (M,) array_like
Second one-dimensional input array.
mode : {‘full’, ‘valid’, ‘same’}, optional
‘full’: By default, mode is ‘full’. This returns the convolution at each point of overlap,
with an output shape of (N+M-1,). At the end-points of the convolution, the signals
do not overlap completely, and boundary effects may be seen.
‘same’: Mode ‘same’ returns output of length max(M, N). Boundary effects are still
visible.
‘valid’: Mode ‘valid’ returns output of length max(M, N) - min(M, N) + 1.
The convolution product is only given for points where the signals overlap com-
pletely. Values outside the signal boundary have no effect.
Discrete, linear convolution of a and v.
See also:
scipy.signal.fftconvolve Convolve two arrays using the Fast Fourier Transform.

scipy.linalg.toeplitz Used to construct the convolution operator.
polymul Polynomial multiplication. Same output as convolve, but also accepts poly1d objects as input.

Notes
The discrete convolution operation is defined as

∞
∑︁
(𝑎 * 𝑣)[𝑛] = 𝑎[𝑚]𝑣[𝑛 − 𝑚]
𝑚=−∞
It can be shown that a convolution 𝑥(𝑡) * 𝑦(𝑡) in time/space is equivalent to the multiplication 𝑋(𝑓 )𝑌 (𝑓 ) in the
Fourier domain, after appropriate padding (padding is necessary to prevent circular convolution). Since mul-
tiplication is more efficient (faster) than convolution, the function scipy.signal.fftconvolve exploits
the FFT to calculate the convolution of large data-sets.
References
[R2626]
Examples
Note how the convolution operator flips the second array before “sliding” the two across one another:
>>> np.convolve([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 0.5])
array([ 0. , 1. , 2.5, 4. , 1.5])
Only return the middle values of the convolution. Contains boundary effects, where zeros are taken into account:
>>> np.convolve([1,2,3],[0,1,0.5], 'same')
array([ 1. , 2.5, 4. ])
The two arrays are of the same length, so there is only one position where they completely overlap:
>>> np.convolve([1,2,3],[0,1,0.5], 'valid')
array([ 2.5])
numpy.clip(a, a_min, a_max, out=None)

Clip (limit) the values in an array.
Given an interval, values outside the interval are clipped to the interval edges. For example, if an interval of
[0, 1] is specified, values smaller than 0 become 0, and values larger than 1 become 1.
Array containing elements to clip.
a_min : scalar or array_like or None
Minimum value. If None, clipping is not performed on lower interval edge. Not more
than one of a_min and a_max may be None.
a_max : scalar or array_like or None
Maximum value. If None, clipping is not performed on upper interval edge. Not more
than one of a_min and a_max may be None. If a_min or a_max are array_like, then the
three arrays will be broadcasted to match their shapes.
The results will be placed in this array. It may be the input array for in-place clipping.
out must be of the right shape to hold the output. Its type is preserved.

Returns clipped_array : ndarray

An array with the elements of a, but where values < a_min are replaced with a_min, and
those > a_max with a_max.
See also:
Examples
>>> np.clip(a, 1, 8)
array([1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, 3, 6, out=a)
array([3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6])
>>> a
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9])
>>> np.clip(a, [3, 4, 1, 1, 1, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4], 8)
array([3, 4, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8])
numpy.sqrt(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'sqrt'>
Return the positive square-root of an array, element-wise.
The values whose square-roots are required.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
An array of the same shape as x, containing the positive square-root of each element in
x. If any element in x is complex, a complex array is returned (and the square-roots of
negative reals are calculated). If all of the elements in x are real, so is y, with negative
elements returning nan. If out was provided, y is a reference to it.
See also:
lib.scimath.sqrt A version which returns complex numbers when given negative reals.

Notes
sqrt has–consistent with common convention–as its branch cut the real “interval” [-inf, 0), and is continuous
from above on it. A branch cut is a curve in the complex plane across which a given complex function fails to
be continuous.
Examples
>>> np.sqrt([1,4,9])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> np.sqrt([4, -1, -3+4J])

array([ 2.+0.j, 0.+1.j, 1.+2.j])
>>> np.sqrt([4, -1, numpy.inf])

array([ 2., NaN, Inf])
numpy.cbrt(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'cbrt'>
Return the cube-root of an array, element-wise.
The values whose cube-roots are required.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
An array of the same shape as x, containing the cube cube-root of each element in x. If
out was provided, y is a reference to it.
Examples
>>> np.cbrt([1,8,27])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.square(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'square'>
Return the element-wise square of the input.

Input data.
outputs.
**kwargs
Element-wise x*x, of the same shape and dtype as x. Returns scalar if x is a scalar.
See also:
numpy.linalg.matrix_power, sqrt, power
Examples
>>> np.square([-1j, 1])

array([-1.-0.j, 1.+0.j])
numpy.absolute(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'absolute'>
Calculate the absolute value element-wise.
Input array.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns absolute : ndarray
An ndarray containing the√absolute value of each element in x. For complex input, a +
ib, the absolute value is 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 .

Examples
>>> x = np.array([-1.2, 1.2])

>>> np.absolute(x)
array([ 1.2, 1.2])
>>> np.absolute(1.2 + 1j)
1.5620499351813308
Plot the function over [-10, 10]:

>>> x = np.linspace(start=-10, stop=10, num=101)

>>> plt.plot(x, np.absolute(x))
>>> plt.show()
10
8
6
4
2
0
10.0 7.5 5.0 2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
Plot the function over the complex plane:

>>> xx = x + 1j * x[:, np.newaxis]
>>> plt.imshow(np.abs(xx), extent=[-10, 10, -10, 10], cmap='gray')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.fabs(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'fabs'>
Compute the absolute values element-wise.
This function returns the absolute values (positive magnitude) of the data in x. Complex values are not handled,
use absolute to find the absolute values of complex data.
The array of numbers for which the absolute values are required. If x is a scalar, the
result y will also be a scalar.

10.0
7.5
5.0
2.5
0.0
2.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
10 5 0 5 10
outputs.
**kwargs
The absolute values of x, the returned values are always floats.
See also:
absolute Absolute values including complex types.
Examples
>>> np.fabs(-1)
1.0
>>> np.fabs([-1.2, 1.2])
array([ 1.2, 1.2])
numpy.sign(x, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None, subok=True[,

signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'sign'>
Returns an element-wise indication of the sign of a number.
The sign function returns -1 if x < 0, 0 if x==0, 1 if x > 0. nan is returned for nan inputs.
For complex inputs, the sign function returns sign(x.real) + 0j if x.real != 0 else
sign(x.imag) + 0j.
complex(nan, 0) is returned for complex nan inputs.

Input values.
outputs.
**kwargs
Returns y : ndarray
The sign of x.
Notes
There is more than

√ one definition of sign in common use for complex numbers. The definition used here is
equivalent to 𝑥/ 𝑥 * 𝑥 which is different from a common alternative, 𝑥/|𝑥|.
Examples
>>> np.sign([-5., 4.5])

array([-1., 1.])
>>> np.sign(0)
0
>>> np.sign(5-2j)
(1+0j)
numpy.heaviside(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'heaviside'>
Compute the Heaviside step function.
The Heaviside step function is defined as:
0 if x1 < 0
heaviside(x1, x2) = x2 if x1 == 0
1 if x1 > 0
where x2 is often taken to be 0.5, but 0 and 1 are also sometimes used.
Input values.
x2 : array_like
The value of the function when x1 is 0.

outputs.
**kwargs
The output array, element-wise Heaviside step function of x1.
Notes
References
Examples
>>> np.heaviside([-1.5, 0, 2.0], 0.5)

array([ 0. , 0.5, 1. ])
>>> np.heaviside([-1.5, 0, 2.0], 1)
array([ 0., 1., 1.])
numpy.maximum(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'maximum'>
Element-wise maximum of array elements.
Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise maxima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then that element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned. The latter
distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary parts being
a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are propagated.
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape, or
shapes that can be broadcast to a single shape.
outputs.
**kwargs


The maximum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
minimum Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.

fmax Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
amax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
fmin, amin, nanmin
Notes
The maximum is equivalent to np.where(x1 >= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are nans, but it is
faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.maximum([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])

array([2, 5, 4])
>>> np.maximum(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2]) # broadcasting

array([[ 1. , 2. ],
[ 0.5, 2. ]])
>>> np.maximum([np.nan, 0, np.nan], [0, np.nan, np.nan])

array([ NaN, NaN, NaN])
>>> np.maximum(np.Inf, 1)
inf
numpy.minimum(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'minimum'>
Element-wise minimum of array elements.
Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise minima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then that element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned. The latter
distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary parts being
a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are propagated.
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape, or
shapes that can be broadcast to a single shape.
outputs.


**kwargs
The minimum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
maximum Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.

fmin Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.
amin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
fmax, amax, nanmax
Notes
The minimum is equivalent to np.where(x1 <= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are NaNs, but it
is faster and does proper broadcasting.
Examples
>>> np.minimum([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])

array([1, 3, 2])
>>> np.minimum(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2]) # broadcasting

array([[ 0.5, 0. ],
[ 0. , 1. ]])
>>> np.minimum([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])

array([ NaN, NaN, NaN])
>>> np.minimum(-np.Inf, 1)
-inf
numpy.fmax(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'fmax'>
Element-wise maximum of array elements.
Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise maxima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then the non-nan element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned.
The latter distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary
parts being a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are ignored when possible.
The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape.

outputs.
**kwargs
The maximum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
fmin Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.

maximum Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
amax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
minimum, amin, nanmin
Notes

The fmax is equivalent to np.where(x1 >= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are NaNs, but it is
Examples
>>> np.fmax([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])

array([ 2., 5., 4.])
>>> np.fmax(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2])

array([[ 1. , 2. ],
[ 0.5, 2. ]])
>>> np.fmax([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])

array([ 0., 0., NaN])
numpy.fmin(x1, x2, /, out=None, *, where=True, casting=’same_kind’, order=’K’, dtype=None,

subok=True[, signature, extobj ]) = <ufunc 'fmin'>
Element-wise minimum of array elements.
Compare two arrays and returns a new array containing the element-wise minima. If one of the elements being
compared is a NaN, then the non-nan element is returned. If both elements are NaNs then the first is returned.
The latter distinction is important for complex NaNs, which are defined as at least one of the real or imaginary
parts being a NaN. The net effect is that NaNs are ignored when possible.


The arrays holding the elements to be compared. They must have the same shape.
outputs.
**kwargs
The minimum of x1 and x2, element-wise. Returns scalar if both x1 and x2 are scalars.
See also:
fmax Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignores NaNs.

minimum Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagates NaNs.
amin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagates NaNs.
nanmin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignores NaNs.
maximum, amax, nanmax
Notes

The fmin is equivalent to np.where(x1 <= x2, x1, x2) when neither x1 nor x2 are NaNs, but it is
Examples
>>> np.fmin([2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 2])

array([1, 3, 2])
>>> np.fmin(np.eye(2), [0.5, 2])

array([[ 0.5, 0. ],
[ 0. , 1. ]])
>>> np.fmin([np.nan, 0, np.nan],[0, np.nan, np.nan])

array([ 0., 0., NaN])
numpy.nan_to_num(x, copy=True)
Replace nan with zero and inf with large finite numbers.

If x is inexact, NaN is replaced by zero, and infinity and -infinity replaced by the respectively largest and most
negative finite floating point values representable by x.dtype.
For complex dtypes, the above is applied to each of the real and imaginary components of x separately.
If x is not inexact, then no replacements are made.
Input data.
Whether to create a copy of x (True) or to replace values in-place (False). The in-place
operation only occurs if casting to an array does not require a copy. Default is True.
x, with the non-finite values replaced. If copy is False, this may be x itself.
See also:
isinf Shows which elements are positive or negative infinity.

isneginf Shows which elements are negative infinity.
isposinf Shows which elements are positive infinity.
isnan Shows which elements are Not a Number (NaN).
isfinite Shows which elements are finite (not NaN, not infinity)
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([np.inf, -np.inf, np.nan, -128, 128])

>>> np.nan_to_num(x)
array([ 1.79769313e+308, -1.79769313e+308, 0.00000000e+000,
-1.28000000e+002, 1.28000000e+002])
>>> y = np.array([complex(np.inf, np.nan), np.nan, complex(np.nan, np.inf)])
>>> np.nan_to_num(y)
array([ 1.79769313e+308 +0.00000000e+000j,
0.00000000e+000 +0.00000000e+000j,
0.00000000e+000 +1.79769313e+308j])
numpy.real_if_close(a, tol=100)
If complex input returns a real array if complex parts are close to zero.
“Close to zero” is defined as tol * (machine epsilon of the type for a).
Input array.
tol : float

Tolerance in machine epsilons for the complex part of the elements in the array.
If a is real, the type of a is used for the output. If a has complex elements, the returned
type is float.
See also:
real, imag, angle
Notes
Machine epsilon varies from machine to machine and between data types but Python floats on most platforms
have a machine epsilon equal to 2.2204460492503131e-16. You can use ‘np.finfo(float).eps’ to print out the
machine epsilon for floats.
Examples
>>> np.finfo(float).eps
2.2204460492503131e-16
>>> np.real_if_close([2.1 + 4e-14j], tol=1000)

array([ 2.1])
>>> np.real_if_close([2.1 + 4e-13j], tol=1000)
array([ 2.1 +4.00000000e-13j])
numpy.interp(x, xp, fp, left=None, right=None, period=None)

One-dimensional linear interpolation.
Returns the one-dimensional piecewise linear interpolant to a function with given values at discrete data-points.
The x-coordinates of the interpolated values.
xp : 1-D sequence of floats
The x-coordinates of the data points, must be increasing if argument period is not spec-
ified. Otherwise, xp is internally sorted after normalizing the periodic boundaries with
xp = xp % period.
fp : 1-D sequence of float or complex
The y-coordinates of the data points, same length as xp.
left : optional float or complex corresponding to fp
Value to return for x < xp[0], default is fp[0].
right : optional float or complex corresponding to fp
Value to return for x > xp[-1], default is fp[-1].
period : None or float, optional
A period for the x-coordinates. This parameter allows the proper interpolation of angu-
lar x-coordinates. Parameters left and right are ignored if period is specified.

Returns y : float or complex (corresponding to fp) or ndarray

The interpolated values, same shape as x.
Raises ValueError
If xp and fp have different length If xp or fp are not 1-D sequences If period == 0
Notes
Does not check that the x-coordinate sequence xp is increasing. If xp is not increasing, the results are nonsense.
A simple check for increasing is:
np.all(np.diff(xp) > 0)
Examples
>>> xp = [1, 2, 3]
>>> fp = [3, 2, 0]
>>> np.interp(2.5, xp, fp)
1.0
>>> np.interp([0, 1, 1.5, 2.72, 3.14], xp, fp)
array([ 3. , 3. , 2.5 , 0.56, 0. ])
>>> UNDEF = -99.0
>>> np.interp(3.14, xp, fp, right=UNDEF)
-99.0
Plot an interpolant to the sine function:
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 10)

>>> y = np.sin(x)
>>> xvals = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 50)
>>> yinterp = np.interp(xvals, x, y)
>>> plt.plot(x, y, 'o')
>>> plt.plot(xvals, yinterp, '-x')
>>> plt.show()
Interpolation with periodic x-coordinates:
>>> x = [-180, -170, -185, 185, -10, -5, 0, 365]

>>> xp = [190, -190, 350, -350]
>>> fp = [5, 10, 3, 4]
>>> np.interp(x, xp, fp, period=360)
array([7.5, 5., 8.75, 6.25, 3., 3.25, 3.5, 3.75])
Complex interpolation >>> x = [1.5, 4.0] >>> xp = [2,3,5] >>> fp = [1.0j, 0, 2+3j] >>> np.interp(x, xp, fp)
array([ 0.+1.j , 1.+1.5j])

1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3.20 Matrix library (numpy.matlib)
This module contains all functions in the numpy namespace, with the following replacement functions that return
matrices instead of ndarrays.
Functions that are also in the numpy namespace and return matrices
mat(data[, dtype]) Interpret the input as a matrix.

matrix(data[, dtype, copy]) Returns a matrix from an array-like object, or from a string
of data.
array.
Replacement functions in matlib
empty(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a new matrix of given shape and type, without ini-
tializing entries.
zeros(shape[, dtype, order]) Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
ones(shape[, dtype, order]) Matrix of ones.
eye(n[, M, k, dtype, order]) Return a matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros else-
where.
identity(n[, dtype]) Returns the square identity matrix of given size.
repmat(a, m, n) Repeat a 0-D to 2-D array or matrix MxN times.
rand(*args) Return a matrix of random values with given shape.
randn(*args) Return a random matrix with data from the “standard nor-
mal” distribution.
numpy.matlib.empty(shape, dtype=None, order=’C’)

Return a new matrix of given shape and type, without initializing entries.
Shape of the empty matrix.
3.20. Matrix library (numpy.matlib)
Desired output data-type. 797
Examples
>>> import numpy.matlib

>>> np.matlib.empty((2, 2)) # filled with random data
matrix([[ 6.76425276e-320, 9.79033856e-307],
[ 7.39337286e-309, 3.22135945e-309]]) #random
>>> np.matlib.empty((2, 2), dtype=int)
matrix([[ 6600475, 0],
[ 6586976, 22740995]]) #random
numpy.matlib.zeros(shape, dtype=None, order=’C’)

Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with zeros.
Shape of the matrix
The desired data-type for the matrix, default is float.
Whether to store the result in C- or Fortran-contiguous order, default is ‘C’.
Zero matrix of given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:
numpy.zeros Equivalent array function.

matlib.ones Return a matrix of ones.
Notes
If shape has length one i.e. (N,), or is a scalar N, out becomes a single row matrix of shape (1,N).
Examples

>>> np.matlib.zeros((2, 3))
matrix([[ 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> np.matlib.zeros(2)
matrix([[ 0., 0.]])
numpy.matlib.ones(shape, dtype=None, order=’C’)

Matrix of ones.
Return a matrix of given shape and type, filled with ones.
Parameters shape : {sequence of ints, int}
Shape of the matrix

The desired data-type for the matrix, default is np.float64.

Whether to store matrix in C- or Fortran-contiguous order, default is ‘C’.
Matrix of ones of given shape, dtype, and order.
See also:
ones Array of ones.

matlib.zeros Zero matrix.
Notes
If shape has length one i.e. (N,), or is a scalar N, out becomes a single row matrix of shape (1,N).
Examples
>>> np.matlib.ones((2,3))
matrix([[ 1., 1., 1.],
[ 1., 1., 1.]])
>>> np.matlib.ones(2)
matrix([[ 1., 1.]])
numpy.matlib.eye(n, M=None, k=0, dtype=<class ’float’>, order=’C’)

Return a matrix with ones on the diagonal and zeros elsewhere.
Parameters n : int
Number of rows in the output.
M : int, optional
Number of columns in the output, defaults to n.
k : int, optional
Index of the diagonal: 0 refers to the main diagonal, a positive value refers to an upper
diagonal, and a negative value to a lower diagonal.
Data-type of the returned matrix.
Whether the output should be stored in row-major (C-style) or column-major (Fortran-
style) order in memory.
Returns I : matrix
A n x M matrix where all elements are equal to zero, except for the k-th diagonal, whose
values are equal to one.
See also:
3.20. Matrix library (numpy.matlib) 799

numpy.eye Equivalent array function.

identity Square identity matrix.
Examples

>>> np.matlib.eye(3, k=1, dtype=float)
matrix([[ 0., 1., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 1.],
[ 0., 0., 0.]])
numpy.matlib.identity(n, dtype=None)
Returns the square identity matrix of given size.
Parameters n : int
Size of the returned identity matrix.
n x n matrix with its main diagonal set to one, and all other elements zero.
See also:
numpy.identity Equivalent array function.

matlib.eye More general matrix identity function.
Examples

>>> np.matlib.identity(3, dtype=int)
matrix([[1, 0, 0],
[0, 1, 0],
[0, 0, 1]])
numpy.matlib.repmat(a, m, n)
Repeat a 0-D to 2-D array or matrix MxN times.
The array or matrix to be repeated.
m, n : int
The number of times a is repeated along the first and second axes.
The result of repeating a.

Examples

>>> a0 = np.array(1)
>>> np.matlib.repmat(a0, 2, 3)
array([[1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1]])
>>> a1 = np.arange(4)
array([[0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3],
[0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 1, 2, 3]])
>>> a2 = np.asmatrix(np.arange(6).reshape(2, 3))

matrix([[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5],
[0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5, 3, 4, 5]])
numpy.matlib.rand(*args)
Return a matrix of random values with given shape.
Create a matrix of the given shape and propagate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over [0,
1).
Shape of the output. If given as N integers, each integer specifies the size of one dimen-
sion. If given as a tuple, this tuple gives the complete shape.
The matrix of random values with shape given by *args.
See also:
randn, numpy.random.rand
Examples

>>> np.matlib.rand(2, 3)
matrix([[ 0.68340382, 0.67926887, 0.83271405],
[ 0.00793551, 0.20468222, 0.95253525]]) #random
>>> np.matlib.rand((2, 3))
matrix([[ 0.84682055, 0.73626594, 0.11308016],
[ 0.85429008, 0.3294825 , 0.89139555]]) #random
If the first argument is a tuple, other arguments are ignored:
>>> np.matlib.rand((2, 3), 4)

matrix([[ 0.46898646, 0.15163588, 0.95188261],
[ 0.59208621, 0.09561818, 0.00583606]]) #random
numpy.matlib.randn(*args)
Return a random matrix with data from the “standard normal” distribution.
3.20. Matrix library (numpy.matlib) 801

randn generates a matrix filled with random floats sampled from a univariate “normal” (Gaussian) distribution
of mean 0 and variance 1.
Shape of the output. If given as N integers, each integer specifies the size of one dimen-
sion. If given as a tuple, this tuple gives the complete shape.
Returns Z : matrix of floats
A matrix of floating-point samples drawn from the standard normal distribution.
See also:
rand, random.randn
Notes
For random samples from 𝑁 (𝜇, 𝜎 2 ), use:

sigma * np.matlib.randn(...) + mu
Examples

>>> np.matlib.randn(1)
matrix([[-0.09542833]]) #random
>>> np.matlib.randn(1, 2, 3)
matrix([[ 0.16198284, 0.0194571 , 0.18312985],
[-0.7509172 , 1.61055 , 0.45298599]]) #random
Two-by-four matrix of samples from 𝑁 (3, 6.25):
>>> 2.5 * np.matlib.randn((2, 4)) + 3

matrix([[ 4.74085004, 8.89381862, 4.09042411, 4.83721922],
[ 7.52373709, 5.07933944, -2.64043543, 0.45610557]]) #random
3.21 Miscellaneous routines
3.21.1 Buffer objects
getbuffer
newbuffer
3.21.2 Performance tuning
setbufsize(size) Set the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.

getbufsize() Return the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.
numpy.getbufsize()
Return the size of the buffer used in ufuncs.

Returns getbufsize : int

Size of ufunc buffer in bytes.
3.21.3 Memory ranges
shares_memory(a, b[, max_work]) Determine if two arrays share memory

may_share_memory(a, b[, max_work]) Determine if two arrays might share memory
numpy.shares_memory(a, b, max_work=None)
Determine if two arrays share memory
Parameters a, b : ndarray
Input arrays
max_work : int, optional
Effort to spend on solving the overlap problem (maximum number of candidate solu-
tions to consider). The following special values are recognized:
max_work=MAY_SHARE_EXACT (default) The problem is solved exactly. In this
case, the function returns True only if there is an element shared between the arrays.
max_work=MAY_SHARE_BOUNDS Only the memory bounds of a and b are
checked.
Returns out : bool
Raises numpy.TooHardError
Exceeded max_work.
See also:
may_share_memory
Examples
>>> np.may_share_memory(np.array([1,2]), np.array([5,8,9]))

False
numpy.may_share_memory(a, b, max_work=None)
Determine if two arrays might share memory
A return of True does not necessarily mean that the two arrays share any element. It just means that they might.
Only the memory bounds of a and b are checked by default.
Parameters a, b : ndarray
Input arrays
max_work : int, optional
Effort to spend on solving the overlap problem. See shares_memory for details.
Default for may_share_memory is to do a bounds check.
Returns out : bool
3.21. Miscellaneous routines 803

See also:
shares_memory
Examples
>>> np.may_share_memory(np.array([1,2]), np.array([5,8,9]))

False
>>> x = np.zeros([3, 4])
>>> np.may_share_memory(x[:,0], x[:,1])
True
3.21.4 Array mixins
lib.mixins.NDArrayOperatorsMixin Mixin defining all operator special methods using __ar-

ray_ufunc__.
class numpy.lib.mixins.NDArrayOperatorsMixin
Mixin defining all operator special methods using __array_ufunc__.
This class implements the special methods for almost all of Python’s builtin operators defined in the
operator module, including comparisons (==, >, etc.) and arithmetic (+, *, -, etc.), by deferring to the
__array_ufunc__ method, which subclasses must implement.
This class does not yet implement the special operators corresponding to matmul (@), because np.matmul is
not yet a NumPy ufunc.
It is useful for writing classes that do not inherit from numpy.ndarray, but that should support arithmetic
and numpy universal functions like arrays as described in A Mechanism for Overriding Ufuncs.
As an trivial example, consider this implementation of an ArrayLike class that simply wraps a NumPy array
and ensures that the result of any arithmetic operation is also an ArrayLike object:
class ArrayLike(np.lib.mixins.NDArrayOperatorsMixin):
def __init__(self, value):
self.value = np.asarray(value)
# One might also consider adding the built-in list type to this
# list, to support operations like np.add(array_like, list)
_HANDLED_TYPES = (np.ndarray, numbers.Number)
def __array_ufunc__(self, ufunc, method, *inputs, **kwargs):

out = kwargs.get('out', ())
for x in inputs + out:
# Only support operations with instances of _HANDLED_TYPES.
# Use ArrayLike instead of type(self) for isinstance to
# allow subclasses that don't override __array_ufunc__ to
# handle ArrayLike objects.
if not isinstance(x, self._HANDLED_TYPES + (ArrayLike,)):
return NotImplemented
# Defer to the implementation of the ufunc on unwrapped values.

inputs = tuple(x.value if isinstance(x, ArrayLike) else x
for x in inputs)
if out:

kwargs['out'] = tuple(
x.value if isinstance(x, ArrayLike) else x
for x in out)
result = getattr(ufunc, method)(*inputs, **kwargs)
if type(result) is tuple:
# multiple return values
return tuple(type(self)(x) for x in result)
elif method == 'at':
# no return value
return None
else:
# one return value
return type(self)(result)
def __repr__(self):
return '%s(%r)' % (type(self).__name__, self.value)
In interactions between ArrayLike objects and numbers or numpy arrays, the result is always another
ArrayLike:
>>> x = ArrayLike([1, 2, 3])

>>> x - 1
ArrayLike(array([0, 1, 2]))
>>> 1 - x
ArrayLike(array([ 0, -1, -2]))
>>> np.arange(3) - x
ArrayLike(array([-1, -1, -1]))
>>> x - np.arange(3)
ArrayLike(array([1, 1, 1]))
Note that unlike numpy.ndarray, ArrayLike does not allow operations with arbitrary, unrecognized types.
This ensures that interactions with ArrayLike preserve a well-defined casting hierarchy.
3.21.5 NumPy version comparison
lib.NumpyVersion(vstring) Parse and compare numpy version strings.
class numpy.lib.NumpyVersion(vstring)
Parse and compare numpy version strings.
NumPy has the following versioning scheme (numbers given are examples; they can be > 9) in principle):
• Released version: ‘1.8.0’, ‘1.8.1’, etc.
• Alpha: ‘1.8.0a1’, ‘1.8.0a2’, etc.
• Beta: ‘1.8.0b1’, ‘1.8.0b2’, etc.
• Release candidates: ‘1.8.0rc1’, ‘1.8.0rc2’, etc.
• Development versions: ‘1.8.0.dev-f1234afa’ (git commit hash appended)
• Development versions after a1: ‘1.8.0a1.dev-f1234afa’, ‘1.8.0b2.dev-f1234afa’, ‘1.8.1rc1.dev-
f1234afa’, etc.
• Development versions (no git hash available): ‘1.8.0.dev-Unknown’
3.21. Miscellaneous routines 805

Comparing needs to be done against a valid version string or other NumpyVersion instance. Note that all
development versions of the same (pre-)release compare equal.
Parameters vstring : str
NumPy version string (np.__version__).
Examples
>>> from numpy.lib import NumpyVersion

>>> if NumpyVersion(np.__version__) < '1.7.0'):
... print('skip')
skip
>>> NumpyVersion('1.7') # raises ValueError, add ".0"
3.22 Padding Arrays
pad(array, pad_width, mode, **kwargs) Pads an array.
numpy.pad(array, pad_width, mode, **kwargs)

Pads an array.
Parameters array : array_like of rank N
Input array
pad_width : {sequence, array_like, int}
Number of values padded to the edges of each axis. ((before_1, after_1), . . . (before_N,
after_N)) unique pad widths for each axis. ((before, after),) yields same before and after
pad for each axis. (pad,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = pad width for all axes.
mode : str or function
One of the following string values or a user supplied function.
‘constant’ Pads with a constant value.
‘edge’ Pads with the edge values of array.
‘linear_ramp’ Pads with the linear ramp between end_value and the array edge value.
‘maximum’ Pads with the maximum value of all or part of the vector along each axis.
‘mean’ Pads with the mean value of all or part of the vector along each axis.
‘median’ Pads with the median value of all or part of the vector along each axis.
‘minimum’ Pads with the minimum value of all or part of the vector along each axis.
‘reflect’ Pads with the reflection of the vector mirrored on the first and last values of
the vector along each axis.
‘symmetric’ Pads with the reflection of the vector mirrored along the edge of the array.

‘wrap’ Pads with the wrap of the vector along the axis. The first values are used to pad
the end and the end values are used to pad the beginning.
<function> Padding function, see Notes.
stat_length : sequence or int, optional
Used in ‘maximum’, ‘mean’, ‘median’, and ‘minimum’. Number of values at edge of
each axis used to calculate the statistic value.
((before_1, after_1), . . . (before_N, after_N)) unique statistic lengths for each axis.
((before, after),) yields same before and after statistic lengths for each axis.
(stat_length,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = statistic length for all axes.
Default is None, to use the entire axis.
constant_values : sequence or int, optional
Used in ‘constant’. The values to set the padded values for each axis.
((before_1, after_1), . . . (before_N, after_N)) unique pad constants for each axis.
((before, after),) yields same before and after constants for each axis.
(constant,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = constant for all axes.
Default is 0.
end_values : sequence or int, optional
Used in ‘linear_ramp’. The values used for the ending value of the linear_ramp and that
will form the edge of the padded array.
((before_1, after_1), . . . (before_N, after_N)) unique end values for each axis.
((before, after),) yields same before and after end values for each axis.
(constant,) or int is a shortcut for before = after = end value for all axes.
Default is 0.
reflect_type : {‘even’, ‘odd’}, optional
Used in ‘reflect’, and ‘symmetric’. The ‘even’ style is the default with an unaltered
reflection around the edge value. For the ‘odd’ style, the extented part of the array is
created by subtracting the reflected values from two times the edge value.
Returns pad : ndarray
Padded array of rank equal to array with shape increased according to pad_width.
Notes

For an array with rank greater than 1, some of the padding of later axes is calculated from padding of previous
axes. This is easiest to think about with a rank 2 array where the corners of the padded array are calculated by
using padded values from the first axis.
The padding function, if used, should return a rank 1 array equal in length to the vector argument with padded
values replaced. It has the following signature:
padding_func(vector, iaxis_pad_width, iaxis, kwargs)
3.22. Padding Arrays 807

where
vector [ndarray] A rank 1 array already padded with zeros. Padded values are vector[:pad_tuple[0]]
and vector[-pad_tuple[1]:].
iaxis_pad_width [tuple] A 2-tuple of ints, iaxis_pad_width[0] represents the number of values
padded at the beginning of vector where iaxis_pad_width[1] represents the number of values
padded at the end of vector.
iaxis [int] The axis currently being calculated.
kwargs [dict] Any keyword arguments the function requires.
Examples
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.pad(a, (2,3), 'constant', constant_values=(4, 6))
array([4, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 6, 6])
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'edge')

array([1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5])
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'linear_ramp', end_values=(5, -4))

array([ 5, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 2, -1, -4])
>>> np.pad(a, (2,), 'maximum')

array([5, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5])
>>> np.pad(a, (2,), 'mean')

array([3, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 3])
>>> np.pad(a, (2,), 'median')

array([3, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 3, 3])
>>> a = [[1, 2], [3, 4]]

>>> np.pad(a, ((3, 2), (2, 3)), 'minimum')
array([[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1],
[3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 3, 3],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1],
[1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1]])
>>> a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'reflect')
array([3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 2])
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'reflect', reflect_type='odd')

array([-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8])
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'symmetric')

array([2, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 3])

>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'symmetric', reflect_type='odd')

array([0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7])
>>> np.pad(a, (2, 3), 'wrap')

array([4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3])
>>> def pad_with(vector, pad_width, iaxis, kwargs):

... pad_value = kwargs.get('padder', 10)
... vector[:pad_width[0]] = pad_value
... vector[-pad_width[1]:] = pad_value
... return vector
>>> a = a.reshape((2, 3))
>>> np.pad(a, 2, pad_with)
array([[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 0, 1, 2, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 3, 4, 5, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10],
[10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10]])
>>> np.pad(a, 2, pad_with, padder=100)
array([[100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100],
[100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100],
[100, 100, 0, 1, 2, 100, 100],
[100, 100, 3, 4, 5, 100, 100],
[100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100],
[100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100, 100]])
3.23 Polynomials
Polynomials in NumPy can be created, manipulated, and even fitted using the Using the Convenience Classes of the
numpy.polynomial package, introduced in NumPy 1.4.
Prior to NumPy 1.4, numpy.poly1d was the class of choice and it is still available in order to maintain backward
compatibility. However, the newer Polynomial package is more complete than numpy.poly1d and its convenience
classes are better behaved in the numpy environment. Therefore Polynomial is recommended for new coding.
3.23.1 Transition notice
The various routines in the Polynomial package all deal with series whose coefficients go from degree zero upward,
which is the reverse order of the Poly1d convention. The easy way to remember this is that indexes correspond to
degree, i.e., coef[i] is the coefficient of the term of degree i.
Polynomial Package
Using the Convenience Classes
The convenience classes provided by the polynomial package are:
3.23. Polynomials 809

Name Provides
Polynomial Power series
Chebyshev Chebyshev series
Legendre Legendre series
Laguerre Laguerre series
Hermite Hermite series
HermiteE HermiteE series
The series in this context are finite sums of the corresponding polynomial basis functions multiplied by coefficients.
For instance, a power series looks like
𝑝(𝑥) = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥2
and has coefficients [1, 2, 3]. The Chebyshev series with the same coefficients looks like
𝑝(𝑥) = 1𝑇0 (𝑥) + 2𝑇1 (𝑥) + 3𝑇2 (𝑥)
and more generally

𝑛
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑖 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥)
𝑖=0
where in this case the 𝑇𝑛 are the Chebyshev functions of degree 𝑛, but could just as easily be the basis functions of
any of the other classes. The convention for all the classes is that the coefficient 𝑐[𝑖] goes with the basis function of
degree i.
All of the classes have the same methods, and especially they implement the Python numeric operators +, -, *, //, %,
divmod, **, ==, and !=. The last two can be a bit problematic due to floating point roundoff errors. We now give a
quick demonstration of the various operations using NumPy version 1.7.0.
Basics
First we need a polynomial class and a polynomial instance to play with. The classes can be imported directly from
the polynomial package or from the module of the relevant type. Here we import from the package and use the
conventional Polynomial class because of its familiarity:
>>> from numpy.polynomial import Polynomial as P

>>> p = P([1,2,3])
>>> p
Polynomial([ 1., 2., 3.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Note that there are three parts to the long version of the printout. The first is the coefficients, the second is the domain,
and the third is the window:
>>> p.coef
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> p.domain
array([-1., 1.])
>>> p.window
array([-1., 1.])
Printing a polynomial yields a shorter form without the domain and window:

>>> print p
poly([ 1. 2. 3.])
We will deal with the domain and window when we get to fitting, for the moment we ignore them and run through the
basic algebraic and arithmetic operations.
Addition and Subtraction:
>>> p + p
>>> p - p
Polynomial([ 0.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Multiplication:
>>> p * p
Polynomial([ 1., 4., 10., 12., 9.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Powers:
>>> p**2
Division:
Floor division, ‘//’, is the division operator for the polynomial classes, polynomials are treated like integers in this
regard. For Python versions < 3.x the ‘/’ operator maps to ‘//’, as it does for Python, for later versions the ‘/’ will only
work for division by scalars. At some point it will be deprecated:
>>> p // P([-1, 1])

Polynomial([ 5., 3.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Remainder:
>>> p % P([-1, 1])

Divmod:
>>> quo, rem = divmod(p, P([-1, 1]))

>>> quo
>>> rem
Evaluation:
>>> p(x)
array([ 1., 6., 17., 34., 57.])
>>> p(x)
array([[ 1., 6.],
[ 17., 34.],
[ 57., 86.]])
Substitution:

Substitute a polynomial for x and expand the result. Here we substitute p in itself leading to a new polynomial of
degree 4 after expansion. If the polynomials are regarded as functions this is composition of functions:
>>> p(p)
Roots:
>>> p.roots()
array([-0.33333333-0.47140452j, -0.33333333+0.47140452j])
It isn’t always convenient to explicitly use Polynomial instances, so tuples, lists, arrays, and scalars are automatically
cast in the arithmetic operations:
>>> p + [1, 2, 3]
>>> [1, 2, 3] * p
>>> p / 2
Polynomial([ 0.5, 1. , 1.5], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Polynomials that differ in domain, window, or class can’t be mixed in arithmetic:

>>> from numpy.polynomial import Chebyshev as T
>>> p + P([1], domain=[0,1])
File "<string>", line 213, in __add__
TypeError: Domains differ
>>> p + P([1], window=[0,1])
TypeError: Windows differ
>>> p + T([1])
TypeError: Polynomial types differ
But different types can be used for substitution. In fact, this is how conversion of Polynomial classes among themselves
is done for type, domain, and window casting:
>>> p(T([0, 1]))
Chebyshev([ 2.5, 2. , 1.5], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Which gives the polynomial p in Chebyshev form. This works because 𝑇1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 and substituting 𝑥 for 𝑥 doesn’t
change the original polynomial. However, all the multiplications and divisions will be done using Chebyshev series,
hence the type of the result.
Calculus
Polynomial instances can be integrated and differentiated.:

>>> p = P([2, 6])
>>> p.integ()


>>> p.integ(2)
Polynomial([ 0., 0., 1., 1.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
The first example integrates p once, the second example integrates it twice. By default, the lower bound of the
integration and the integration constant are 0, but both can be specified.:
>>> p.integ(lbnd=-1)
Polynomial([-1., 2., 3.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
>>> p.integ(lbnd=-1, k=1)
In the first case the lower bound of the integration is set to -1 and the integration constant is 0. In the second the
constant of integration is set to 1 as well. Differentiation is simpler since the only option is the number of times the
polynomial is differentiated:
>>> p = P([1, 2, 3])

>>> p.deriv(1)
>>> p.deriv(2)
Other Polynomial Constructors
Constructing polynomials by specifying coefficients is just one way of obtaining a polynomial instance, they may also
be created by specifying their roots, by conversion from other polynomial types, and by least squares fits. Fitting is
discussed in its own section, the other methods are demonstrated below:

>>> p = P.fromroots([1, 2, 3])
>>> p
Polynomial([ -6., 11., -6., 1.], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
>>> p.convert(kind=T)
Chebyshev([ -9. , 11.75, -3. , 0.25], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
The convert method can also convert domain and window:
>>> p.convert(kind=T, domain=[0, 1])

Chebyshev([-2.4375 , 2.96875, -0.5625 , 0.03125], [ 0., 1.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p.convert(kind=P, domain=[0, 1])
Polynomial([-1.875, 2.875, -1.125, 0.125], [ 0., 1.], [-1., 1.])
In numpy versions >= 1.7.0 the basis and cast class methods are also available. The cast method works like the convert
method while the basis method returns the basis polynomial of given degree:
>>> P.basis(3)
>>> T.cast(p)
Chebyshev([ -9. , 11.75, -3. , 0.25], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
Conversions between types can be useful, but it is not recommended for routine use. The loss of numerical precision
in passing from a Chebyshev series of degree 50 to a Polynomial series of the same degree can make the results of
numerical evaluation essentially random.

Fitting
Fitting is the reason that the domain and window attributes are part of the convenience classes. To illustrate the
problem, the values of the Chebyshev polynomials up to degree 5 are plotted below.

>>> x = np.linspace(-1, 1, 100)
>>> for i in range(6): ax = plt.plot(x, T.basis(i)(x), lw=2, label="$T_%d$"%i)
...
>>> plt.legend(loc="upper left")
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x3b3ee10>
>>> plt.show()
1.0 T0
T1
0.5 T2
T3
T4
0.0 T5
0.5
1.0
1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
In the range -1 <= x <= 1 they are nice, equiripple functions lying between +/- 1. The same plots over the range -2 <=
x <= 2 look very different:

>>> x = np.linspace(-2, 2, 100)
>>> for i in range(6): ax = plt.plot(x, T.basis(i)(x), lw=2, label="$T_%d$"%i)
...
>>> plt.legend(loc="lower right")
<matplotlib.legend.Legend object at 0x3b3ee10>
>>> plt.show()
As can be seen, the “good” parts have shrunk to insignificance. In using Chebyshev polynomials for fitting we want
to use the region where x is between -1 and 1 and that is what the window specifies. However, it is unlikely that the
data to be fit has all its data points in that interval, so we use domain to specify the interval where the data points lie.
When the fit is done, the domain is first mapped to the window by a linear transformation and the usual least squares
fit is done using the mapped data points. The window and domain of the fit are part of the returned series and are
automatically used when computing values, derivatives, and such. If they aren’t specified in the call the fitting routine
will use the default window and the smallest domain that holds all the data points. This is illustrated below for a fit to
a noisy sine curve.

400
300
200
100
0 T0
T1
100 T2
200 T3
T4
300 T5
400
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

>>> np.random.seed(11)
>>> x = np.linspace(0, 2*np.pi, 20)
>>> y = np.sin(x) + np.random.normal(scale=.1, size=x.shape)
>>> p = T.fit(x, y, 5)
>>> plt.plot(x, y, 'o')
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x2136c10>]
>>> xx, yy = p.linspace()
>>> plt.plot(xx, yy, lw=2)
[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x1cf2890>]
>>> p.domain
array([ 0. , 6.28318531])
>>> p.window
array([-1., 1.])
>>> plt.show()
Polynomial Module (numpy.polynomial.polynomial)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Polynomial series, including
a Polynomial class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module
represents and works with such polynomials is in the docstring for its “parent” sub-package, numpy.polynomial).
Polynomial Class
Polynomial(coef[, domain, window]) A power series class.
class numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial(coef, domain=None, window=None)

A power series class.
The Polynomial class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’,
and ‘()’ as well as the attributes and methods listed in the ABCPolyBase documentation.
Parameters coef : array_like
Polynomial coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e., (1, 2, 3) give 1 + 2*x
+ 3*x**2.
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
__call__(arg)
basis(deg[, domain, window]) Series basis polynomial of degree deg.
cast(series[, domain, window]) Convert series to series of this class.
convert([domain, kind, window]) Convert series to a different kind and/or domain and/or
window.
copy() Return a copy.
cutdeg(deg) Truncate series to the given degree.
degree() The degree of the series.
deriv([m]) Differentiate.
fit(x, y, deg[, domain, rcond, full, w, window]) Least squares fit to data.
fromroots(roots[, domain, window]) Return series instance that has the specified roots.
has_samecoef(other) Check if coefficients match.
has_samedomain(other) Check if domains match.
has_sametype(other) Check if types match.
has_samewindow(other) Check if windows match.
identity([domain, window]) Identity function.
integ([m, k, lbnd]) Integrate.
linspace([n, domain]) Return x, y values at equally spaced points in domain.
mapparms() Return the mapping parameters.
roots() Return the roots of the series polynomial.
trim([tol]) Remove trailing coefficients
truncate(size) Truncate series to length size.
Polynomial.__call__(arg)
Polynomial.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)
Series basis polynomial of degree deg.
Returns the series representing the basis polynomial of degree deg.
Parameters deg : int
Degree of the basis polynomial for the series. Must be >= 0.
domain : {None, array_like}, optional
If given, the array must be of the form [beg, end], where beg and end are the
endpoints of the domain. If None is given then the class domain is used. The default is
None.
window : {None, array_like}, optional
Parameters series : series

The series instance to be converted.
None.
If given, the resulting array must be if the form [beg, end], where beg and end
are the endpoints of the window. If None is given then the class window is used. The
default is None.
Returns new_series : series
A series of the same kind as the calling class and equal to series when evaluated.
See also:
convert similar instance method
Polynomial.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

Convert series to a different kind and/or domain and/or window.
Parameters domain : array_like, optional
The domain of the converted series. If the value is None, the default domain of kind is
used.
kind : class, optional
The polynomial series type class to which the current instance should be converted. If
kind is None, then the class of the current instance is used.
window : array_like, optional
The window of the converted series. If the value is None, the default window of kind is
used.
The returned class can be of different type than the current instance and/or have a dif-
ferent domain and/or different window.
Notes
Conversion between domains and class types can result in numerically ill defined series.
Polynomial.copy()
Return a copy.
Copy of self.
Polynomial.cutdeg(deg)
Truncate series to the given degree.

Reduce the degree of the series to deg by discarding the high order terms. If deg is greater than the current
degree a copy of the current series is returned. This can be useful in least squares where the coefficients of
the high degree terms may be very small.
Parameters deg : non-negative int
The series is reduced to degree deg by discarding the high order terms. The value of deg
must be a non-negative integer.
New instance of series with reduced degree.
Polynomial.degree()
The degree of the series.
Returns degree : int
Degree of the series, one less than the number of coefficients.
Polynomial.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Return a series instance of that is the derivative of the current series.
Parameters m : non-negative int
Find the derivative of order m.
A new series representing the derivative. The domain is the same as the domain of the
differentiated series.
Polynomial.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)
Least squares fit to data.
Return a series instance that is the least squares fit to the data y sampled at x. The domain of the returned
instance can be specified and this will often result in a superior fit with less chance of ill conditioning.
per column.
deg : int or 1-D array_like
Degree(s) of the fitting polynomials. If deg is a single integer all terms up to and in-
cluding the deg’th term are included in the fit. For NumPy versions >= 1.11.0 a list of
integers specifying the degrees of the terms to include may be used instead.
domain : {None, [beg, end], []}, optional
Domain to use for the returned series. If None, then a minimal domain that covers the
points x is chosen. If [] the class domain is used. The default value was the class
domain in NumPy 1.4 and None in later versions. The [] option was added in numpy
1.5.0.


Weights. If not None the contribution of each point (x[i],y[i]) to the fit is
weighted by w[i]. Ideally the weights are chosen so that the errors of the products
w[i]*y[i] all have the same variance. The default value is None.
window : {[beg, end]}, optional
Window to use for the returned series. The default value is the default class domain
A series that represents the least squares fit to the data and has the domain specified in
the call.
[resid, rank, sv, rcond] : list
These values are only returned if full = True
resid – sum of squared residuals of the least squares fit rank – the numerical rank of
the scaled Vandermonde matrix sv – singular values of the scaled Vandermonde matrix
rcond – value of rcond.
For more details, see linalg.lstsq.
Polynomial.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)
Return series instance that has the specified roots.
Returns a series representing the product (x - r[0])*(x - r[1])*...*(x - r[n-1]), where
r is a list of roots.
Parameters roots : array_like
List of roots.
domain : {[], None, array_like}, optional
Domain for the resulting series. If None the domain is the interval from the smallest
root to the largest. If [] the domain is the class domain. The default is [].
Window for the returned series. If None the class window is used. The default is None.
Series with the specified roots.
Polynomial.has_samecoef(other)
Check if coefficients match.


Parameters other : class instance
The other class must have the coef attribute.
Returns bool : boolean
True if the coefficients are the same, False otherwise.
Polynomial.has_samedomain(other)
Check if domains match.
The other class must have the domain attribute.
True if the domains are the same, False otherwise.
Polynomial.has_sametype(other)
Check if types match.
Parameters other : object
Class instance.
True if other is same class as self
Polynomial.has_samewindow(other)
Check if windows match.
The other class must have the window attribute.
True if the windows are the same, False otherwise.
Polynomial.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
If p is the returned series, then p(x) == x for all values of x.
Parameters domain : {None, array_like}, optional
None.
default is None.
Series of representing the identity.

Polynomial.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)

Integrate.
Return a series instance that is the definite integral of the current series.
The number of integrations to perform.
k : array_like
Integration constants. The first constant is applied to the first integration, the second to
the second, and so on. The list of values must less than or equal to m in length and any
missing values are set to zero.
lbnd : Scalar
The lower bound of the definite integral.
A new series representing the integral. The domain is the same as the domain of the
integrated series.
Polynomial.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
Return x, y values at equally spaced points in domain.
Returns the x, y values at n linearly spaced points across the domain. Here y is the value of the polynomial
at the points x. By default the domain is the same as that of the series instance. This method is intended
mostly as a plotting aid.
Parameters n : int, optional
Number of point pairs to return. The default value is 100.
If not None, the specified domain is used instead of that of the calling instance. It should
be of the form [beg,end]. The default is None which case the class domain is used.
Returns x, y : ndarray
x is equal to linspace(self.domain[0], self.domain[1], n) and y is the series evaluated at
element of x.
Polynomial.mapparms()
Return the mapping parameters.
The returned values define a linear map off + scl*x that is applied to the input arguments before
the series is evaluated. The map depends on the domain and window; if the current domain is equal
to the window the resulting map is the identity. If the coefficients of the series instance are to be used
by themselves outside this class, then the linear function must be substituted for the x in the standard
representation of the base polynomials.
Returns off, scl : float or complex
The mapping function is defined by off + scl*x.
Notes
If the current domain is the interval [l1, r1] and the window is [l2, r2], then the linear mapping
function L is defined by the equations:

L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
Polynomial.roots()
Return the roots of the series polynomial.
Compute the roots for the series. Note that the accuracy of the roots decrease the further outside the domain
they lie.
Returns roots : ndarray
Array containing the roots of the series.
Polynomial.trim(tol=0)
Remove trailing coefficients
Remove trailing coefficients until a coefficient is reached whose absolute value greater than tol or the
beginning of the series is reached. If all the coefficients would be removed the series is set to [0]. A new
series instance is returned with the new coefficients. The current instance remains unchanged.
Parameters tol : non-negative number.
All trailing coefficients less than tol will be removed.
Contains the new set of coefficients.
Polynomial.truncate(size)
Truncate series to length size.
Reduce the series to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of size must be a positive
integer. This can be useful in least squares where the coefficients of the high degree terms may be very
small.
Parameters size : positive int
The series is reduced to length size by discarding the high degree terms. The value of
size must be a positive integer.
New instance of series with truncated coefficients.
Basics
polyval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate a polynomial at points x.

polyval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D polynomial at points (x, y).
polyval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D polynomial at points (x, y, z).
polygrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x
and y.
polygrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x, y
and z.
polyroots(c) Compute the roots of a polynomial.
polyfromroots(roots) Generate a monic polynomial with given roots.
polyvalfromroots(x, r[, tensor]) Evaluate a polynomial specified by its roots at points x.
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a polynomial at points x.

If c is of length n + 1, this function returns the value
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝑥 + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝑥𝑛
The parameter x is converted to an array only if it is a tuple or a list, otherwise it is treated as a scalar. In
either case, either x or its elements must support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the
elements of c.
If c is a 1-D array, then p(x) will have the same shape as x. If c is multidimensional, then the shape of the result
depends on the value of tensor. If tensor is true the shape will be c.shape[1:] + x.shape. If tensor is false the
shape will be c.shape[1:]. Note that scalars have shape (,).
Trailing zeros in the coefficients will be used in the evaluation, so they should be avoided if efficiency is a
concern.
Parameters x : array_like, compatible object
If x is a list or tuple, it is converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged and
treated as a scalar. In either case, x or its elements must support addition and multipli-
cation with with themselves and with the elements of c.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficients for terms of degree n are contained
in c[n]. If c is multidimensional the remaining indices enumerate multiple polynomials.
In the two dimensional case the coefficients may be thought of as stored in the columns
of c.
tensor : boolean, optional
If True, the shape of the coefficient array is extended with ones on the right, one for each
dimension of x. Scalars have dimension 0 for this action. The result is that every column
of coefficients in c is evaluated for every element of x. If False, x is broadcast over the
columns of c for the evaluation. This keyword is useful when c is multidimensional.
The default value is True.
Returns values : ndarray, compatible object
The shape of the returned array is described above.
See also:
polyval2d, polygrid2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes
The evaluation uses Horner’s method.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.polynomial import polyval

>>> polyval(1, [1,2,3])
6.0
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])

>>> polyval(a, [1,2,3])

array([[ 1., 6.],
[ 17., 34.]])
>>> coef = np.arange(4).reshape(2,2) # multidimensional coefficients
>>> coef
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> polyval([1,2], coef, tensor=True)
array([[ 2., 4.],
[ 4., 7.]])
>>> polyval([1,2], coef, tensor=False)
array([ 2., 7.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D polynomial at points (x, y).
This function returns the value
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝑥𝑖 * 𝑦 𝑗
𝑖,𝑗
The parameters x and y are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as a
scalars and they must have the same shape after conversion. In either case, either x and y or their elements must
support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the elements of c.
If c has fewer than two dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 2-D. The shape of the
result will be c.shape[2:] + x.shape.
Parameters x, y : array_like, compatible objects
The two dimensional series is evaluated at the points (x, y), where x and y must have the
same shape. If x or y is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is
left unchanged and, if it isn’t an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j is
contained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate
multiple sets of coefficients.
The values of the two dimensional polynomial at points formed with pairs of corre-
sponding values from x and y.
See also:
polyval, polygrid2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial at points (x, y, z).
This function returns the values:
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝑥𝑖 * 𝑦 𝑗 * 𝑧 𝑘
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘

The parameters x, y, and z are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as
a scalars and they must have the same shape after conversion. In either case, either x, y, and z or their elements
must support multiplication and addition both with themselves and with the elements of c.
If c has fewer than 3 dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 3-D. The shape of the
Parameters x, y, z : array_like, compatible object
The three dimensional series is evaluated at the points (x, y, z), where x, y, and z must
have the same shape. If any of x, y, or z is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an
ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged and if it isn’t an ndarray it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j,k
is contained in c[i,j,k]. If c has dimension greater than 3 the remaining indices
enumerate multiple sets of coefficients.
The values of the multidimensional polynomial on points formed with triples of corre-
sponding values from x, y, and z.
See also:
polyval, polyval2d, polygrid2d, polygrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polygrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝑎𝑖 * 𝑏𝑗
𝑖,𝑗
where the points (a, b) consist of all pairs formed by taking a from x and b from y. The resulting points form a
grid with x in the first dimension and y in the second.
The parameters x and y are converted to arrays only if they are tuples or a lists, otherwise they are treated as
a scalars. In either case, either x and y or their elements must support multiplication and addition both with
themselves and with the elements of c.
result will be c.shape[2:] + x.shape + y.shape.
The two dimensional series is evaluated at the points in the Cartesian product of x and y.
If x or y is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left unchanged
and, if it isn’t an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficients for terms of degree i,j are contained
in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate mul-
tiple sets of coefficients.

The values of the two dimensional polynomial at points in the Cartesian product of x
and y.
See also:
polyval, polyval2d, polyval3d, polygrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polygrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D polynomial on the Cartesian product of x, y and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝑎𝑖 * 𝑏𝑗 * 𝑐𝑘
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
where the points (a, b, c) consist of all triples formed by taking a from x, b from y, and c from z. The resulting
points form a grid with x in the first dimension, y in the second, and z in the third.
a scalars. In either case, either x, y, and z or their elements must support multiplication and addition both with
If c has fewer than three dimensions, ones are implicitly appended to its shape to make it 3-D. The shape of the
result will be c.shape[3:] + x.shape + y.shape + z.shape.
Parameters x, y, z : array_like, compatible objects
The three dimensional series is evaluated at the points in the Cartesian product of x, y,
and z. If x,‘y‘, or z is a list or tuple, it is first converted to an ndarray, otherwise it is left
unchanged and, if it isn’t an ndarray, it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
and y.
See also:
polyval, polyval2d, polygrid2d, polyval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyroots(c)
Compute the roots of a polynomial.
Return the roots (a.k.a. “zeros”) of the polynomial
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝑥𝑖 .
𝑖

Parameters c : 1-D array_like

1-D array of polynomial coefficients.
Array of the roots of the polynomial. If all the roots are real, then out is also real,
otherwise it is complex.
See also:
chebroots
Notes
The root estimates are obtained as the eigenvalues of the companion matrix, Roots far from the origin of the
complex plane may have large errors due to the numerical instability of the power series for such values. Roots
with multiplicity greater than 1 will also show larger errors as the value of the series near such points is relatively
insensitive to errors in the roots. Isolated roots near the origin can be improved by a few iterations of Newton’s
method.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.polynomial as poly

>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-1,0,1)))
array([-1., 0., 1.])
>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-1,0,1))).dtype
dtype('float64')
>>> j = complex(0,1)
>>> poly.polyroots(poly.polyfromroots((-j,0,j)))
array([ 0.00000000e+00+0.j, 0.00000000e+00+1.j, 2.77555756e-17-1.j])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyfromroots(roots)
Generate a monic polynomial with given roots.
Return the coefficients of the polynomial
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear in roots n times.
For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then roots looks something like
[2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.
If the returned coefficients are c, then
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝑥 + ... + 𝑥𝑛
The coefficient of the last term is 1 for monic polynomials in this form.
Sequence containing the roots.
1-D array of the polynomial’s coefficients If all the roots are real, then out is also real,
otherwise it is complex. (see Examples below).
See also:
chebfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots

Notes
The coefficients are determined by multiplying together linear factors of the form (x - r_i), i.e.
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 )(𝑥 − 𝑟1 )...(𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 )
where n == len(roots) - 1; note that this implies that 1 is always returned for 𝑎𝑛 .
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import polynomial as P

>>> P.polyfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x(x - 1)(x + 1) = x^3 - x
array([ 0., -1., 0., 1.])
>>> P.polyfromroots((-j,j)) # complex returned, though values are real
array([ 1.+0.j, 0.+0.j, 1.+0.j])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvalfromroots(x, r, tensor=True)
Evaluate a polynomial specified by its roots at points x.
If r is of length N, this function returns the value
𝑁
∏︁
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 )
𝑛=1
elements of r.
If r is a 1-D array, then p(x) will have the same shape as x. If r is multidimensional, then the shape of the
result depends on the value of tensor. If tensor is ‘‘True‘ the shape will be r.shape[1:] + x.shape; that is, each
polynomial is evaluated at every value of x. If tensor is False, the shape will be r.shape[1:]; that is, each
polynomial is evaluated only for the corresponding broadcast value of x. Note that scalars have shape (,).
cation with with themselves and with the elements of r.
r : array_like
Array of roots. If r is multidimensional the first index is the root index, while the re-
maining indices enumerate multiple polynomials. For instance, in the two dimensional
case the roots of each polynomial may be thought of as stored in the columns of r.
If True, the shape of the roots array is extended with ones on the right, one for each
of coefficients in r is evaluated for every element of x. If False, x is broadcast over the
columns of r for the evaluation. This keyword is useful when r is multidimensional.
The shape of the returned array is described above.

See also:
polyroots, polyfromroots, polyval
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.polynomial import polyvalfromroots

>>> polyvalfromroots(1, [1,2,3])
0.0
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> polyvalfromroots(a, [-1, 0, 1])
array([[ -0., 0.],
[ 6., 24.]])
>>> r = np.arange(-2, 2).reshape(2,2) # multidimensional coefficients
>>> r # each column of r defines one polynomial
array([[-2, -1],
[ 0, 1]])
>>> b = [-2, 1]
>>> polyvalfromroots(b, r, tensor=True)
array([[-0., 3.],
[ 3., 0.]])
>>> polyvalfromroots(b, r, tensor=False)
array([-0., 0.])
Fitting
polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least-squares fit of a polynomial to data.

polyvander(x, deg) Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
polyvander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
polyvander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least-squares fit of a polynomial to data.
Return the coefficients of a polynomial of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given at
points x. If y is 1-D the returned coefficients will also be 1-D. If y is 2-D multiple fits are done, one for each
column of y, and the resulting coefficients are stored in the corresponding columns of a 2-D return. The fitted
polynomial(s) are in the form
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝑥 + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝑥𝑛 ,
where n is deg.
x-coordinates of the M sample (data) points (x[i], y[i]).
y-coordinates of the sample points. Several sets of sample points sharing the same x-
coordinates can be (independently) fit with one call to polyfit by passing in for y a
2-D array that contains one data set per column.


Relative condition number of the fit. Singular values smaller than rcond, relative to the
largest singular value, will be ignored. The default value is len(x)*eps, where eps
is the relative precision of the platform’s float type, about 2e-16 in most cases.
Switch determining the nature of the return value. When False (the default) just the
coefficients are returned; when True, diagnostic information from the singular value
decomposition (used to solve the fit’s matrix equation) is also returned.
Weights. If not None, the contribution of each point (x[i],y[i]) to the fit is
Returns coef : ndarray, shape (deg + 1,) or (deg + 1, K)
Polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients in
column k of coef represent the polynomial fit to the data in y’s k-th column.
[residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond] : list
Raises RankWarning
Raised if the matrix in the least-squares fit is rank deficient. The warning is only raised
if full == False. The warnings can be turned off by:
>>> import warnings

>>> warnings.simplefilter('ignore', RankWarning)
See also:
chebfit, legfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
polyval Evaluates a polynomial.
polyvander Vandermonde matrix for powers.
linalg.lstsq Computes a least-squares fit from the matrix.

Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the polynomial p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗
where the 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) over-determined matrix
equation:
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
where V is the weighted pseudo Vandermonde matrix of x, c are the coefficients to be solved for, w are the
weights, and y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of
V.
If some of the singular values of V are so small that they are neglected (and full == False), a RankWarning will
be raised. This means that the coefficient values may be poorly determined. Fitting to a lower order polynomial
will usually get rid of the warning (but may not be what you want, of course; if you have independent reason(s)
for choosing the degree which isn’t working, you may have to: a) reconsider those reasons, and/or b) reconsider
the quality of your data). The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the resulting
fit may be spurious and have large contributions from roundoff error.
Polynomial fits using double precision tend to “fail” at about (polynomial) degree 20. Fits using Chebyshev or
Legendre series are generally better conditioned, but much can still depend on the distribution of the sample
points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate, splines may be a good alternative.
Examples

>>> x = np.linspace(-1,1,51) # x "data": [-1, -0.96, ..., 0.96, 1]
>>> y = x**3 - x + np.random.randn(len(x)) # x^3 - x + N(0,1) "noise"
>>> c, stats = P.polyfit(x,y,3,full=True)
>>> c # c[0], c[2] should be approx. 0, c[1] approx. -1, c[3] approx. 1
array([ 0.01909725, -1.30598256, -0.00577963, 1.02644286])
>>> stats # note the large SSR, explaining the rather poor results
[array([ 38.06116253]), 4, array([ 1.38446749, 1.32119158, 0.50443316,
0.28853036]), 1.1324274851176597e-014]
Same thing without the added noise
>>> y = x**3 - x
>>> c, stats = P.polyfit(x,y,3,full=True)
>>> c # c[0], c[2] should be "very close to 0", c[1] ~= -1, c[3] ~= 1
array([ -1.73362882e-17, -1.00000000e+00, -2.67471909e-16,
1.00000000e+00])
>>> stats # note the minuscule SSR
[array([ 7.46346754e-31]), 4, array([ 1.38446749, 1.32119158,
0.50443316, 0.28853036]), 1.1324274851176597e-014]
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander(x, deg)
Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
Returns the Vandermonde matrix of degree deg and sample points x. The Vandermonde matrix is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝑥𝑖 ,

where 0 <= i <= deg. The leading indices of V index the elements of x and the last index is the power of x.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the matrix V = polyvander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and polyval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of polynomials of the same degree and sample points.
Array of points. The dtype is converted to float64 or complex128 depending on whether
any of the elements are complex. If x is scalar it is converted to a 1-D array.
deg : int
Degree of the resulting matrix.
Returns vander : ndarray.
The Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape + (deg +
1,), where the last index is the power of x. The dtype will be the same as the converted
x.
See also:
polyvander2d, polyvander3d
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander2d(x, y, deg)
Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degrees deg and sample points (x, y). The pseudo-Vandermonde
matrix is defined by
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝑥𝑖 * 𝑦 𝑗 ,
where 0 <= i <= deg[0] and 0 <= j <= deg[1]. The leading indices of V index the points (x, y) and the last
index encodes the powers of x and y.
If V = polyvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
2-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1) in the order
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and polyval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D polynomials of the same
degrees and sample points.
Parameters x, y : array_like
Arrays of point coordinates, all of the same shape. The dtypes will be converted to
either float64 or complex128 depending on whether any of the elements are complex.
Scalars are converted to 1-D arrays.
deg : list of ints
List of maximum degrees of the form [x_deg, y_deg].
Returns vander2d : ndarray
The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape + (order,), where 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 =
(𝑑𝑒𝑔[0] + 1) * (𝑑𝑒𝑔([1] + 1). The dtype will be the same as the converted x and y.
See also:
polyvander, polyvander3d., polyval3d

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degrees deg and sample points (x, y, z). If l, m, n are the given
degrees in x, y, z, then The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix is defined by
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝑥𝑖 * 𝑦 𝑗 * 𝑧 𝑘 ,
where 0 <= i <= l, 0 <= j <= m, and 0 <= j <= n. The leading indices of V index the points (x, y, z) and the
last index encodes the powers of x, y, and z.
If V = polyvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
elements of a 3-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1, zdeg + 1) in the order
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and polyval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiv-
alence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D polynomials of the
same degrees and sample points.
Parameters x, y, z : array_like
deg : list of ints
List of maximum degrees of the form [x_deg, y_deg, z_deg].
(𝑑𝑒𝑔[0] + 1) * (𝑑𝑒𝑔([1] + 1) * (𝑑𝑒𝑔[2] + 1). The dtype will be the same as the con-
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
polyvander, polyvander3d., polyval3d
Notes
Calculus
polyder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a polynomial.

polyint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a polynomial.
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a polynomial.
Returns the polynomial coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is multiplied
by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coefficients
from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2 while
[[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1 + 1*x + 2*y + 2*x*y if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.

Parameters c : array_like
Array of polynomial coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis correspond
to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding index.
m : int, optional
Number of derivatives taken, must be non-negative. (Default: 1)
scl : scalar, optional
Each differentiation is multiplied by scl. The end result is multiplication by scl**m.
This is for use in a linear change of variable. (Default: 1)
Axis over which the derivative is taken. (Default: 0).
Returns der : ndarray
Polynomial coefficients of the derivative.
See also:
polyint
Examples

>>> c = (1,2,3,4) # 1 + 2x + 3x**2 + 4x**3
>>> P.polyder(c) # (d/dx)(c) = 2 + 6x + 12x**2
array([ 2., 6., 12.])
>>> P.polyder(c,3) # (d**3/dx**3)(c) = 24
array([ 24.])
>>> P.polyder(c,scl=-1) # (d/d(-x))(c) = -2 - 6x - 12x**2
array([ -2., -6., -12.])
>>> P.polyder(c,2,-1) # (d**2/d(-x)**2)(c) = 6 + 24x
array([ 6., 24.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a polynomial.
Returns the polynomial coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the resulting
series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a linear
change of variable. (“Buyer beware”: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want scl to be the
reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The argument c is an
array of coefficients, from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x
+ 3*x**2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1 + 1*x + 2*y + 2*x*y if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
1-D array of polynomial coefficients, ordered from low to high.
m : int, optional
Order of integration, must be positive. (Default: 1)
k : {[], list, scalar}, optional

Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at zero is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at zero is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
default), all constants are set to zero. If m == 1, a single scalar can be given instead of
a list.
lbnd : scalar, optional
The lower bound of the integral. (Default: 0)
Following each integration the result is multiplied by scl before the integration constant
is added. (Default: 1)
Axis over which the integral is taken. (Default: 0).
Returns S : ndarray
Coefficient array of the integral.
Raises ValueError
If m < 1, len(k) > m, np.ndim(lbnd) != 0, or np.ndim(scl) != 0.
See also:
polyder
Notes
Note that the result of each integration is multiplied by scl. Why is this important to note? Say one is making a
linear change of variable 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 in an integral relative to x. Then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/𝑎, so one will need to set scl
equal to 1/𝑎 - perhaps not what one would have first thought.
Examples

>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> P.polyint(c) # should return array([0, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 0., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,3) # should return array([0, 0, 0, 1/6, 1/12, 1/20])
array([ 0. , 0. , 0. , 0.16666667, 0.08333333,
0.05 ])
>>> P.polyint(c,k=3) # should return array([3, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 3., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,lbnd=-2) # should return array([6, 1, 1, 1])
array([ 6., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> P.polyint(c,scl=-2) # should return array([0, -2, -2, -2])
array([ 0., -2., -2., -2.])
Algebra

polyadd(c1, c2) Add one polynomial to another.

polysub(c1, c2) Subtract one polynomial from another.
polymul(c1, c2) Multiply one polynomial by another.
polymulx(c) Multiply a polynomial by x.
polydiv(c1, c2) Divide one polynomial by another.
polypow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a polynomial to a power.
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyadd(c1, c2)
Add one polynomial to another.
Returns the sum of two polynomials c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients from lowest order
term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Parameters c1, c2 : array_like
1-D arrays of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high.
The coefficient array representing their sum.
See also:
polysub, polymul, polydiv, polypow
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> sum = P.polyadd(c1,c2); sum
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
>>> P.polyval(2, sum) # 4 + 4(2) + 4(2**2)
28.0
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polysub(c1, c2)
Subtract one polynomial from another.
Returns the difference of two polynomials c1 - c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
Of coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
polyadd, polymul, polydiv, polypow
Examples


>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polysub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> P.polysub(c2,c1) # -P.polysub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polymul(c1, c2)
Multiply one polynomial by another.
Returns the product of two polynomials c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest order
term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the polynomial 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
1-D arrays of coefficients representing a polynomial, relative to the “standard” basis,
and ordered from lowest order term to highest.
Of the coefficients of their product.
See also:
polyadd, polysub, polydiv, polypow
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polymul(c1,c2)
array([ 3., 8., 14., 8., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polymulx(c)
Multiply a polynomial by x.
Multiply the polynomial c by x, where x is the independent variable.
1-D array of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high.
Array representing the result of the multiplication.
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polydiv(c1, c2)
Divide one polynomial by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two polynomials c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients,
from lowest order term to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.


Returns [quo, rem] : ndarrays
Of coefficient series representing the quotient and remainder.
See also:
polyadd, polysub, polymul, polypow
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> P.polydiv(c1,c2)
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> P.polydiv(c2,c1)
(array([ 0.33333333]), array([ 2.66666667, 1.33333333]))
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polypow(c, pow, maxpower=None)

Raise a polynomial to a power.
Returns the polynomial c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series 1 + 2*x + 3*x**2.
1-D array of array of series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
pow : integer
Power to which the series will be raised
maxpower : integer, optional
Maximum power allowed. This is mainly to limit growth of the series to unmanageable
size. Default is 16
Returns coef : ndarray
Power series of power.
See also:
polyadd, polysub, polymul, polydiv
Miscellaneous
polycompanion(c) Return the companion matrix of c.

polydomain
polyzero
polyone
polyx
polytrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
polyline(off, scl) Returns an array representing a linear polynomial.

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polycompanion(c)
Return the companion matrix of c.
The companion matrix for power series cannot be made symmetric by scaling the basis, so this function differs
from those for the orthogonal polynomials.
1-D array of polynomial coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Returns mat : ndarray
Companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
Notes

numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polydomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polytrim(c, tol=0)
Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
“Small” means “small in absolute value” and is controlled by the parameter tol; “trailing” means highest order
coefficient(s), e.g., in [0, 1, 1, 0, 0] (which represents 0 + x + x**2 + 0*x**3 + 0*x**4)
both the 3-rd and 4-th order coefficients would be “trimmed.”
1-d array of coefficients, ordered from lowest order to highest.
tol : number, optional
Trailing (i.e., highest order) elements with absolute value less than or equal to tol (de-
fault value is zero) are removed.
Returns trimmed : ndarray
1-d array with trailing zeros removed. If the resulting series would be empty, a series
containing a single zero is returned.
Raises ValueError
If tol < 0
See also:
trimseq
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import polyutils as pu

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,1e-3,0,1e-5,0,0),1e-3) # item == tol is trimmed
array([ 0.])

>>> i = complex(0,1) # works for complex

>>> pu.trimcoef((3e-4,1e-3*(1-i),5e-4,2e-5*(1+i)), 1e-3)
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.polynomial.polyline(off, scl)
Returns an array representing a linear polynomial.
Parameters off, scl : scalars
The “y-intercept” and “slope” of the line, respectively.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the linear polynomial off + scl*x.
See also:
chebline
Examples

>>> P.polyline(1,-1)
array([ 1, -1])
>>> P.polyval(1, P.polyline(1,-1)) # should be 0
0.0
Chebyshev Module (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Chebyshev series, including
a Chebyshev class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module
represents and works with such polynomials is in the docstring for its “parent” sub-package, numpy.polynomial).
Chebyshev Class
Chebyshev(coef[, domain, window]) A Chebyshev series class.
class numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev(coef, domain=None, window=None)

A Chebyshev series class.
The Chebyshev class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’, and
‘()’ as well as the methods listed below.
Chebyshev coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e., (1, 2, 3) gives
1*T_0(x) + 2*T_1(x) + 3*T_2(x).
domain : (2,) array_like, optional
Domain to use. The interval [domain[0], domain[1]] is mapped to the interval
[window[0], window[1]] by shifting and scaling. The default value is [-1, 1].
window : (2,) array_like, optional

Window, see domain for its use. The default value is [-1, 1].
Methods
__call__(arg)
window.
interpolate(func, deg[, domain, args]) Interpolate a function at the Chebyshev points of the
first kind.
Chebyshev.__call__(arg)
Chebyshev.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.

A series with the coefficient of the deg term set to one and all others zero.
Chebyshev.cast(series, domain=None, window=None)
Convert series to series of this class.
The series is expected to be an instance of some polynomial series of one of the types supported by by the
numpy.polynomial module, but could be some other class that supports the convert method.
None.
default is None.
See also:
Chebyshev.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

used.
used.
Notes
Chebyshev.copy()
Return a copy.


Copy of self.
Chebyshev.cutdeg(deg)
Chebyshev.degree()
Chebyshev.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Chebyshev.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)
per column.


1.5.0.
the call.
Chebyshev.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)
List of roots.


Chebyshev.has_samecoef(other)
Chebyshev.has_samedomain(other)
Chebyshev.has_sametype(other)
Class instance.
Chebyshev.has_samewindow(other)
Chebyshev.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
None.

default is None.
Chebyshev.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
integrated series.
classmethod Chebyshev.interpolate(func, deg, domain=None, args=())
Interpolate a function at the Chebyshev points of the first kind.
Returns the series that interpolates func at the Chebyshev points of the first kind scaled and shifted to the
domain. The resulting series tends to a minmax approximation of func when the function is continuous
in the domain.
Parameters func : function
The function to be interpolated. It must be a function of a single variable of the form
f(x, a, b, c...), where a, b, c... are extra arguments passed in the args
parameter.
deg : int
Degree of the interpolating polynomial.
domain : {None, [beg, end]}, optional
Domain over which func is interpolated. The default is None, in which case the domain
is [-1, 1].
args : tuple, optional
Extra arguments to be used in the function call. Default is no extra arguments.
Returns polynomial : Chebyshev instance
Interpolating Chebyshev instance.

Notes
See numpy.polynomial.chebfromfunction for more details.

Chebyshev.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
element of x.
Chebyshev.mapparms()
Notes
L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
Chebyshev.roots()
they lie.
Chebyshev.trim(tol=0)

Chebyshev.truncate(size)
small.
Basics
chebval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate a Chebyshev series at points x.

chebval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y).
chebval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y, z).
chebgrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product
of x and y.
chebgrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product
of x, y, and z.
chebroots(c) Compute the roots of a Chebyshev series.
chebfromroots(roots) Generate a Chebyshev series with given roots.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Chebyshev series at points x.
If c is of length n + 1, this function returns the value:
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 * 𝑇0 (𝑥) + 𝑐1 * 𝑇1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝑇𝑛 (𝑥)
elements of c.
concern.


c : array_like
of c.
Returns values : ndarray, algebra_like
The shape of the return value is described above.
See also:
chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes
The evaluation uses Clenshaw recursion, aka synthetic division.

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑦)
𝑖,𝑗
If c is a 1-D array a one is implicitly appended to its shape to make it 2-D. The shape of the result will be
c.shape[2:] + x.shape.
left unchanged and if it isn’t an ndarray it is treated as a scalar.
c : array_like
Array of coefficients ordered so that the coefficient of the term of multi-degree i,j is con-
tained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than 2 the remaining indices enumerate

The values of the two dimensional Chebyshev series at points formed from pairs of
corresponding values from x and y.
See also:
chebval, chebgrid2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series at points (x, y, z).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝑇𝑘 (𝑧)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like
See also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebgrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝑇𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑏),
𝑖,𝑗

c : array_like
The values of the two dimensional Chebyshev series at points in the Cartesian product
of x and y.
See also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebval3d, chebgrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Chebyshev series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝑇𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑏) * 𝑇𝑘 (𝑐)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like

and y.
See also:
chebval, chebval2d, chebgrid2d, chebval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Chebyshev series.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥).
𝑖

1-D array of coefficients.
Array of the roots of the series. If all the roots are real, then out is also real, otherwise
it is complex.
See also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
complex plane may have large errors due to the numerical instability of the series for such values. Roots with
multiplicity greater than 1 will also show larger errors as the value of the series near such points is relatively
method.
The Chebyshev series basis polynomials aren’t powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as cheb

>>> cheb.chebroots((-1, 1,-1, 1)) # T3 - T2 + T1 - T0 has real roots
array([ -5.00000000e-01, 2.60860684e-17, 1.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebfromroots(roots)
Generate a Chebyshev series with given roots.
The function returns the coefficients of the polynomial
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
in Chebyshev form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must
appear in roots n times. For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then
roots looks something like [2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝑇1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝑇𝑛 (𝑥)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Chebyshev form.
1-D array of coefficients. If all roots are real then out is a real array, if some of the roots
are complex, then out is complex even if all the coefficients in the result are real (see
Examples below).
See also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as C

>>> C.chebfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x^3 - x relative to the standard basis
array([ 0. , -0.25, 0. , 0.25])
>>> C.chebfromroots((-j,j)) # x^2 + 1 relative to the standard basis
array([ 1.5+0.j, 0.0+0.j, 0.5+0.j])
Fitting
chebfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least squares fit of Chebyshev series to data.
chebvander(x, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
chebvander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
chebvander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least squares fit of Chebyshev series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Chebyshev series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
at points x. If y is 1-D the returned coefficients will also be 1-D. If y is 2-D multiple fits are done, one for each
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝑇1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝑇𝑛 (𝑥),
where n is deg.
per column.


Degree(s) of the fitting polynomials. If deg is a single integer, all terms up to and
including the deg’th term are included in the fit. For NumPy versions >= 1.11.0 a list of
Returns coef : ndarray, shape (M,) or (M, K)
Chebyshev coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
data in column k of y are in column k.
Warns RankWarning
only raised if full = False. The warnings can be turned off by
>>> import warnings

See also:
polyfit, legfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
chebval Evaluates a Chebyshev series.
chebvander Vandermonde matrix of Chebyshev series.
chebweight Chebyshev weight function.

Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Chebyshev series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗
where 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix equation
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
V.
If some of the singular values of V are so small that they are neglected, then a RankWarning will be issued. This
means that the coefficient values may be poorly determined. Using a lower order fit will usually get rid of the
warning. The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the resulting fit may be
spurious and have large contributions from roundoff error.
Fits using Chebyshev series are usually better conditioned than fits using power series, but much can depend on
the distribution of the sample points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate splines
may be a good alternative.
References
[R119119]
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander(x, deg)
Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
Returns the pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of degree deg and sample points x. The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix
is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥),
where 0 <= i <= deg. The leading indices of V index the elements of x and the last index is the degree of the
Chebyshev polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the matrix V = chebvander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and chebval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Chebyshev series of the same degree and sample
points.
deg : int
Returns vander : ndarray
The pseudo Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape +
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Chebyshev
polynomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander2d(x, y, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑦),
index encodes the degrees of the Chebyshev polynomials.
If V = chebvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and chebval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Chebyshev series of the
deg : list of ints
See also:
chebvander, chebvander3d., chebval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝑇𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝑇𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝑇𝑘 (𝑧),
last index encodes the degrees of the Chebyshev polynomials.
If V = chebvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and chebval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiv-
alence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Chebyshev series
of the same degrees and sample points.

deg : list of ints
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
chebvander, chebvander3d., chebval3d
Notes
Calculus
chebder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a Chebyshev series.

chebint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a Chebyshev series.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a Chebyshev series.
Returns the Chebyshev series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the re-
sult is multiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c
is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
1*T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*T_0(x)*T_0(y) + 1*T_1(x)*T_0(y)
+ 2*T_0(x)*T_1(y) + 2*T_1(x)*T_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Chebyshev series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
respond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional

Chebyshev series of the derivative.

See also:
chebint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a C-series needs to be “reprojected” onto the C-series basis set. Thus,
typically, the result of this function is “unintuitive,” albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import chebyshev as C

>>> c = (1,2,3,4)
>>> C.chebder(c)
array([ 14., 12., 24.])
>>> C.chebder(c,3)
array([ 96.])
>>> C.chebder(c,scl=-1)
array([-14., -12., -24.])
>>> C.chebder(c,2,-1)
array([ 12., 96.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Chebyshev series.
Returns the Chebyshev series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the
resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use
in a linear change of variable. (“Buyer beware”: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want
scl to be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The
argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*T_0(x)*T_0(y) + 1*T_1(x)*T_0(y) +
2*T_0(x)*T_1(y) + 2*T_1(x)*T_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Chebyshev series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at zero is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at zero is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
a list.

Returns S : ndarray
C-series coefficients of the integral.
Raises ValueError
See also:
chebder
Notes
equal to 1/𝑎- perhaps not what one would have first thought.
Also note that, in general, the result of integrating a C-series needs to be “reprojected” onto the C-series basis
set. Thus, typically, the result of this function is “unintuitive,” albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples

>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> C.chebint(c)
array([ 0.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,3)
array([ 0.03125 , -0.1875 , 0.04166667, -0.05208333, 0.01041667,
0.00625 ])
>>> C.chebint(c, k=3)
array([ 3.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,lbnd=-2)
array([ 8.5, -0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> C.chebint(c,scl=-2)
array([-1., 1., -1., -1.])
Algebra
chebadd(c1, c2) Add one Chebyshev series to another.

chebsub(c1, c2) Subtract one Chebyshev series from another.
chebmul(c1, c2) Multiply one Chebyshev series by another.
chebmulx(c) Multiply a Chebyshev series by x.
chebdiv(c1, c2) Divide one Chebyshev series by another.
chebpow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Chebyshev series to a power.

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebadd(c1, c2)
Add one Chebyshev series to another.
Returns the sum of two Chebyshev series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
1-D arrays of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Array representing the Chebyshev series of their sum.
See also:
chebsub, chebmul, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Chebyshev series is a Chebyshev series (without having
to “reproject” the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of “standard” polynomials, is simply
“component-wise.”
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebadd(c1,c2)
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Chebyshev series from another.
Returns the difference of two Chebyshev series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order
term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
chebadd, chebmul, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Chebyshev series is a Chebyshev series (without
having to “reproject” the result onto the basis set) so subtraction, just like that of “standard” polynomials, is
simply “component-wise.”

Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebsub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> C.chebsub(c2,c1) # -C.chebsub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Chebyshev series by another.
Returns the product of two Chebyshev series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
order “term” to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing their product.
See also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebdiv, chebpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Chebyshev polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a C-series, it is typically necessary to “reproject” the product onto said
basis set, which typically produces “unintuitive live” (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebmul(c1,c2) # multiplication requires "reprojection"
array([ 6.5, 12. , 12. , 4. , 1.5])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebmulx(c)
Multiply a Chebyshev series by x.
Multiply the polynomial c by x, where x is the independent variable.
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.

Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Chebyshev series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Chebyshev series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coeffi-
cients from lowest order “term” to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
Of Chebyshev series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebmul, chebpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one C-series by another results in quotient and remainder terms that are
not in the Chebyshev polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as C-series, it is typically necessary
to “reproject” the results onto said basis set, which typically produces “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see
Examples section below.
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> C.chebdiv(c1,c2) # quotient "intuitive," remainder not
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> c2 = (0,1,2,3)
>>> C.chebdiv(c2,c1) # neither "intuitive"
(array([ 0., 2.]), array([-2., -4.]))
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Chebyshev series to a power.
Returns the Chebyshev series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series T_0 + 2*T_1 + 3*T_2.
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16

Chebyshev series of power.

See also:
chebadd, chebsub, chebmul, chebdiv
Quadrature
chebgauss(deg) Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature.

chebweight(x) The weight function of the Chebyshev polynomials.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebgauss(deg)
Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Chebyshev quadrature. These sample points and weights
√ integrate polynomials of degree 2*𝑑𝑒𝑔−1 or less over the interval [−1, 1] with the weight function
will correctly
𝑓 (𝑥) = 1/ 1 − 𝑥2 .
Number of sample points and weights. It must be >= 1.
Returns x : ndarray
1-D ndarray containing the sample points.
y : ndarray
1-D ndarray containing the weights.
Notes

The results have only been tested up to degree 100, higher degrees may be problematic. For Gauss-Chebyshev
there are closed form solutions for the sample points and weights. If n = deg, then
𝑥𝑖 = cos(𝜋(2𝑖 − 1)/(2𝑛))
𝑤𝑖 = 𝜋/𝑛
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebweight(x)
The weight function of the Chebyshev polynomials.
√
The weight function is 1/ 1 − 𝑥2 and the interval of integration is [−1, 1]. The Chebyshev polynomials are
orthogonal, but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Values at which the weight function will be computed.
Returns w : ndarray
The weight function at x.
Notes

Miscellaneous
chebcompanion(c) Return the scaled companion matrix of c.

chebdomain
chebzero
chebone
chebx
chebtrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
chebline(off, scl) Chebyshev series whose graph is a straight line.
cheb2poly(c) Convert a Chebyshev series to a polynomial.
poly2cheb(pol) Convert a polynomial to a Chebyshev series.
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebcompanion(c)
Return the scaled companion matrix of c.
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is a Chebyshev basis
polynomial. This provides better eigenvalue estimates than the unscaled case and for basis polynomials the
eigenvalues are guaranteed to be real if numpy.linalg.eigvalsh is used to obtain them.
1-D array of Chebyshev series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Scaled companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
Notes

numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebtrim(c, tol=0)

Raises ValueError
If tol < 0
See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.chebline(off, scl)
Chebyshev series whose graph is a straight line.
The specified line is given by off + scl*x.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the Chebyshev series for off + scl*x.
See also:
polyline
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.chebyshev as C

>>> C.chebline(3,2)
array([3, 2])
>>> C.chebval(-3, C.chebline(3,2)) # should be -3
-3.0
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.cheb2poly(c)
Convert a Chebyshev series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Chebyshev series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to
an array of the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the “standard” basis) ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
1-D array containing the Chebyshev series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term
to highest.
Returns pol : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the “stan-
dard” basis) ordered from lowest order term to highest.

See also:
poly2cheb
Notes
The easy way to do conversions between polynomial basis sets is to use the convert method of a class instance.
Examples
>>> from numpy import polynomial as P

>>> c = P.Chebyshev(range(4))
>>> c
Chebyshev([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p = c.convert(kind=P.Polynomial)
>>> p
Polynomial([ -2., -8., 4., 12.], [-1., 1.])
>>> P.cheb2poly(range(4))
array([ -2., -8., 4., 12.])
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.poly2cheb(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Chebyshev series.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a polynomial (relative to the “standard” basis) ordered from
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Chebyshev series, ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
Parameters pol : array_like
1-D array containing the polynomial coefficients
Returns c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Chebyshev series.
See also:
cheb2poly
Notes
Examples

>>> p = P.Polynomial(range(4))
>>> p
>>> c = p.convert(kind=P.Chebyshev)
>>> c
Chebyshev([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])
>>> P.poly2cheb(range(4))
array([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75])

Legendre Module (numpy.polynomial.legendre)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Legendre series, including a
Legendre class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module repre-
sents and works with such polynomials is in the docstring for its “parent” sub-package, numpy.polynomial).
Legendre Class
Legendre(coef[, domain, window]) A Legendre series class.
class numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre(coef, domain=None, window=None)

A Legendre series class.
The Legendre class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’, and
‘()’ as well as the attributes and methods listed in the ABCPolyBase documentation.
Legendre coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e., (1, 2, 3) gives 1*P_0(x)
+ 2*P_1(x) + 3*P_2(x).
Methods
__call__(arg)
window.


Legendre.__call__(arg)
Legendre.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
Legendre.cast(series, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
See also:

Legendre.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

used.
used.
Notes
Legendre.copy()
Return a copy.
Copy of self.
Legendre.cutdeg(deg)
Legendre.degree()

Legendre.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Legendre.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)
per column.
1.5.0.

the call.
Legendre.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)
List of roots.
Legendre.has_samecoef(other)
Legendre.has_samedomain(other)

Legendre.has_sametype(other)
Class instance.
Legendre.has_samewindow(other)
Legendre.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
None.
default is None.
Legendre.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar

integrated series.
Legendre.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
element of x.
Legendre.mapparms()
Notes
L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
Legendre.roots()
they lie.
Legendre.trim(tol=0)

Legendre.truncate(size)
small.
Basics
legval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate a Legendre series at points x.

legval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series at points (x, y).
legval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series at points (x, y, z).
leggrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of
x and y.
leggrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of
x, y, and z.
legroots(c) Compute the roots of a Legendre series.
legfromroots(roots) Generate a Legendre series with given roots.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Legendre series at points x.
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 * 𝐿0 (𝑥) + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥)
elements of c.
concern.


c : array_like
of c.
See also:
legval2d, leggrid2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series at points (x, y).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦)
𝑖,𝑗
c : array_like
tained in c[i,j]. If c has dimension greater than two the remaining indices enumerate

The values of the two dimensional Legendre series at points formed from pairs of cor-
responding values from x and y.
See also:
legval, leggrid2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series at points (x, y, z).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑧)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like
See also:
legval, legval2d, leggrid2d, leggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑏)
𝑖,𝑗

c : array_like
of x and y.
See also:
legval, legval2d, legval3d, leggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Legendre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑏) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑐)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like

and y.
See also:
legval, legval2d, leggrid2d, legval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Legendre series.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥).
𝑖

it is complex.
See also:
polyroots, chebroots, lagroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Legendre series basis polynomials aren’t powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as leg

>>> leg.legroots((1, 2, 3, 4)) # 4L_3 + 3L_2 + 2L_1 + 1L_0, all real roots
array([-0.85099543, -0.11407192, 0.51506735])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legfromroots(roots)
Generate a Legendre series with given roots.
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
in Legendre form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
in roots n times. For instance, if 2 is a root of multiplicity three and 3 is a root of multiplicity 2, then roots looks
something like [2, 2, 2, 3, 3]. The roots can appear in any order.

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Legendre form.
Examples below).
See also:
polyfromroots, chebfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as L

>>> L.legfromroots((-1,0,1)) # x^3 - x relative to the standard basis
array([ 0. , -0.4, 0. , 0.4])
>>> L.legfromroots((-j,j)) # x^2 + 1 relative to the standard basis
array([ 1.33333333+0.j, 0.00000000+0.j, 0.66666667+0.j])
Fitting
legfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least squares fit of Legendre series to data.
legvander(x, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
legvander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
legvander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least squares fit of Legendre series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Legendre series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥),
where n is deg.
per column.


Legendre coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
data in column k of y are in column k. If deg is specified as a list, coefficients for terms
not included in the fit are set equal to zero in the returned coef.
Warns RankWarning
>>> import warnings

See also:
chebfit, polyfit, lagfit, hermfit, hermefit
legval Evaluates a Legendre series.
legvander Vandermonde matrix of Legendre series.
legweight Legendre weight function (= 1).

Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Legendre series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗
where 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix equation
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
V.
Fits using Legendre series are usually better conditioned than fits using power series, but much can depend on
the distribution of the sample points and the smoothness of the data. If the quality of the fit is inadequate splines
may be a good alternative.
References
[R127127]
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander(x, deg)
is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥)
Legendre polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = legvander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and legval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Legendre series of the same degree and sample points.
deg : int
The pseudo-Vandermonde matrix. The shape of the returned matrix is x.shape +
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Legendre poly-
nomial. The dtype will be the same as the converted x.

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander2d(x, y, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦),
index encodes the degrees of the Legendre polynomials.
If V = legvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and legval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Legendre series of the
deg : list of ints
See also:
legvander, legvander3d., legval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑧),
last index encodes the degrees of the Legendre polynomials.
If V = legvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and legval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiva-
lence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Legendre series of
the same degrees and sample points.

deg : list of ints
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
legvander, legvander3d., legval3d
Notes
Calculus
legder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a Legendre series.

legint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a Legendre series.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a Legendre series.
Returns the Legendre series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is mul-
tiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an array of coeffi-
cients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) + 2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) +
2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Legendre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional

Legendre series of the derivative.

See also:
legint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Legendre series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Thus the result of this function may be “unintuitive,” albeit correct; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial import legendre as L

>>> c = (1,2,3,4)
>>> L.legder(c)
array([ 6., 9., 20.])
>>> L.legder(c, 3)
array([ 60.])
>>> L.legder(c, scl=-1)
array([ -6., -9., -20.])
>>> L.legder(c, 2,-1)
array([ 9., 60.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Legendre series.
Returns the Legendre series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the re-
sulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use in a
linear change of variable. (“Buyer beware”: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want scl to
be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The argu-
ment c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) +
2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) + 2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Legendre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
Integration constant(s). The value of the first integral at lbnd is the first value in the
list, the value of the second integral at lbnd is the second value, etc. If k == [] (the
a list.

Returns S : ndarray
Legendre series coefficient array of the integral.
Raises ValueError
See also:
legder
Notes
Examples

>>> c = (1,2,3)
>>> L.legint(c)
array([ 0.33333333, 0.4 , 0.66666667, 0.6 ])
>>> L.legint(c, 3)
array([ 1.66666667e-02, -1.78571429e-02, 4.76190476e-02,
-1.73472348e-18, 1.90476190e-02, 9.52380952e-03])
>>> L.legint(c, k=3)
array([ 3.33333333, 0.4 , 0.66666667, 0.6 ])
>>> L.legint(c, lbnd=-2)
array([ 7.33333333, 0.4 , 0.66666667, 0.6 ])
>>> L.legint(c, scl=2)
array([ 0.66666667, 0.8 , 1.33333333, 1.2 ])
Algebra
legadd(c1, c2) Add one Legendre series to another.

legsub(c1, c2) Subtract one Legendre series from another.
legmul(c1, c2) Multiply one Legendre series by another.
legmulx(c) Multiply a Legendre series by x.
legdiv(c1, c2) Divide one Legendre series by another.
legpow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Legendre series to a power.

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legadd(c1, c2)
Add one Legendre series to another.
Returns the sum of two Legendre series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
1-D arrays of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Array representing the Legendre series of their sum.
See also:
legsub, legmul, legdiv, legpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Legendre series is a Legendre series (without having to “re-
project” the result onto the basis set) so addition, just like that of “standard” polynomials, is simply “component-
wise.”
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legadd(c1,c2)
array([ 4., 4., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Legendre series from another.
Returns the difference of two Legendre series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Of Legendre series coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
legadd, legmul, legdiv, legpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Legendre series is a Legendre series (without having
to “reproject” the result onto the basis set) so subtraction, just like that of “standard” polynomials, is simply

Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legsub(c1,c2)
array([-2., 0., 2.])
>>> L.legsub(c2,c1) # -C.legsub(c1,c2)
array([ 2., 0., -2.])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Legendre series by another.
Returns the product of two Legendre series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
order “term” to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Of Legendre series coefficients representing their product.
See also:
legadd, legsub, legdiv, legpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Legendre polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a Legendre series, it is necessary to “reproject” the product onto said
basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2)
>>> P.legmul(c1,c2) # multiplication requires "reprojection"
array([ 4.33333333, 10.4 , 11.66666667, 3.6 ])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legmulx(c)
Multiply a Legendre series by x.
Multiply the Legendre series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.

Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Legendre polynomials in the form
𝑥𝑃𝑖 (𝑥) = ((𝑖 + 1) * 𝑃𝑖+1 (𝑥) + 𝑖 * 𝑃𝑖−1 (𝑥))/(2𝑖 + 1)
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Legendre series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Legendre series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
from lowest order “term” to highest, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Returns quo, rem : ndarrays
Of Legendre series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See also:
legadd, legsub, legmul, legpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Legendre series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Legendre polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Legendre series, it is
necessary to “reproject” the results onto the Legendre basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct)
results; see Examples section below.
Examples

>>> c1 = (1,2,3)
>>> c2 = (3,2,1)
>>> L.legdiv(c1,c2) # quotient "intuitive," remainder not
(array([ 3.]), array([-8., -4.]))
>>> c2 = (0,1,2,3)
>>> L.legdiv(c2,c1) # neither "intuitive"
(array([-0.07407407, 1.66666667]), array([-1.03703704, -2.51851852]))
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Legendre series to a power.
Returns the Legendre series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer

size. Default is 16
Legendre series of power.
See also:
legadd, legsub, legmul, legdiv
Quadrature
leggauss(deg) Gauss-Legendre quadrature.

legweight(x) Weight function of the Legendre polynomials.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leggauss(deg)
Gauss-Legendre quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Legendre quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 * 𝑑𝑒𝑔 − 1 or less over the interval [−1, 1] with the weight function
𝑓 (𝑥) = 1.
Returns x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes

The results have only been tested up to degree 100, higher degrees may be problematic. The weights are
determined by using the fact that
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑐/(𝐿′𝑛 (𝑥𝑘 ) * 𝐿𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑘 ))
where 𝑐 is a constant independent of 𝑘 and 𝑥𝑘 is the k’th root of 𝐿𝑛 , and then scaling the results to get the right
value when integrating 1.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legweight(x)
Weight function of the Legendre polynomials.
The weight function is 1 and the interval of integration is [−1, 1]. The Legendre polynomials are orthogonal,
but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Returns w : ndarray

Notes
Miscellaneous
legcompanion(c) Return the scaled companion matrix of c.

legdomain
legzero
legone
legx
legtrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
legline(off, scl) Legendre series whose graph is a straight line.
leg2poly(c) Convert a Legendre series to a polynomial.
poly2leg(pol) Convert a polynomial to a Legendre series.
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legcompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an Legendre basis
1-D array of Legendre series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Notes

numpy.polynomial.legendre.legdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legx = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legtrim(c, tol=0)


Raises ValueError
If tol < 0
See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.legline(off, scl)
Legendre series whose graph is a straight line.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the Legendre series for off + scl*x.
See also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> import numpy.polynomial.legendre as L

>>> L.legline(3,2)
array([3, 2])
>>> L.legval(-3, L.legline(3,2)) # should be -3
-3.0
numpy.polynomial.legendre.leg2poly(c)
Convert a Legendre series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Legendre series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
array of the coefficients of the equivalent polynomial (relative to the “standard” basis) ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
1-D array containing the Legendre series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term
to highest.

See also:
poly2leg
Notes
Examples
>>> c = P.Legendre(range(4))
>>> c
Legendre([ 0., 1., 2., 3.], [-1., 1.])
>>> p = c.convert(kind=P.Polynomial)
>>> p
Polynomial([-1. , -3.5, 3. , 7.5], [-1., 1.])
>>> P.leg2poly(range(4))
array([-1. , -3.5, 3. , 7.5])
numpy.polynomial.legendre.poly2leg(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Legendre series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Legendre series, ordered from lowest
to highest degree.
Returns c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Legendre series.
See also:
leg2poly
Notes
Examples

>>> p = P.Polynomial(np.arange(4))
>>> p
>>> c = P.Legendre(P.legendre.poly2leg(p.coef))
>>> c
Legendre([ 1. , 3.25, 1. , 0.75], domain=[-1, 1], window=[-1, 1])

Laguerre Module (numpy.polynomial.laguerre)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Laguerre series, including a
Laguerre class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module repre-
Laguerre Class
Laguerre(coef[, domain, window]) A Laguerre series class.
class numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre(coef, domain=None, window=None)

A Laguerre series class.
The Laguerre class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’, and
Laguerre coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e, (1, 2, 3) gives 1*L_0(x)
+ 2*L_1(X) + 3*L_2(x).
[window[0], window[1]] by shifting and scaling. The default value is [0, 1].
Window, see domain for its use. The default value is [0, 1].
Methods
__call__(arg)
window.


Laguerre.__call__(arg)
Laguerre.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
Laguerre.cast(series, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
See also:

Laguerre.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

used.
used.
Notes
Laguerre.copy()
Return a copy.
Copy of self.
Laguerre.cutdeg(deg)
Laguerre.degree()

Laguerre.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Laguerre.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)
per column.
1.5.0.

the call.
Laguerre.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)
List of roots.
Laguerre.has_samecoef(other)
Laguerre.has_samedomain(other)

Laguerre.has_sametype(other)
Class instance.
Laguerre.has_samewindow(other)
Laguerre.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
None.
default is None.
Laguerre.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar

integrated series.
Laguerre.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
element of x.
Laguerre.mapparms()
Notes
L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
Laguerre.roots()
they lie.
Laguerre.trim(tol=0)

Laguerre.truncate(size)
small.
Basics
lagval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate a Laguerre series at points x.

lagval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series at points (x, y).
lagval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series at points (x, y, z).
laggrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of
x and y.
laggrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of
x, y, and z.
lagroots(c) Compute the roots of a Laguerre series.
lagfromroots(roots) Generate a Laguerre series with given roots.
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate a Laguerre series at points x.
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 * 𝐿0 (𝑥) + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥)
elements of c.
concern.


c : array_like
of c.
See also:
lagval2d, laggrid2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagval

>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> lagval(1, coef)
-0.5
>>> lagval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[-0.5, -4. ],
[-4.5, -2. ]])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series at points (x, y).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦)
𝑖,𝑗

c : array_like
See also:
lagval, laggrid2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series at points (x, y, z).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑧)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like
The values of the multidimension polynomial on points formed with triples of corre-
See also:
lagval, lagval2d, laggrid2d, laggrid3d

Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑏)
𝑖,𝑗
c : array_like
of x and y.
See also:
lagval, lagval2d, lagval3d, laggrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Laguerre series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑏) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑐)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘

c : array_like
and y.
See also:
lagval, lagval2d, laggrid2d, lagval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Laguerre series.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥).
𝑖

it is complex.
See also:
polyroots, legroots, chebroots, hermroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Laguerre series basis polynomials aren’t powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagroots, lagfromroots

>>> coef = lagfromroots([0, 1, 2])
>>> coef
array([ 2., -8., 12., -6.])
>>> lagroots(coef)
array([ -4.44089210e-16, 1.00000000e+00, 2.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagfromroots(roots)
Generate a Laguerre series with given roots.
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
in Laguerre form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Laguerre form.
Examples below).
See also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, chebfromroots, hermfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagfromroots, lagval

>>> coef = lagfromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> lagval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = lagfromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> lagval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
Fitting
lagfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least squares fit of Laguerre series to data.
lagvander(x, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
lagvander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
lagvander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least squares fit of Laguerre series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Laguerre series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐿1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐿𝑛 (𝑥),
where n is deg.
per column.
Laguerre coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the
data in column k of y are in column k.
Warns RankWarning

>>> import warnings

See also:
chebfit, legfit, polyfit, hermfit, hermefit
lagval Evaluates a Laguerre series.
lagvander pseudo Vandermonde matrix of Laguerre series.
lagweight Laguerre weight function.
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Laguerre series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗
where the 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up as the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
V.
Fits using Laguerre series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the Laguerre weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as lagweight.
References
[R125125]
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagfit, lagval

>>> x = np.linspace(0, 10)
>>> err = np.random.randn(len(x))/10
>>> y = lagval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> lagfit(x, y, 2)
array([ 0.96971004, 2.00193749, 3.00288744])

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander(x, deg)
is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥)
Laguerre polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = lagvander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and lagval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Laguerre series of the same degree and sample points.
deg : int
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Laguerre poly-
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagvander

>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 2])
>>> lagvander(x, 3)
array([[ 1. , 1. , 1. , 1. ],
[ 1. , 0. , -0.5 , -0.66666667],
[ 1. , -1. , -1. , -0.33333333]])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander2d(x, y, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦),
index encodes the degrees of the Laguerre polynomials.
If V = lagvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and lagval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Laguerre series of the

deg : list of ints
See also:
lagvander, lagvander3d., lagval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝐿𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐿𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐿𝑘 (𝑧),
last index encodes the degrees of the Laguerre polynomials.
If V = lagvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and lagval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiva-
lence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Laguerre series of
deg : list of ints
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
lagvander, lagvander3d., lagval3d

Notes
Calculus
lagder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a Laguerre series.

lagint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a Laguerre series.
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a Laguerre series.
Returns the Laguerre series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is mul-
cients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) + 2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) +
2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Laguerre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
Laguerre series of the derivative.
See also:
lagint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Laguerre series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Examples

>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagder

>>> lagder([ 1., 1., 1., -3.])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> lagder([ 1., 0., 0., -4., 3.], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Laguerre series.
Returns the Laguerre series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the re-
L_0 + 2*L_1 + 3*L_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*L_0(x)*L_0(y) + 1*L_1(x)*L_0(y) +
2*L_0(x)*L_1(y) + 2*L_1(x)*L_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Laguerre series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
a list.
Returns S : ndarray
Laguerre series coefficients of the integral.
Raises ValueError
See also:
lagder

Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagint

>>> lagint([1,2,3])
array([ 1., 1., 1., -3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], m=2)
array([ 1., 0., 0., -4., 3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], k=1)
array([ 2., 1., 1., -3.])
>>> lagint([1,2,3], lbnd=-1)
array([ 11.5, 1. , 1. , -3. ])
>>> lagint([1,2], m=2, k=[1,2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 11.16666667, -5. , -3. , 2. ])
Algebra
lagadd(c1, c2) Add one Laguerre series to another.

lagsub(c1, c2) Subtract one Laguerre series from another.
lagmul(c1, c2) Multiply one Laguerre series by another.
lagmulx(c) Multiply a Laguerre series by x.
lagdiv(c1, c2) Divide one Laguerre series by another.
lagpow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Laguerre series to a power.
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagadd(c1, c2)
Add one Laguerre series to another.
Returns the sum of two Laguerre series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from
lowest order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
1-D arrays of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Array representing the Laguerre series of their sum.
See also:
lagsub, lagmul, lagdiv, lagpow

Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Laguerre series is a Laguerre series (without having to “re-
wise.”
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagadd

>>> lagadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Laguerre series from another.
Returns the difference of two Laguerre series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
lagadd, lagmul, lagdiv, lagpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Laguerre series is a Laguerre series (without having
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagsub

>>> lagsub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Laguerre series by another.
Returns the product of two Laguerre series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing their product.

See also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagdiv, lagpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Laguerre polynomial
basis set. Thus, to express the product as a Laguerre series, it is necessary to “reproject” the product onto said
basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagmul

>>> lagmul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 8., -13., 38., -51., 36.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagmulx(c)
Multiply a Laguerre series by x.
Multiply the Laguerre series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Laguerre polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (-(i + 1)*P_{i + 1}(x) + (2i + 1)P_{i}(x) - iP_{i - 1}(x))
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagmulx

>>> lagmulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ -1., -1., 11., -9.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Laguerre series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Laguerre series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Of Laguerre series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.

See also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagmul, lagpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Laguerre series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Laguerre polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Laguerre series, it is
necessary to “reproject” the results onto the Laguerre basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct)
results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagdiv

>>> lagdiv([ 8., -13., 38., -51., 36.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> lagdiv([ 9., -12., 38., -51., 36.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 1.]))
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Laguerre series to a power.
Returns the Laguerre series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered
from low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Laguerre series of power.
See also:
lagadd, lagsub, lagmul, lagdiv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagpow

>>> lagpow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 14., -16., 56., -72., 54.])
Quadrature

laggauss(deg) Gauss-Laguerre quadrature.

lagweight(x) Weight function of the Laguerre polynomials.
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.laggauss(deg)
Gauss-Laguerre quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Laguerre quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 * 𝑑𝑒𝑔 − 1 or less over the interval [0, inf] with the weight function
𝑓 (𝑥) = exp(−𝑥).
Returns x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes

The results have only been tested up to degree 100 higher degrees may be problematic. The weights are deter-
mined by using the fact that
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑐/(𝐿′𝑛 (𝑥𝑘 ) * 𝐿𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑘 ))
where 𝑐 is a constant independent of 𝑘 and 𝑥𝑘 is the k’th root of 𝐿𝑛 , and then scaling the results to get the right
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagweight(x)
Weight function of the Laguerre polynomials.
The weight function is 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑥) and the interval of integration is [0, inf]. The Laguerre polynomials are orthog-
onal, but not normalized, with respect to this weight function.
Returns w : ndarray
Notes
Miscellaneous
lagcompanion(c) Return the companion matrix of c.



lagdomain
lagzero
lagone
lagx
lagtrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
lagline(off, scl) Laguerre series whose graph is a straight line.
lag2poly(c) Convert a Laguerre series to a polynomial.
poly2lag(pol) Convert a polynomial to a Laguerre series.
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagcompanion(c)
Return the companion matrix of c.
The usual companion matrix of the Laguerre polynomials is already symmetric when c is a basis Laguerre
polynomial, so no scaling is applied.
1-D array of Laguerre series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Companion matrix of dimensions (deg, deg).
Notes

numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagdomain = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagx = array([ 1, -1])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagtrim(c, tol=0)
Raises ValueError
If tol < 0

See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lagline(off, scl)
Laguerre series whose graph is a straight line.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the Laguerre series for off + scl*x.
See also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lagline, lagval

>>> lagval(0,lagline(3, 2))
3.0
>>> lagval(1,lagline(3, 2))
5.0
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.lag2poly(c)
Convert a Laguerre series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Laguerre series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
1-D array containing the Laguerre series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
See also:
poly2lag

Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import lag2poly

>>> lag2poly([ 23., -63., 58., -18.])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.laguerre.poly2lag(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Laguerre series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Laguerre series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Returns c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Laguerre series.
See also:
lag2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.laguerre import poly2lag

>>> poly2lag(np.arange(4))
array([ 23., -63., 58., -18.])
Hermite Module, “Physicists’” (numpy.polynomial.hermite)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with Hermite series, including a
Hermite class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module represents
and works with such polynomials is in the docstring for its “parent” sub-package, numpy.polynomial).
Hermite Class
Hermite(coef[, domain, window]) An Hermite series class.

class numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite(coef, domain=None, window=None)

An Hermite series class.
The Hermite class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’, and
Hermite coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e, (1, 2, 3) gives 1*H_0(x)
+ 2*H_1(X) + 3*H_2(x).
Methods
__call__(arg)
window.
Hermite.__call__(arg)
Hermite.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)


None.
default is None.
Hermite.cast(series, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
See also:
Hermite.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

used.

used.
Notes
Hermite.copy()
Return a copy.
Copy of self.
Hermite.cutdeg(deg)
Hermite.degree()
Hermite.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
Hermite.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)


per column.
1.5.0.
the call.

Hermite.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)

List of roots.
Hermite.has_samecoef(other)
Hermite.has_samedomain(other)
Hermite.has_sametype(other)
Class instance.
Hermite.has_samewindow(other)


Hermite.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
None.
default is None.
Hermite.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
k : array_like
lbnd : Scalar
integrated series.
Hermite.linspace(n=100, domain=None)

element of x.
Hermite.mapparms()
Notes
L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
Hermite.roots()
they lie.
Hermite.trim(tol=0)
Hermite.truncate(size)
small.

Basics
hermval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate an Hermite series at points x.

hermval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series at points (x, y).
hermval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series at points (x, y, z).
hermgrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of
x and y.
hermgrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of
x, y, and z.
hermroots(c) Compute the roots of a Hermite series.
hermfromroots(roots) Generate a Hermite series with given roots.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate an Hermite series at points x.
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 * 𝐻0 (𝑥) + 𝑐1 * 𝐻1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑛 (𝑥)
elements of c.
concern.
c : array_like
of c.


See also:
hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermval

>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> hermval(1, coef)
11.0
>>> hermval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[ 11., 51.],
[ 115., 203.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series at points (x, y).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑦)
𝑖,𝑗
c : array_like
See also:
hermval, hermgrid2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d

Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series at points (x, y, z).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐻𝑘 (𝑧)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like
See also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermgrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑏)
𝑖,𝑗


c : array_like
and y.
See also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermval3d, hermgrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑏) * 𝐻𝑘 (𝑐)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like
and y.
See also:
hermval, hermval2d, hermgrid2d, hermval3d

Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermroots(c)
Compute the roots of a Hermite series.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥).
𝑖

it is complex.
See also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, chebroots, hermeroots
Notes
method.
The Hermite series basis polynomials aren’t powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermroots, hermfromroots

>>> coef = hermfromroots([-1, 0, 1])
>>> coef
array([ 0. , 0.25 , 0. , 0.125])
>>> hermroots(coef)
array([ -1.00000000e+00, -1.38777878e-17, 1.00000000e+00])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermfromroots(roots)
Generate a Hermite series with given roots.
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
in Hermite form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐻1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑛 (𝑥)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in Hermite form.


Examples below).
See also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, chebfromroots, hermefromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermfromroots, hermval

>>> coef = hermfromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> hermval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = hermfromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> hermval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
Fitting
hermfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least squares fit of Hermite series to data.
hermvander(x, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
hermvander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
hermvander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least squares fit of Hermite series to data.
Return the coefficients of a Hermite series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐻1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑛 (𝑥),
where n is deg.
per column.

Hermite coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the data
in column k of y are in column k.
Warns RankWarning
>>> import warnings

See also:
chebfit, legfit, lagfit, polyfit, hermefit
hermval Evaluates a Hermite series.
hermvander Vandermonde matrix of Hermite series.
hermweight Hermite weight function
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the Hermite series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗

where the 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
weights, y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of V.
Fits using Hermite series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the Hermite weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as hermweight.
References
[R121121]
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermfit, hermval

>>> x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
>>> y = hermval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> hermfit(x, y, 2)
array([ 0.97902637, 1.99849131, 3.00006 ])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander(x, deg)
is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥),
Hermite polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = hermvander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and hermval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of Hermite series of the same degree and sample points.
deg : int
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding Hermite poly-

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermvander

>>> x = np.array([-1, 0, 1])
>>> hermvander(x, 3)
array([[ 1., -2., 2., 4.],
[ 1., 0., -2., -0.],
[ 1., 2., 2., -4.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander2d(x, y, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑦),
index encodes the degrees of the Hermite polynomials.
If V = hermvander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of a
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equivalence
is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D Hermite series of the same
degrees and sample points.
deg : list of ints
See also:
hermvander, hermvander3d., hermval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermvander3d(x, y, z, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝐻𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐻𝑘 (𝑧),

last index encodes the degrees of the Hermite polynomials.
If V = hermvander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiv-
alence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D Hermite series of
deg : list of ints
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
hermvander, hermvander3d., hermval3d
Notes
Calculus
hermder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a Hermite series.

hermint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a Hermite series.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a Hermite series.
Returns the Hermite series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is mul-
cients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2
while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) + 2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) +
2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Hermite series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis corre-
spond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional


Hermite series of the derivative.
See also:
hermint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Hermite series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermder

>>> hermder([ 1. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> hermder([-0.5, 1./2., 1./8., 1./12., 1./16.], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Hermite series.
Returns the Hermite series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the re-
H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) +
2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) + 2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Hermite series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis corre-
spond to different variables with the degree in each axis given by the corresponding
index.
m : int, optional

a list.
Returns S : ndarray
Hermite series coefficients of the integral.
Raises ValueError
See also:
hermder
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermint

>>> hermint([1,2,3]) # integrate once, value 0 at 0.
array([ 1. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], m=2) # integrate twice, value & deriv 0 at 0
array([-0.5 , 0.5 , 0.125 , 0.08333333, 0.0625 ])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], k=1) # integrate once, value 1 at 0.
array([ 2. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], lbnd=-1) # integrate once, value 0 at -1
array([-2. , 0.5, 0.5, 0.5])
>>> hermint([1,2,3], m=2, k=[1,2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 1.66666667, -0.5 , 0.125 , 0.08333333, 0.0625 ])
Algebra
hermadd(c1, c2) Add one Hermite series to another.



hermsub(c1, c2) Subtract one Hermite series from another.
hermmul(c1, c2) Multiply one Hermite series by another.
hermmulx(c) Multiply a Hermite series by x.
hermdiv(c1, c2) Divide one Hermite series by another.
hermpow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Hermite series to a power.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermadd(c1, c2)
Add one Hermite series to another.
Returns the sum of two Hermite series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
1-D arrays of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high.
Array representing the Hermite series of their sum.
See also:
hermsub, hermmul, hermdiv, hermpow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having to “re-
wise.”
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermadd

>>> hermadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermsub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Hermite series from another.
Returns the difference of two Hermite series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
hermadd, hermmul, hermdiv, hermpow

Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermsub

>>> hermsub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermmul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Hermite series by another.
Returns the product of two Hermite series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their product.
See also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermdiv, hermpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis
set. Thus, to express the product as a Hermite series, it is necessary to “reproject” the product onto said basis
set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermmul

>>> hermmul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 52., 29., 52., 7., 6.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermmulx(c)
Multiply a Hermite series by x.
Multiply the Hermite series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
1-D array of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high.

Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Hermite polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (P_{i + 1}(x)/2 + i*P_{i - 1}(x))
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermmulx

>>> hermmulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ 2. , 6.5, 1. , 1.5])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermdiv(c1, c2)
Divide one Hermite series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Hermite series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Of Hermite series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.
See also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermmul, hermpow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Hermite series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Hermite series, it is necessary
to “reproject” the results onto the Hermite basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermdiv

>>> hermdiv([ 52., 29., 52., 7., 6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> hermdiv([ 54., 31., 52., 7., 6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 2., 2.]))
>>> hermdiv([ 53., 30., 52., 7., 6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 1.]))
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermpow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Hermite series to a power.
Returns the Hermite series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.

pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Hermite series of power.
See also:
hermadd, hermsub, hermmul, hermdiv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermpow

>>> hermpow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 81., 52., 82., 12., 9.])
Quadrature
hermgauss(deg) Gauss-Hermite quadrature.

hermweight(x) Weight function of the Hermite polynomials.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermgauss(deg)
Gauss-Hermite quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-Hermite quadrature. These sample points and weights will
correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2*𝑑𝑒𝑔 −1 or less over the interval [− inf, inf] with the weight function
𝑓 (𝑥) = exp(−𝑥2 ).
Returns x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑐/(𝐻𝑛′ (𝑥𝑘 ) * 𝐻𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑘 ))
where 𝑐 is a constant independent of 𝑘 and 𝑥𝑘 is the k’th root of 𝐻𝑛 , and then scaling the results to get the right

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermweight(x)
Weight function of the Hermite polynomials.
The weight function is exp(−𝑥2 ) and the interval of integration is [− inf, inf]. the Hermite polynomials are
Returns w : ndarray
Notes
Miscellaneous
hermcompanion(c) Return the scaled companion matrix of c.

hermdomain
hermzero
hermone
hermx
hermtrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
hermline(off, scl) Hermite series whose graph is a straight line.
herm2poly(c) Convert a Hermite series to a polynomial.
poly2herm(pol) Convert a polynomial to a Hermite series.
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermcompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an Hermite basis polyno-
mial. This provides better eigenvalue estimates than the unscaled case and for basis polynomials the eigenvalues
are guaranteed to be real if numpy.linalg.eigvalsh is used to obtain them.
1-D array of Hermite series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermdomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermzero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermx = array([0. , 0.5])

numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermtrim(c, tol=0)
Raises ValueError
If tol < 0
See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.hermline(off, scl)
Hermite series whose graph is a straight line.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the Hermite series for off + scl*x.
See also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import hermline, hermval

>>> hermval(0,hermline(3, 2))
3.0

>>> hermval(1,hermline(3, 2))

5.0
numpy.polynomial.hermite.herm2poly(c)
Convert a Hermite series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Hermite series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
1-D array containing the Hermite series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
See also:
poly2herm
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import herm2poly

>>> herm2poly([ 1. , 2.75 , 0.5 , 0.375])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite.poly2herm(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Hermite series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Returns c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series.
See also:
herm2poly
Notes

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite import poly2herm

>>> poly2herm(np.arange(4))
array([ 1. , 2.75 , 0.5 , 0.375])
HermiteE Module, “Probabilists’” (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e)

This module provides a number of objects (mostly functions) useful for dealing with HermiteE series, including a
HermiteE class that encapsulates the usual arithmetic operations. (General information on how this module repre-
HermiteE Class
HermiteE(coef[, domain, window]) An HermiteE series class.
class numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE(coef, domain=None, window=None)

An HermiteE series class.
The HermiteE class provides the standard Python numerical methods ‘+’, ‘-‘, ‘*’, ‘//’, ‘%’, ‘divmod’, ‘**’, and
HermiteE coefficients in order of increasing degree, i.e, (1, 2, 3) gives
1*He_0(x) + 2*He_1(X) + 3*He_2(x).
Methods
__call__(arg)
window.


HermiteE.__call__(arg)
HermiteE.basis(deg, domain=None, window=None)
None.
default is None.
HermiteE.cast(series, domain=None, window=None)
None.

default is None.
See also:
HermiteE.convert(domain=None, kind=None, window=None)

used.
used.
Notes
HermiteE.copy()
Return a copy.
Copy of self.
HermiteE.cutdeg(deg)

HermiteE.degree()
HermiteE.deriv(m=1)
Differentiate.
HermiteE.fit(x, y, deg, domain=None, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, window=None)
per column.
1.5.0.

the call.
HermiteE.fromroots(roots, domain=[], window=None)
List of roots.
HermiteE.has_samecoef(other)
HermiteE.has_samedomain(other)


HermiteE.has_sametype(other)
Class instance.
HermiteE.has_samewindow(other)
HermiteE.identity(domain=None, window=None)
Identity function.
None.
default is None.
HermiteE.integ(m=1, k=[], lbnd=None)
Integrate.
k : array_like

lbnd : Scalar
integrated series.
HermiteE.linspace(n=100, domain=None)
element of x.
HermiteE.mapparms()
Notes
L(l1) = l2
L(r1) = r2
HermiteE.roots()
they lie.


HermiteE.trim(tol=0)
HermiteE.truncate(size)
small.
Basics
hermeval(x, c[, tensor]) Evaluate an HermiteE series at points x.

hermeval2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series at points (x, y).
hermeval3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D Hermite_e series at points (x, y, z).
hermegrid2d(x, y, c) Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of
x and y.
hermegrid3d(x, y, z, c) Evaluate a 3-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of
x, y, and z.
hermeroots(c) Compute the roots of a HermiteE series.
hermefromroots(roots) Generate a HermiteE series with given roots.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval(x, c, tensor=True)
Evaluate an HermiteE series at points x.
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 * 𝐻𝑒0 (𝑥) + 𝑐1 * 𝐻𝑒1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑒𝑛 (𝑥)
elements of c.


concern.
c : array_like
of c.
See also:
hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeval

>>> coef = [1,2,3]
>>> hermeval(1, coef)
3.0
>>> hermeval([[1,2],[3,4]], coef)
array([[ 3., 14.],
[ 31., 54.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series at points (x, y).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑒𝑗 (𝑦)
𝑖,𝑗

c : array_like
See also:
hermeval, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeval3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D Hermite_e series at points (x, y, z).
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑒𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐻𝑒𝑘 (𝑧)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘
c : array_like

See also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermegrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegrid2d(x, y, c)
Evaluate a 2-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x and y.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗 * 𝐻𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐻𝑗 (𝑏)
𝑖,𝑗
c : array_like
and y.
See also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermeval3d, hermegrid3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegrid3d(x, y, z, c)
Evaluate a 3-D HermiteE series on the Cartesian product of x, y, and z.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑐𝑖,𝑗,𝑘 * 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑎) * 𝐻𝑒𝑗 (𝑏) * 𝐻𝑒𝑘 (𝑐)
𝑖,𝑗,𝑘

c : array_like
and y.
See also:
hermeval, hermeval2d, hermegrid2d, hermeval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeroots(c)
Compute the roots of a HermiteE series.
∑︁
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐[𝑖] * 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥).
𝑖

it is complex.
See also:
polyroots, legroots, lagroots, hermroots, chebroots
Notes
method.
The HermiteE series basis polynomials aren’t powers of x so the results of this function may seem unintuitive.

Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeroots, hermefromroots

>>> coef = hermefromroots([-1, 0, 1])
>>> coef
array([ 0., 2., 0., 1.])
>>> hermeroots(coef)
array([-1., 0., 1.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermefromroots(roots)
Generate a HermiteE series with given roots.
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑟0 ) * (𝑥 − 𝑟1 ) * ... * (𝑥 − 𝑟𝑛 ),
in HermiteE form, where the r_n are the roots specified in roots. If a zero has multiplicity n, then it must appear
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐻𝑒1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑒𝑛 (𝑥)
The coefficient of the last term is not generally 1 for monic polynomials in HermiteE form.
Examples below).
See also:
polyfromroots, legfromroots, lagfromroots, hermfromroots, chebfromroots.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermefromroots, hermeval

>>> coef = hermefromroots((-1, 0, 1))
>>> hermeval((-1, 0, 1), coef)
array([ 0., 0., 0.])
>>> coef = hermefromroots((-1j, 1j))
>>> hermeval((-1j, 1j), coef)
array([ 0.+0.j, 0.+0.j])
Fitting
hermefit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w]) Least squares fit of Hermite series to data.
hermevander(x, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degree.
hermevander2d(x, y, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.
hermevander3d(x, y, z, deg) Pseudo-Vandermonde matrix of given degrees.

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermefit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None)

Least squares fit of Hermite series to data.
Return the coefficients of a HermiteE series of degree deg that is the least squares fit to the data values y given
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 * 𝐻𝑒1 (𝑥) + ... + 𝑐𝑛 * 𝐻𝑒𝑛 (𝑥),
where n is deg.
per column.
Hermite coefficients ordered from low to high. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for the data
in column k of y are in column k.
Warns RankWarning

>>> import warnings

See also:
chebfit, legfit, polyfit, hermfit, polyfit
hermeval Evaluates a Hermite series.
hermevander pseudo Vandermonde matrix of Hermite series.
hermeweight HermiteE weight function.
Notes
The solution is the coefficients of the HermiteE series p that minimizes the sum of the weighted squared errors
∑︁
𝐸= 𝑤𝑗2 * |𝑦𝑗 − 𝑝(𝑥𝑗 )|2 ,
𝑗
where the 𝑤𝑗 are the weights. This problem is solved by setting up the (typically) overdetermined matrix
equation
𝑉 (𝑥) * 𝑐 = 𝑤 * 𝑦,
where V is the pseudo Vandermonde matrix of x, the elements of c are the coefficients to be solved for, and the
elements of y are the observed values. This equation is then solved using the singular value decomposition of V.
Fits using HermiteE series are probably most useful when the data can be approximated by sqrt(w(x)) *
p(x), where w(x) is the HermiteE weight. In that case the weight sqrt(w(x[i]) should be used together
with data values y[i]/sqrt(w(x[i]). The weight function is available as hermeweight.
References
[R123123]
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermefit, hermeval

>>> x = np.linspace(-10, 10)
>>> y = hermeval(x, [1, 2, 3]) + err
>>> hermefit(x, y, 2)
array([ 1.01690445, 1.99951418, 2.99948696])

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander(x, deg)
is defined by
𝑉 [..., 𝑖] = 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥),
HermiteE polynomial.
If c is a 1-D array of coefficients of length n + 1 and V is the array V = hermevander(x, n), then np.
dot(V, c) and hermeval(x, c) are the same up to roundoff. This equivalence is useful both for least
squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of HermiteE series of the same degree and sample points.
deg : int
(deg + 1,), where The last index is the degree of the corresponding HermiteE poly-
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermevander

>>> x = np.array([-1, 0, 1])
>>> hermevander(x, 3)
array([[ 1., -1., 0., 2.],
[ 1., 0., -1., -0.],
[ 1., 1., 0., -2.]])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander2d(x, y, deg)
𝑉 [..., (𝑑𝑒𝑔[1] + 1) * 𝑖 + 𝑗] = 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑒𝑗 (𝑦),
index encodes the degrees of the HermiteE polynomials.
If V = hermevander2d(x, y, [xdeg, ydeg]), then the columns of V correspond to the elements of
a 2-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1) in the order
𝑐00 , 𝑐01 , 𝑐02 ..., 𝑐10 , 𝑐11 , 𝑐12 ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermeval2d(x, y, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiva-
lence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 2-D HermiteE series of

deg : list of ints
See also:
hermevander, hermevander3d., hermeval3d
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermevander3d(x, y, z, deg)
degrees in x, y, z, then Hehe pseudo-Vandermonde matrix is defined by
𝑉 [..., (𝑚 + 1)(𝑛 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑗 + 𝑘] = 𝐻𝑒𝑖 (𝑥) * 𝐻𝑒𝑗 (𝑦) * 𝐻𝑒𝑘 (𝑧),
last index encodes the degrees of the HermiteE polynomials.
If V = hermevander3d(x, y, z, [xdeg, ydeg, zdeg]), then the columns of V correspond to
the elements of a 3-D coefficient array c of shape (xdeg + 1, ydeg + 1, zdeg + 1) in the order
𝑐000 , 𝑐001 , 𝑐002 , ..., 𝑐010 , 𝑐011 , 𝑐012 , ...
and np.dot(V, c.flat) and hermeval3d(x, y, z, c) will be the same up to roundoff. This equiv-
alence is useful both for least squares fitting and for the evaluation of a large number of 3-D HermiteE series of
deg : list of ints
verted x, y, and z.
See also:
hermevander, hermevander3d., hermeval3d

Notes
Calculus
hermeder(c[, m, scl, axis]) Differentiate a Hermite_e series.

hermeint(c[, m, k, lbnd, scl, axis]) Integrate a Hermite_e series.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeder(c, m=1, scl=1, axis=0)

Differentiate a Hermite_e series.
Returns the series coefficients c differentiated m times along axis. At each iteration the result is mul-
tiplied by scl (the scaling factor is for use in a linear change of variable). The argument c is an ar-
ray of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series 1*He_0 +
2*He_1 + 3*He_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*He_0(x)*He_0(y) + 1*He_1(x)*He_0(y) +
2*He_0(x)*He_1(y) + 2*He_1(x)*He_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Hermite_e series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
Hermite series of the derivative.
See also:
hermeint
Notes
In general, the result of differentiating a Hermite series does not resemble the same operation on a power series.
Examples

>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeder

>>> hermeder([ 1., 1., 1., 1.])
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
>>> hermeder([-0.25, 1., 1./2., 1./3., 1./4 ], m=2)
array([ 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeint(c, m=1, k=[], lbnd=0, scl=1, axis=0)

Integrate a Hermite_e series.
Returns the Hermite_e series coefficients c integrated m times from lbnd along axis. At each iteration the
resulting series is multiplied by scl and an integration constant, k, is added. The scaling factor is for use
in a linear change of variable. (“Buyer beware”: note that, depending on what one is doing, one may want
scl to be the reciprocal of what one might expect; for more information, see the Notes section below.) The
argument c is an array of coefficients from low to high degree along each axis, e.g., [1,2,3] represents the series
H_0 + 2*H_1 + 3*H_2 while [[1,2],[1,2]] represents 1*H_0(x)*H_0(y) + 1*H_1(x)*H_0(y) +
2*H_0(x)*H_1(y) + 2*H_1(x)*H_1(y) if axis=0 is x and axis=1 is y.
Array of Hermite_e series coefficients. If c is multidimensional the different axis cor-
index.
m : int, optional
a list.
Returns S : ndarray
Hermite_e series coefficients of the integral.
Raises ValueError
See also:
hermeder

Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeint

>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3]) # integrate once, value 0 at 0.
array([ 1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], m=2) # integrate twice, value & deriv 0 at 0
array([-0.25 , 1. , 0.5 , 0.33333333, 0.25 ])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], k=1) # integrate once, value 1 at 0.
array([ 2., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], lbnd=-1) # integrate once, value 0 at -1
array([-1., 1., 1., 1.])
>>> hermeint([1, 2, 3], m=2, k=[1, 2], lbnd=-1)
array([ 1.83333333, 0. , 0.5 , 0.33333333, 0.25 ])
Algebra
hermeadd(c1, c2) Add one Hermite series to another.

hermesub(c1, c2) Subtract one Hermite series from another.
hermemul(c1, c2) Multiply one Hermite series by another.
hermemulx(c) Multiply a Hermite series by x.
hermediv(c1, c2) Divide one Hermite series by another.
hermepow(c, pow[, maxpower]) Raise a Hermite series to a power.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeadd(c1, c2)
Add one Hermite series to another.
Returns the sum of two Hermite series c1 + c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients ordered from lowest
order term to highest, i.e., [1,2,3] represents the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
Array representing the Hermite series of their sum.
See also:
hermesub, hermemul, hermediv, hermepow

Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the sum of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having to “re-
wise.”
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeadd

>>> hermeadd([1, 2, 3], [1, 2, 3, 4])
array([ 2., 4., 6., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermesub(c1, c2)
Subtract one Hermite series from another.
Returns the difference of two Hermite series c1 - c2. The sequences of coefficients are from lowest order term
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their difference.
See also:
hermeadd, hermemul, hermediv, hermepow
Notes
Unlike multiplication, division, etc., the difference of two Hermite series is a Hermite series (without having
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermesub

>>> hermesub([1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 3])
array([ 0., 0., 0., 4.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermemul(c1, c2)
Multiply one Hermite series by another.
Returns the product of two Hermite series c1 * c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients, from lowest
Of Hermite series coefficients representing their product.

See also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermediv, hermepow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) product of two C-series results in terms that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis
set. Thus, to express the product as a Hermite series, it is necessary to “reproject” the product onto said basis
set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see Examples section below.
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermemul

>>> hermemul([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 2])
array([ 14., 15., 28., 7., 6.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermemulx(c)
Multiply a Hermite series by x.
Multiply the Hermite series c by x, where x is the independent variable.
Notes
The multiplication uses the recursion relationship for Hermite polynomials in the form
xP_i(x) = (P_{i + 1}(x) + iP_{i - 1}(x)))
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermemulx

>>> hermemulx([1, 2, 3])
array([ 2., 7., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermediv(c1, c2)
Divide one Hermite series by another.
Returns the quotient-with-remainder of two Hermite series c1 / c2. The arguments are sequences of coefficients
Of Hermite series coefficients representing the quotient and remainder.

See also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermemul, hermepow
Notes
In general, the (polynomial) division of one Hermite series by another results in quotient and remainder terms
that are not in the Hermite polynomial basis set. Thus, to express these results as a Hermite series, it is necessary
to “reproject” the results onto the Hermite basis set, which may produce “unintuitive” (but correct) results; see
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermediv

>>> hermediv([ 14., 15., 28., 7., 6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 0.]))
>>> hermediv([ 15., 17., 28., 7., 6.], [0, 1, 2])
(array([ 1., 2., 3.]), array([ 1., 2.]))
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermepow(c, pow, maxpower=16)

Raise a Hermite series to a power.
Returns the Hermite series c raised to the power pow. The argument c is a sequence of coefficients ordered from
low to high. i.e., [1,2,3] is the series P_0 + 2*P_1 + 3*P_2.
pow : integer
size. Default is 16
Hermite series of power.
See also:
hermeadd, hermesub, hermemul, hermediv
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermepow

>>> hermepow([1, 2, 3], 2)
array([ 23., 28., 46., 12., 9.])
Quadrature

hermegauss(deg) Gauss-HermiteE quadrature.

hermeweight(x) Weight function of the Hermite_e polynomials.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermegauss(deg)
Gauss-HermiteE quadrature.
Computes the sample points and weights for Gauss-HermiteE quadrature. These sample points and weights
will correctly integrate polynomials of degree 2 * 𝑑𝑒𝑔 − 1 or less over the interval [− inf, inf] with the weight
function 𝑓 (𝑥) = exp(−𝑥2 /2).
Returns x : ndarray
y : ndarray
Notes

𝑤𝑘 = 𝑐/(𝐻𝑒′𝑛 (𝑥𝑘 ) * 𝐻𝑒𝑛−1 (𝑥𝑘 ))
where 𝑐 is a constant independent of 𝑘 and 𝑥𝑘 is the k’th root of 𝐻𝑒𝑛 , and then scaling the results to get the
right value when integrating 1.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeweight(x)
Weight function of the Hermite_e polynomials.
The weight function is exp(−𝑥2 /2) and the interval of integration is [− inf, inf]. the HermiteE polynomials are
Returns w : ndarray
Notes
Miscellaneous
hermecompanion(c) Return the scaled companion matrix of c.



hermedomain
hermezero
hermeone
hermex
hermetrim(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
hermeline(off, scl) Hermite series whose graph is a straight line.
herme2poly(c) Convert a Hermite series to a polynomial.
poly2herme(pol) Convert a polynomial to a Hermite series.
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermecompanion(c)
The basis polynomials are scaled so that the companion matrix is symmetric when c is an HermiteE basis
1-D array of HermiteE series coefficients ordered from low to high degree.
Notes

numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermedomain = array([-1, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermezero = array([0])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeone = array([1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermex = array([0, 1])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermetrim(c, tol=0)
Raises ValueError
If tol < 0

See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.hermeline(off, scl)
Hermite series whose graph is a straight line.
Returns y : ndarray
This module’s representation of the Hermite series for off + scl*x.
See also:
polyline, chebline
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeline

>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import hermeline, hermeval
>>> hermeval(0,hermeline(3, 2))
3.0
>>> hermeval(1,hermeline(3, 2))
5.0
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.herme2poly(c)
Convert a Hermite series to a polynomial.
Convert an array representing the coefficients of a Hermite series, ordered from lowest degree to highest, to an
highest degree.
1-D array containing the Hermite series coefficients, ordered from lowest order term to
highest.
See also:
poly2herme

Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import herme2poly

>>> herme2poly([ 2., 10., 2., 3.])
array([ 0., 1., 2., 3.])
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.poly2herme(pol)
Convert a polynomial to a Hermite series.
lowest degree to highest, to an array of the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series, ordered from lowest to
highest degree.
Returns c : ndarray
1-D array containing the coefficients of the equivalent Hermite series.
See also:
herme2poly
Notes
Examples
>>> from numpy.polynomial.hermite_e import poly2herme

>>> poly2herme(np.arange(4))
array([ 2., 10., 2., 3.])
Polyutils
Utility classes and functions for the polynomial modules.

This module provides: error and warning objects; a polynomial base class; and some routines used in both the poly-
nomial and chebyshev modules.
Error objects
PolyError Base class for errors in this module.

PolyDomainError Issued by the generic Poly class when two domains don’t
match.

exception numpy.polynomial.polyutils.PolyError
Base class for errors in this module.
exception numpy.polynomial.polyutils.PolyDomainError
Issued by the generic Poly class when two domains don’t match.
This is raised when an binary operation is passed Poly objects with different domains.
Warning objects
RankWarning Issued by chebfit when the design matrix is rank deficient.
exception numpy.polynomial.polyutils.RankWarning
Issued by chebfit when the design matrix is rank deficient.
Base class
PolyBase Base class for all polynomial types.
class numpy.polynomial.polyutils.PolyBase
Base class for all polynomial types.
Deprecated in numpy 1.9.0, use the abstract ABCPolyBase class instead. Note that the latter requires a number
of virtual functions to be implemented.
Functions
as_series(alist[, trim]) Return argument as a list of 1-d arrays.

trimseq(seq) Remove small Poly series coefficients.
trimcoef(c[, tol]) Remove “small” “trailing” coefficients from a polynomial.
getdomain(x) Return a domain suitable for given abscissae.
mapdomain(x, old, new) Apply linear map to input points.
mapparms(old, new) Linear map parameters between domains.
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.as_series(alist, trim=True)
Return argument as a list of 1-d arrays.
The returned list contains array(s) of dtype double, complex double, or object. A 1-d argument of shape (N,)
is parsed into N arrays of size one; a 2-d argument of shape (M,N) is parsed into M arrays of size N (i.e., is
“parsed by row”); and a higher dimensional array raises a Value Error if it is not first reshaped into either a 1-d
or 2-d array.
Parameters alist : array_like
A 1- or 2-d array_like
trim : boolean, optional
When True, trailing zeros are removed from the inputs. When False, the inputs are
passed through intact.
Returns [a1, a2,. . . ] : list of 1-D arrays

A copy of the input data as a list of 1-d arrays.

Raises ValueError
Raised when as_series cannot convert its input to 1-d arrays, or at least one of the
resulting arrays is empty.
Examples

>>> pu.as_series(a)
[array([ 0.]), array([ 1.]), array([ 2.]), array([ 3.])]
>>> b = np.arange(6).reshape((2,3))
>>> pu.as_series(b)
[array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 3., 4., 5.])]
>>> pu.as_series((1, np.arange(3), np.arange(2, dtype=np.float16)))

[array([ 1.]), array([ 0., 1., 2.]), array([ 0., 1.])]
>>> pu.as_series([2, [1.1, 0.]])

[array([ 2.]), array([ 1.1])]
>>> pu.as_series([2, [1.1, 0.]], trim=False)

[array([ 2.]), array([ 1.1, 0. ])]
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.trimseq(seq)
Remove small Poly series coefficients.
Parameters seq : sequence
Sequence of Poly series coefficients. This routine fails for empty sequences.
Returns series : sequence
Subsequence with trailing zeros removed. If the resulting sequence would be empty,
return the first element. The returned sequence may or may not be a view.
Notes
Do not lose the type info if the sequence contains unknown objects.
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.trimcoef(c, tol=0)


Raises ValueError
If tol < 0
See also:
trimseq
Examples

>>> pu.trimcoef((0,0,3,0,5,0,0))
array([ 0., 0., 3., 0., 5.])
array([ 0.])
array([ 0.0003+0.j , 0.0010-0.001j])
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.getdomain(x)
Return a domain suitable for given abscissae.
Find a domain suitable for a polynomial or Chebyshev series defined at the values supplied.
1-d array of abscissae whose domain will be determined.
Returns domain : ndarray
1-d array containing two values. If the inputs are complex, then the two returned points
are the lower left and upper right corners of the smallest rectangle (aligned with the
axes) in the complex plane containing the points x. If the inputs are real, then the two
points are the ends of the smallest interval containing the points x.
See also:
mapparms, mapdomain
Examples

>>> points = np.arange(4)**2 - 5; points
array([-5, -4, -1, 4])
>>> pu.getdomain(points)
array([-5., 4.])
>>> c = np.exp(complex(0,1)*np.pi*np.arange(12)/6) # unit circle
>>> pu.getdomain(c)
array([-1.-1.j, 1.+1.j])
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.mapdomain(x, old, new)

Apply linear map to input points.
The linear map offset + scale*x that maps the domain old to the domain new is applied to the points x.

Points to be mapped. If x is a subtype of ndarray the subtype will be preserved.
old, new : array_like
The two domains that determine the map. Each must (successfully) convert to 1-d arrays
containing precisely two values.
Returns x_out : ndarray
Array of points of the same shape as x, after application of the linear map between the
two domains.
See also:
getdomain, mapparms
Notes
Effectively, this implements:
𝑥_𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑛𝑒𝑤[0] + 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑜𝑙𝑑[0])
where
𝑛𝑒𝑤[1] − 𝑛𝑒𝑤[0]
𝑚=
𝑜𝑙𝑑[1] − 𝑜𝑙𝑑[0]
Examples

>>> old_domain = (-1,1)
>>> new_domain = (0,2*np.pi)
>>> x = np.linspace(-1,1,6); x
array([-1. , -0.6, -0.2, 0.2, 0.6, 1. ])
>>> x_out = pu.mapdomain(x, old_domain, new_domain); x_out
array([ 0. , 1.25663706, 2.51327412, 3.76991118, 5.02654825,
6.28318531])
>>> x - pu.mapdomain(x_out, new_domain, old_domain)
array([ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.])
Also works for complex numbers (and thus can be used to map any line in the complex plane to any other line
therein).
>>> i = complex(0,1)
>>> old = (-1 - i, 1 + i)
>>> new = (-1 + i, 1 - i)
>>> z = np.linspace(old[0], old[1], 6); z
array([-1.0-1.j , -0.6-0.6j, -0.2-0.2j, 0.2+0.2j, 0.6+0.6j, 1.0+1.j ])
>>> new_z = P.mapdomain(z, old, new); new_z
array([-1.0+1.j , -0.6+0.6j, -0.2+0.2j, 0.2-0.2j, 0.6-0.6j, 1.0-1.j ])
numpy.polynomial.polyutils.mapparms(old, new)
Linear map parameters between domains.
Return the parameters of the linear map offset + scale*x that maps old to new such that old[i] ->
new[i], i = 0, 1.

Parameters old, new : array_like

Domains. Each domain must (successfully) convert to a 1-d array containing precisely
two values.
Returns offset, scale : scalars
The map L(x) = offset + scale*x maps the first domain to the second.
See also:
getdomain, mapdomain
Notes
Also works for complex numbers, and thus can be used to calculate the parameters required to map any line in
the complex plane to any other line therein.
Examples

>>> pu.mapparms((-1,1),(-1,1))
(0.0, 1.0)
>>> pu.mapparms((1,-1),(-1,1))
(0.0, -1.0)
>>> i = complex(0,1)
>>> pu.mapparms((-i,-1),(1,i))
((1+1j), (1+0j))
Poly1d
Basics
poly1d(c_or_r[, r, variable]) A one-dimensional polynomial class.

polyval(p, x) Evaluate a polynomial at specific values.
poly(seq_of_zeros) Find the coefficients of a polynomial with the given se-
quence of roots.
roots(p) Return the roots of a polynomial with coefficients given in
p.
class numpy.poly1d(c_or_r, r=False, variable=None)

A one-dimensional polynomial class.
A convenience class, used to encapsulate “natural” operations on polynomials so that said operations may take
on their customary form in code (see Examples).
Parameters c_or_r : array_like
The polynomial’s coefficients, in decreasing powers, or if the value of the second param-
eter is True, the polynomial’s roots (values where the polynomial evaluates to 0). For
example, poly1d([1, 2, 3]) returns an object that represents 𝑥2 +2𝑥+3, whereas
poly1d([1, 2, 3], True) returns one that represents (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) =
𝑥3 − 6𝑥2 + 11𝑥 − 6.

r : bool, optional
If True, c_or_r specifies the polynomial’s roots; the default is False.
variable : str, optional
Changes the variable used when printing p from x to variable (see Examples).
Examples
Construct the polynomial 𝑥2 + 2𝑥 + 3:

>>> p = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
>>> print(np.poly1d(p))
2
1 x + 2 x + 3
Evaluate the polynomial at 𝑥 = 0.5:

>>> p(0.5)
4.25
Find the roots:

>>> p.r
array([-1.+1.41421356j, -1.-1.41421356j])
>>> p(p.r)
array([ -4.44089210e-16+0.j, -4.44089210e-16+0.j])
These numbers in the previous line represent (0, 0) to machine precision

Show the coefficients:
>>> p.c
array([1, 2, 3])
Display the order (the leading zero-coefficients are removed):

>>> p.order
2
Show the coefficient of the k-th power in the polynomial (which is equivalent to p.c[-(i+1)]):
>>> p[1]
2
Polynomials can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (returns quotient and remainder):
>>> p * p
poly1d([ 1, 4, 10, 12, 9])
>>> (p**3 + 4) / p
(poly1d([ 1., 4., 10., 12., 9.]), poly1d([ 4.]))
asarray(p) gives the coefficient array, so polynomials can be used in all functions that accept arrays:
>>> p**2 # square of polynomial
poly1d([ 1, 4, 10, 12, 9])

>>> np.square(p) # square of individual coefficients

array([1, 4, 9])
The variable used in the string representation of p can be modified, using the variable parameter:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1,2,3], variable='z')

>>> print(p)
2
1 z + 2 z + 3
Construct a polynomial from its roots:
>>> np.poly1d([1, 2], True)

poly1d([ 1, -3, 2])
This is the same polynomial as obtained by:
>>> np.poly1d([1, -1]) * np.poly1d([1, -2])

poly1d([ 1, -3, 2])
Attributes
c A copy of the polynomial coefficients

coef A copy of the polynomial coefficients
coefficients A copy of the polynomial coefficients
coeffs A copy of the polynomial coefficients
o The order or degree of the polynomial
order The order or degree of the polynomial
r The roots of the polynomial, where self(x) == 0
roots The roots of the polynomial, where self(x) == 0
variable The name of the polynomial variable
Methods
__call__(val)
deriv([m]) Return a derivative of this polynomial.
integ([m, k]) Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of this
polynomial.
poly1d.__call__(val)
poly1d.deriv(m=1)
Return a derivative of this polynomial.
Refer to polyder for full documentation.
See also:
polyder equivalent function
poly1d.integ(m=1, k=0)
Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of this polynomial.

Refer to polyint for full documentation.

See also:
polyint equivalent function
numpy.polyval(p, x)
Evaluate a polynomial at specific values.
If p is of length N, this function returns the value:
p[0]*x**(N-1) + p[1]*x**(N-2) + ... + p[N-2]*x + p[N-1]
If x is a sequence, then p(x) is returned for each element of x. If x is another polynomial then the composite
polynomial p(x(t)) is returned.
Parameters p : array_like or poly1d object
1D array of polynomial coefficients (including coefficients equal to zero) from highest
degree to the constant term, or an instance of poly1d.
x : array_like or poly1d object
A number, an array of numbers, or an instance of poly1d, at which to evaluate p.
Returns values : ndarray or poly1d
If x is a poly1d instance, the result is the composition of the two polynomials, i.e., x
is “substituted” in p and the simplified result is returned. In addition, the type of x -
array_like or poly1d - governs the type of the output: x array_like => values array_like,
x a poly1d object => values is also.
See also:
poly1d A polynomial class.
Notes
Horner’s scheme [R129129] is used to evaluate the polynomial. Even so, for polynomials of high degree the
values may be inaccurate due to rounding errors. Use carefully.
References
[R129129]
Examples
>>> np.polyval([3,0,1], 5) # 3 * 5**2 + 0 * 5**1 + 1

76
>>> np.polyval([3,0,1], np.poly1d(5))
poly1d([ 76.])
>>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), 5)
76
>>> np.polyval(np.poly1d([3,0,1]), np.poly1d(5))
poly1d([ 76.])

numpy.poly(seq_of_zeros)
Find the coefficients of a polynomial with the given sequence of roots.
Returns the coefficients of the polynomial whose leading coefficient is one for the given sequence of zeros
(multiple roots must be included in the sequence as many times as their multiplicity; see Examples). A square
matrix (or array, which will be treated as a matrix) can also be given, in which case the coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial of the matrix are returned.
Parameters seq_of_zeros : array_like, shape (N,) or (N, N)
A sequence of polynomial roots, or a square array or matrix object.
Returns c : ndarray
1D array of polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree:
c[0] * x**(N) + c[1] * x**(N-1) + ... + c[N-1] * x + c[N]
where c[0] always equals 1.
Raises ValueError
If input is the wrong shape (the input must be a 1-D or square 2-D array).
See also:

roots Return the roots of a polynomial.
polyfit Least squares polynomial fit.
poly1d A one-dimensional polynomial class.
Notes
Specifying the roots of a polynomial still leaves one degree of freedom, typically represented by an undetermined
leading coefficient. [R111112] In the case of this function, that coefficient - the first one in the returned array - is
always taken as one. (If for some reason you have one other point, the only automatic way presently to leverage
that information is to use polyfit.)
The characteristic polynomial, 𝑝𝑎 (𝑡), of an n-by-n matrix A is given by
𝑝𝑎 (𝑡) = det(𝑡 I − A),
where I is the n-by-n identity matrix. [R112112]
References
[R111112], [R112112]
Examples
Given a sequence of a polynomial’s zeros:
>>> np.poly((0, 0, 0)) # Multiple root example

array([1, 0, 0, 0])
The line above represents z**3 + 0*z**2 + 0*z + 0.

>>> np.poly((-1./2, 0, 1./2))

array([ 1. , 0. , -0.25, 0. ])
The line above represents z**3 - z/4

>>> np.poly((np.random.random(1.)[0], 0, np.random.random(1.)[0]))
array([ 1. , -0.77086955, 0.08618131, 0. ]) #random
Given a square array object:

>>> P = np.array([[0, 1./3], [-1./2, 0]])
>>> np.poly(P)
array([ 1. , 0. , 0.16666667])
Or a square matrix object:

>>> np.poly(np.matrix(P))
array([ 1. , 0. , 0.16666667])
Note how in all cases the leading coefficient is always 1.

numpy.roots(p)
Return the roots of a polynomial with coefficients given in p.
The values in the rank-1 array p are coefficients of a polynomial. If the length of p is n+1 then the polynomial
is described by:
p[0] * x**n + p[1] * x**(n-1) + ... + p[n-1]*x + p[n]
Parameters p : array_like
Rank-1 array of polynomial coefficients.
An array containing the roots of the polynomial.
Raises ValueError
When p cannot be converted to a rank-1 array.
See also:
poly Find the coefficients of a polynomial with a given sequence of roots.

polyfit Least squares polynomial fit.
Notes
The algorithm relies on computing the eigenvalues of the companion matrix [R559559].
References
[R559559]

Examples
>>> coeff = [3.2, 2, 1]

>>> np.roots(coeff)
array([-0.3125+0.46351241j, -0.3125-0.46351241j])
Fitting
polyfit(x, y, deg[, rcond, full, w, cov]) Least squares polynomial fit.
numpy.polyfit(x, y, deg, rcond=None, full=False, w=None, cov=False)

Least squares polynomial fit.
Fit a polynomial p(x) = p[0] * x**deg + ... + p[deg] of degree deg to points (x, y). Returns a
vector of coefficients p that minimises the squared error.
per column.
deg : int
Degree of the fitting polynomial
Weights to apply to the y-coordinates of the sample points. For gaussian uncertainties,
use 1/sigma (not 1/sigma**2).
cov : bool, optional
Return the estimate and the covariance matrix of the estimate If full is True, then cov is
not returned.
Returns p : ndarray, shape (deg + 1,) or (deg + 1, K)
Polynomial coefficients, highest power first. If y was 2-D, the coefficients for k-th data
set are in p[:,k].
residuals, rank, singular_values, rcond

Present only if full = True. Residuals of the least-squares fit, the effective rank of the
scaled Vandermonde coefficient matrix, its singular values, and the specified value of
rcond. For more details, see linalg.lstsq.
V : ndarray, shape (M,M) or (M,M,K)
Present only if full = False and cov‘=True. The covariance matrix of the polynomial
coefficient estimates. The diagonal of this matrix are the variance estimates for each
coefficient. If y is a 2-D array, then the covariance matrix for the ‘k-th data set are in
V[:,:,k]
Warns RankWarning
only raised if full = False.
The warnings can be turned off by
>>> import warnings
>>> warnings.simplefilter('ignore', np.RankWarning)
See also:

linalg.lstsq Computes a least-squares fit.
Notes
The solution minimizes the squared error

𝑘
∑︁
𝐸= |𝑝(𝑥𝑗 ) − 𝑦𝑗 |2
𝑗=0
in the equations:
x[0]**n * p[0] + ... + x[0] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[0]
x[1]**n * p[0] + ... + x[1] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[1]
...
x[k]**n * p[0] + ... + x[k] * p[n-1] + p[n] = y[k]
The coefficient matrix of the coefficients p is a Vandermonde matrix.

polyfit issues a RankWarning when the least-squares fit is badly conditioned. This implies that the best
fit is not well-defined due to numerical error. The results may be improved by lowering the polynomial degree
or by replacing x by x - x.mean(). The rcond parameter can also be set to a value smaller than its default, but the
resulting fit may be spurious: including contributions from the small singular values can add numerical noise to
the result.
Note that fitting polynomial coefficients is inherently badly conditioned when the degree of the polynomial is
large or the interval of sample points is badly centered. The quality of the fit should always be checked in these
cases. When polynomial fits are not satisfactory, splines may be a good alternative.
References
[R115116], [R116116]

Examples
>>> x = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0])

>>> y = np.array([0.0, 0.8, 0.9, 0.1, -0.8, -1.0])
>>> z = np.polyfit(x, y, 3)
>>> z
array([ 0.08703704, -0.81349206, 1.69312169, -0.03968254])
It is convenient to use poly1d objects for dealing with polynomials:
>>> p = np.poly1d(z)
>>> p(0.5)
0.6143849206349179
>>> p(3.5)
-0.34732142857143039
>>> p(10)
22.579365079365115
High-order polynomials may oscillate wildly:
>>> p30 = np.poly1d(np.polyfit(x, y, 30))

/... RankWarning: Polyfit may be poorly conditioned...
>>> p30(4)
-0.80000000000000204
>>> p30(5)
-0.99999999999999445
>>> p30(4.5)
-0.10547061179440398
Illustration:

>>> xp = np.linspace(-2, 6, 100)
>>> _ = plt.plot(x, y, '.', xp, p(xp), '-', xp, p30(xp), '--')
>>> plt.ylim(-2,2)
(-2, 2)
>>> plt.show()
Calculus
polyder(p[, m]) Return the derivative of the specified order of a polynomial.

polyint(p[, m, k]) Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of a polyno-
mial.
numpy.polyder(p, m=1)
Return the derivative of the specified order of a polynomial.
Parameters p : poly1d or sequence
Polynomial to differentiate. A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see
poly1d.
m : int, optional
Order of differentiation (default: 1)

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Returns der : poly1d

A new polynomial representing the derivative.
See also:
polyint Anti-derivative of a polynomial.

poly1d Class for one-dimensional polynomials.
Examples
The derivative of the polynomial 𝑥3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 + 1 is:

>>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1,1])
>>> p2 = np.polyder(p)
>>> p2
poly1d([3, 2, 1])
which evaluates to:

>>> p2(2.)
17.0
We can verify this, approximating the derivative with (f(x + h) - f(x))/h:

>>> (p(2. + 0.001) - p(2.)) / 0.001
17.007000999997857
The fourth-order derivative of a 3rd-order polynomial is zero:

>>> np.polyder(p, 2)
poly1d([6, 2])
poly1d([6])
poly1d([ 0.])

numpy.polyint(p, m=1, k=None)

Return an antiderivative (indefinite integral) of a polynomial.
𝑚
𝑑
The returned order m antiderivative P of polynomial p satisfies 𝑑𝑥 𝑚 𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥) and is defined up to m - 1
integration constants k. The constants determine the low-order polynomial part
𝑘𝑚−1 0 𝑘0
𝑥 + ... + 𝑥𝑚−1
0! (𝑚 − 1)!
of P so that 𝑃 (𝑗) (0) = 𝑘𝑚−𝑗−1 .

Parameters p : array_like or poly1d
Polynomial to differentiate. A sequence is interpreted as polynomial coefficients, see
poly1d.
m : int, optional
Order of the antiderivative. (Default: 1)
k : list of m scalars or scalar, optional
Integration constants. They are given in the order of integration: those corresponding
to highest-order terms come first.
If None (default), all constants are assumed to be zero. If m = 1, a single scalar can be
given instead of a list.
See also:
polyder derivative of a polynomial

poly1d.integ equivalent method
Examples
The defining property of the antiderivative:
>>> p = np.poly1d([1,1,1])
>>> P = np.polyint(p)
>>> P
poly1d([ 0.33333333, 0.5 , 1. , 0. ])
>>> np.polyder(P) == p
True
The integration constants default to zero, but can be specified:
>>> P = np.polyint(p, 3)
>>> P(0)
0.0
>>> np.polyder(P)(0)
0.0
>>> np.polyder(P, 2)(0)
0.0
>>> P = np.polyint(p, 3, k=[6,5,3])
>>> P
poly1d([ 0.01666667, 0.04166667, 0.16666667, 3. , 5. , 3. ])

Note that 3 = 6 / 2!, and that the constants are given in the order of integrations. Constant of the highest-order
polynomial term comes first:

6.0
5.0
>>> P(0)
3.0
Arithmetic
polyadd(a1, a2) Find the sum of two polynomials.

polydiv(u, v) Returns the quotient and remainder of polynomial division.
polymul(a1, a2) Find the product of two polynomials.
polysub(a1, a2) Difference (subtraction) of two polynomials.
numpy.polyadd(a1, a2)
Find the sum of two polynomials.
Returns the polynomial resulting from the sum of two input polynomials. Each input must be either a poly1d
object or a 1D sequence of polynomial coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
Parameters a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object
Input polynomials.
Returns out : ndarray or poly1d object
The sum of the inputs. If either input is a poly1d object, then the output is also a poly1d
object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest
degree.
See also:
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub, polyval
Examples
>>> np.polyadd([1, 2], [9, 5, 4])

array([9, 6, 6])
Using poly1d objects:
>>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2])

>>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 4])
>>> print(p1)
1 x + 2
>>> print(p2)
2
9 x + 5 x + 4
>>> print(np.polyadd(p1, p2))

2
9 x + 6 x + 6
numpy.polydiv(u, v)
Returns the quotient and remainder of polynomial division.
The input arrays are the coefficients (including any coefficients equal to zero) of the “numerator” (dividend) and
“denominator” (divisor) polynomials, respectively.
Parameters u : array_like or poly1d
Dividend polynomial’s coefficients.
v : array_like or poly1d
Divisor polynomial’s coefficients.
Returns q : ndarray
Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the quotient.
r : ndarray
Coefficients, including those equal to zero, of the remainder.
See also:
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polymul, polysub, polyval
Notes
Both u and v must be 0-d or 1-d (ndim = 0 or 1), but u.ndim need not equal v.ndim. In other words, all four
possible combinations - u.ndim = v.ndim = 0, u.ndim = v.ndim = 1, u.ndim = 1, v.ndim
= 0, and u.ndim = 0, v.ndim = 1 - work.
Examples
3𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 2
= 1.5𝑥 + 1.75, 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟0.25
2𝑥 + 1
>>> x = np.array([3.0, 5.0, 2.0])

>>> y = np.array([2.0, 1.0])
>>> np.polydiv(x, y)
(array([ 1.5 , 1.75]), array([ 0.25]))
numpy.polymul(a1, a2)
Find the product of two polynomials.
Finds the polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the two input polynomials. Each input must be either
a poly1d object or a 1D sequence of polynomial coefficients, from highest to lowest degree.
Parameters a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d object
Input polynomials.
Returns out : ndarray or poly1d object

The polynomial resulting from the multiplication of the inputs. If either inputs is a
poly1d object, then the output is also a poly1d object. Otherwise, it is a 1D array of
polynomial coefficients from highest to lowest degree.
See also:
poly, polyadd, polyder, polydiv, polyfit, polyint, polysub, polyval

convolve Array convolution. Same output as polymul, but has parameter for overlap mode.
Examples
>>> np.polymul([1, 2, 3], [9, 5, 1])

array([ 9, 23, 38, 17, 3])
Using poly1d objects:

>>> p1 = np.poly1d([1, 2, 3])
>>> p2 = np.poly1d([9, 5, 1])
>>> print(p1)
2
1 x + 2 x + 3
>>> print(p2)
2
9 x + 5 x + 1
>>> print(np.polymul(p1, p2))
4 3 2
9 x + 23 x + 38 x + 17 x + 3
numpy.polysub(a1, a2)
Difference (subtraction) of two polynomials.
Given two polynomials a1 and a2, returns a1 - a2. a1 and a2 can be either array_like sequences of the
polynomials’ coefficients (including coefficients equal to zero), or poly1d objects.
Parameters a1, a2 : array_like or poly1d
Minuend and subtrahend polynomials, respectively.
Returns out : ndarray or poly1d
Array or poly1d object of the difference polynomial’s coefficients.
See also:
polyval, polydiv, polymul, polyadd
Examples
(2𝑥2 + 10𝑥 − 2) − (3𝑥2 + 10𝑥 − 4) = (−𝑥2 + 2)
>>> np.polysub([2, 10, -2], [3, 10, -4])

array([-1, 0, 2])

Warnings
RankWarning Issued by polyfit when the Vandermonde matrix is rank

deficient.
exception numpy.RankWarning
Issued by polyfit when the Vandermonde matrix is rank deficient.
For more information, a way to suppress the warning, and an example of RankWarning being issued, see
polyfit.
3.24 Random sampling (numpy.random)
3.24.1 Simple random data
rand(d0, d1, . . . , dn) Random values in a given shape.

randn(d0, d1, . . . , dn) Return a sample (or samples) from the “standard normal”
distribution.
randint(low[, high, size, dtype]) Return random integers from low (inclusive) to high (ex-
clusive).
random_integers(low[, high, size]) Random integers of type np.int between low and high, in-
clusive.
random_sample([size]) Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
random([size]) Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
ranf([size]) Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
sample([size]) Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
choice(a[, size, replace, p]) Generates a random sample from a given 1-D array
bytes(length) Return random bytes.
numpy.random.rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Random values in a given shape.
Create an array of the given shape and populate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over [0,
1).
Parameters d0, d1, . . . , dn : int, optional
The dimensions of the returned array, should all be positive. If no argument is given a
single Python float is returned.
Returns out : ndarray, shape (d0, d1, ..., dn)
Random values.
See also:
random
Notes
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a shape-tuple as the first argument, refer to
np.random.random_sample .
3.24. Random sampling (numpy.random) 991

Examples
>>> np.random.rand(3,2)
array([[ 0.14022471, 0.96360618], #random
[ 0.37601032, 0.25528411], #random
[ 0.49313049, 0.94909878]]) #random
numpy.random.randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Return a sample (or samples) from the “standard normal” distribution.
If positive, int_like or int-convertible arguments are provided, randn generates an array of shape (d0, d1,
..., dn), filled with random floats sampled from a univariate “normal” (Gaussian) distribution of mean 0 and
variance 1 (if any of the 𝑑𝑖 are floats, they are first converted to integers by truncation). A single float randomly
sampled from the distribution is returned if no argument is provided.
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a tuple as the first argument, use numpy.
random.standard_normal instead.
The dimensions of the returned array, should be all positive. If no argument is given a
Returns Z : ndarray or float
A (d0, d1, ..., dn)-shaped array of floating-point samples from the standard
normal distribution, or a single such float if no parameters were supplied.
See also:
random.standard_normal Similar, but takes a tuple as its argument.
Notes

sigma * np.random.randn(...) + mu
Examples
>>> np.random.randn()
2.1923875335537315 #random
Two-by-four array of samples from N(3, 6.25):
>>> 2.5 * np.random.randn(2, 4) + 3

array([[-4.49401501, 4.00950034, -1.81814867, 7.29718677], #random
[ 0.39924804, 4.68456316, 4.99394529, 4.84057254]]) #random
numpy.random.randint(low, high=None, size=None, dtype=’l’)

Return random integers from low (inclusive) to high (exclusive).
Return random integers from the “discrete uniform” distribution of the specified dtype in the “half-open” interval
[low, high). If high is None (the default), then results are from [0, low).
Parameters low : int

Lowest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (unless high=None, in

which case this parameter is one above the highest such integer).
high : int, optional
If provided, one above the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see
above for behavior if high=None).
size : int or tuple of ints, optional
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then m * n * k samples are
drawn. Default is None, in which case a single value is returned.
Desired dtype of the result. All dtypes are determined by their name, i.e., ‘int64’, ‘int’,
etc, so byteorder is not available and a specific precision may have different C types
depending on the platform. The default value is ‘np.int’.
Returns out : int or ndarray of ints
size-shaped array of random integers from the appropriate distribution, or a single such
random int if size not provided.
See also:
random.random_integers similar to randint, only for the closed interval [low, high], and 1 is the low-
est value if high is omitted. In particular, this other one is the one to use to generate uniformly distributed
discrete non-integers.
Examples
>>> np.random.randint(2, size=10)

array([1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0])
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
Generate a 2 x 4 array of ints between 0 and 4, inclusive:
>>> np.random.randint(5, size=(2, 4))

array([[4, 0, 2, 1],
[3, 2, 2, 0]])
numpy.random.random_integers(low, high=None, size=None)

Random integers of type np.int between low and high, inclusive.
Return random integers of type np.int from the “discrete uniform” distribution in the closed interval [low, high].
If high is None (the default), then results are from [1, low]. The np.int type translates to the C long type used by
Python 2 for “short” integers and its precision is platform dependent.
This function has been deprecated. Use randint instead.
which case this parameter is the highest such integer).


If provided, the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see above for
behavior if high=None).
See also:
random.randint Similar to random_integers, only for the half-open interval [low, high), and 0 is the
lowest value if high is omitted.
Notes
To sample from N evenly spaced floating-point numbers between a and b, use:
a + (b - a) * (np.random.random_integers(N) - 1) / (N - 1.)
Examples
>>> np.random.random_integers(5)
4
>>> type(np.random.random_integers(5))
<type 'int'>
>>> np.random.random_integers(5, size=(3,2))
array([[5, 4],
[3, 3],
[4, 5]])
Choose five random numbers from the set of five evenly-spaced numbers between 0 and 2.5, inclusive (i.e., from
the set 0, 5/8, 10/8, 15/8, 20/8):
>>> 2.5 * (np.random.random_integers(5, size=(5,)) - 1) / 4.

array([ 0.625, 1.25 , 0.625, 0.625, 2.5 ])
Roll two six sided dice 1000 times and sum the results:
>>> d1 = np.random.random_integers(1, 6, 1000)

>>> dsums = d1 + d2
Display results as a histogram:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(dsums, 11, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()

0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
2 4 6 8 10 12
numpy.random.random_sample(size=None)
Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
Results are from the “continuous uniform” distribution over the stated interval. To sample 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑓 [𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑏 > 𝑎
multiply the output of random_sample by (b-a) and add a:
(b - a) * random_sample() + a
Parameters size : int or tuple of ints, optional

Returns out : float or ndarray of floats
Array of random floats of shape size (unless size=None, in which case a single float
is returned).
Examples
>>> np.random.random_sample()
0.47108547995356098
>>> type(np.random.random_sample())
<type 'float'>
>>> np.random.random_sample((5,))
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 , 0.11659149, 0.54323428])
Three-by-two array of random numbers from [-5, 0):
>>> 5 * np.random.random_sample((3, 2)) - 5

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.random(size=None)


is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type 'float'>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 , 0.11659149, 0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.ranf(size=None)

is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type 'float'>

array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 , 0.11659149, 0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.sample(size=None)

is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type 'float'>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 , 0.11659149, 0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
numpy.random.choice(a, size=None, replace=True, p=None)

Generates a random sample from a given 1-D array
Parameters a : 1-D array-like or int

If an ndarray, a random sample is generated from its elements. If an int, the random
sample is generated as if a were np.arange(a)

replace : boolean, optional

Whether the sample is with or without replacement
p : 1-D array-like, optional
The probabilities associated with each entry in a. If not given the sample assumes a
uniform distribution over all entries in a.
Returns samples : single item or ndarray
The generated random samples
Raises ValueError
If a is an int and less than zero, if a or p are not 1-dimensional, if a is an array-like
of size 0, if p is not a vector of probabilities, if a and p have different lengths, or if
replace=False and the sample size is greater than the population size
See also:
randint, shuffle, permutation
Examples
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3)
array([0, 3, 4])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.randint(0,5,3)
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])

array([3, 3, 0])
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False)

array([3,1,0])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.permutation(np.arange(5))[:3]
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])

array([2, 3, 0])
Any of the above can be repeated with an arbitrary array-like instead of just integers. For instance:
>>> aa_milne_arr = ['pooh', 'rabbit', 'piglet', 'Christopher']

>>> np.random.choice(aa_milne_arr, 5, p=[0.5, 0.1, 0.1, 0.3])
array(['pooh', 'pooh', 'pooh', 'Christopher', 'piglet'],
dtype='|S11')
numpy.random.bytes(length)
Return random bytes.
Parameters length : int
Number of random bytes.

Returns out : str

String of length length.
Examples
>>> np.random.bytes(10)
' eh\x85\x022SZ\xbf\xa4' #random
3.24.2 Permutations
shuffle(x) Modify a sequence in-place by shuffling its contents.

permutation(x) Randomly permute a sequence, or return a permuted range.
numpy.random.shuffle(x)
Modify a sequence in-place by shuffling its contents.
This function only shuffles the array along the first axis of a multi-dimensional array. The order of sub-arrays is
changed but their contents remains the same.
The array or list to be shuffled.
Returns None
Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(10)

>>> np.random.shuffle(arr)
>>> arr
[1 7 5 2 9 4 3 6 0 8]
Multi-dimensional arrays are only shuffled along the first axis:
>>> arr = np.arange(9).reshape((3, 3))

>>> arr
array([[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2]])
numpy.random.permutation(x)
Randomly permute a sequence, or return a permuted range.
If x is a multi-dimensional array, it is only shuffled along its first index.
Parameters x : int or array_like
If x is an integer, randomly permute np.arange(x). If x is an array, make a copy
and shuffle the elements randomly.
Permuted sequence or array range.

Examples
>>> np.random.permutation(10)
array([1, 7, 4, 3, 0, 9, 2, 5, 8, 6])
>>> np.random.permutation([1, 4, 9, 12, 15])

array([15, 1, 9, 4, 12])

>>> np.random.permutation(arr)
array([[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
3.24.3 Distributions
beta(a, b[, size]) Draw samples from a Beta distribution.

binomial(n, p[, size]) Draw samples from a binomial distribution.
chisquare(df[, size]) Draw samples from a chi-square distribution.
dirichlet(alpha[, size]) Draw samples from the Dirichlet distribution.
exponential([scale, size]) Draw samples from an exponential distribution.
f(dfnum, dfden[, size]) Draw samples from an F distribution.
gamma(shape[, scale, size]) Draw samples from a Gamma distribution.
geometric(p[, size]) Draw samples from the geometric distribution.
gumbel([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution.
hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample[, size]) Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
laplace([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential dis-
tribution with specified location (or mean) and scale (de-
cay).
logistic([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from a logistic distribution.
lognormal([mean, sigma, size]) Draw samples from a log-normal distribution.
logseries(p[, size]) Draw samples from a logarithmic series distribution.
multinomial(n, pvals[, size]) Draw samples from a multinomial distribution.
multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size, . . . ) Draw random samples from a multivariate normal distribu-
tion.
negative_binomial(n, p[, size]) Draw samples from a negative binomial distribution.
noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc[, size]) Draw samples from a noncentral chi-square distribution.
noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc[, size]) Draw samples from the noncentral F distribution.
normal([loc, scale, size]) Draw random samples from a normal (Gaussian) distribu-
tion.
pareto(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Pareto II or Lomax distribution with
specified shape.
poisson([lam, size]) Draw samples from a Poisson distribution.
power(a[, size]) Draws samples in [0, 1] from a power distribution with pos-
itive exponent a - 1.
rayleigh([scale, size]) Draw samples from a Rayleigh distribution.
standard_cauchy([size]) Draw samples from a standard Cauchy distribution with
mode = 0.
standard_exponential([size]) Draw samples from the standard exponential distribution.
standard_gamma(shape[, size]) Draw samples from a standard Gamma distribution.


standard_normal([size]) Draw samples from a standard Normal distribution
(mean=0, stdev=1).
standard_t(df[, size]) Draw samples from a standard Student’s t distribution with
df degrees of freedom.
triangular(left, mode, right[, size]) Draw samples from the triangular distribution over the in-
terval [left, right].
uniform([low, high, size]) Draw samples from a uniform distribution.
vonmises(mu, kappa[, size]) Draw samples from a von Mises distribution.
wald(mean, scale[, size]) Draw samples from a Wald, or inverse Gaussian, distribu-
tion.
weibull(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Weibull distribution.
zipf(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Zipf distribution.
numpy.random.beta(a, b, size=None)
Draw samples from a Beta distribution.
The Beta distribution is a special case of the Dirichlet distribution, and is related to the Gamma distribution. It
has the probability distribution function
1
𝑓 (𝑥; 𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑥𝛼−1 (1 − 𝑥)𝛽−1 ,
𝐵(𝛼, 𝛽)
where the normalisation, B, is the beta function,

∫︁ 1
𝐵(𝛼, 𝛽) = 𝑡𝛼−1 (1 − 𝑡)𝛽−1 𝑑𝑡.
0
It is often seen in Bayesian inference and order statistics.

Parameters a : float or array_like of floats
Alpha, non-negative.
b : float or array_like of floats
Beta, non-negative.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if a and b are both scalars.
Otherwise, np.broadcast(a, b).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized beta distribution.
numpy.random.binomial(n, p, size=None)
Draw samples from a binomial distribution.
Samples are drawn from a binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of success
where n an integer >= 0 and p is in the interval [0,1]. (n may be input as a float, but it is truncated to an integer
in use)
Parameters n : int or array_like of ints
Parameter of the distribution, >= 0. Floats are also accepted, but they will be truncated
to integers.
p : float or array_like of floats

Parameter of the distribution, >= 0 and <=1.

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if n and p are both scalars.
Otherwise, np.broadcast(n, p).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized binomial distribution, where each sample is
equal to the number of successes over the n trials.
See also:
scipy.stats.binom probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the binomial distribution is

(︂ )︂
𝑛 𝑁
𝑃 (𝑁 ) = 𝑝 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑁 ,
𝑁
where 𝑛 is the number of trials, 𝑝 is the probability of success, and 𝑁 is the number of successes.
When estimating the standard error of a proportion in a population by using a random sample, the normal
distribution works well unless the product p*n <=5, where p = population proportion estimate, and n = number
of samples, in which case the binomial distribution is used instead. For example, a sample of 15 people shows
4 who are left handed, and 11 who are right handed. Then p = 4/15 = 27%. 0.27*15 = 4, so the binomial
distribution should be used in this case.
References
[R417421], [R418421], [R419421], [R420421], [R421421]
Examples
Draw samples from the distribution:
>>> n, p = 10, .5 # number of trials, probability of each trial

>>> s = np.random.binomial(n, p, 1000)
# result of flipping a coin 10 times, tested 1000 times.
A real world example. A company drills 9 wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability of
success of 0.1. All nine wells fail. What is the probability of that happening?
Let’s do 20,000 trials of the model, and count the number that generate zero positive results.
>>> sum(np.random.binomial(9, 0.1, 20000) == 0)/20000.

# answer = 0.38885, or 38%.
numpy.random.chisquare(df, size=None)
Draw samples from a chi-square distribution.

When df independent random variables, each with standard normal distributions (mean 0, variance 1), are
squared and summed, the resulting distribution is chi-square (see Notes). This distribution is often used in
hypothesis testing.
Parameters df : float or array_like of floats
Number of degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if df is a scalar. Otherwise,
np.array(df).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized chi-square distribution.
Raises ValueError
When df <= 0 or when an inappropriate size (e.g. size=-1) is given.
Notes
The variable obtained by summing the squares of df independent, standard normally distributed random vari-
ables:
df
∑︁
𝑄= 𝑋𝑖2
𝑖=0
is chi-square distributed, denoted
𝑄 ∼ 𝜒2𝑘 .
The probability density function of the chi-squared distribution is
(1/2)𝑘/2 𝑘/2−1 −𝑥/2

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑒 ,
Γ(𝑘/2)
where Γ is the gamma function,

∫︁ −∞
Γ(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑥−1 𝑒−𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
0
References
[R427427]
Examples
>>> np.random.chisquare(2,4)
array([ 1.89920014, 9.00867716, 3.13710533, 5.62318272])

numpy.random.dirichlet(alpha, size=None)
Draw samples from the Dirichlet distribution.
Draw size samples of dimension k from a Dirichlet distribution. A Dirichlet-distributed random variable can be
seen as a multivariate generalization of a Beta distribution. Dirichlet pdf is the conjugate prior of a multinomial
in Bayesian inference.
Parameters alpha : array
Parameter of the distribution (k dimension for sample of dimension k).
Returns samples : ndarray,
The drawn samples, of shape (size, alpha.ndim).
Raises ValueError
If any value in alpha is less than or equal to zero
Notes
𝑘
∏︁
𝑖 −1
𝑋≈ 𝑥𝛼
𝑖
𝑖=1
Uses the following property for computation: for each dimension, draw a random sample y_i from a standard
gamma generator of shape alpha_i, then 𝑋 = ∑︀𝑘1 𝑦 (𝑦1 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ) is Dirichlet distributed.
𝑖=1 𝑖
References
[R429430], [R430430]
Examples
Taking an example cited in Wikipedia, this distribution can be used if one wanted to cut strings (each of initial
length 1.0) into K pieces with different lengths, where each piece had, on average, a designated average length,
but allowing some variation in the relative sizes of the pieces.
>>> s = np.random.dirichlet((10, 5, 3), 20).transpose()
>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[0])

>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[1], left=s[0], color='g')
>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[2], left=s[0]+s[1], color='r')
>>> plt.title("Lengths of Strings")
numpy.random.exponential(scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from an exponential distribution.

Its probability density function is

1 1 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥; ) = exp(− ),
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
for x > 0 and 0 elsewhere. 𝛽 is the scale parameter, which is the inverse of the rate parameter 𝜆 = 1/𝛽. The
rate parameter is an alternative, widely used parameterization of the exponential distribution [R435435].
The exponential distribution is a continuous analogue of the geometric distribution. It describes many common
situations, such as the size of raindrops measured over many rainstorms [R433435], or the time between page
requests to Wikipedia [R434435].
Parameters scale : float or array_like of floats
The scale parameter, 𝛽 = 1/𝜆.
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then m * n * k samples
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if scale is a scalar.
Otherwise, np.array(scale).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized exponential distribution.
References
[R433435], [R434435], [R435435]

numpy.random.f(dfnum, dfden, size=None)
Draw samples from an F distribution.
Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator)
and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters should be greater than zero.
The random variate of the F distribution (also known as the Fisher distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution that arises in ANOVA tests, and is the ratio of two chi-square variates.
Parameters dfnum : float or array_like of floats
Degrees of freedom in numerator, should be > 0.
dfden : float or array_like of float
Degrees of freedom in denominator, should be > 0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if dfnum and dfden
are both scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(dfnum, dfden).size samples are
drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Fisher distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.f probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.

Notes
The F statistic is used to compare in-group variances to between-group variances. Calculating the distribution
depends on the sampling, and so it is a function of the respective degrees of freedom in the problem. The
variable dfnum is the number of samples minus one, the between-groups degrees of freedom, while dfden is the
within-groups degrees of freedom, the sum of the number of samples in each group minus the number of groups.
References
[R439440], [R440440]
Examples
An example from Glantz[1], pp 47-40:

Two groups, children of diabetics (25 people) and children from people without diabetes (25 controls). Fasting
blood glucose was measured, case group had a mean value of 86.1, controls had a mean value of 82.2. Standard
deviations were 2.09 and 2.49 respectively. Are these data consistent with the null hypothesis that the parents
diabetic status does not affect their children’s blood glucose levels? Calculating the F statistic from the data
gives a value of 36.01.
>>> dfnum = 1. # between group degrees of freedom

>>> dfden = 48. # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> s = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000)
The lower bound for the top 1% of the samples is :
>>> sort(s)[-10]
7.61988120985
So there is about a 1% chance that the F statistic will exceed 7.62, the measured value is 36, so the null hypothesis
is rejected at the 1% level.
numpy.random.gamma(shape, scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Gamma distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated “k”)
and scale (sometimes designated “theta”), where both parameters are > 0.
Parameters shape : float or array_like of floats
The shape of the gamma distribution. Should be greater than zero.
scale : float or array_like of floats, optional
The scale of the gamma distribution. Should be greater than zero. Default is equal to 1.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if shape and scale
are both scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(shape, scale).size samples are
drawn.

Drawn samples from the parameterized gamma distribution.

See also:
scipy.stats.gamma probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Gamma distribution is
𝑒−𝑥/𝜃
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑘−1 ,
𝜃𝑘 Γ(𝑘)
where 𝑘 is the shape and 𝜃 the scale, and Γ is the Gamma function.
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises naturally
in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R443444], [R444444]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 2. # mean=4, std=2*sqrt(2)

>>> s = np.random.gamma(shape, scale, 1000)
Display the histogram of the samples, along with the probability density function:

>>> import scipy.special as sps
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 50, normed=True)
>>> y = bins**(shape-1)*(np.exp(-bins/scale) /
... (sps.gamma(shape)*scale**shape))
>>> plt.plot(bins, y, linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.geometric(p, size=None)
Draw samples from the geometric distribution.
Bernoulli trials are experiments with one of two outcomes: success or failure (an example of such an experiment
is flipping a coin). The geometric distribution models the number of trials that must be run in order to achieve
success. It is therefore supported on the positive integers, k = 1, 2, ....
The probability mass function of the geometric distribution is
𝑓 (𝑘) = (1 − 𝑝)𝑘−1 𝑝
where p is the probability of success of an individual trial.

Parameters p : float or array_like of floats
The probability of success of an individual trial.

0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if p is a scalar. Otherwise,
np.array(p).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized geometric distribution.
Examples
Draw ten thousand values from the geometric distribution, with the probability of an individual success equal to
0.35:
>>> z = np.random.geometric(p=0.35, size=10000)
How many trials succeeded after a single run?
>>> (z == 1).sum() / 10000.

0.34889999999999999 #random
numpy.random.gumbel(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution.
Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution with specified location and scale. For more information on the
Gumbel distribution, see Notes and References below.
Parameters loc : float or array_like of floats, optional
The location of the mode of the distribution. Default is 0.
The scale parameter of the distribution. Default is 1.

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if loc and scale are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(loc, scale).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Gumbel distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.gumbel_l, scipy.stats.gumbel_r, scipy.stats.genextreme, weibull
Notes
The Gumbel (or Smallest Extreme Value (SEV) or the Smallest Extreme Value Type I) distribution is one of a
class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling extreme value problems. The Gumbel
is a special case of the Extreme Value Type I distribution for maximums from distributions with “exponential-
like” tails.
The probability density for the Gumbel distribution is
𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝛽 −𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝛽
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑒 ,
𝛽
where 𝜇 is the mode, a location parameter, and 𝛽 is the scale parameter.
The Gumbel (named for German mathematician Emil Julius Gumbel) was used very early in the hydrology
literature, for modeling the occurrence of flood events. It is also used for modeling maximum wind speed and
rainfall rates. It is a “fat-tailed” distribution - the probability of an event in the tail of the distribution is larger
than if one used a Gaussian, hence the surprisingly frequent occurrence of 100-year floods. Floods were initially
modeled as a Gaussian process, which underestimated the frequency of extreme events.
It is one of a class of extreme value distributions, the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions, which
also includes the Weibull and Frechet.
𝜋2 2
The function has a mean of 𝜇 + 0.57721𝛽 and a variance of 6 𝛽 .
References
[R447448], [R448448]
Examples
>>> mu, beta = 0, 0.1 # location and scale

>>> s = np.random.gumbel(mu, beta, 1000)

>>> plt.plot(bins, (1/beta)*np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)
... * np.exp( -np.exp( -(bins - mu) /beta) ),
... linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()

3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Show how an extreme value distribution can arise from a Gaussian process and compare to a Gaussian:
>>> means = []
>>> maxima = []
>>> for i in range(0,1000) :
... a = np.random.normal(mu, beta, 1000)
... means.append(a.mean())
... maxima.append(a.max())
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(maxima, 30, normed=True)
>>> beta = np.std(maxima) * np.sqrt(6) / np.pi
>>> mu = np.mean(maxima) - 0.57721*beta
... * np.exp(-np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)),
>>> plt.plot(bins, 1/(beta * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi))
... * np.exp(-(bins - mu)**2 / (2 * beta**2)),
... linewidth=2, color='g')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample, size=None)

Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
Samples are drawn from a hypergeometric distribution with specified parameters, ngood (ways to make a good
selection), nbad (ways to make a bad selection), and nsample = number of items sampled, which is less than or
equal to the sum ngood + nbad.
Parameters ngood : int or array_like of ints
Number of ways to make a good selection. Must be nonnegative.
nbad : int or array_like of ints
Number of ways to make a bad selection. Must be nonnegative.
nsample : int or array_like of ints
Number of items sampled. Must be at least 1 and at most ngood + nbad.

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then m * n * k sam-
ples are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if ngood,
nbad, and nsample are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(ngood, nbad,
nsample).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized hypergeometric distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.hypergeom probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Hypergeometric distribution is

(︀𝑚)︀(︀𝑁 −𝑚)︀
𝑛
𝑃 (𝑥) = (︀𝑁𝑛−𝑥
)︀ ,
𝑛
where 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 and 𝑛 + 𝑚 − 𝑁 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛
for P(x) the probability of x successes, n = ngood, m = nbad, and N = number of samples.
Consider an urn with black and white marbles in it, ngood of them black and nbad are white. If you draw nsample
balls without replacement, then the hypergeometric distribution describes the distribution of black balls in the
drawn sample.
Note that this distribution is very similar to the binomial distribution, except that in this case, samples are drawn
without replacement, whereas in the Binomial case samples are drawn with replacement (or the sample space is
infinite). As the sample space becomes large, this distribution approaches the binomial.
References
[R451453], [R452453], [R453453]

Examples
>>> ngood, nbad, nsamp = 100, 2, 10

# number of good, number of bad, and number of samples
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsamp, 1000)
>>> hist(s)
# note that it is very unlikely to grab both bad items
Suppose you have an urn with 15 white and 15 black marbles. If you pull 15 marbles at random, how likely is
it that 12 or more of them are one color?
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(15, 15, 15, 100000)

>>> sum(s>=12)/100000. + sum(s<=3)/100000.
# answer = 0.003 ... pretty unlikely!
numpy.random.laplace(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with specified location (or mean) and scale
(decay).
The Laplace distribution is similar to the Gaussian/normal distribution, but is sharper at the peak and has fatter
tails. It represents the difference between two independent, identically distributed exponential random variables.
The position, 𝜇, of the distribution peak. Default is 0.
𝜆, the exponential decay. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Laplace distribution.
Notes
It has the probability density function

(︂ )︂
1 |𝑥 − 𝜇|
𝑓 (𝑥; 𝜇, 𝜆) = exp − .
2𝜆 𝜆
The first law of Laplace, from 1774, states that the frequency of an error can be expressed as an exponential
function of the absolute magnitude of the error, which leads to the Laplace distribution. For many problems
in economics and health sciences, this distribution seems to model the data better than the standard Gaussian
distribution.
References
[R457460], [R458460], [R459460], [R460460]

Examples
Draw samples from the distribution
>>> loc, scale = 0., 1.

>>> s = np.random.laplace(loc, scale, 1000)

>>> x = np.arange(-8., 8., .01)
>>> pdf = np.exp(-abs(x-loc)/scale)/(2.*scale)
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf)
Plot Gaussian for comparison:
>>> g = (1/(scale * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *

... np.exp(-(x - loc)**2 / (2 * scale**2)))
>>> plt.plot(x,g)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
numpy.random.logistic(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a logistic distribution.
Samples are drawn from a logistic distribution with specified parameters, loc (location or mean, also median),
and scale (>0).
Parameter of the distribution. Default is 0.
Parameter of the distribution. Should be greater than zero. Default is 1.


Drawn samples from the parameterized logistic distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.logistic probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Logistic distribution is
𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝑠
𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑃 (𝑥) = ,
𝑠(1 + 𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝑠 )2
where 𝜇 = location and 𝑠 = scale.

The Logistic distribution is used in Extreme Value problems where it can act as a mixture of Gumbel distribu-
tions, in Epidemiology, and by the World Chess Federation (FIDE) where it is used in the Elo ranking system,
assuming the performance of each player is a logistically distributed random variable.
References
[R465467], [R466467], [R467467]
Examples
>>> loc, scale = 10, 1

>>> s = np.random.logistic(loc, scale, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, bins=50)
# plot against distribution
>>> def logist(x, loc, scale):

... return exp((loc-x)/scale)/(scale*(1+exp((loc-x)/scale))**2)
>>> plt.plot(bins, logist(bins, loc, scale)*count.max()/\
... logist(bins, loc, scale).max())
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.lognormal(mean=0.0, sigma=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a log-normal distribution.
Draw samples from a log-normal distribution with specified mean, standard deviation, and array shape. Note
that the mean and standard deviation are not the values for the distribution itself, but of the underlying normal
distribution it is derived from.
Parameters mean : float or array_like of floats, optional
Mean value of the underlying normal distribution. Default is 0.
sigma : float or array_like of floats, optional

Standard deviation of the underlying normal distribution. Should be greater than zero.
Default is 1.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mean and sigma are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mean, sigma).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized log-normal distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.lognorm probability density function, distribution, cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
A variable x has a log-normal distribution if log(x) is normally distributed. The probability density function for
the log-normal distribution is:
1 (𝑙𝑛(𝑥)−𝜇)2
𝑝(𝑥) = √ 𝑒(− 2𝜎2 )
𝜎𝑥 2𝜋
where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 is the standard deviation of the normally distributed logarithm of the variable. A
log-normal distribution results if a random variable is the product of a large number of independent, identically-
distributed variables in the same way that a normal distribution results if the variable is the sum of a large number
of independent, identically-distributed variables.
References
[R471472], [R472472]
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 3., 1. # mean and standard deviation

>>> s = np.random.lognormal(mu, sigma, 1000)

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align='mid')
>>> x = np.linspace(min(bins), max(bins), 10000)

>>> pdf = (np.exp(-(np.log(x) - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2))
... / (x * sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)))
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, linewidth=2, color='r')

>>> plt.show()

0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Demonstrate that taking the products of random samples from a uniform distribution can be fit well by a log-
normal probability density function.
>>> # Generate a thousand samples: each is the product of 100 random

>>> # values, drawn from a normal distribution.
>>> b = []
... a = 10. + np.random.random(100)
... b.append(np.product(a))
>>> b = np.array(b) / np.min(b) # scale values to be positive

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(b, 100, normed=True, align='mid')
>>> sigma = np.std(np.log(b))
>>> mu = np.mean(np.log(b))

>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, color='r', linewidth=2)

>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.logseries(p, size=None)
Draw samples from a logarithmic series distribution.
Samples are drawn from a log series distribution with specified shape parameter, 0 < p < 1.
Shape parameter for the distribution. Must be in the range (0, 1).

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Drawn samples from the parameterized logarithmic series distribution.

See also:
scipy.stats.logser probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Log Series distribution is
−𝑝𝑘
𝑃 (𝑘) = ,
𝑘 ln(1 − 𝑝)
where p = probability.
The log series distribution is frequently used to represent species richness and occurrence, first proposed by
Fisher, Corbet, and Williams in 1943 [2]. It may also be used to model the numbers of occupants seen in cars
[3].
References
[R475478], [R476478], [R477478], [R478478]
Examples
>>> a = .6
>>> s = np.random.logseries(a, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s)

>>> def logseries(k, p):

... return -p**k/(k*log(1-p))
>>> plt.plot(bins, logseries(bins, a)*count.max()/
logseries(bins, a).max(), 'r')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.multinomial(n, pvals, size=None)

Draw samples from a multinomial distribution.
The multinomial distribution is a multivariate generalisation of the binomial distribution. Take an experiment
with one of p possible outcomes. An example of such an experiment is throwing a dice, where the outcome
can be 1 through 6. Each sample drawn from the distribution represents n such experiments. Its values, X_i =
[X_0, X_1, ..., X_p], represent the number of times the outcome was i.
Parameters n : int
Number of experiments.
pvals : sequence of floats, length p
Probabilities of each of the p different outcomes. These should sum to 1 (however,
the last element is always assumed to account for the remaining probability, as long as
sum(pvals[:-1]) <= 1).
The drawn samples, of shape size, if that was provided. If not, the shape is (N,).
In other words, each entry out[i,j,...,:] is an N-dimensional value drawn from
the distribution.
Examples
Throw a dice 20 times:
>>> np.random.multinomial(20, [1/6.]*6, size=1)

array([[4, 1, 7, 5, 2, 1]])
It landed 4 times on 1, once on 2, etc.

Now, throw the dice 20 times, and 20 times again:

array([[3, 4, 3, 3, 4, 3],
[2, 4, 3, 4, 0, 7]])
For the first run, we threw 3 times 1, 4 times 2, etc. For the second, we threw 2 times 1, 4 times 2, etc.
A loaded die is more likely to land on number 6:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1/7.]*5 + [2/7.])

array([11, 16, 14, 17, 16, 26])

The probability inputs should be normalized. As an implementation detail, the value of the last entry is ignored
and assumed to take up any leftover probability mass, but this should not be relied on. A biased coin which has
twice as much weight on one side as on the other should be sampled like so:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1.0 / 3, 2.0 / 3]) # RIGHT

array([38, 62])
not like:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1.0, 2.0]) # WRONG

array([100, 0])
numpy.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size, check_valid, tol ])

Draw random samples from a multivariate normal distribution.
The multivariate normal, multinormal or Gaussian distribution is a generalization of the one-dimensional normal
distribution to higher dimensions. Such a distribution is specified by its mean and covariance matrix. These pa-
rameters are analogous to the mean (average or “center”) and variance (standard deviation, or “width,” squared)
of the one-dimensional normal distribution.
Parameters mean : 1-D array_like, of length N
Mean of the N-dimensional distribution.
cov : 2-D array_like, of shape (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric and positive-semidefinite
for proper sampling.
Given a shape of, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated, and packed in
an m-by-n-by-k arrangement. Because each sample is N-dimensional, the output shape
is (m,n,k,N). If no shape is specified, a single (N-D) sample is returned.
check_valid : { ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘ignore’ }, optional
Behavior when the covariance matrix is not positive semidefinite.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance when checking the singular values in covariance matrix.
the distribution.
Notes
The mean is a coordinate in N-dimensional space, which represents the location where samples are most likely
to be generated. This is analogous to the peak of the bell curve for the one-dimensional or univariate normal
distribution.
Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. From the multivariate normal distribution,
we draw N-dimensional samples, 𝑋 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ...𝑥𝑁 ]. The covariance matrix element 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is the covariance of
𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑗 . The element 𝐶𝑖𝑖 is the variance of 𝑥𝑖 (i.e. its “spread”).
Instead of specifying the full covariance matrix, popular approximations include:

• Spherical covariance (cov is a multiple of the identity matrix)

• Diagonal covariance (cov has non-negative elements, and only on the diagonal)
This geometrical property can be seen in two dimensions by plotting generated data-points:
>>> mean = [0, 0]

>>> cov = [[1, 0], [0, 100]] # diagonal covariance
Diagonal covariance means that points are oriented along x or y-axis:

>>> x, y = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov, 5000).T
>>> plt.plot(x, y, 'x')
>>> plt.axis('equal')
>>> plt.show()
Note that the covariance matrix must be positive semidefinite (a.k.a. nonnegative-definite). Otherwise, the
behavior of this method is undefined and backwards compatibility is not guaranteed.
References
[R483484], [R484484]
Examples
>>> mean = (1, 2)

>>> cov = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> x = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov, (3, 3))
>>> x.shape
(3, 3, 2)
The following is probably true, given that 0.6 is roughly twice the standard deviation:
>>> list((x[0,0,:] - mean) < 0.6)

[True, True]
numpy.random.negative_binomial(n, p, size=None)
Draw samples from a negative binomial distribution.
Samples are drawn from a negative binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of
success where n is an integer > 0 and p is in the interval [0, 1].
Parameter of the distribution, > 0. Floats are also accepted, but they will be truncated to
integers.


Drawn samples from the parameterized negative binomial distribution, where each sam-
ple is equal to N, the number of trials it took to achieve n - 1 successes, N - (n - 1)
failures, and a success on the, (N + n)th trial.
Notes
The probability density for the negative binomial distribution is

(︂ )︂
𝑁 +𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑃 (𝑁 ; 𝑛, 𝑝) = 𝑝 (1 − 𝑝)𝑁 ,
𝑛−1
where 𝑛 − 1 is the number of successes, 𝑝 is the probability of success, and 𝑁 + 𝑛 − 1 is the number of trials.
The negative binomial distribution gives the probability of n-1 successes and N failures in N+n-1 trials, and
success on the (N+n)th trial.
If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a “1” appears, then the probability distribution of the number
of non-“1”s that appear before the third “1” is a negative binomial distribution.
References
[R487488], [R488488]
Examples

A real world example. A company drills wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. What is the probability of having one success for each successive well, that is what is the
probability of a single success after drilling 5 wells, after 6 wells, etc.?
>>> s = np.random.negative_binomial(1, 0.1, 100000)

>>> for i in range(1, 11):
... probability = sum(s<i) / 100000.
... print i, "wells drilled, probability of one success =", probability
numpy.random.noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc, size=None)

Draw samples from a noncentral chi-square distribution.
The noncentral 𝜒2 distribution is a generalisation of the 𝜒2 distribution.
Degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Changed in version 1.10.0: Earlier NumPy versions required dfnum > 1.
nonc : float or array_like of floats
Non-centrality, should be non-negative.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if df and nonc are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(df, nonc).size samples are drawn.


Drawn samples from the parameterized noncentral chi-square distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the noncentral Chi-square distribution is

∞
∑︁ 𝑒−𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐/2 (𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐/2)𝑖
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑑𝑓, 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐) = ¶𝑌𝑑𝑓 +2𝑖 (𝑥),
𝑖=0
𝑖!
where 𝑌𝑞 is the Chi-square with q degrees of freedom.

In Delhi (2007), it is noted that the noncentral chi-square is useful in bombing and coverage problems, the
probability of killing the point target given by the noncentral chi-squared distribution.
References
[R491492], [R492492]
Examples
Draw values from the distribution and plot the histogram

>>> values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, 20, 100000),
... bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Draw values from a noncentral chisquare with very small noncentrality, and compare to a chisquare.

>>> plt.figure()
>>> values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, .0000001, 100000),
... bins=np.arange(0., 25, .1), normed=True)
>>> values2 = plt.hist(np.random.chisquare(3, 100000),
>>> plt.plot(values[1][0:-1], values[0]-values2[0], 'ob')
>>> plt.show()
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Demonstrate how large values of non-centrality lead to a more symmetric distribution.

>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.show()
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80
numpy.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, size=None)

Draw samples from the noncentral F distribution.

Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numerator)
and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters > 1. nonc is the non-centrality parameter.
Numerator degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
dfden : float or array_like of floats
Denominator degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Non-centrality parameter, the sum of the squares of the numerator means, should be >=
0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if dfnum, dfden,
and nonc are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(dfnum, dfden, nonc).
size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized noncentral Fisher distribution.
Notes
When calculating the power of an experiment (power = probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when a
specific alternative is true) the non-central F statistic becomes important. When the null hypothesis is true, the
F statistic follows a central F distribution. When the null hypothesis is not true, then it follows a non-central F
statistic.
References
[R495496], [R496496]
Examples
In a study, testing for a specific alternative to the null hypothesis requires use of the Noncentral F distribution.
We need to calculate the area in the tail of the distribution that exceeds the value of the F distribution for the null
hypothesis. We’ll plot the two probability distributions for comparison.
>>> dfnum = 3 # between group deg of freedom
>>> dfden = 20 # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> nonc = 3.0
>>> nc_vals = np.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, 1000000)
>>> NF = np.histogram(nc_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
>>> c_vals = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000000)
>>> F = np.histogram(c_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
>>> plt.plot(F[1][1:], F[0])
>>> plt.plot(NF[1][1:], NF[0])
>>> plt.show()

numpy.random.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw random samples from a normal (Gaussian) distribution.
The probability density function of the normal distribution, first derived by De Moivre and 200 years later by
both Gauss and Laplace independently [R500500], is often called the bell curve because of its characteristic
shape (see the example below).
The normal distributions occurs often in nature. For example, it describes the commonly occurring distribution
of samples influenced by a large number of tiny, random disturbances, each with its own unique distribution
[R500500].
Parameters loc : float or array_like of floats
Mean (“centre”) of the distribution.
scale : float or array_like of floats
Standard deviation (spread or “width”) of the distribution.
Drawn samples from the parameterized normal distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.norm probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Gaussian distribution is

1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
𝑝(𝑥) = √ 𝑒− 2𝜎 2 ,
2𝜋𝜎 2
where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 the standard deviation. The square of the standard deviation, 𝜎 2 , is called the
variance.
The function has its peak at the mean, and its “spread” increases with the standard deviation (the function
reaches 0.607 times its maximum at 𝑥 + 𝜎 and 𝑥 − 𝜎 [R500500]). This implies that numpy.random.normal
is more likely to return samples lying close to the mean, rather than those far away.
References
[R499500], [R500500]
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 0, 0.1 # mean and standard deviation

>>> s = np.random.normal(mu, sigma, 1000)

Verify the mean and the variance:

>>> abs(mu - np.mean(s)) < 0.01
True
>>> abs(sigma - np.std(s, ddof=1)) < 0.01

True
>>> plt.plot(bins, 1/(sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
... np.exp( - (bins - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2) ),
>>> plt.show()
0
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
numpy.random.pareto(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Pareto II or Lomax distribution with specified shape.
The Lomax or Pareto II distribution is a shifted Pareto distribution. The classical Pareto distribution can be
obtained from the Lomax distribution by adding 1 and multiplying by the scale parameter m (see Notes). The
smallest value of the Lomax distribution is zero while for the classical Pareto distribution it is mu, where the
standard Pareto distribution has location mu = 1. Lomax can also be considered as a simplified version of the
Generalized Pareto distribution (available in SciPy), with the scale set to one and the location set to zero.
The Pareto distribution must be greater than zero, and is unbounded above. It is also known as the “80-20 rule”.
In this distribution, 80 percent of the weights are in the lowest 20 percent of the range, while the other 20 percent
fill the remaining 80 percent of the range.
Shape of the distribution. Should be greater than zero.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if a is a scalar. Otherwise,
np.array(a).size samples are drawn.


Drawn samples from the parameterized Pareto distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.lomax probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.

scipy.stats.genpareto probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Pareto distribution is

𝑎𝑚𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑥𝑎+1
where 𝑎 is the shape and 𝑚 the scale.
The Pareto distribution, named after the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, is a power law probability distribution
useful in many real world problems. Outside the field of economics it is generally referred to as the Bradford
distribution. Pareto developed the distribution to describe the distribution of wealth in an economy. It has
also found use in insurance, web page access statistics, oil field sizes, and many other problems, including the
download frequency for projects in Sourceforge [R503506]. It is one of the so-called “fat-tailed” distributions.
References
[R503506], [R504506], [R505506], [R506506]
Examples
>>> a, m = 3., 2. # shape and mode

>>> s = (np.random.pareto(a, 1000) + 1) * m

>>> count, bins, _ = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True)
>>> fit = a*m**a / bins**(a+1)
>>> plt.plot(bins, max(count)*fit/max(fit), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.poisson(lam=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Poisson distribution.
The Poisson distribution is the limit of the binomial distribution for large N.
Parameters lam : float or array_like of floats
Expectation of interval, should be >= 0. A sequence of expectation intervals must be
broadcastable over the requested size.

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if lam is a scalar. Otherwise,
np.array(lam).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Poisson distribution.
Notes
The Poisson distribution

𝜆𝑘 𝑒−𝜆
𝑓 (𝑘; 𝜆) =
𝑘!
For events with an expected separation 𝜆 the Poisson distribution 𝑓 (𝑘; 𝜆) describes the probability of 𝑘 events
occurring within the observed interval 𝜆.
Because the output is limited to the range of the C long type, a ValueError is raised when lam is within 10 sigma
of the maximum representable value.
References
[R511512], [R512512]
Examples

>>> s = np.random.poisson(5, 10000)
Display histogram of the sample:


>>> plt.show()
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
Draw each 100 values for lambda 100 and 500:

>>> s = np.random.poisson(lam=(100., 500.), size=(100, 2))
numpy.random.power(a, size=None)
Draws samples in [0, 1] from a power distribution with positive exponent a - 1.
Also known as the power function distribution.
Parameter of the distribution. Should be greater than zero.
Drawn samples from the parameterized power distribution.
Raises ValueError
If a < 1.
Notes
The probability density function is
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑎) = 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑎 > 0.
The power function distribution is just the inverse of the Pareto distribution. It may also be seen as a special
case of the Beta distribution.

It is used, for example, in modeling the over-reporting of insurance claims.
References
[R515516], [R516516]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> samples = 1000
>>> s = np.random.power(a, samples)

>>> x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
>>> y = a*x**(a-1.)
>>> normed_y = samples*np.diff(bins)[0]*y
>>> plt.plot(x, normed_y)
>>> plt.show()
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compare the power function distribution to the inverse of the Pareto.
>>> from scipy import stats

>>> rvs = np.random.power(5, 1000000)
>>> rvsp = np.random.pareto(5, 1000000)
>>> xx = np.linspace(0,1,100)
>>> powpdf = stats.powerlaw.pdf(xx,5)
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.hist(rvs, bins=50, normed=True)

>>> plt.plot(xx,powpdf,'r-')
>>> plt.title('np.random.power(5)')
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.hist(1./(1.+rvsp), bins=50, normed=True)
>>> plt.title('inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)')
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.title('inverse of stats.pareto(5)')
np.random.power(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
numpy.random.rayleigh(scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Rayleigh distribution.

inverse of stats.pareto(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
The 𝜒 and Weibull distributions are generalizations of the Rayleigh.

Parameters scale : float or array_like of floats, optional
Scale, also equals the mode. Should be >= 0. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Rayleigh distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the Rayleigh distribution is

𝑥 −𝑥2
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒) = 2
𝑒 2·𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒2
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
The Rayleigh distribution would arise, for example, if the East and North components of the wind velocity had
identical zero-mean Gaussian distributions. Then the wind speed would have a Rayleigh distribution.
References
[R519520], [R520520]
Examples

>>> values = hist(np.random.rayleigh(3, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
Wave heights tend to follow a Rayleigh distribution. If the mean wave height is 1 meter, what fraction of waves
are likely to be larger than 3 meters?
>>> meanvalue = 1
>>> modevalue = np.sqrt(2 / np.pi) * meanvalue
>>> s = np.random.rayleigh(modevalue, 1000000)
The percentage of waves larger than 3 meters is:
>>> 100.*sum(s>3)/1000000.
0.087300000000000003
numpy.random.standard_cauchy(size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Cauchy distribution with mode = 0.
Also known as the Lorentz distribution.
Returns samples : ndarray or scalar
The drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the full Cauchy distribution is

1
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑥0 , 𝛾) =
𝜋𝛾 1 + ( 𝑥−𝑥
[︀ 0 2
]︀
𝛾 )
and the Standard Cauchy distribution just sets 𝑥0 = 0 and 𝛾 = 1

The Cauchy distribution arises in the solution to the driven harmonic oscillator problem, and also describes
spectral line broadening. It also describes the distribution of values at which a line tilted at a random angle will
cut the x axis.
When studying hypothesis tests that assume normality, seeing how the tests perform on data from a Cauchy
distribution is a good indicator of their sensitivity to a heavy-tailed distribution, since the Cauchy looks very
much like a Gaussian distribution, but with heavier tails.
References
[R525527], [R526527], [R527527]
Examples
Draw samples and plot the distribution:

>>> s = np.random.standard_cauchy(1000000)
>>> s = s[(s>-25) & (s<25)] # truncate distribution so it plots well
>>> plt.hist(s, bins=100)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.standard_exponential(size=None)
Draw samples from the standard exponential distribution.
standard_exponential is identical to the exponential distribution with a scale parameter of 1.
Returns out : float or ndarray
Drawn samples.
Examples
Output a 3x8000 array:

>>> n = np.random.standard_exponential((3, 8000))
numpy.random.standard_gamma(shape, size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Gamma distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated “k”)
and scale=1.
Parameter, should be > 0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if shape is a scalar.
Otherwise, np.array(shape).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized standard gamma distribution.
See also:
Notes
𝑒−𝑥/𝜃
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑘−1 ,
𝜃𝑘 Γ(𝑘)
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises naturally
in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.

References
[R531532], [R532532]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 1. # mean and width

>>> s = np.random.standard_gamma(shape, 1000000)

>>> y = bins**(shape-1) * ((np.exp(-bins/scale))/ \
... (sps.gamma(shape) * scale**shape))
>>> plt.show()
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
numpy.random.standard_normal(size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Normal distribution (mean=0, stdev=1).
Drawn samples.

Examples
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(8000)
>>> s
array([ 0.6888893 , 0.78096262, -0.89086505, ..., 0.49876311, #random
-0.38672696, -0.4685006 ]) #random
>>> s.shape
(8000,)
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(size=(3, 4, 2))
>>> s.shape
(3, 4, 2)
numpy.random.standard_t(df, size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Student’s t distribution with df degrees of freedom.
A special case of the hyperbolic distribution. As df gets large, the result resembles that of the standard normal
distribution (standard_normal).
Drawn samples from the parameterized standard Student’s t distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the t distribution is
Γ( 𝑑𝑓2+1 ) (︁ 𝑥2 )︁−(𝑑𝑓 +1)/2

𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑑𝑓 ) = √ 𝑑𝑓
1+
𝜋𝑑𝑓 Γ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑓
The t test is based on an assumption that the data come from a Normal distribution. The t test provides a way to
test whether the sample mean (that is the mean calculated from the data) is a good estimate of the true mean.
The derivation of the t-distribution was first published in 1908 by William Gosset while working for the Guinness
Brewery in Dublin. Due to proprietary issues, he had to publish under a pseudonym, and so he used the name
Student.
References
[R535536], [R536536]
Examples
From Dalgaard page 83 [R535536], suppose the daily energy intake for 11 women in Kj is:

>>> intake = np.array([5260., 5470, 5640, 6180, 6390, 6515, 6805, 7515, \
... 7515, 8230, 8770])
Does their energy intake deviate systematically from the recommended value of 7725 kJ?
We have 10 degrees of freedom, so is the sample mean within 95% of the recommended value?
>>> s = np.random.standard_t(10, size=100000)

>>> np.mean(intake)
6753.636363636364
>>> intake.std(ddof=1)
1142.1232221373727
Calculate the t statistic, setting the ddof parameter to the unbiased value so the divisor in the standard deviation
will be degrees of freedom, N-1.
>>> t = (np.mean(intake)-7725)/(intake.std(ddof=1)/np.sqrt(len(intake)))
>>> h = plt.hist(s, bins=100, normed=True)
For a one-sided t-test, how far out in the distribution does the t statistic appear?
>>> np.sum(s<t) / float(len(s))

0.0090699999999999999 #random
So the p-value is about 0.009, which says the null hypothesis has a probability of about 99% of being true.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
numpy.random.triangular(left, mode, right, size=None)

Draw samples from the triangular distribution over the interval [left, right].
The triangular distribution is a continuous probability distribution with lower limit left, peak at mode, and upper
limit right. Unlike the other distributions, these parameters directly define the shape of the pdf.
Parameters left : float or array_like of floats
Lower limit.
mode : float or array_like of floats

The value where the peak of the distribution occurs. The value should fulfill the condi-
tion left <= mode <= right.
right : float or array_like of floats
Upper limit, should be larger than left.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if left, mode, and right
are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(left, mode, right).size sam-
ples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized triangular distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the triangular distribution is

⎧ 2(𝑥−𝑙)
⎨ (𝑟−𝑙)(𝑚−𝑙) for 𝑙 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚,
⎪
2(𝑟−𝑥)
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟) = (𝑟−𝑙)(𝑟−𝑚) for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑟,
⎪
0 otherwise.
⎩
The triangular distribution is often used in ill-defined problems where the underlying distribution is not known,
but some knowledge of the limits and mode exists. Often it is used in simulations.
References
[R539539]
Examples
Draw values from the distribution and plot the histogram:

>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.triangular(-3, 0, 8, 100000), bins=200,
... normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.uniform(low=0.0, high=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a uniform distribution.
Samples are uniformly distributed over the half-open interval [low, high) (includes low, but excludes high).
In other words, any value within the given interval is equally likely to be drawn by uniform.
Parameters low : float or array_like of floats, optional
Lower boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be greater than or
equal to low. The default value is 0.
high : float or array_like of floats
Upper boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be less than high. The
default value is 1.0.

0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
2 0 2 4 6 8

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if low and high are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(low, high).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized uniform distribution.
See also:
randint Discrete uniform distribution, yielding integers.

random_integers Discrete uniform distribution over the closed interval [low, high].
random_sample Floats uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
random Alias for random_sample.
rand Convenience function that accepts dimensions as input, e.g., rand(2,2) would generate a 2-by-2 array
of floats, uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
Notes
The probability density function of the uniform distribution is

1
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑏−𝑎
anywhere within the interval [a, b), and zero elsewhere.
When high == low, values of low will be returned. If high < low, the results are officially undefined and
may eventually raise an error, i.e. do not rely on this function to behave when passed arguments satisfying that
inequality condition.

Examples
>>> s = np.random.uniform(-1,0,1000)
All values are within the given interval:
>>> np.all(s >= -1)

True
>>> np.all(s < 0)
True

>>> plt.plot(bins, np.ones_like(bins), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
numpy.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, size=None)

Draw samples from a von Mises distribution.
Samples are drawn from a von Mises distribution with specified mode (mu) and dispersion (kappa), on the
interval [-pi, pi].
The von Mises distribution (also known as the circular normal distribution) is a continuous probability distribu-
tion on the unit circle. It may be thought of as the circular analogue of the normal distribution.
Parameters mu : float or array_like of floats
Mode (“center”) of the distribution.
kappa : float or array_like of floats
Dispersion of the distribution, has to be >=0.

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mu and kappa are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mu, kappa).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized von Mises distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.vonmises probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the von Mises distribution is
𝑒𝜅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥−𝜇)
𝑝(𝑥) = ,
2𝜋𝐼0 (𝜅)
where 𝜇 is the mode and 𝜅 the dispersion, and 𝐼0 (𝜅) is the modified Bessel function of order 0.
The von Mises is named for Richard Edler von Mises, who was born in Austria-Hungary, in what is now the
Ukraine. He fled to the United States in 1939 and became a professor at Harvard. He worked in probability
theory, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, and philosophy of science.
References
[R541542], [R542542]
Examples
>>> mu, kappa = 0.0, 4.0 # mean and dispersion

>>> s = np.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, 1000)

>>> from scipy.special import i0
>>> plt.hist(s, 50, normed=True)
>>> x = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, num=51)
>>> y = np.exp(kappa*np.cos(x-mu))/(2*np.pi*i0(kappa))
>>> plt.plot(x, y, linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
numpy.random.wald(mean, scale, size=None)

Draw samples from a Wald, or inverse Gaussian, distribution.
As the scale approaches infinity, the distribution becomes more like a Gaussian. Some references claim that the
Wald is an inverse Gaussian with mean equal to 1, but this is by no means universal.
The inverse Gaussian distribution was first studied in relationship to Brownian motion. In 1956 M.C.K. Tweedie
used the name inverse Gaussian because there is an inverse relationship between the time to cover a unit distance
and distance covered in unit time.

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Parameters mean : float or array_like of floats

Distribution mean, should be > 0.
Scale parameter, should be >= 0.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mean and scale are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mean, scale).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Wald distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the Wald distribution is

√︂
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 −𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑥−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛)2
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒) = 𝑒 2·𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛2 𝑥

2𝜋𝑥3
As noted above the inverse Gaussian distribution first arise from attempts to model Brownian motion. It is also a
competitor to the Weibull for use in reliability modeling and modeling stock returns and interest rate processes.
References
[R545547], [R546547], [R547547]
Examples


>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.wald(3, 2, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
numpy.random.weibull(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Weibull distribution.
Draw samples from a 1-parameter Weibull distribution with the given shape parameter a.
𝑋 = (−𝑙𝑛(𝑈 ))1/𝑎
Here, U is drawn from the uniform distribution over (0,1].

The more common 2-parameter Weibull, including a scale parameter 𝜆 is just 𝑋 = 𝜆(−𝑙𝑛(𝑈 ))1/𝑎 .
Drawn samples from the parameterized Weibull distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.weibull_max, scipy.stats.weibull_min, scipy.stats.genextreme,
gumbel
Notes
The Weibull (or Type III asymptotic extreme value distribution for smallest values, SEV Type III, or Rosin-
Rammler distribution) is one of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling
extreme value problems. This class includes the Gumbel and Frechet distributions.

The probability density for the Weibull distribution is

𝑎 𝑥 𝑎−1 −(𝑥/𝜆)𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) = ( ) 𝑒 ,
𝜆 𝜆
where 𝑎 is the shape and 𝜆 the scale.
The function has its peak (the mode) at 𝜆( 𝑎−1
𝑎 )
1/𝑎
.
When a = 1, the Weibull distribution reduces to the exponential distribution.
References
[R551553], [R552553], [R553553]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> s = np.random.weibull(a, 1000)

>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> def weib(x,n,a):
... return (a / n) * (x / n)**(a - 1) * np.exp(-(x / n)**a)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(np.random.weibull(5.,1000))

>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> scale = count.max()/weib(x, 1., 5.).max()
>>> plt.plot(x, weib(x, 1., 5.)*scale)
>>> plt.show()
200
150
100
50
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

numpy.random.zipf(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Zipf distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Zipf distribution with specified parameter a > 1.
The Zipf distribution (also known as the zeta distribution) is a continuous probability distribution that satisfies
Zipf’s law: the frequency of an item is inversely proportional to its rank in a frequency table.
Distribution parameter. Should be greater than 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Zipf distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.zipf probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Zipf distribution is
𝑥−𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) = ,
𝜁(𝑎)
where 𝜁 is the Riemann Zeta function.

It is named for the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf, who noted that the frequency of any word in a
sample of a language is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table.
References
[R557557]
Examples
>>> a = 2. # parameter
>>> s = np.random.zipf(a, 1000)

>>> from scipy import special
Truncate s values at 50 so plot is interesting:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s[s<50], 50, normed=True)

>>> x = np.arange(1., 50.)
>>> y = x**(-a) / special.zetac(a)
>>> plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
3.24.4 Random generator
RandomState([seed]) Container for the Mersenne Twister pseudo-random num-

ber generator.
seed([seed]) Seed the generator.
get_state() Return a tuple representing the internal state of the genera-
tor.
set_state(state) Set the internal state of the generator from a tuple.
class numpy.random.RandomState(seed=None)
Container for the Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator.
RandomState exposes a number of methods for generating random numbers drawn from a variety of proba-
bility distributions. In addition to the distribution-specific arguments, each method takes a keyword argument
size that defaults to None. If size is None, then a single value is generated and returned. If size is an integer,
then a 1-D array filled with generated values is returned. If size is a tuple, then an array with that shape is filled
and returned.
Compatibility Guarantee A fixed seed and a fixed series of calls to ‘RandomState’ methods using the same
parameters will always produce the same results up to roundoff error except when the values were incorrect.
Incorrect values will be fixed and the NumPy version in which the fix was made will be noted in the relevant
docstring. Extension of existing parameter ranges and the addition of new parameters is allowed as long the
previous behavior remains unchanged.
Parameters seed : {None, int, array_like}, optional
Random seed used to initialize the pseudo-random number generator. Can be any in-
teger between 0 and 2**32 - 1 inclusive, an array (or other sequence) of such integers,

or None (the default). If seed is None, then RandomState will try to read data
from /dev/urandom (or the Windows analogue) if available or seed from the clock
otherwise.
Notes
The Python stdlib module “random” also contains a Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator with
a number of methods that are similar to the ones available in RandomState. RandomState, besides being
NumPy-aware, has the advantage that it provides a much larger number of probability distributions to choose
from.
Methods
beta(a, b[, size]) Draw samples from a Beta distribution.

binomial(n, p[, size]) Draw samples from a binomial distribution.
bytes(length) Return random bytes.
chisquare(df[, size]) Draw samples from a chi-square distribution.
choice(a[, size, replace, p]) Generates a random sample from a given 1-D array
dirichlet(alpha[, size]) Draw samples from the Dirichlet distribution.
exponential([scale, size]) Draw samples from an exponential distribution.
f(dfnum, dfden[, size]) Draw samples from an F distribution.
gamma(shape[, scale, size]) Draw samples from a Gamma distribution.
geometric(p[, size]) Draw samples from the geometric distribution.
get_state() Return a tuple representing the internal state of the gen-
erator.
gumbel([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution.
hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample[, size]) Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
laplace([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential
distribution with specified location (or mean) and scale
(decay).
logistic([loc, scale, size]) Draw samples from a logistic distribution.
lognormal([mean, sigma, size]) Draw samples from a log-normal distribution.
logseries(p[, size]) Draw samples from a logarithmic series distribution.
multinomial(n, pvals[, size]) Draw samples from a multinomial distribution.
multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size, . . . ) Draw random samples from a multivariate normal dis-
tribution.
negative_binomial(n, p[, size]) Draw samples from a negative binomial distribution.
noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc[, size]) Draw samples from a noncentral chi-square distribution.
noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc[, size]) Draw samples from the noncentral F distribution.
normal([loc, scale, size]) Draw random samples from a normal (Gaussian) distri-
bution.
pareto(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Pareto II or Lomax distribution
with specified shape.
permutation(x) Randomly permute a sequence, or return a permuted
range.
poisson([lam, size]) Draw samples from a Poisson distribution.
power(a[, size]) Draws samples in [0, 1] from a power distribution with
positive exponent a - 1.
rand(d0, d1, . . . , dn) Random values in a given shape.


randint(low[, high, size, dtype]) Return random integers from low (inclusive) to high (ex-
clusive).
randn(d0, d1, . . . , dn) Return a sample (or samples) from the “standard nor-
mal” distribution.
random_integers(low[, high, size]) Random integers of type np.int between low and high,
inclusive.
random_sample([size]) Return random floats in the half-open interval [0.0, 1.0).
rayleigh([scale, size]) Draw samples from a Rayleigh distribution.
seed([seed]) Seed the generator.
set_state(state) Set the internal state of the generator from a tuple.
shuffle(x) Modify a sequence in-place by shuffling its contents.
standard_cauchy([size]) Draw samples from a standard Cauchy distribution with
mode = 0.
standard_exponential([size]) Draw samples from the standard exponential distribu-
tion.
standard_gamma(shape[, size]) Draw samples from a standard Gamma distribution.
standard_normal([size]) Draw samples from a standard Normal distribution
(mean=0, stdev=1).
standard_t(df[, size]) Draw samples from a standard Student’s t distribution
with df degrees of freedom.
tomaxint([size]) Random integers between 0 and sys.maxint, inclu-
sive.
triangular(left, mode, right[, size]) Draw samples from the triangular distribution over the
interval [left, right].
uniform([low, high, size]) Draw samples from a uniform distribution.
vonmises(mu, kappa[, size]) Draw samples from a von Mises distribution.
wald(mean, scale[, size]) Draw samples from a Wald, or inverse Gaussian, distri-
bution.
weibull(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Weibull distribution.
zipf(a[, size]) Draw samples from a Zipf distribution.
RandomState.beta(a, b, size=None)
Draw samples from a Beta distribution.
The Beta distribution is a special case of the Dirichlet distribution, and is related to the Gamma distribution.
It has the probability distribution function
1
𝑓 (𝑥; 𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑥𝛼−1 (1 − 𝑥)𝛽−1 ,
𝐵(𝛼, 𝛽)
where the normalisation, B, is the beta function,

∫︁ 1
𝐵(𝛼, 𝛽) = 𝑡𝛼−1 (1 − 𝑡)𝛽−1 𝑑𝑡.
0
It is often seen in Bayesian inference and order statistics.

Alpha, non-negative.
b : float or array_like of floats
Beta, non-negative.

drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if a and b are both scalars.
Otherwise, np.broadcast(a, b).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized beta distribution.
RandomState.binomial(n, p, size=None)
Draw samples from a binomial distribution.
Samples are drawn from a binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p probability of
success where n an integer >= 0 and p is in the interval [0,1]. (n may be input as a float, but it is truncated
to an integer in use)
Parameter of the distribution, >= 0. Floats are also accepted, but they will be truncated
to integers.
Drawn samples from the parameterized binomial distribution, where each sample is
equal to the number of successes over the n trials.
See also:
scipy.stats.binom probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the binomial distribution is

(︂ )︂
𝑛 𝑁
𝑃 (𝑁 ) = 𝑝 (1 − 𝑝)𝑛−𝑁 ,
𝑁
where 𝑛 is the number of trials, 𝑝 is the probability of success, and 𝑁 is the number of successes.
When estimating the standard error of a proportion in a population by using a random sample, the normal
distribution works well unless the product p*n <=5, where p = population proportion estimate, and n =
number of samples, in which case the binomial distribution is used instead. For example, a sample of 15
people shows 4 who are left handed, and 11 who are right handed. Then p = 4/15 = 27%. 0.27*15 = 4, so
the binomial distribution should be used in this case.
References
[R275279], [R276279], [R277279], [R278279], [R279279]

Examples
>>> n, p = 10, .5 # number of trials, probability of each trial

>>> s = np.random.binomial(n, p, 1000)
# result of flipping a coin 10 times, tested 1000 times.
A real world example. A company drills 9 wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. All nine wells fail. What is the probability of that happening?
Let’s do 20,000 trials of the model, and count the number that generate zero positive results.
>>> sum(np.random.binomial(9, 0.1, 20000) == 0)/20000.

# answer = 0.38885, or 38%.
RandomState.bytes(length)
Return random bytes.
Parameters length : int
Number of random bytes.
Returns out : str
String of length length.
Examples
>>> np.random.bytes(10)
' eh\x85\x022SZ\xbf\xa4' #random
RandomState.chisquare(df, size=None)
Draw samples from a chi-square distribution.
When df independent random variables, each with standard normal distributions (mean 0, variance 1), are
squared and summed, the resulting distribution is chi-square (see Notes). This distribution is often used in
hypothesis testing.
Number of degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Drawn samples from the parameterized chi-square distribution.
Raises ValueError
When df <= 0 or when an inappropriate size (e.g. size=-1) is given.

Notes
The variable obtained by summing the squares of df independent, standard normally distributed random
variables:
df
∑︁
𝑄= 𝑋𝑖2
𝑖=0
is chi-square distributed, denoted
𝑄 ∼ 𝜒2𝑘 .
The probability density function of the chi-squared distribution is
(1/2)𝑘/2 𝑘/2−1 −𝑥/2

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑒 ,
Γ(𝑘/2)
where Γ is the gamma function,
∫︁ −∞
Γ(𝑥) = 𝑡𝑥−1 𝑒−𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
0
References
[R285285]
Examples
>>> np.random.chisquare(2,4)
array([ 1.89920014, 9.00867716, 3.13710533, 5.62318272])
RandomState.choice(a, size=None, replace=True, p=None)

Generates a random sample from a given 1-D array
Parameters a : 1-D array-like or int

If an ndarray, a random sample is generated from its elements. If an int, the random
sample is generated as if a were np.arange(a)
replace : boolean, optional
Whether the sample is with or without replacement
p : 1-D array-like, optional
The probabilities associated with each entry in a. If not given the sample assumes a
uniform distribution over all entries in a.
Returns samples : single item or ndarray
The generated random samples

Raises ValueError
If a is an int and less than zero, if a or p are not 1-dimensional, if a is an array-like
of size 0, if p is not a vector of probabilities, if a and p have different lengths, or if
replace=False and the sample size is greater than the population size
See also:
randint, shuffle, permutation
Examples
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3)
array([0, 3, 4])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.randint(0,5,3)
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])

array([3, 3, 0])
Generate a uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False)

array([3,1,0])
>>> #This is equivalent to np.random.permutation(np.arange(5))[:3]
Generate a non-uniform random sample from np.arange(5) of size 3 without replacement:
>>> np.random.choice(5, 3, replace=False, p=[0.1, 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0])

array([2, 3, 0])
Any of the above can be repeated with an arbitrary array-like instead of just integers. For instance:
>>> aa_milne_arr = ['pooh', 'rabbit', 'piglet', 'Christopher']

>>> np.random.choice(aa_milne_arr, 5, p=[0.5, 0.1, 0.1, 0.3])
array(['pooh', 'pooh', 'pooh', 'Christopher', 'piglet'],
dtype='|S11')
RandomState.dirichlet(alpha, size=None)
Draw samples from the Dirichlet distribution.
Draw size samples of dimension k from a Dirichlet distribution. A Dirichlet-distributed random variable
can be seen as a multivariate generalization of a Beta distribution. Dirichlet pdf is the conjugate prior of a
multinomial in Bayesian inference.
Parameters alpha : array
Parameter of the distribution (k dimension for sample of dimension k).
Returns samples : ndarray,
The drawn samples, of shape (size, alpha.ndim).

Raises ValueError
If any value in alpha is less than or equal to zero
Notes
𝑘
∏︁
𝑋≈ 𝑥𝑖𝛼𝑖 −1
𝑖=1
Uses the following property for computation: for each dimension, draw a random sample y_i from a
standard gamma generator of shape alpha_i, then 𝑋 = ∑︀𝑘1 𝑦 (𝑦1 , . . . , 𝑦𝑛 ) is Dirichlet distributed.
𝑖=1 𝑖
References
[R287288], [R288288]
Examples
Taking an example cited in Wikipedia, this distribution can be used if one wanted to cut strings (each of
initial length 1.0) into K pieces with different lengths, where each piece had, on average, a designated
average length, but allowing some variation in the relative sizes of the pieces.
>>> s = np.random.dirichlet((10, 5, 3), 20).transpose()
>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[0])

>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[1], left=s[0], color='g')
>>> plt.barh(range(20), s[2], left=s[0]+s[1], color='r')
>>> plt.title("Lengths of Strings")
RandomState.exponential(scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from an exponential distribution.
Its probability density function is
1 1 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥; ) = exp(− ),
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
for x > 0 and 0 elsewhere. 𝛽 is the scale parameter, which is the inverse of the rate parameter 𝜆 =
1/𝛽. The rate parameter is an alternative, widely used parameterization of the exponential distribution
[R293293].
The exponential distribution is a continuous analogue of the geometric distribution. It describes many
common situations, such as the size of raindrops measured over many rainstorms [R291293], or the time
between page requests to Wikipedia [R292293].
Parameters scale : float or array_like of floats
The scale parameter, 𝛽 = 1/𝜆.


Drawn samples from the parameterized exponential distribution.
References
[R291293], [R292293], [R293293]

RandomState.f(dfnum, dfden, size=None)
Draw samples from an F distribution.
Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in nu-
merator) and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters should be greater than
zero.
The random variate of the F distribution (also known as the Fisher distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution that arises in ANOVA tests, and is the ratio of two chi-square variates.
Degrees of freedom in numerator, should be > 0.
dfden : float or array_like of float
Degrees of freedom in denominator, should be > 0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if dfnum and dfden
are both scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(dfnum, dfden).size samples are
drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Fisher distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.f probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The F statistic is used to compare in-group variances to between-group variances. Calculating the distribu-
tion depends on the sampling, and so it is a function of the respective degrees of freedom in the problem.
The variable dfnum is the number of samples minus one, the between-groups degrees of freedom, while
dfden is the within-groups degrees of freedom, the sum of the number of samples in each group minus the
number of groups.
References
[R297298], [R298298]

Examples
An example from Glantz[1], pp 47-40:

Two groups, children of diabetics (25 people) and children from people without diabetes (25 controls).
Fasting blood glucose was measured, case group had a mean value of 86.1, controls had a mean value
of 82.2. Standard deviations were 2.09 and 2.49 respectively. Are these data consistent with the null
hypothesis that the parents diabetic status does not affect their children’s blood glucose levels? Calculating
the F statistic from the data gives a value of 36.01.
>>> dfnum = 1. # between group degrees of freedom
>>> dfden = 48. # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> s = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000)
The lower bound for the top 1% of the samples is :

>>> sort(s)[-10]
7.61988120985
So there is about a 1% chance that the F statistic will exceed 7.62, the measured value is 36, so the null
hypothesis is rejected at the 1% level.
RandomState.gamma(shape, scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Gamma distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated
“k”) and scale (sometimes designated “theta”), where both parameters are > 0.
The shape of the gamma distribution. Should be greater than zero.
The scale of the gamma distribution. Should be greater than zero. Default is equal to 1.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if shape and scale
are both scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(shape, scale).size samples are
drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized gamma distribution.
See also:
Notes
𝑒−𝑥/𝜃
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑘−1 ,
𝜃𝑘 Γ(𝑘)

The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises
naturally in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R301302], [R302302]
Examples

>>> shape, scale = 2., 2. # mean=4, std=2*sqrt(2)
>>> s = np.random.gamma(shape, scale, 1000)
>>> y = bins**(shape-1)*(np.exp(-bins/scale) /
... (sps.gamma(shape)*scale**shape))
>>> plt.show()
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
RandomState.geometric(p, size=None)
Draw samples from the geometric distribution.
Bernoulli trials are experiments with one of two outcomes: success or failure (an example of such an
experiment is flipping a coin). The geometric distribution models the number of trials that must be run in
order to achieve success. It is therefore supported on the positive integers, k = 1, 2, ....
The probability mass function of the geometric distribution is
𝑓 (𝑘) = (1 − 𝑝)𝑘−1 𝑝
where p is the probability of success of an individual trial.


The probability of success of an individual trial.
Drawn samples from the parameterized geometric distribution.
Examples
Draw ten thousand values from the geometric distribution, with the probability of an individual success
equal to 0.35:
>>> z = np.random.geometric(p=0.35, size=10000)
How many trials succeeded after a single run?
>>> (z == 1).sum() / 10000.

0.34889999999999999 #random
RandomState.get_state()
Return a tuple representing the internal state of the generator.
For more details, see set_state.
Returns out : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The returned tuple has the following items:
1. the string ‘MT19937’.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integer keys.
3. an integer pos.
4. an integer has_gauss.
5. a float cached_gaussian.
See also:
set_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If
the internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
RandomState.gumbel(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution.
Draw samples from a Gumbel distribution with specified location and scale. For more information on the
Gumbel distribution, see Notes and References below.

The location of the mode of the distribution. Default is 0.

The scale parameter of the distribution. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Gumbel distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.gumbel_l, scipy.stats.gumbel_r, scipy.stats.genextreme,
weibull
Notes
The Gumbel (or Smallest Extreme Value (SEV) or the Smallest Extreme Value Type I) distribution is one
of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in modeling extreme value problems.
The Gumbel is a special case of the Extreme Value Type I distribution for maximums from distributions
with “exponential-like” tails.
The probability density for the Gumbel distribution is
𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝛽 −𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝛽
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑒 ,
𝛽
where 𝜇 is the mode, a location parameter, and 𝛽 is the scale parameter.
The Gumbel (named for German mathematician Emil Julius Gumbel) was used very early in the hydrology
literature, for modeling the occurrence of flood events. It is also used for modeling maximum wind speed
and rainfall rates. It is a “fat-tailed” distribution - the probability of an event in the tail of the distribution is
larger than if one used a Gaussian, hence the surprisingly frequent occurrence of 100-year floods. Floods
were initially modeled as a Gaussian process, which underestimated the frequency of extreme events.
It is one of a class of extreme value distributions, the Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions,
which also includes the Weibull and Frechet.
𝜋2 2
The function has a mean of 𝜇 + 0.57721𝛽 and a variance of 6 𝛽 .
References
[R305306], [R306306]
Examples

>>> mu, beta = 0, 0.1 # location and scale
>>> s = np.random.gumbel(mu, beta, 1000)


... * np.exp( -np.exp( -(bins - mu) /beta) ),
>>> plt.show()
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Show how an extreme value distribution can arise from a Gaussian process and compare to a Gaussian:
>>> means = []
>>> maxima = []
>>> for i in range(0,1000) :
... a = np.random.normal(mu, beta, 1000)
... means.append(a.mean())
... maxima.append(a.max())
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(maxima, 30, normed=True)
>>> beta = np.std(maxima) * np.sqrt(6) / np.pi
>>> mu = np.mean(maxima) - 0.57721*beta
... * np.exp(-np.exp(-(bins - mu)/beta)),
>>> plt.plot(bins, 1/(beta * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi))
... * np.exp(-(bins - mu)**2 / (2 * beta**2)),
... linewidth=2, color='g')
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsample, size=None)

Draw samples from a Hypergeometric distribution.
Samples are drawn from a hypergeometric distribution with specified parameters, ngood (ways to make a
good selection), nbad (ways to make a bad selection), and nsample = number of items sampled, which is
less than or equal to the sum ngood + nbad.
Parameters ngood : int or array_like of ints
Number of ways to make a good selection. Must be nonnegative.
nbad : int or array_like of ints

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45
Number of ways to make a bad selection. Must be nonnegative.

nsample : int or array_like of ints
Number of items sampled. Must be at least 1 and at most ngood + nbad.
Output shape. If the given shape is, e.g., (m, n, k), then m * n * k sam-
ples are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if ngood,
nbad, and nsample are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(ngood, nbad,
nsample).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized hypergeometric distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.hypergeom probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function,

etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Hypergeometric distribution is

(︀𝑚)︀(︀𝑁 −𝑚)︀
𝑛
𝑃 (𝑥) = (︀𝑁𝑛−𝑥
)︀ ,
𝑛
where 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚 and 𝑛 + 𝑚 − 𝑁 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛
for P(x) the probability of x successes, n = ngood, m = nbad, and N = number of samples.
Consider an urn with black and white marbles in it, ngood of them black and nbad are white. If you draw
nsample balls without replacement, then the hypergeometric distribution describes the distribution of black
balls in the drawn sample.

Note that this distribution is very similar to the binomial distribution, except that in this case, samples are
drawn without replacement, whereas in the Binomial case samples are drawn with replacement (or the
sample space is infinite). As the sample space becomes large, this distribution approaches the binomial.
References
[R309311], [R310311], [R311311]
Examples
>>> ngood, nbad, nsamp = 100, 2, 10

# number of good, number of bad, and number of samples
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(ngood, nbad, nsamp, 1000)
>>> hist(s)
# note that it is very unlikely to grab both bad items
Suppose you have an urn with 15 white and 15 black marbles. If you pull 15 marbles at random, how
likely is it that 12 or more of them are one color?
>>> s = np.random.hypergeometric(15, 15, 15, 100000)

>>> sum(s>=12)/100000. + sum(s<=3)/100000.
# answer = 0.003 ... pretty unlikely!
RandomState.laplace(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from the Laplace or double exponential distribution with specified location (or mean) and
scale (decay).
The Laplace distribution is similar to the Gaussian/normal distribution, but is sharper at the peak and
has fatter tails. It represents the difference between two independent, identically distributed exponential
random variables.
The position, 𝜇, of the distribution peak. Default is 0.
𝜆, the exponential decay. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Laplace distribution.
Notes
It has the probability density function

(︂ )︂
1 |𝑥 − 𝜇|
𝑓 (𝑥; 𝜇, 𝜆) = exp − .
2𝜆 𝜆

The first law of Laplace, from 1774, states that the frequency of an error can be expressed as an exponential
function of the absolute magnitude of the error, which leads to the Laplace distribution. For many prob-
lems in economics and health sciences, this distribution seems to model the data better than the standard
Gaussian distribution.
References
[R315318], [R316318], [R317318], [R318318]
Examples
Draw samples from the distribution

>>> loc, scale = 0., 1.
>>> s = np.random.laplace(loc, scale, 1000)
>>> x = np.arange(-8., 8., .01)
>>> pdf = np.exp(-abs(x-loc)/scale)/(2.*scale)
>>> plt.plot(x, pdf)
Plot Gaussian for comparison:

>>> g = (1/(scale * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
... np.exp(-(x - loc)**2 / (2 * scale**2)))
>>> plt.plot(x,g)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
RandomState.logistic(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a logistic distribution.
Samples are drawn from a logistic distribution with specified parameters, loc (location or mean, also
median), and scale (>0).


Parameter of the distribution. Default is 0.
Parameter of the distribution. Should be greater than zero. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized logistic distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.logistic probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function,

etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Logistic distribution is
𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝑠
𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑃 (𝑥) = ,
𝑠(1 + 𝑒−(𝑥−𝜇)/𝑠 )2
where 𝜇 = location and 𝑠 = scale.

The Logistic distribution is used in Extreme Value problems where it can act as a mixture of Gumbel
distributions, in Epidemiology, and by the World Chess Federation (FIDE) where it is used in the Elo
ranking system, assuming the performance of each player is a logistically distributed random variable.
References
[R323325], [R324325], [R325325]
Examples
>>> loc, scale = 10, 1

>>> s = np.random.logistic(loc, scale, 10000)
>>> def logist(x, loc, scale):

... return exp((loc-x)/scale)/(scale*(1+exp((loc-x)/scale))**2)
>>> plt.plot(bins, logist(bins, loc, scale)*count.max()/\
... logist(bins, loc, scale).max())
>>> plt.show()

RandomState.lognormal(mean=0.0, sigma=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a log-normal distribution.
Draw samples from a log-normal distribution with specified mean, standard deviation, and array shape.
Note that the mean and standard deviation are not the values for the distribution itself, but of the underlying
normal distribution it is derived from.
Parameters mean : float or array_like of floats, optional
Mean value of the underlying normal distribution. Default is 0.
sigma : float or array_like of floats, optional
Standard deviation of the underlying normal distribution. Should be greater than zero.
Default is 1.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mean and sigma are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mean, sigma).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized log-normal distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.lognorm probability density function, distribution, cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
A variable x has a log-normal distribution if log(x) is normally distributed. The probability density function
for the log-normal distribution is:
1 (𝑙𝑛(𝑥)−𝜇)2
𝑝(𝑥) = √ 𝑒(− 2𝜎 2
)
𝜎𝑥 2𝜋
where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 is the standard deviation of the normally distributed logarithm of the variable.
A log-normal distribution results if a random variable is the product of a large number of independent,
identically-distributed variables in the same way that a normal distribution results if the variable is the sum
of a large number of independent, identically-distributed variables.
References
[R329330], [R330330]
Examples
>>> mu, sigma = 3., 1. # mean and standard deviation

>>> s = np.random.lognormal(mu, sigma, 1000)


>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True, align='mid')

>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, linewidth=2, color='r')

>>> plt.show()
0.035
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.015
0.010
0.005
0.000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Demonstrate that taking the products of random samples from a uniform distribution can be fit well by a
log-normal probability density function.
>>> # Generate a thousand samples: each is the product of 100 random
>>> # values, drawn from a normal distribution.
>>> b = []
... a = 10. + np.random.random(100)
... b.append(np.product(a))
>>> b = np.array(b) / np.min(b) # scale values to be positive

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(b, 100, normed=True, align='mid')
>>> sigma = np.std(np.log(b))
>>> mu = np.mean(np.log(b))

>>> plt.plot(x, pdf, color='r', linewidth=2)

>>> plt.show()
RandomState.logseries(p, size=None)
Draw samples from a logarithmic series distribution.

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Samples are drawn from a log series distribution with specified shape parameter, 0 < p < 1.
Shape parameter for the distribution. Must be in the range (0, 1).
Drawn samples from the parameterized logarithmic series distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.logser probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Log Series distribution is
−𝑝𝑘
𝑃 (𝑘) = ,
𝑘 ln(1 − 𝑝)
where p = probability.
The log series distribution is frequently used to represent species richness and occurrence, first proposed
by Fisher, Corbet, and Williams in 1943 [2]. It may also be used to model the numbers of occupants seen
in cars [3].
References
[R333336], [R334336], [R335336], [R336336]

Examples

>>> a = .6
>>> s = np.random.logseries(a, 10000)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s)

>>> def logseries(k, p):
... return -p**k/(k*log(1-p))
>>> plt.plot(bins, logseries(bins, a)*count.max()/
logseries(bins, a).max(), 'r')
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.multinomial(n, pvals, size=None)

Draw samples from a multinomial distribution.
The multinomial distribution is a multivariate generalisation of the binomial distribution. Take an experi-
ment with one of p possible outcomes. An example of such an experiment is throwing a dice, where the
outcome can be 1 through 6. Each sample drawn from the distribution represents n such experiments. Its
values, X_i = [X_0, X_1, ..., X_p], represent the number of times the outcome was i.
Parameters n : int
Number of experiments.
pvals : sequence of floats, length p
Probabilities of each of the p different outcomes. These should sum to 1 (however,
the last element is always assumed to account for the remaining probability, as long as
sum(pvals[:-1]) <= 1).
the distribution.
Examples
Throw a dice 20 times:

array([[4, 1, 7, 5, 2, 1]])
It landed 4 times on 1, once on 2, etc.

Now, throw the dice 20 times, and 20 times again:
array([[3, 4, 3, 3, 4, 3],
[2, 4, 3, 4, 0, 7]])

For the first run, we threw 3 times 1, 4 times 2, etc. For the second, we threw 2 times 1, 4 times 2, etc.
A loaded die is more likely to land on number 6:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1/7.]*5 + [2/7.])
array([11, 16, 14, 17, 16, 26])
The probability inputs should be normalized. As an implementation detail, the value of the last entry is
ignored and assumed to take up any leftover probability mass, but this should not be relied on. A biased
coin which has twice as much weight on one side as on the other should be sampled like so:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1.0 / 3, 2.0 / 3]) # RIGHT
array([38, 62])
not like:
>>> np.random.multinomial(100, [1.0, 2.0]) # WRONG
array([100, 0])
RandomState.multivariate_normal(mean, cov[, size, check_valid, tol ])

Draw random samples from a multivariate normal distribution.
The multivariate normal, multinormal or Gaussian distribution is a generalization of the one-dimensional
normal distribution to higher dimensions. Such a distribution is specified by its mean and covariance
matrix. These parameters are analogous to the mean (average or “center”) and variance (standard deviation,
or “width,” squared) of the one-dimensional normal distribution.
Parameters mean : 1-D array_like, of length N
Mean of the N-dimensional distribution.
cov : 2-D array_like, of shape (N, N)
Covariance matrix of the distribution. It must be symmetric and positive-semidefinite
for proper sampling.
Given a shape of, for example, (m,n,k), m*n*k samples are generated, and packed in
an m-by-n-by-k arrangement. Because each sample is N-dimensional, the output shape
is (m,n,k,N). If no shape is specified, a single (N-D) sample is returned.
check_valid : { ‘warn’, ‘raise’, ‘ignore’ }, optional
Behavior when the covariance matrix is not positive semidefinite.
tol : float, optional
Tolerance when checking the singular values in covariance matrix.
the distribution.
Notes
The mean is a coordinate in N-dimensional space, which represents the location where samples are most
likely to be generated. This is analogous to the peak of the bell curve for the one-dimensional or univariate
normal distribution.

Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. From the multivariate normal distri-
bution, we draw N-dimensional samples, 𝑋 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ...𝑥𝑁 ]. The covariance matrix element 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is the
covariance of 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑗 . The element 𝐶𝑖𝑖 is the variance of 𝑥𝑖 (i.e. its “spread”).
Instead of specifying the full covariance matrix, popular approximations include:
• Spherical covariance (cov is a multiple of the identity matrix)
• Diagonal covariance (cov has non-negative elements, and only on the diagonal)
This geometrical property can be seen in two dimensions by plotting generated data-points:
>>> mean = [0, 0]

>>> cov = [[1, 0], [0, 100]] # diagonal covariance
Diagonal covariance means that points are oriented along x or y-axis:

>>> x, y = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov, 5000).T
>>> plt.plot(x, y, 'x')
>>> plt.axis('equal')
>>> plt.show()
Note that the covariance matrix must be positive semidefinite (a.k.a. nonnegative-definite). Otherwise, the
behavior of this method is undefined and backwards compatibility is not guaranteed.
References
[R341342], [R342342]
Examples
>>> mean = (1, 2)

>>> cov = [[1, 0], [0, 1]]
>>> x = np.random.multivariate_normal(mean, cov, (3, 3))
>>> x.shape
(3, 3, 2)
The following is probably true, given that 0.6 is roughly twice the standard deviation:
>>> list((x[0,0,:] - mean) < 0.6)

[True, True]
RandomState.negative_binomial(n, p, size=None)
Draw samples from a negative binomial distribution.
Samples are drawn from a negative binomial distribution with specified parameters, n trials and p proba-
bility of success where n is an integer > 0 and p is in the interval [0, 1].
Parameter of the distribution, > 0. Floats are also accepted, but they will be truncated to
integers.


Drawn samples from the parameterized negative binomial distribution, where each sam-
ple is equal to N, the number of trials it took to achieve n - 1 successes, N - (n - 1)
failures, and a success on the, (N + n)th trial.
Notes
The probability density for the negative binomial distribution is

(︂ )︂
𝑁 +𝑛−1 𝑛
𝑃 (𝑁 ; 𝑛, 𝑝) = 𝑝 (1 − 𝑝)𝑁 ,
𝑛−1
where 𝑛 − 1 is the number of successes, 𝑝 is the probability of success, and 𝑁 + 𝑛 − 1 is the number of
trials. The negative binomial distribution gives the probability of n-1 successes and N failures in N+n-1
trials, and success on the (N+n)th trial.
If one throws a die repeatedly until the third time a “1” appears, then the probability distribution of the
number of non-“1”s that appear before the third “1” is a negative binomial distribution.
References
[R345346], [R346346]
Examples

A real world example. A company drills wild-cat oil exploration wells, each with an estimated probability
of success of 0.1. What is the probability of having one success for each successive well, that is what is
the probability of a single success after drilling 5 wells, after 6 wells, etc.?
>>> s = np.random.negative_binomial(1, 0.1, 100000)

>>> for i in range(1, 11):
... probability = sum(s<i) / 100000.
... print i, "wells drilled, probability of one success =", probability
RandomState.noncentral_chisquare(df, nonc, size=None)

Draw samples from a noncentral chi-square distribution.
The noncentral 𝜒2 distribution is a generalisation of the 𝜒2 distribution.
Non-centrality, should be non-negative.


drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if df and nonc are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(df, nonc).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized noncentral chi-square distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the noncentral Chi-square distribution is

∞
∑︁ 𝑒−𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐/2 (𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐/2)𝑖
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑑𝑓, 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑐) = ¶𝑌𝑑𝑓 +2𝑖 (𝑥),
𝑖=0
𝑖!
where 𝑌𝑞 is the Chi-square with q degrees of freedom.

In Delhi (2007), it is noted that the noncentral chi-square is useful in bombing and coverage problems, the
probability of killing the point target given by the noncentral chi-squared distribution.
References
[R349350], [R350350]
Examples

>>> plt.show()
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Draw values from a noncentral chisquare with very small noncentrality, and compare to a chisquare.
>>> plt.figure()
>>> values = plt.hist(np.random.noncentral_chisquare(3, .0000001, 100000),
>>> values2 = plt.hist(np.random.chisquare(3, 100000),
>>> plt.plot(values[1][0:-1], values[0]-values2[0], 'ob')
>>> plt.show()
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Demonstrate how large values of non-centrality lead to a more symmetric distribution.
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.show()
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0 20 40 60 80

RandomState.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, size=None)

Draw samples from the noncentral F distribution.
Samples are drawn from an F distribution with specified parameters, dfnum (degrees of freedom in numer-
ator) and dfden (degrees of freedom in denominator), where both parameters > 1. nonc is the non-centrality
parameter.
Numerator degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
dfden : float or array_like of floats
Denominator degrees of freedom, should be > 0.
Non-centrality parameter, the sum of the squares of the numerator means, should be >=
0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if dfnum, dfden,
and nonc are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(dfnum, dfden, nonc).
size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized noncentral Fisher distribution.
Notes
When calculating the power of an experiment (power = probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when
a specific alternative is true) the non-central F statistic becomes important. When the null hypothesis is
true, the F statistic follows a central F distribution. When the null hypothesis is not true, then it follows a
non-central F statistic.
References
[R353354], [R354354]
Examples
In a study, testing for a specific alternative to the null hypothesis requires use of the Noncentral F distribu-
tion. We need to calculate the area in the tail of the distribution that exceeds the value of the F distribution
for the null hypothesis. We’ll plot the two probability distributions for comparison.
>>> dfnum = 3 # between group deg of freedom
>>> dfden = 20 # within groups degrees of freedom
>>> nonc = 3.0
>>> nc_vals = np.random.noncentral_f(dfnum, dfden, nonc, 1000000)
>>> NF = np.histogram(nc_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
>>> c_vals = np.random.f(dfnum, dfden, 1000000)
>>> F = np.histogram(c_vals, bins=50, normed=True)
>>> plt.plot(F[1][1:], F[0])

>>> plt.plot(NF[1][1:], NF[0])

>>> plt.show()
RandomState.normal(loc=0.0, scale=1.0, size=None)

Draw random samples from a normal (Gaussian) distribution.
The probability density function of the normal distribution, first derived by De Moivre and 200 years
later by both Gauss and Laplace independently [R358358], is often called the bell curve because of its
characteristic shape (see the example below).
The normal distributions occurs often in nature. For example, it describes the commonly occurring dis-
tribution of samples influenced by a large number of tiny, random disturbances, each with its own unique
distribution [R358358].
Parameters loc : float or array_like of floats
Mean (“centre”) of the distribution.
Standard deviation (spread or “width”) of the distribution.
Drawn samples from the parameterized normal distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.norm probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Gaussian distribution is

1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
𝑝(𝑥) = √ 𝑒− 2𝜎 2 ,
2𝜋𝜎 2
where 𝜇 is the mean and 𝜎 the standard deviation. The square of the standard deviation, 𝜎 2 , is called the
variance.
The function has its peak at the mean, and its “spread” increases with the standard deviation (the function
reaches 0.607 times its maximum at 𝑥 + 𝜎 and 𝑥 − 𝜎 [R358358]). This implies that numpy.random.
normal is more likely to return samples lying close to the mean, rather than those far away.
References
[R357358], [R358358]

Examples

>>> mu, sigma = 0, 0.1 # mean and standard deviation
>>> s = np.random.normal(mu, sigma, 1000)
Verify the mean and the variance:

>>> abs(mu - np.mean(s)) < 0.01
True
>>> abs(sigma - np.std(s, ddof=1)) < 0.01

True
>>> plt.plot(bins, 1/(sigma * np.sqrt(2 * np.pi)) *
... np.exp( - (bins - mu)**2 / (2 * sigma**2) ),
>>> plt.show()
0
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
RandomState.pareto(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Pareto II or Lomax distribution with specified shape.
The Lomax or Pareto II distribution is a shifted Pareto distribution. The classical Pareto distribution can be
obtained from the Lomax distribution by adding 1 and multiplying by the scale parameter m (see Notes).
The smallest value of the Lomax distribution is zero while for the classical Pareto distribution it is mu,
where the standard Pareto distribution has location mu = 1. Lomax can also be considered as a simplified
version of the Generalized Pareto distribution (available in SciPy), with the scale set to one and the location
set to zero.
The Pareto distribution must be greater than zero, and is unbounded above. It is also known as the “80-20
rule”. In this distribution, 80 percent of the weights are in the lowest 20 percent of the range, while the
other 20 percent fill the remaining 80 percent of the range.


Drawn samples from the parameterized Pareto distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.lomax probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function, etc.

scipy.stats.genpareto probability density function, distribution or cumulative density function,
etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Pareto distribution is

𝑎𝑚𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑥𝑎+1
where 𝑎 is the shape and 𝑚 the scale.
The Pareto distribution, named after the Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto, is a power law probability
distribution useful in many real world problems. Outside the field of economics it is generally referred
to as the Bradford distribution. Pareto developed the distribution to describe the distribution of wealth
in an economy. It has also found use in insurance, web page access statistics, oil field sizes, and many
other problems, including the download frequency for projects in Sourceforge [R361364]. It is one of the
so-called “fat-tailed” distributions.
References
[R361364], [R362364], [R363364], [R364364]
Examples
>>> a, m = 3., 2. # shape and mode

>>> s = (np.random.pareto(a, 1000) + 1) * m

>>> count, bins, _ = plt.hist(s, 100, normed=True)
>>> fit = a*m**a / bins**(a+1)
>>> plt.plot(bins, max(count)*fit/max(fit), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()

1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
RandomState.permutation(x)
Randomly permute a sequence, or return a permuted range.
If x is a multi-dimensional array, it is only shuffled along its first index.
Parameters x : int or array_like
If x is an integer, randomly permute np.arange(x). If x is an array, make a copy and
shuffle the elements randomly.
Permuted sequence or array range.
Examples
>>> np.random.permutation(10)
array([1, 7, 4, 3, 0, 9, 2, 5, 8, 6])
>>> np.random.permutation([1, 4, 9, 12, 15])

array([15, 1, 9, 4, 12])

>>> np.random.permutation(arr)
array([[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
RandomState.poisson(lam=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Poisson distribution.
The Poisson distribution is the limit of the binomial distribution for large N.
Parameters lam : float or array_like of floats
Expectation of interval, should be >= 0. A sequence of expectation intervals must be
broadcastable over the requested size.


drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if lam is a scalar. Otherwise,
np.array(lam).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Poisson distribution.
Notes
The Poisson distribution

𝜆𝑘 𝑒−𝜆
𝑓 (𝑘; 𝜆) =
𝑘!
For events with an expected separation 𝜆 the Poisson distribution 𝑓 (𝑘; 𝜆) describes the probability of 𝑘
events occurring within the observed interval 𝜆.
Because the output is limited to the range of the C long type, a ValueError is raised when lam is within 10
sigma of the maximum representable value.
References
[R369370], [R370370]
Examples

>>> s = np.random.poisson(5, 10000)
Display histogram of the sample:

>>> plt.show()
Draw each 100 values for lambda 100 and 500:

>>> s = np.random.poisson(lam=(100., 500.), size=(100, 2))
RandomState.power(a, size=None)
Draws samples in [0, 1] from a power distribution with positive exponent a - 1.
Also known as the power function distribution.
Parameter of the distribution. Should be greater than zero.

0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5

Drawn samples from the parameterized power distribution.
Raises ValueError
If a < 1.
Notes
The probability density function is
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑎) = 𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑎 > 0.
The power function distribution is just the inverse of the Pareto distribution. It may also be seen as a special
case of the Beta distribution.
It is used, for example, in modeling the over-reporting of insurance claims.
References
[R373374], [R374374]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> samples = 1000
>>> s = np.random.power(a, samples)


>>> x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)
>>> y = a*x**(a-1.)
>>> normed_y = samples*np.diff(bins)[0]*y
>>> plt.plot(x, normed_y)
>>> plt.show()
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compare the power function distribution to the inverse of the Pareto.
>>> from scipy import stats

>>> rvs = np.random.power(5, 1000000)
>>> rvsp = np.random.pareto(5, 1000000)
>>> xx = np.linspace(0,1,100)
>>> powpdf = stats.powerlaw.pdf(xx,5)
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.hist(rvs, bins=50, normed=True)
>>> plt.title('np.random.power(5)')
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.title('inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)')
>>> plt.figure()
>>> plt.title('inverse of stats.pareto(5)')
RandomState.rand(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Random values in a given shape.
Create an array of the given shape and populate it with random samples from a uniform distribution over
[0, 1).

np.random.power(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
inverse of 1 + np.random.pareto(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

inverse of stats.pareto(5)
5
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

The dimensions of the returned array, should all be positive. If no argument is given a
Returns out : ndarray, shape (d0, d1, ..., dn)
Random values.
See also:
random
Notes
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a shape-tuple as the first argument, refer
to np.random.random_sample .
Examples
>>> np.random.rand(3,2)
array([[ 0.14022471, 0.96360618], #random
[ 0.37601032, 0.25528411], #random
[ 0.49313049, 0.94909878]]) #random
RandomState.randint(low, high=None, size=None, dtype=’l’)

Return random integers from low (inclusive) to high (exclusive).
Return random integers from the “discrete uniform” distribution of the specified dtype in the “half-open”
interval [low, high). If high is None (the default), then results are from [0, low).
which case this parameter is one above the highest such integer).

If provided, one above the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see
above for behavior if high=None).
Desired dtype of the result. All dtypes are determined by their name, i.e., ‘int64’, ‘int’,
etc, so byteorder is not available and a specific precision may have different C types
depending on the platform. The default value is ‘np.int’.
See also:
random.random_integers similar to randint, only for the closed interval [low, high], and 1 is
the lowest value if high is omitted. In particular, this other one is the one to use to generate uniformly
distributed discrete non-integers.
Examples

array([1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0])
array([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])
Generate a 2 x 4 array of ints between 0 and 4, inclusive:
>>> np.random.randint(5, size=(2, 4))

array([[4, 0, 2, 1],
[3, 2, 2, 0]])
RandomState.randn(d0, d1, ..., dn)

Return a sample (or samples) from the “standard normal” distribution.
If positive, int_like or int-convertible arguments are provided, randn generates an array of shape (d0,
d1, ..., dn), filled with random floats sampled from a univariate “normal” (Gaussian) distribution
of mean 0 and variance 1 (if any of the 𝑑𝑖 are floats, they are first converted to integers by truncation). A
single float randomly sampled from the distribution is returned if no argument is provided.
This is a convenience function. If you want an interface that takes a tuple as the first argument, use
numpy.random.standard_normal instead.
The dimensions of the returned array, should be all positive. If no argument is given a
Returns Z : ndarray or float
A (d0, d1, ..., dn)-shaped array of floating-point samples from the standard
normal distribution, or a single such float if no parameters were supplied.

See also:
random.standard_normal Similar, but takes a tuple as its argument.
Notes

sigma * np.random.randn(...) + mu
Examples
>>> np.random.randn()
2.1923875335537315 #random
Two-by-four array of samples from N(3, 6.25):
>>> 2.5 * np.random.randn(2, 4) + 3

array([[-4.49401501, 4.00950034, -1.81814867, 7.29718677], #random
[ 0.39924804, 4.68456316, 4.99394529, 4.84057254]]) #random
RandomState.random_integers(low, high=None, size=None)

Random integers of type np.int between low and high, inclusive.
Return random integers of type np.int from the “discrete uniform” distribution in the closed interval [low,
high]. If high is None (the default), then results are from [1, low]. The np.int type translates to the C long
type used by Python 2 for “short” integers and its precision is platform dependent.
This function has been deprecated. Use randint instead.
which case this parameter is the highest such integer).
If provided, the largest (signed) integer to be drawn from the distribution (see above for
behavior if high=None).
See also:
random.randint Similar to random_integers, only for the half-open interval [low, high), and 0
is the lowest value if high is omitted.

Notes
To sample from N evenly spaced floating-point numbers between a and b, use:
a + (b - a) * (np.random.random_integers(N) - 1) / (N - 1.)
Examples
>>> np.random.random_integers(5)
4
>>> type(np.random.random_integers(5))
<type 'int'>
>>> np.random.random_integers(5, size=(3,2))
array([[5, 4],
[3, 3],
[4, 5]])
Choose five random numbers from the set of five evenly-spaced numbers between 0 and 2.5, inclusive (i.e.,
from the set 0, 5/8, 10/8, 15/8, 20/8):
>>> 2.5 * (np.random.random_integers(5, size=(5,)) - 1) / 4.

array([ 0.625, 1.25 , 0.625, 0.625, 2.5 ])
Roll two six sided dice 1000 times and sum the results:

>>> dsums = d1 + d2
Display results as a histogram:

>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(dsums, 11, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
2 4 6 8 10 12

RandomState.random_sample(size=None)
Results are from the “continuous uniform” distribution over the stated interval. To sample 𝑈 𝑛𝑖𝑓 [𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑏 >
𝑎 multiply the output of random_sample by (b-a) and add a:

is returned).
Examples
0.47108547995356098
<type 'float'>
array([ 0.30220482, 0.86820401, 0.1654503 , 0.11659149, 0.54323428])

array([[-3.99149989, -0.52338984],
[-2.99091858, -0.79479508],
[-1.23204345, -1.75224494]])
RandomState.rayleigh(scale=1.0, size=None)
Draw samples from a Rayleigh distribution.
The 𝜒 and Weibull distributions are generalizations of the Rayleigh.
Parameters scale : float or array_like of floats, optional
Scale, also equals the mode. Should be >= 0. Default is 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Rayleigh distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the Rayleigh distribution is

𝑥 −𝑥2
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒) = 2
𝑒 2·𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒2
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

The Rayleigh distribution would arise, for example, if the East and North components of the wind velocity
had identical zero-mean Gaussian distributions. Then the wind speed would have a Rayleigh distribution.
References
[R377378], [R378378]
Examples
>>> values = hist(np.random.rayleigh(3, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
Wave heights tend to follow a Rayleigh distribution. If the mean wave height is 1 meter, what fraction of
waves are likely to be larger than 3 meters?
>>> meanvalue = 1
>>> modevalue = np.sqrt(2 / np.pi) * meanvalue
>>> s = np.random.rayleigh(modevalue, 1000000)
The percentage of waves larger than 3 meters is:
>>> 100.*sum(s>3)/1000000.
0.087300000000000003
RandomState.seed(seed=None)
Seed the generator.
This method is called when RandomState is initialized. It can be called again to re-seed the generator.
For details, see RandomState.
Parameters seed : int or 1-d array_like, optional
Seed for RandomState. Must be convertible to 32 bit unsigned integers.
See also:
RandomState
RandomState.set_state(state)
Set the internal state of the generator from a tuple.
For use if one has reason to manually (re-)set the internal state of the “Mersenne Twister”[R381381]
pseudo-random number generating algorithm.
Parameters state : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The state tuple has the following items:
1. the string ‘MT19937’, specifying the Mersenne Twister algorithm.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integers keys.
3. an integer pos.
Returns out : None

Returns ‘None’ on success.

See also:
get_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If
the internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
For backwards compatibility, the form (str, array of 624 uints, int) is also accepted although it is missing
some information about the cached Gaussian value: state = ('MT19937', keys, pos).
References
[R381381]
RandomState.shuffle(x)
Modify a sequence in-place by shuffling its contents.
This function only shuffles the array along the first axis of a multi-dimensional array. The order of sub-
arrays is changed but their contents remains the same.
The array or list to be shuffled.
Returns None
Examples
>>> arr = np.arange(10)

>>> arr
[1 7 5 2 9 4 3 6 0 8]
Multi-dimensional arrays are only shuffled along the first axis:

>>> arr
array([[3, 4, 5],
[6, 7, 8],
[0, 1, 2]])
RandomState.standard_cauchy(size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Cauchy distribution with mode = 0.
Also known as the Lorentz distribution.
Returns samples : ndarray or scalar

The drawn samples.
Notes
The probability density function for the full Cauchy distribution is

1
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑥0 , 𝛾) =
𝜋𝛾 1 + ( 𝑥−𝑥
[︀ ]︀
0 2
𝛾 )
and the Standard Cauchy distribution just sets 𝑥0 = 0 and 𝛾 = 1

The Cauchy distribution arises in the solution to the driven harmonic oscillator problem, and also describes
spectral line broadening. It also describes the distribution of values at which a line tilted at a random angle
will cut the x axis.
When studying hypothesis tests that assume normality, seeing how the tests perform on data from a Cauchy
distribution is a good indicator of their sensitivity to a heavy-tailed distribution, since the Cauchy looks
very much like a Gaussian distribution, but with heavier tails.
References
[R383385], [R384385], [R385385]
Examples
Draw samples and plot the distribution:
>>> s = np.random.standard_cauchy(1000000)
>>> s = s[(s>-25) & (s<25)] # truncate distribution so it plots well
>>> plt.hist(s, bins=100)
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.standard_exponential(size=None)
Draw samples from the standard exponential distribution.
standard_exponential is identical to the exponential distribution with a scale parameter of 1.
Drawn samples.
Examples
Output a 3x8000 array:
>>> n = np.random.standard_exponential((3, 8000))

RandomState.standard_gamma(shape, size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Gamma distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Gamma distribution with specified parameters, shape (sometimes designated
“k”) and scale=1.
Parameter, should be > 0.
are drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if shape is a scalar.
Otherwise, np.array(shape).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized standard gamma distribution.
See also:
Notes
𝑒−𝑥/𝜃
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑘−1 ,
𝜃𝑘 Γ(𝑘)
The Gamma distribution is often used to model the times to failure of electronic components, and arises
naturally in processes for which the waiting times between Poisson distributed events are relevant.
References
[R389390], [R390390]
Examples
>>> shape, scale = 2., 1. # mean and width

>>> s = np.random.standard_gamma(shape, 1000000)

>>> y = bins**(shape-1) * ((np.exp(-bins/scale))/ \
... (sps.gamma(shape) * scale**shape))
>>> plt.show()

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5
RandomState.standard_normal(size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Normal distribution (mean=0, stdev=1).
Drawn samples.
Examples
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(8000)
>>> s
array([ 0.6888893 , 0.78096262, -0.89086505, ..., 0.49876311, #random
-0.38672696, -0.4685006 ]) #random
>>> s.shape
(8000,)
>>> s = np.random.standard_normal(size=(3, 4, 2))
>>> s.shape
(3, 4, 2)
RandomState.standard_t(df, size=None)
Draw samples from a standard Student’s t distribution with df degrees of freedom.
A special case of the hyperbolic distribution. As df gets large, the result resembles that of the standard
normal distribution (standard_normal).


Drawn samples from the parameterized standard Student’s t distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the t distribution is
Γ( 𝑑𝑓2+1 ) (︁ 𝑥2 )︁−(𝑑𝑓 +1)/2

𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑑𝑓 ) = √ 𝑑𝑓
1+
𝜋𝑑𝑓 Γ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑓
The t test is based on an assumption that the data come from a Normal distribution. The t test provides a
way to test whether the sample mean (that is the mean calculated from the data) is a good estimate of the
true mean.
The derivation of the t-distribution was first published in 1908 by William Gosset while working for the
Guinness Brewery in Dublin. Due to proprietary issues, he had to publish under a pseudonym, and so he
used the name Student.
References
[R393394], [R394394]
Examples
From Dalgaard page 83 [R393394], suppose the daily energy intake for 11 women in Kj is:
>>> intake = np.array([5260., 5470, 5640, 6180, 6390, 6515, 6805, 7515, \
... 7515, 8230, 8770])
Does their energy intake deviate systematically from the recommended value of 7725 kJ?
We have 10 degrees of freedom, so is the sample mean within 95% of the recommended value?
>>> s = np.random.standard_t(10, size=100000)

>>> np.mean(intake)
6753.636363636364
>>> intake.std(ddof=1)
1142.1232221373727
Calculate the t statistic, setting the ddof parameter to the unbiased value so the divisor in the standard
deviation will be degrees of freedom, N-1.
>>> t = (np.mean(intake)-7725)/(intake.std(ddof=1)/np.sqrt(len(intake)))
>>> h = plt.hist(s, bins=100, normed=True)
For a one-sided t-test, how far out in the distribution does the t statistic appear?
>>> np.sum(s<t) / float(len(s))

0.0090699999999999999 #random
So the p-value is about 0.009, which says the null hypothesis has a probability of about 99% of being true.

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6
RandomState.tomaxint(size=None)
Random integers between 0 and sys.maxint, inclusive.
Return a sample of uniformly distributed random integers in the interval [0, sys.maxint].
Drawn samples, with shape size.
See also:
randint Uniform sampling over a given half-open interval of integers.

random_integers Uniform sampling over a given closed interval of integers.
Examples
>>> RS = np.random.mtrand.RandomState() # need a RandomState object

>>> RS.tomaxint((2,2,2))
array([[[1170048599, 1600360186],
[ 739731006, 1947757578]],
[[1871712945, 752307660],
[1601631370, 1479324245]]])
>>> import sys
>>> sys.maxint
2147483647
>>> RS.tomaxint((2,2,2)) < sys.maxint
array([[[ True, True],
[ True, True]],
[[ True, True],
[ True, True]]])

RandomState.triangular(left, mode, right, size=None)

Draw samples from the triangular distribution over the interval [left, right].
The triangular distribution is a continuous probability distribution with lower limit left, peak at mode, and
upper limit right. Unlike the other distributions, these parameters directly define the shape of the pdf.
Parameters left : float or array_like of floats
Lower limit.
mode : float or array_like of floats
The value where the peak of the distribution occurs. The value should fulfill the condi-
tion left <= mode <= right.
right : float or array_like of floats
Upper limit, should be larger than left.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if left, mode, and right
are all scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(left, mode, right).size sam-
ples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized triangular distribution.
Notes
The probability density function for the triangular distribution is

⎧ 2(𝑥−𝑙)
⎨ (𝑟−𝑙)(𝑚−𝑙) for 𝑙 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑚,
⎪
2(𝑟−𝑥)
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑟) = (𝑟−𝑙)(𝑟−𝑚) for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑟,
⎪
0 otherwise.
⎩
The triangular distribution is often used in ill-defined problems where the underlying distribution is not
known, but some knowledge of the limits and mode exists. Often it is used in simulations.
References
[R397397]
Examples

>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.triangular(-3, 0, 8, 100000), bins=200,
... normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
RandomState.uniform(low=0.0, high=1.0, size=None)

Draw samples from a uniform distribution.

0.175
0.150
0.125
0.100
0.075
0.050
0.025
0.000
2 0 2 4 6 8
Samples are uniformly distributed over the half-open interval [low, high) (includes low, but excludes
high). In other words, any value within the given interval is equally likely to be drawn by uniform.
Parameters low : float or array_like of floats, optional
Lower boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be greater than or
equal to low. The default value is 0.
high : float or array_like of floats
Upper boundary of the output interval. All values generated will be less than high. The
default value is 1.0.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if low and high are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(low, high).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized uniform distribution.
See also:
randint Discrete uniform distribution, yielding integers.

random_integers Discrete uniform distribution over the closed interval [low, high].
random_sample Floats uniformly distributed over [0, 1).
random Alias for random_sample.
rand Convenience function that accepts dimensions as input, e.g., rand(2,2) would generate a 2-by-2
array of floats, uniformly distributed over [0, 1).

Notes
The probability density function of the uniform distribution is

1
𝑝(𝑥) =
𝑏−𝑎
anywhere within the interval [a, b), and zero elsewhere.
When high == low, values of low will be returned. If high < low, the results are officially undefined
and may eventually raise an error, i.e. do not rely on this function to behave when passed arguments
satisfying that inequality condition.
Examples
>>> s = np.random.uniform(-1,0,1000)
All values are within the given interval:
>>> np.all(s >= -1)

True
>>> np.all(s < 0)
True

>>> plt.plot(bins, np.ones_like(bins), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
RandomState.vonmises(mu, kappa, size=None)

Draw samples from a von Mises distribution.

Samples are drawn from a von Mises distribution with specified mode (mu) and dispersion (kappa), on the
interval [-pi, pi].
The von Mises distribution (also known as the circular normal distribution) is a continuous probability
distribution on the unit circle. It may be thought of as the circular analogue of the normal distribution.
Parameters mu : float or array_like of floats
Mode (“center”) of the distribution.
kappa : float or array_like of floats
Dispersion of the distribution, has to be >=0.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mu and kappa are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mu, kappa).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized von Mises distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.vonmises probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function,

etc.
Notes
The probability density for the von Mises distribution is
𝑒𝜅𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥−𝜇)
𝑝(𝑥) = ,
2𝜋𝐼0 (𝜅)
where 𝜇 is the mode and 𝜅 the dispersion, and 𝐼0 (𝜅) is the modified Bessel function of order 0.
The von Mises is named for Richard Edler von Mises, who was born in Austria-Hungary, in what is now
the Ukraine. He fled to the United States in 1939 and became a professor at Harvard. He worked in
probability theory, aerodynamics, fluid mechanics, and philosophy of science.
References
[R399400], [R400400]
Examples
>>> mu, kappa = 0.0, 4.0 # mean and dispersion

>>> s = np.random.vonmises(mu, kappa, 1000)


>>> from scipy.special import i0
>>> plt.hist(s, 50, normed=True)
>>> x = np.linspace(-np.pi, np.pi, num=51)
>>> y = np.exp(kappa*np.cos(x-mu))/(2*np.pi*i0(kappa))
>>> plt.plot(x, y, linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
RandomState.wald(mean, scale, size=None)

Draw samples from a Wald, or inverse Gaussian, distribution.
As the scale approaches infinity, the distribution becomes more like a Gaussian. Some references claim
that the Wald is an inverse Gaussian with mean equal to 1, but this is by no means universal.
The inverse Gaussian distribution was first studied in relationship to Brownian motion. In 1956 M.C.K.
Tweedie used the name inverse Gaussian because there is an inverse relationship between the time to cover
a unit distance and distance covered in unit time.
Parameters mean : float or array_like of floats
Distribution mean, should be > 0.
Scale parameter, should be >= 0.
drawn. If size is None (default), a single value is returned if mean and scale are both
scalars. Otherwise, np.broadcast(mean, scale).size samples are drawn.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Wald distribution.

Notes
The probability density function for the Wald distribution is

√︂
𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 −𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝑥−𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛)2
𝑃 (𝑥; 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛, 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒) = 3

𝑒 2·𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
2𝜋𝑥
As noted above the inverse Gaussian distribution first arise from attempts to model Brownian motion. It
is also a competitor to the Weibull for use in reliability modeling and modeling stock returns and interest
rate processes.
References
[R403405], [R404405], [R405405]
Examples

>>> h = plt.hist(np.random.wald(3, 2, 100000), bins=200, normed=True)
>>> plt.show()
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
RandomState.weibull(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Weibull distribution.
Draw samples from a 1-parameter Weibull distribution with the given shape parameter a.
𝑋 = (−𝑙𝑛(𝑈 ))1/𝑎
Here, U is drawn from the uniform distribution over (0,1].

The more common 2-parameter Weibull, including a scale parameter 𝜆 is just 𝑋 = 𝜆(−𝑙𝑛(𝑈 ))1/𝑎 .


Drawn samples from the parameterized Weibull distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.weibull_max, scipy.stats.weibull_min, scipy.stats.genextreme,
gumbel
Notes
The Weibull (or Type III asymptotic extreme value distribution for smallest values, SEV Type III, or
Rosin-Rammler distribution) is one of a class of Generalized Extreme Value (GEV) distributions used in
modeling extreme value problems. This class includes the Gumbel and Frechet distributions.
The probability density for the Weibull distribution is
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎−1 −(𝑥/𝜆)𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) = ( ) 𝑒 ,
𝜆 𝜆
where 𝑎 is the shape and 𝜆 the scale.
The function has its peak (the mode) at 𝜆( 𝑎−1
𝑎 )
1/𝑎
.
When a = 1, the Weibull distribution reduces to the exponential distribution.
References
[R409411], [R410411], [R411411]
Examples
>>> a = 5. # shape
>>> s = np.random.weibull(a, 1000)

>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> def weib(x,n,a):
... return (a / n) * (x / n)**(a - 1) * np.exp(-(x / n)**a)
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(np.random.weibull(5.,1000))

>>> x = np.arange(1,100.)/50.
>>> scale = count.max()/weib(x, 1., 5.).max()
>>> plt.plot(x, weib(x, 1., 5.)*scale)
>>> plt.show()

200
150
100
50
0
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
RandomState.zipf(a, size=None)
Draw samples from a Zipf distribution.
Samples are drawn from a Zipf distribution with specified parameter a > 1.
The Zipf distribution (also known as the zeta distribution) is a continuous probability distribution that
satisfies Zipf’s law: the frequency of an item is inversely proportional to its rank in a frequency table.
Distribution parameter. Should be greater than 1.
Drawn samples from the parameterized Zipf distribution.
See also:
scipy.stats.zipf probability density function, distribution, or cumulative density function, etc.
Notes
The probability density for the Zipf distribution is
𝑥−𝑎
𝑝(𝑥) = ,
𝜁(𝑎)
where 𝜁 is the Riemann Zeta function.

It is named for the American linguist George Kingsley Zipf, who noted that the frequency of any word in
a sample of a language is inversely proportional to its rank in the frequency table.

References
[R415415]
Examples
>>> a = 2. # parameter
>>> s = np.random.zipf(a, 1000)

>>> from scipy import special
Truncate s values at 50 so plot is interesting:
>>> count, bins, ignored = plt.hist(s[s<50], 50, normed=True)

>>> x = np.arange(1., 50.)
>>> y = x**(-a) / special.zetac(a)
>>> plt.plot(x, y/max(y), linewidth=2, color='r')
>>> plt.show()
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50
numpy.random.seed(seed=None)
Seed the generator.
This method is called when RandomState is initialized. It can be called again to re-seed the generator. For
details, see RandomState.
Parameters seed : int or 1-d array_like, optional
Seed for RandomState. Must be convertible to 32 bit unsigned integers.
See also:
RandomState

numpy.random.get_state()
Return a tuple representing the internal state of the generator.
For more details, see set_state.
Returns out : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The returned tuple has the following items:
1. the string ‘MT19937’.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integer keys.
3. an integer pos.
See also:
set_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If the
internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
numpy.random.set_state(state)
Set the internal state of the generator from a tuple.
For use if one has reason to manually (re-)set the internal state of the “Mersenne Twister”[R523523] pseudo-
random number generating algorithm.
Parameters state : tuple(str, ndarray of 624 uints, int, int, float)
The state tuple has the following items:
1. the string ‘MT19937’, specifying the Mersenne Twister algorithm.
2. a 1-D array of 624 unsigned integers keys.
3. an integer pos.
Returns out : None
Returns ‘None’ on success.
See also:
get_state
Notes
set_state and get_state are not needed to work with any of the random distributions in NumPy. If the
internal state is manually altered, the user should know exactly what he/she is doing.
For backwards compatibility, the form (str, array of 624 uints, int) is also accepted although it is missing some
information about the cached Gaussian value: state = ('MT19937', keys, pos).

References
[R523523]
3.25 Set routines
3.25.1 Making proper sets
unique(ar[, return_index, return_inverse, . . . ]) Find the unique elements of an array.
3.25.2 Boolean operations
in1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique, invert]) Test whether each element of a 1-D array is also present in
a second array.
intersect1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique]) Find the intersection of two arrays.
isin(element, test_elements[, . . . ]) Calculates element in test_elements, broadcasting over ele-
ment only.
setdiff1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique]) Find the set difference of two arrays.
setxor1d(ar1, ar2[, assume_unique]) Find the set exclusive-or of two arrays.
union1d(ar1, ar2) Find the union of two arrays.
numpy.in1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False, invert=False)

Test whether each element of a 1-D array is also present in a second array.
Returns a boolean array the same length as ar1 that is True where an element of ar1 is in ar2 and False otherwise.
We recommend using isin instead of in1d for new code.
Parameters ar1 : (M,) array_like
Input array.
ar2 : array_like
The values against which to test each value of ar1.
assume_unique : bool, optional
If True, the input arrays are both assumed to be unique, which can speed up the calcu-
lation. Default is False.
invert : bool, optional
If True, the values in the returned array are inverted (that is, False where an ele-
ment of ar1 is in ar2 and True otherwise). Default is False. np.in1d(a, b,
invert=True) is equivalent to (but is faster than) np.invert(in1d(a, b)).
Returns in1d : (M,) ndarray, bool
The values ar1[in1d] are in ar2.
See also:
isin Version of this function that preserves the shape of ar1.

rays.
Notes
in1d can be considered as an element-wise function version of the python keyword in, for 1-D sequences.
in1d(a, b) is roughly equivalent to np.array([item in b for item in a]). However, this
idea fails if ar2 is a set, or similar (non-sequence) container: As ar2 is converted to an array, in those cases
asarray(ar2) is an object array rather than the expected array of contained values.
Examples
>>> test = np.array([0, 1, 2, 5, 0])

>>> states = [0, 2]
>>> mask = np.in1d(test, states)
>>> mask
array([ True, False, True, False, True])
>>> test[mask]
array([0, 2, 0])
>>> mask = np.in1d(test, states, invert=True)
>>> mask
array([False, True, False, True, False])
>>> test[mask]
array([1, 5])
numpy.intersect1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the intersection of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values that are in both of the input arrays.
Parameters ar1, ar2 : array_like
Input arrays.
assume_unique : bool
Returns intersect1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of common and unique elements.
See also:
rays.
Examples
>>> np.intersect1d([1, 3, 4, 3], [3, 1, 2, 1])

array([1, 3])
To intersect more than two arrays, use functools.reduce:
3.25. Set routines 1105

>>> from functools import reduce

>>> reduce(np.intersect1d, ([1, 3, 4, 3], [3, 1, 2, 1], [6, 3, 4, 2]))
array([3])
numpy.isin(element, test_elements, assume_unique=False, invert=False)

Calculates element in test_elements, broadcasting over element only. Returns a boolean array of the same shape
as element that is True where an element of element is in test_elements and False otherwise.
Parameters element : array_like
Input array.
test_elements : array_like
The values against which to test each value of element. This argument is flattened if it
is an array or array_like. See notes for behavior with non-array-like parameters.
assume_unique : bool, optional
invert : bool, optional
If True, the values in the returned array are inverted, as if calculating element not in
test_elements. Default is False. np.isin(a, b, invert=True) is equivalent to
(but faster than) np.invert(np.isin(a, b)).
Returns isin : ndarray, bool
Has the same shape as element. The values element[isin] are in test_elements.
See also:
in1d Flattened version of this function.

rays.
Notes
isin is an element-wise function version of the python keyword in. isin(a, b) is roughly equivalent to
np.array([item in b for item in a]) if a and b are 1-D sequences.
element and test_elements are converted to arrays if they are not already. If test_elements is a set (or other non-
sequence collection) it will be converted to an object array with one element, rather than an array of the values
contained in test_elements. This is a consequence of the array constructor’s way of handling non-sequence
collections. Converting the set to a list usually gives the desired behavior.
Examples
>>> element = 2*np.arange(4).reshape((2, 2))

>>> element
array([[0, 2],
[4, 6]])
>>> test_elements = [1, 2, 4, 8]
>>> mask = np.isin(element, test_elements)

>>> mask
array([[ False, True],
[ True, False]])
>>> element[mask]
array([2, 4])
>>> mask = np.isin(element, test_elements, invert=True)
>>> mask
array([[ True, False],
[ False, True]])
>>> element[mask]
array([0, 6])
Because of how array handles sets, the following does not work as expected:
>>> test_set = {1, 2, 4, 8}

>>> np.isin(element, test_set)
array([[ False, False],
[ False, False]])
Casting the set to a list gives the expected result:
>>> np.isin(element, list(test_set))

array([[ False, True],
[ True, False]])
numpy.setdiff1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the set difference of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values in ar1 that are not in ar2.
Parameters ar1 : array_like
Input array.
ar2 : array_like
Input comparison array.
Returns setdiff1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of values in ar1 that are not in ar2.
See also:
rays.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 2, 4, 1])

>>> b = np.array([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> np.setdiff1d(a, b)
array([1, 2])
3.25. Set routines 1107

numpy.setxor1d(ar1, ar2, assume_unique=False)

Find the set exclusive-or of two arrays.
Return the sorted, unique values that are in only one (not both) of the input arrays.
Input arrays.
Returns setxor1d : ndarray
Sorted 1D array of unique values that are in only one of the input arrays.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([1, 2, 3, 2, 4])

>>> b = np.array([2, 3, 5, 7, 5])
>>> np.setxor1d(a,b)
array([1, 4, 5, 7])
numpy.union1d(ar1, ar2)
Find the union of two arrays.
Return the unique, sorted array of values that are in either of the two input arrays.
Input arrays. They are flattened if they are not already 1D.
Returns union1d : ndarray
Unique, sorted union of the input arrays.
See also:
rays.
Examples
>>> np.union1d([-1, 0, 1], [-2, 0, 2])

array([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
To find the union of more than two arrays, use functools.reduce:
>>> from functools import reduce

>>> reduce(np.union1d, ([1, 3, 4, 3], [3, 1, 2, 1], [6, 3, 4, 2]))
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 6])

3.26 Sorting, searching, and counting
3.26.1 Sorting
sort(a[, axis, kind, order]) Return a sorted copy of an array.

lexsort(keys[, axis]) Perform an indirect sort using a sequence of keys.
argsort(a[, axis, kind, order]) Returns the indices that would sort an array.
ndarray.sort([axis, kind, order]) Sort an array, in-place.
msort(a) Return a copy of an array sorted along the first axis.
sort_complex(a) Sort a complex array using the real part first, then the imag-
inary part.
partition(a, kth[, axis, kind, order]) Return a partitioned copy of an array.
argpartition(a, kth[, axis, kind, order]) Perform an indirect partition along the given axis using the
algorithm specified by the kind keyword.
numpy.sort(a, axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

Return a sorted copy of an array.
Array to be sorted.
See also:

Notes
The various sorting algorithms are characterized by their average speed, worst case performance, work space
size, and whether they are stable. A stable sort keeps items with the same key in the same relative order. The
3.26. Sorting, searching, and counting 1109

three available algorithms have the following properties:
kind speed worst case work space stable

‘quicksort’ 1 O(n^2) 0 no
‘mergesort’ 2 O(n*log(n)) ~n/2 yes
‘heapsort’ 3 O(n*log(n)) 0 no
All the sort algorithms make temporary copies of the data when sorting along any but the last axis. Consequently,
sorting along the last axis is faster and uses less space than sorting along any other axis.
The sort order for complex numbers is lexicographic. If both the real and imaginary parts are non-nan then the
order is determined by the real parts except when they are equal, in which case the order is determined by the
imaginary parts.
Previous to numpy 1.4.0 sorting real and complex arrays containing nan values led to undefined behaviour. In
numpy versions >= 1.4.0 nan values are sorted to the end. The extended sort order is:
• Real: [R, nan]
• Complex: [R + Rj, R + nanj, nan + Rj, nan + nanj]
where R is a non-nan real value. Complex values with the same nan placements are sorted according to the
non-nan part if it exists. Non-nan values are sorted as before.
quicksort has been changed to an introsort which will switch heapsort when it does not make enough progress.
This makes its worst case O(n*log(n)).
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1,4],[3,1]])
>>> np.sort(a) # sort along the last axis
array([[1, 4],
[1, 3]])
>>> np.sort(a, axis=None) # sort the flattened array
array([1, 1, 3, 4])
>>> np.sort(a, axis=0) # sort along the first axis
array([[1, 1],
[3, 4]])
>>> dtype = [('name', 'S10'), ('height', float), ('age', int)]
>>> values = [('Arthur', 1.8, 41), ('Lancelot', 1.9, 38),
... ('Galahad', 1.7, 38)]
>>> a = np.array(values, dtype=dtype) # create a structured array
>>> np.sort(a, order='height')
array([('Galahad', 1.7, 38), ('Arthur', 1.8, 41),
('Lancelot', 1.8999999999999999, 38)],
dtype=[('name', '|S10'), ('height', '<f8'), ('age', '<i4')])
Sort by age, then height if ages are equal:

>>> np.sort(a, order=['age', 'height'])
array([('Galahad', 1.7, 38), ('Lancelot', 1.8999999999999999, 38),
('Arthur', 1.8, 41)],
dtype=[('name', '|S10'), ('height', '<f8'), ('age', '<i4')])

numpy.lexsort(keys, axis=-1)
Perform an indirect sort using a sequence of keys.
Given multiple sorting keys, which can be interpreted as columns in a spreadsheet, lexsort returns an array of
integer indices that describes the sort order by multiple columns. The last key in the sequence is used for the
primary sort order, the second-to-last key for the secondary sort order, and so on. The keys argument must be
a sequence of objects that can be converted to arrays of the same shape. If a 2D array is provided for the keys
argument, it’s rows are interpreted as the sorting keys and sorting is according to the last row, second last row
etc.
Parameters keys : (k, N) array or tuple containing k (N,)-shaped sequences
The k different “columns” to be sorted. The last column (or row if keys is a 2D array) is
the primary sort key.
Axis to be indirectly sorted. By default, sort over the last axis.
Returns indices : (N,) ndarray of ints
Array of indices that sort the keys along the specified axis.
See also:

ndarray.sort In-place sort.
sort Return a sorted copy of an array.
Examples
Sort names: first by surname, then by name.

>>> surnames = ('Hertz', 'Galilei', 'Hertz')
>>> first_names = ('Heinrich', 'Galileo', 'Gustav')
>>> ind = np.lexsort((first_names, surnames))
>>> ind
array([1, 2, 0])
>>> [surnames[i] + ", " + first_names[i] for i in ind]

['Galilei, Galileo', 'Hertz, Gustav', 'Hertz, Heinrich']
Sort two columns of numbers:

>>> a = [1,5,1,4,3,4,4] # First column
>>> b = [9,4,0,4,0,2,1] # Second column
>>> ind = np.lexsort((b,a)) # Sort by a, then by b
>>> print(ind)
[2 0 4 6 5 3 1]
>>> [(a[i],b[i]) for i in ind]

[(1, 0), (1, 9), (3, 0), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 4), (5, 4)]
Note that sorting is first according to the elements of a. Secondary sorting is according to the elements of b.
A normal argsort would have yielded:

>>> [(a[i],b[i]) for i in np.argsort(a)]

[(1, 9), (1, 0), (3, 0), (4, 4), (4, 2), (4, 1), (5, 4)]
Structured arrays are sorted lexically by argsort:
>>> x = np.array([(1,9), (5,4), (1,0), (4,4), (3,0), (4,2), (4,1)],

... dtype=np.dtype([('x', int), ('y', int)]))
>>> np.argsort(x) # or np.argsort(x, order=('x', 'y'))

array([2, 0, 4, 6, 5, 3, 1])
numpy.argsort(a, axis=-1, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

Returns the indices that would sort an array.
Perform an indirect sort along the given axis using the algorithm specified by the kind keyword. It returns an
array of indices of the same shape as a that index data along the given axis in sorted order.
Array to sort.
Axis along which to sort. The default is -1 (the last axis). If None, the flattened array is
used.
Sorting algorithm.
Array of indices that sort a along the specified axis. If a is one-dimensional,
See also:
sort Describes sorting algorithms used.

argpartition Indirect partial sort.
Notes

As of NumPy 1.4.0 argsort works with real/complex arrays containing nan values. The enhanced sort order
is documented in sort.

Examples
One dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([3, 1, 2])

>>> np.argsort(x)
array([1, 2, 0])
Two-dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([[0, 3], [2, 2]])

>>> x
array([[0, 3],
[2, 2]])
>>> np.argsort(x, axis=0) # sorts along first axis (down)

array([[0, 1],
[1, 0]])
>>> np.argsort(x, axis=1) # sorts along last axis (across)

array([[0, 1],
[0, 1]])
Indices of the sorted elements of a N-dimensional array:
>>> ind = np.unravel_index(np.argsort(x, axis=None), x.shape)

>>> ind
(array([0, 1, 1, 0]), array([0, 0, 1, 1]))
>>> x[ind] # same as np.sort(x, axis=None)
array([0, 2, 2, 3])
Sorting with keys:
>>> x = np.array([(1, 0), (0, 1)], dtype=[('x', '<i4'), ('y', '<i4')])

>>> x
array([(1, 0), (0, 1)],
dtype=[('x', '<i4'), ('y', '<i4')])
>>> np.argsort(x, order=('x','y'))

array([1, 0])
>>> np.argsort(x, order=('y','x'))

array([0, 1])
numpy.msort(a)
Return a copy of an array sorted along the first axis.
Array to be sorted.
See also:
sort

Notes
np.msort(a) is equivalent to np.sort(a, axis=0).

numpy.sort_complex(a)
Sort a complex array using the real part first, then the imaginary part.
Input array
Always returns a sorted complex array.
Examples
>>> np.sort_complex([5, 3, 6, 2, 1])

array([ 1.+0.j, 2.+0.j, 3.+0.j, 5.+0.j, 6.+0.j])
>>> np.sort_complex([1 + 2j, 2 - 1j, 3 - 2j, 3 - 3j, 3 + 5j])

array([ 1.+2.j, 2.-1.j, 3.-3.j, 3.-2.j, 3.+5.j])
numpy.partition(a, kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

Return a partitioned copy of an array.
Creates a copy of the array with its elements rearranged in such a way that the value of the element in k-th
position is in the position it would be in a sorted array. All elements smaller than the k-th element are moved
before this element and all equal or greater are moved behind it. The ordering of the elements in the two
partitions is undefined.
Array to be sorted.
kth : int or sequence of ints
Element index to partition by. The k-th value of the element will be in its final sorted
position and all smaller elements will be moved before it and all equal or greater ele-
ments behind it. The order all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with
a sequence of k-th it will partition all elements indexed by k-th of them into their sorted
position at once.
first, second, etc. A single field can be specified as a string. Not all fields need be

Returns partitioned_array : ndarray

See also:
ndarray.partition Method to sort an array in-place.

sort Full sorting
Notes
The various selection algorithms are characterized by their average speed, worst case performance, work space
size, and whether they are stable. A stable sort keeps items with the same key in the same relative order. The
available algorithms have the following properties:
kind speed worst case work space stable

‘introselect’ 1 O(n) 0 no
All the partition algorithms make temporary copies of the data when partitioning along any but the last axis.
Consequently, partitioning along the last axis is faster and uses less space than partitioning along any other axis.
The sort order for complex numbers is lexicographic. If both the real and imaginary parts are non-nan then the
order is determined by the real parts except when they are equal, in which case the order is determined by the
imaginary parts.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])

>>> np.partition(a, 3)
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> np.partition(a, (1, 3))

array([1, 2, 3, 4])
numpy.argpartition(a, kth, axis=-1, kind=’introselect’, order=None)

Perform an indirect partition along the given axis using the algorithm specified by the kind keyword. It returns
an array of indices of the same shape as a that index data along the given axis in partitioned order.
Array to sort.
kth : int or sequence of ints
Element index to partition by. The k-th element will be in its final sorted position and
all smaller elements will be moved before it and all larger elements behind it. The order
all elements in the partitions is undefined. If provided with a sequence of k-th it will
partition all of them into their sorted position at once.

Axis along which to sort. The default is -1 (the last axis). If None, the flattened array is
used.
Selection algorithm. Default is ‘introselect’
Array of indices that partition a along the specified axis. In other words,
a[index_array] yields a partitioned a.
See also:
partition Describes partition algorithms used.

ndarray.partition Inplace partition.
argsort Full indirect sort
Notes
See partition for notes on the different selection algorithms.
Examples
One dimensional array:
>>> x = np.array([3, 4, 2, 1])

>>> x[np.argpartition(x, 3)]
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
>>> x[np.argpartition(x, (1, 3))]
array([1, 2, 3, 4])
>>> x = [3, 4, 2, 1]
>>> np.array(x)[np.argpartition(x, 3)]
array([2, 1, 3, 4])
3.26.2 Searching
argmax(a[, axis, out]) Returns the indices of the maximum values along an axis.
nanargmax(a[, axis]) Return the indices of the maximum values in the specified
axis ignoring NaNs.
argmin(a[, axis, out]) Returns the indices of the minimum values along an axis.
nanargmin(a[, axis]) Return the indices of the minimum values in the specified
axis ignoring NaNs.


argwhere(a) Find the indices of array elements that are non-zero,
grouped by element.
nonzero(a) Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero.
flatnonzero(a) Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of
a.
where(condition, [x, y]) Return elements, either from x or y, depending on condi-
tion.
searchsorted(a, v[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain
order.
extract(condition, arr) Return the elements of an array that satisfy some condition.
numpy.argmax(a, axis=None, out=None)

Returns the indices of the maximum values along an axis.
Input array.
By default, the index is into the flattened array, otherwise along the specified axis.
shape and dtype.
Returns index_array : ndarray of ints
Array of indices into the array. It has the same shape as a.shape with the dimension
along axis removed.
See also:
ndarray.argmax, argmin
amax The maximum value along a given axis.
unravel_index Convert a flat index into an index tuple.
Notes
In case of multiple occurrences of the maximum values, the indices corresponding to the first occurrence are
returned.
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.argmax(a)
5
>>> np.argmax(a, axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1])
>>> np.argmax(a, axis=1)
array([2, 2])

Indexes of the maximal elements of a N-dimensional array:
>>> ind = np.unravel_index(np.argmax(a, axis=None), a.shape)

>>> ind
(1, 2)
>>> a[ind]
5
>>> b[1] = 5
>>> b
array([0, 5, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> np.argmax(b) # Only the first occurrence is returned.
1
numpy.nanargmax(a, axis=None)
Return the indices of the maximum values in the specified axis ignoring NaNs. For all-NaN slices ValueError
is raised. Warning: the results cannot be trusted if a slice contains only NaNs and -Infs.
Input data.
Axis along which to operate. By default flattened input is used.
Returns index_array : ndarray
An array of indices or a single index value.
See also:
argmax, nanargmin
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[np.nan, 4], [2, 3]])

>>> np.argmax(a)
0
>>> np.nanargmax(a)
1
>>> np.nanargmax(a, axis=0)
array([1, 0])
>>> np.nanargmax(a, axis=1)
array([1, 1])
numpy.argmin(a, axis=None, out=None)

Returns the indices of the minimum values along an axis.
Input array.
By default, the index is into the flattened array, otherwise along the specified axis.

shape and dtype.
Returns index_array : ndarray of ints
Array of indices into the array. It has the same shape as a.shape with the dimension
along axis removed.
See also:
ndarray.argmin, argmax
amin The minimum value along a given axis.
unravel_index Convert a flat index into an index tuple.
Notes
In case of multiple occurrences of the minimum values, the indices corresponding to the first occurrence are
returned.
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.argmin(a)
0
>>> np.argmin(a, axis=0)
array([0, 0, 0])
>>> np.argmin(a, axis=1)
array([0, 0])
Indices of the minimum elements of a N-dimensional array:
>>> ind = np.unravel_index(np.argmin(a, axis=None), a.shape)

>>> ind
(0, 0)
>>> a[ind]
0
>>> b[4] = 0
>>> b
array([0, 1, 2, 3, 0, 5])
>>> np.argmin(b) # Only the first occurrence is returned.
0
numpy.nanargmin(a, axis=None)
Return the indices of the minimum values in the specified axis ignoring NaNs. For all-NaN slices ValueError
is raised. Warning: the results cannot be trusted if a slice contains only NaNs and Infs.
Input data.

Axis along which to operate. By default flattened input is used.

An array of indices or a single index value.
See also:
argmin, nanargmax
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[np.nan, 4], [2, 3]])

>>> np.argmin(a)
0
>>> np.nanargmin(a)
2
>>> np.nanargmin(a, axis=0)
array([1, 1])
>>> np.nanargmin(a, axis=1)
array([1, 0])
numpy.argwhere(a)
Find the indices of array elements that are non-zero, grouped by element.
Input data.
Indices of elements that are non-zero. Indices are grouped by element.
See also:
where, nonzero
Notes
np.argwhere(a) is the same as np.transpose(np.nonzero(a)).

The output of argwhere is not suitable for indexing arrays. For this purpose use nonzero(a) instead.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[3, 4, 5]])
>>> np.argwhere(x>1)
array([[0, 2],
[1, 0],
[1, 1],
[1, 2]])
numpy.flatnonzero(a)
Return indices that are non-zero in the flattened version of a.

This is equivalent to a.ravel().nonzero()[0].

Input array.
Output array, containing the indices of the elements of a.ravel() that are non-zero.
See also:
nonzero Return the indices of the non-zero elements of the input array.
ravel Return a 1-D array containing the elements of the input array.
Examples
>>> x = np.arange(-2, 3)
>>> x
array([-2, -1, 0, 1, 2])
>>> np.flatnonzero(x)
array([0, 1, 3, 4])
Use the indices of the non-zero elements as an index array to extract these elements:
>>> x.ravel()[np.flatnonzero(x)]
array([-2, -1, 1, 2])
numpy.searchsorted(a, v, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted array a such that, if the corresponding elements in v were inserted before the
indices, the order of a would be preserved.
Parameters a : 1-D array_like
Input array. If sorter is None, then it must be sorted in ascending order, otherwise sorter
must be an array of indices that sort it.
v : array_like
Values to insert into a.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the last
such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the length of
a).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
Optional array of integer indices that sort array a into ascending order. They are typi-
cally the result of argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as v.
See also:

sort Return a sorted copy of an array.

histogram Produce histogram from 1-D data.
Notes
Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

As of NumPy 1.4.0 searchsorted works with real/complex arrays containing nan values. The enhanced
sort order is documented in sort.
Examples
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], 3)
2
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], 3, side='right')
3
>>> np.searchsorted([1,2,3,4,5], [-10, 10, 2, 3])
array([0, 5, 1, 2])
numpy.extract(condition, arr)
Return the elements of an array that satisfy some condition.
This is equivalent to np.compress(ravel(condition), ravel(arr)). If condition is boolean np.
extract is equivalent to arr[condition].
Note that place does the exact opposite of extract.
Parameters condition : array_like
An array whose nonzero or True entries indicate the elements of arr to extract.
arr : array_like
Input array of the same size as condition.
Returns extract : ndarray
Rank 1 array of values from arr where condition is True.
See also:
take, put, copyto, compress, place
Examples

>>> arr
array([[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]])
>>> condition = np.mod(arr, 3)==0
>>> condition
array([[ True, False, False, True],
[False, False, True, False],
[False, True, False, False]])
>>> np.extract(condition, arr)
array([0, 3, 6, 9])

If condition is boolean:
>>> arr[condition]
array([0, 3, 6, 9])
3.26.3 Counting
count_nonzero(a[, axis]) Counts the number of non-zero values in the array a.
numpy.count_nonzero(a, axis=None)
Counts the number of non-zero values in the array a.
The word “non-zero” is in reference to the Python 2.x built-in method __nonzero__() (renamed
__bool__() in Python 3.x) of Python objects that tests an object’s “truthfulness”. For example, any num-
ber is considered truthful if it is nonzero, whereas any string is considered truthful if it is not the empty
string. Thus, this function (recursively) counts how many elements in a (and in sub-arrays thereof) have their
__nonzero__() or __bool__() method evaluated to True.
The array for which to count non-zeros.
axis : int or tuple, optional
Axis or tuple of axes along which to count non-zeros. Default is None, meaning that
non-zeros will be counted along a flattened version of a.
Returns count : int or array of int
Number of non-zero values in the array along a given axis. Otherwise, the total number
of non-zero values in the array is returned.
See also:
nonzero Return the coordinates of all the non-zero values.
Examples
>>> np.count_nonzero(np.eye(4))
4
>>> np.count_nonzero([[0,1,7,0,0],[3,0,0,2,19]])
5
>>> np.count_nonzero([[0,1,7,0,0],[3,0,0,2,19]], axis=0)
array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.count_nonzero([[0,1,7,0,0],[3,0,0,2,19]], axis=1)
array([2, 3])
3.27 Statistics
3.27.1 Order statistics
3.27. Statistics 1123

amin(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Return the minimum of an array or minimum along an axis.
amax(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an
axis.
nanmin(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Return minimum of an array or minimum along an axis,
ignoring any NaNs.
nanmax(a[, axis, out, keepdims]) Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an
axis, ignoring any NaNs.
ptp(a[, axis, out]) Range of values (maximum - minimum) along an axis.
percentile(a, q[, axis, out, . . . ]) Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified
axis.
nanpercentile(a, q[, axis, out, . . . ]) Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified
axis, while ignoring nan values.
numpy.amin(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the minimum of an array or minimum along an axis.
Input data.
Axis or axes along which to operate. By default, flattened input is used.
If this is a tuple of ints, the minimum is selected over multiple axes, instead of a single
buffer length as the expected output. See doc.ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”)
for more details.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the amin
Returns amin : ndarray or scalar
Minimum of a. If axis is None, the result is a scalar value. If axis is given, the result is
an array of dimension a.ndim - 1.
See also:
amax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
nanmin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
minimum Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
fmin Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
argmin Return the indices of the minimum values.
nanmax, maximum, fmax

Notes
NaN values are propagated, that is if at least one item is NaN, the corresponding min value will be NaN as well.
To ignore NaN values (MATLAB behavior), please use nanmin.
Don’t use amin for element-wise comparison of 2 arrays; when a.shape[0] is 2, minimum(a[0],
a[1]) is faster than amin(a, axis=0).
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.amin(a) # Minimum of the flattened array
0
>>> np.amin(a, axis=0) # Minima along the first axis
array([0, 1])
>>> np.amin(a, axis=1) # Minima along the second axis
array([0, 2])
>>> b = np.arange(5, dtype=float)

>>> b[2] = np.NaN
>>> np.amin(b)
nan
>>> np.nanmin(b)
0.0
numpy.amax(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis.
Input data.
Axis or axes along which to operate. By default, flattened input is used.
If this is a tuple of ints, the maximum is selected over multiple axes, instead of a single
buffer length as the expected output. See doc.ufuncs (Section “Output arguments”)
for more details.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the amax
Returns amax : ndarray or scalar

Maximum of a. If axis is None, the result is a scalar value. If axis is given, the result is
an array of dimension a.ndim - 1.
See also:
amin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
nanmax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
maximum Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
fmax Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
argmax Return the indices of the maximum values.
nanmin, minimum, fmin
Notes
NaN values are propagated, that is if at least one item is NaN, the corresponding max value will be NaN as well.
To ignore NaN values (MATLAB behavior), please use nanmax.
Don’t use amax for element-wise comparison of 2 arrays; when a.shape[0] is 2, maximum(a[0],
a[1]) is faster than amax(a, axis=0).
Examples
>>> a
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])
>>> np.amax(a) # Maximum of the flattened array
3
>>> np.amax(a, axis=0) # Maxima along the first axis
array([2, 3])
>>> np.amax(a, axis=1) # Maxima along the second axis
array([1, 3])
>>> b = np.arange(5, dtype=float)

>>> b[2] = np.NaN
>>> np.amax(b)
nan
>>> np.nanmax(b)
4.0
numpy.nanmin(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return minimum of an array or minimum along an axis, ignoring any NaNs. When all-NaN slices are encoun-
tered a RuntimeWarning is raised and Nan is returned for that slice.
Array containing numbers whose minimum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
Axis along which the minimum is computed. The default is to compute the minimum
of the flattened array.


Alternate output array in which to place the result. The default is None; if provided, it
See doc.ufuncs for details.
If the value is anything but the default, then keepdims will be passed through to the min
method of sub-classes of ndarray. If the sub-classes methods does not implement
keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns nanmin : ndarray
or if axis is None, an ndarray scalar is returned. The same dtype as a is returned.
See also:
nanmax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
amin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
fmin Element-wise minimum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
minimum Element-wise minimum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
isfinite Shows which elements are neither NaN nor infinity.
amax, fmax, maximum
Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Positive infinity is treated as a very large number and negative infinity is
treated as a very small (i.e. negative) number.
If the input has a integer type the function is equivalent to np.min.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])

>>> np.nanmin(a)
1.0
>>> np.nanmin(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 2.])
>>> np.nanmin(a, axis=1)
array([ 1., 3.])
When positive infinity and negative infinity are present:

>>> np.nanmin([1, 2, np.nan, np.inf])

1.0
>>> np.nanmin([1, 2, np.nan, np.NINF])
-inf
numpy.nanmax(a, axis=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Return the maximum of an array or maximum along an axis, ignoring any NaNs. When all-NaN slices are
encountered a RuntimeWarning is raised and NaN is returned for that slice.
Array containing numbers whose maximum is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion
is attempted.
Axis along which the maximum is computed. The default is to compute the maximum
If the value is anything but the default, then keepdims will be passed through to the max
method of sub-classes of ndarray. If the sub-classes methods does not implement
keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns nanmax : ndarray
or if axis is None, an ndarray scalar is returned. The same dtype as a is returned.
See also:
nanmin The minimum value of an array along a given axis, ignoring any NaNs.
amax The maximum value of an array along a given axis, propagating any NaNs.
fmax Element-wise maximum of two arrays, ignoring any NaNs.
maximum Element-wise maximum of two arrays, propagating any NaNs.
isfinite Shows which elements are neither NaN nor infinity.
amin, fmin, minimum

Notes
Number is not equivalent to infinity. Positive infinity is treated as a very large number and negative infinity is
treated as a very small (i.e. negative) number.
If the input has a integer type the function is equivalent to np.max.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, np.nan]])

>>> np.nanmax(a)
3.0
>>> np.nanmax(a, axis=0)
array([ 3., 2.])
>>> np.nanmax(a, axis=1)
array([ 2., 3.])
When positive infinity and negative infinity are present:
>>> np.nanmax([1, 2, np.nan, np.NINF])

2.0
>>> np.nanmax([1, 2, np.nan, np.inf])
inf
numpy.ptp(a, axis=None, out=None)

Range of values (maximum - minimum) along an axis.
The name of the function comes from the acronym for ‘peak to peak’.
Input values.
Axis along which to find the peaks. By default, flatten the array.
out : array_like
buffer length as the expected output, but the type of the output values will be cast if
necessary.
Returns ptp : ndarray
out is returned.
Examples
>>> x
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3]])

>>> np.ptp(x, axis=0)

array([2, 2])
>>> np.ptp(x, axis=1)

array([1, 1])
numpy.percentile(a, q, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False, interpolation=’linear’, keep-

dims=False)
Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified axis.
Returns the qth percentile(s) of the array elements.
q : float in range of [0,100] (or sequence of floats)
Percentile to compute, which must be between 0 and 100 inclusive.
axis : {int, sequence of int, None}, optional
Axis or axes along which the percentiles are computed. The default is to compute the
percentile(s) along a flattened version of the array. A sequence of axes is supported
since version 1.9.0.
buffer length as the expected output, but the type (of the output) will be cast if necessary.
If True, then allow use of memory of input array a calculations. The input array will
be modified by the call to percentile. This will save memory when you do not
need to preserve the contents of the input array. In this case you should not make any
assumptions about the contents of the input a after this function completes – treat it
as undefined. Default is False. If a is not already an array, this parameter will have
no effect as a will be converted to an array internally regardless of the value of this
parameter.
interpolation : {‘linear’, ‘lower’, ‘higher’, ‘midpoint’, ‘nearest’}
This optional parameter specifies the interpolation method to use when the desired quan-
tile lies between two data points i < j:
• linear: i + (j - i) * fraction, where fraction is the fractional part of
the index surrounded by i and j.
• lower: i.
• higher: j.
• nearest: i or j, whichever is nearest.
• midpoint: (i + j) / 2.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original array
a.


Returns percentile : scalar or ndarray
If q is a single percentile and axis=None, then the result is a scalar. If multiple per-
centiles are given, first axis of the result corresponds to the percentiles. The other axes
are the axes that remain after the reduction of a. If the input contains integers or floats
smaller than float64, the output data-type is float64. Otherwise, the output data-
type is the same as that of the input. If out is specified, that array is returned instead.
See also:
mean, median, nanpercentile
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the q-th percentile of V is the value q/100 of the way from the minimum to
the maximum in a sorted copy of V. The values and distances of the two nearest neighbors as well as the
interpolation parameter will determine the percentile if the normalized ranking does not match the location of
q exactly. This function is the same as the median if q=50, the same as the minimum if q=0 and the same as
the maximum if q=100.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10, 7, 4], [3, 2, 1]])

>>> a
array([[10, 7, 4],
[ 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50)
3.5
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0)
array([[ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5]])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=1)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=1, keepdims=True)
array([[ 7.],
[ 2.]])
>>> m = np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0)

>>> out = np.zeros_like(m)
>>> np.percentile(a, 50, axis=0, out=out)
array([[ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5]])
>>> m
array([[ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5]])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.percentile(b, 50, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> assert not np.all(a == b)
numpy.nanpercentile(a, q, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False, interpolation=’linear’,

keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)
Compute the qth percentile of the data along the specified axis, while ignoring nan values.
Returns the qth percentile(s) of the array elements.


q : float in range of [0,100] (or sequence of floats)
Percentile to compute, which must be between 0 and 100 inclusive.
Axis or axes along which the percentiles are computed. The default is to compute the
percentile(s) along a flattened version of the array. A sequence of axes is supported
since version 1.9.0.
If True, then allow use of memory of input array a for calculations. The input array
will be modified by the call to percentile. This will save memory when you do
not need to preserve the contents of the input array. In this case you should not make
any assumptions about the contents of the input a after this function completes – treat
it as undefined. Default is False. If a is not already an array, this parameter will have
no effect as a will be converted to an array internally regardless of the value of this
parameter.
interpolation : {‘linear’, ‘lower’, ‘higher’, ‘midpoint’, ‘nearest’}
This optional parameter specifies the interpolation method to use when the desired quan-
tile lies between two data points i < j:
• linear: i + (j - i) * fraction, where fraction is the fractional part of
the index surrounded by i and j.
• lower: i.
• higher: j.
• nearest: i or j, whichever is nearest.
• midpoint: (i + j) / 2.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original array
a.
If this is anything but the default value it will be passed through (in the special case of
an empty array) to the mean function of the underlying array. If the array is a sub-class
and mean does not have the kwarg keepdims this will raise a RuntimeError.
Returns percentile : scalar or ndarray
If q is a single percentile and axis=None, then the result is a scalar. If multiple per-
centiles are given, first axis of the result corresponds to the percentiles. The other axes
are the axes that remain after the reduction of a. If the input contains integers or floats
smaller than float64, the output data-type is float64. Otherwise, the output data-
type is the same as that of the input. If out is specified, that array is returned instead.

See also:
nanmean, nanmedian, percentile, median, mean
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the q-th percentile of V is the value q/100 of the way from the minimum to
the maximum in a sorted copy of V. The values and distances of the two nearest neighbors as well as the
interpolation parameter will determine the percentile if the normalized ranking does not match the location of
q exactly. This function is the same as the median if q=50, the same as the minimum if q=0 and the same as
the maximum if q=100.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10., 7., 4.], [3., 2., 1.]])

>>> a[0][1] = np.nan
>>> a
array([[ 10., nan, 4.],
[ 3., 2., 1.]])
>>> np.percentile(a, 50)
nan
>>> np.nanpercentile(a, 50)
3.5
>>> np.nanpercentile(a, 50, axis=0)
array([ 6.5, 2., 2.5])
>>> np.nanpercentile(a, 50, axis=1, keepdims=True)
array([[ 7.],
[ 2.]])
>>> m = np.nanpercentile(a, 50, axis=0)
>>> np.nanpercentile(a, 50, axis=0, out=out)
array([ 6.5, 2., 2.5])
>>> m
array([ 6.5, 2. , 2.5])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.nanpercentile(b, 50, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> assert not np.all(a==b)
3.27.2 Averages and variances
median(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input, keepdims]) Compute the median along the specified axis.
average(a[, axis, weights, returned]) Compute the weighted average along the specified axis.
mean(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis.
std(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis.
var(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Compute the variance along the specified axis.
nanmedian(a[, axis, out, overwrite_input, . . . ]) Compute the median along the specified axis, while ignor-
ing NaNs.
nanmean(a[, axis, dtype, out, keepdims]) Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis, ig-
noring NaNs.


nanstd(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis,
while ignoring NaNs.
nanvar(a[, axis, dtype, out, ddof, keepdims]) Compute the variance along the specified axis, while ignor-
ing NaNs.
numpy.median(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False, keepdims=False)

Compute the median along the specified axis.
Axis or axes along which the medians are computed. The default is to compute the
median along a flattened version of the array. A sequence of axes is supported since
version 1.9.0.
If True, then allow use of memory of input array a for calculations. The input array will
be modified by the call to median. This will save memory when you do not need to
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. If overwrite_input is True and a is not
already an ndarray, an error will be raised.
size one. With this option, the result will broadcast correctly against the original arr.
A new array holding the result. If the input contains integers or floats smaller than
float64, then the output data-type is np.float64. Otherwise, the data-type of the
output is the same as that of the input. If out is specified, that array is returned instead.
See also:
mean, percentile
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V, V_sorted - i e.,
V_sorted[(N-1)/2], when N is odd, and the average of the two middle values of V_sorted when N is
even.

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10, 7, 4], [3, 2, 1]])

>>> a
array([[10, 7, 4],
[ 3, 2, 1]])
>>> np.median(a)
3.5
>>> np.median(a, axis=0)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> m = np.median(a, axis=0)
>>> np.median(a, axis=0, out=m)
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> m
array([ 6.5, 4.5, 2.5])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.median(b, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.median(b, axis=None, overwrite_input=True)
3.5
numpy.average(a, axis=None, weights=None, returned=False)

Compute the weighted average along the specified axis.
Array containing data to be averaged. If a is not an array, a conversion is attempted.
Axis or axes along which to average a. The default, axis=None, will average over all of
the elements of the input array. If axis is negative it counts from the last to the first axis.
If axis is a tuple of ints, averaging is performed on all of the axes specified in the tuple
An array of weights associated with the values in a. Each value in a contributes to the
average according to its associated weight. The weights array can either be 1-D (in
which case its length must be the size of a along the given axis) or of the same shape as
a. If weights=None, then all data in a are assumed to have a weight equal to one.
returned : bool, optional
Default is False. If True, the tuple (average, sum_of_weights) is returned, otherwise
only the average is returned. If weights=None, sum_of_weights is equivalent to the
number of elements over which the average is taken.
Returns average, [sum_of_weights] : array_type or double
Return the average along the specified axis. When returned is True, return a tuple with
the average as the first element and the sum of the weights as the second element.

The return type is Float if a is of integer type, otherwise it is of the same type as a.
sum_of_weights is of the same type as average.
Raises ZeroDivisionError
When all weights along axis are zero. See numpy.ma.average for a version robust
to this type of error.
TypeError
When the length of 1D weights is not the same as the shape of a along axis.
See also:
mean
ma.average average for masked arrays – useful if your data contains “missing” values
Examples
>>> data = range(1,5)

>>> data
[1, 2, 3, 4]
>>> np.average(data)
2.5
>>> np.average(range(1,11), weights=range(10,0,-1))
4.0
>>> data = np.arange(6).reshape((3,2))

>>> data
array([[0, 1],
[2, 3],
[4, 5]])
>>> np.average(data, axis=1, weights=[1./4, 3./4])
array([ 0.75, 2.75, 4.75])
>>> np.average(data, weights=[1./4, 3./4])
...
TypeError: Axis must be specified when shapes of a and weights differ.
numpy.mean(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis.
Returns the average of the array elements. The average is taken over the flattened array by default, otherwise
over the specified axis. float64 intermediate and return values are used for integer inputs.
Array containing numbers whose mean is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.
Axis or axes along which the means are computed. The default is to compute the mean
If this is a tuple of ints, a mean is performed over multiple axes, instead of a single axis


Type to use in computing the mean. For integer inputs, the default is float64; for
floating point inputs, it is the same as the input dtype.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the mean
Returns m : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
If out=None, returns a new array containing the mean values, otherwise a reference to
See also:
average Weighted average
std, var, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar
Notes
The arithmetic mean is the sum of the elements along the axis divided by the number of elements.
Note that for floating-point input, the mean is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending
on the input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below).
Specifying a higher-precision accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
By default, float16 results are computed using float32 intermediates for extra precision.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.mean(a)
2.5
>>> np.mean(a, axis=0)
array([ 2., 3.])
>>> np.mean(a, axis=1)
array([ 1.5, 3.5])
In single precision, mean can be inaccurate:

>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.mean(a)
0.54999924

Computing the mean in float64 is more accurate:
>>> np.mean(a, dtype=np.float64)

0.55000000074505806
numpy.std(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis.
Returns the standard deviation, a measure of the spread of a distribution, of the array elements. The standard
deviation is computed for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
Calculate the standard deviation of these values.
Axis or axes along which the standard deviation is computed. The default is to compute
the standard deviation of the flattened array.
If this is a tuple of ints, a standard deviation is performed over multiple axes, instead of
a single axis or all the axes as before.
Type to use in computing the standard deviation. For arrays of integer type the default
is float64, for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
expected output but the type (of the calculated values) will be cast if necessary.
Means Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof,
where N represents the number of elements. By default ddof is zero.
If the default value is passed, then keepdims will not be passed through to the std
Returns standard_deviation : ndarray, see dtype parameter above.
If out is None, return a new array containing the standard deviation, otherwise return a
reference to the output array.
See also:
var, mean, nanmean, nanstd, nanvar

Notes
The standard deviation is the square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean, i.e., std =
sqrt(mean(abs(x - x.mean())**2)).
The average squared deviation is normally calculated as x.sum() / N, where N = len(x). If, however,
ddof is specified, the divisor N - ddof is used instead. In standard statistical practice, ddof=1 provides an
unbiased estimator of the variance of the infinite population. ddof=0 provides a maximum likelihood estimate
of the variance for normally distributed variables. The standard deviation computed in this function is the
square root of the estimated variance, so even with ddof=1, it will not be an unbiased estimate of the standard
deviation per se.
Note that, for complex numbers, std takes the absolute value before squaring, so that the result is always real
and nonnegative.
For floating-point input, the std is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on the input
data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a higher-
accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.std(a)
1.1180339887498949
>>> np.std(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 1.])
>>> np.std(a, axis=1)
array([ 0.5, 0.5])
In single precision, std() can be inaccurate:

>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.std(a)
0.45000005
Computing the standard deviation in float64 is more accurate:
>>> np.std(a, dtype=np.float64)

0.44999999925494177
numpy.var(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

is attempted.


See also:
Notes
mean())**2).
nonnegative.
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying
a higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.

Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

>>> np.var(a)
1.25
array([ 1., 1.])
array([ 0.25, 0.25])

>>> a[0, :] = 1.0
>>> a[1, :] = 0.1
>>> np.var(a)
0.20250003

0.20249999932944759
>>> ((1-0.55)**2 + (0.1-0.55)**2)/2
0.2025
numpy.nanmedian(a, axis=None, out=None, overwrite_input=False, keepdims=<class

Compute the median along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
Axis or axes along which the medians are computed. The default is to compute the
median along a flattened version of the array. A sequence of axes is supported since
version 1.9.0.
If True, then allow use of memory of input array a for calculations. The input array will
be modified by the call to median. This will save memory when you do not need to
be fully or partially sorted. Default is False. If overwrite_input is True and a is not
already an ndarray, an error will be raised.

If this is anything but the default value it will be passed through (in the special case of
an empty array) to the mean function of the underlying array. If the array is a sub-class
and mean does not have the kwarg keepdims this will raise a RuntimeError.
A new array holding the result. If the input contains integers or floats smaller than
float64, then the output data-type is np.float64. Otherwise, the data-type of the
output is the same as that of the input. If out is specified, that array is returned instead.
See also:
mean, median, percentile
Notes
Given a vector V of length N, the median of V is the middle value of a sorted copy of V, V_sorted - i.e.,
V_sorted[(N-1)/2], when N is odd and the average of the two middle values of V_sorted when N is
even.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[10.0, 7, 4], [3, 2, 1]])

>>> a[0, 1] = np.nan
>>> a
array([[ 10., nan, 4.],
[ 3., 2., 1.]])
>>> np.median(a)
nan
>>> np.nanmedian(a)
3.0
>>> np.nanmedian(a, axis=0)
array([ 6.5, 2., 2.5])
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.nanmedian(b, axis=1, overwrite_input=True)
array([ 7., 2.])
>>> b = a.copy()
>>> np.nanmedian(b, axis=None, overwrite_input=True)
3.0
numpy.nanmean(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, keepdims=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>)

Compute the arithmetic mean along the specified axis, ignoring NaNs.
Returns the average of the array elements. The average is taken over the flattened array by default, otherwise
over the specified axis. float64 intermediate and return values are used for integer inputs.
For all-NaN slices, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised.
Array containing numbers whose mean is desired. If a is not an array, a conversion is
attempted.


Axis along which the means are computed. The default is to compute the mean of the
flattened array.
Type to use in computing the mean. For integer inputs, the default is float64; for
inexact inputs, it is the same as the input dtype.
If the value is anything but the default, then keepdims will be passed through to the
mean or sum methods of sub-classes of ndarray. If the sub-classes methods does
not implement keepdims any exceptions will be raised.
Returns m : ndarray, see dtype parameter above
If out=None, returns a new array containing the mean values, otherwise a reference to
the output array is returned. Nan is returned for slices that contain only NaNs.
See also:
average Weighted average

mean Arithmetic mean taken while not ignoring NaNs
var, nanvar
Notes
The arithmetic mean is the sum of the non-NaN elements along the axis divided by the number of non-NaN
elements.
Note that for floating-point input, the mean is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on
the input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32. Specifying a higher-precision
accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])

>>> np.nanmean(a)
2.6666666666666665
>>> np.nanmean(a, axis=0)
array([ 2., 4.])
>>> np.nanmean(a, axis=1)
array([ 1., 3.5])

numpy.nanstd(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

Compute the standard deviation along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
Returns the standard deviation, a measure of the spread of a distribution, of the non-NaN array elements. The
standard deviation is computed for the flattened array by default, otherwise over the specified axis.
For all-NaN slices or slices with zero degrees of freedom, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised.
Calculate the standard deviation of the non-NaN values.
Axis along which the standard deviation is computed. The default is to compute the
standard deviation of the flattened array.
Type to use in computing the standard deviation. For arrays of integer type the default
is float64, for arrays of float types it is the same as the array type.
expected output but the type (of the calculated values) will be cast if necessary.
Means Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof,
where N represents the number of non-NaN elements. By default ddof is zero.
If this value is anything but the default it is passed through as-is to the relevant functions
of the sub-classes. If these functions do not have a keepdims kwarg, a RuntimeError will
be raised.
Returns standard_deviation : ndarray, see dtype parameter above.
If out is None, return a new array containing the standard deviation, otherwise return a
reference to the output array. If ddof is >= the number of non-NaN elements in a slice
or the slice contains only NaNs, then the result for that slice is NaN.
See also:
var, mean, std, nanvar, nanmean
Notes
The standard deviation is the square root of the average of the squared deviations from the mean: std =
sqrt(mean(abs(x - x.mean())**2)).
The average squared deviation is normally calculated as x.sum() / N, where N = len(x). If, however,
ddof is specified, the divisor N - ddof is used instead. In standard statistical practice, ddof=1 provides an
unbiased estimator of the variance of the infinite population. ddof=0 provides a maximum likelihood estimate

of the variance for normally distributed variables. The standard deviation computed in this function is the
square root of the estimated variance, so even with ddof=1, it will not be an unbiased estimate of the standard
deviation per se.
Note that, for complex numbers, std takes the absolute value before squaring, so that the result is always real
and nonnegative.
For floating-point input, the std is computed using the same precision the input has. Depending on the input
data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying a higher-
accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])

>>> np.nanstd(a)
1.247219128924647
>>> np.nanstd(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 0.])
>>> np.nanstd(a, axis=1)
array([ 0., 0.5])
numpy.nanvar(a, axis=None, dtype=None, out=None, ddof=0, keepdims=<class

Compute the variance along the specified axis, while ignoring NaNs.
For all-NaN slices or slices with zero degrees of freedom, NaN is returned and a RuntimeWarning is raised.
is attempted.
Axis along which the variance is computed. The default is to compute the variance of
the flattened array.
N represents the number of non-NaN elements. By default ddof is zero.


If out is None, return a new array containing the variance, otherwise return a reference
to the output array. If ddof is >= the number of non-NaN elements in a slice or the slice
contains only NaNs, then the result for that slice is NaN.
See also:
std Standard deviation

mean Average
var Variance while not ignoring NaNs
nanstd, nanmean
Notes
mean())**2).
nonnegative.
input data, this can cause the results to be inaccurate, especially for float32 (see example below). Specifying
a higher-accuracy accumulator using the dtype keyword can alleviate this issue.
For this function to work on sub-classes of ndarray, they must define sum with the kwarg keepdims
Examples
>>> a = np.array([[1, np.nan], [3, 4]])

>>> np.var(a)
1.5555555555555554
>>> np.nanvar(a, axis=0)
array([ 1., 0.])
>>> np.nanvar(a, axis=1)
array([ 0., 0.25])
3.27.3 Correlating
corrcoef(x[, y, rowvar, bias, ddof]) Return Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients.

correlate(a, v[, mode]) Cross-correlation of two 1-dimensional sequences.
cov(m[, y, rowvar, bias, ddof, fweights, . . . ]) Estimate a covariance matrix, given data and weights.

numpy.corrcoef(x, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=<class ’numpy._globals._NoValue’>, ddof=<class

Return Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients.
Please refer to the documentation for cov for more detail. The relationship between the correlation coefficient
matrix, R, and the covariance matrix, C, is
𝐶𝑖𝑗
𝑅𝑖𝑗 = √︀
𝐶𝑖𝑖 * 𝐶𝑗𝑗
The values of R are between -1 and 1, inclusive.

see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same shape as x.
bias : _NoValue, optional
ddof : _NoValue, optional
Returns R : ndarray
The correlation coefficient matrix of the variables.
See also:
cov Covariance matrix
Notes
Due to floating point rounding the resulting array may not be Hermitian, the diagonal elements may not be 1,
and the elements may not satisfy the inequality abs(a) <= 1. The real and imaginary parts are clipped to the
interval [-1, 1] in an attempt to improve on that situation but is not much help in the complex case.
This function accepts but discards arguments bias and ddof. This is for backwards compatibility with previous
versions of this function. These arguments had no effect on the return values of the function and can be safely
ignored in this and previous versions of numpy.
numpy.correlate(a, v, mode=’valid’)
Cross-correlation of two 1-dimensional sequences.
This function computes the correlation as generally defined in signal processing texts:

c_{av}[k] = sum_n a[n+k] * conj(v[n])
with a and v sequences being zero-padded where necessary and conj being the conjugate.
Parameters a, v : array_like
Input sequences.
mode : {‘valid’, ‘same’, ‘full’}, optional
Refer to the convolve docstring. Note that the default is ‘valid’, unlike convolve,
which uses ‘full’.
old_behavior : bool
old_behavior was removed in NumPy 1.10. If you need the old behavior, use multiar-
ray.correlate.
Discrete cross-correlation of a and v.
See also:
convolve Discrete, linear convolution of two one-dimensional sequences.

multiarray.correlate Old, no conjugate, version of correlate.
Notes
The definition of correlation above is not unique and sometimes correlation may be defined differently. Another
common definition is:
c'_{av}[k] = sum_n a[n] conj(v[n+k])
which is related to c_{av}[k] by c'_{av}[k] = c_{av}[-k].
Examples
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 0.5])

array([ 3.5])
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 0.5], "same")
array([ 2. , 3.5, 3. ])
>>> np.correlate([1, 2, 3], [0, 1, 0.5], "full")
array([ 0.5, 2. , 3.5, 3. , 0. ])
Using complex sequences:
>>> np.correlate([1+1j, 2, 3-1j], [0, 1, 0.5j], 'full')

array([ 0.5-0.5j, 1.0+0.j , 1.5-1.5j, 3.0-1.j , 0.0+0.j ])
Note that you get the time reversed, complex conjugated result when the two input sequences change places,
i.e., c_{va}[k] = c^{*}_{av}[-k]:
>>> np.correlate([0, 1, 0.5j], [1+1j, 2, 3-1j], 'full')

array([ 0.0+0.j , 3.0+1.j , 1.5+1.5j, 1.0+0.j , 0.5+0.5j])

numpy.cov(m, y=None, rowvar=True, bias=False, ddof=None, fweights=None, aweights=None)

Estimate a covariance matrix, given data and weights.
Covariance indicates the level to which two variables vary together. If we examine N-dimensional samples,
𝑋 = [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ...𝑥𝑁 ]𝑇 , then the covariance matrix element 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is the covariance of 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑗 . The element 𝐶𝑖𝑖
is the variance of 𝑥𝑖 .
See the notes for an outline of the algorithm.
A 1-D or 2-D array containing multiple variables and observations. Each row of m
see rowvar below.
An additional set of variables and observations. y has the same form as that of m.
bias : bool, optional
Default normalization (False) is by (N - 1), where N is the number of observations
given (unbiased estimate). If bias is True, then normalization is by N. These values can
be overridden by using the keyword ddof in numpy versions >= 1.5.
If not None the default value implied by bias is overridden. Note that ddof=1 will
return the unbiased estimate, even if both fweights and aweights are specified, and
ddof=0 will return the simple average. See the notes for the details. The default
value is None.
New in version 1.5.
fweights : array_like, int, optional
1-D array of integer freguency weights; the number of times each observation vector
should be repeated.
aweights : array_like, optional
1-D array of observation vector weights. These relative weights are typically large
for observations considered “important” and smaller for observations considered less
“important”. If ddof=0 the array of weights can be used to assign probabilities to
observation vectors.
The covariance matrix of the variables.
See also:
corrcoef Normalized covariance matrix

Notes
Assume that the observations are in the columns of the observation array m and let f = fweights and a =
aweights for brevity. The steps to compute the weighted covariance are as follows:
>>> w = f * a
>>> v1 = np.sum(w)
>>> v2 = np.sum(w * a)
>>> m -= np.sum(m * w, axis=1, keepdims=True) / v1
>>> cov = np.dot(m * w, m.T) * v1 / (v1**2 - ddof * v2)
Note that when a == 1, the normalization factor v1 / (v1**2 - ddof * v2) goes over to 1 / (np.
sum(f) - ddof) as it should.
Examples
Consider two variables, 𝑥0 and 𝑥1 , which correlate perfectly, but in opposite directions:
>>> x = np.array([[0, 2], [1, 1], [2, 0]]).T

>>> x
array([[0, 1, 2],
[2, 1, 0]])
Note how 𝑥0 increases while 𝑥1 decreases. The covariance matrix shows this clearly:
>>> np.cov(x)
array([[ 1., -1.],
[-1., 1.]])
Note that element 𝐶0,1 , which shows the correlation between 𝑥0 and 𝑥1 , is negative.
Further, note how x and y are combined:
>>> x = [-2.1, -1, 4.3]

>>> y = [3, 1.1, 0.12]
>>> X = np.stack((x, y), axis=0)
>>> print(np.cov(X))
[[ 11.71 -4.286 ]
[ -4.286 2.14413333]]
>>> print(np.cov(x, y))
[[ 11.71 -4.286 ]
[ -4.286 2.14413333]]
>>> print(np.cov(x))
11.71
3.27.4 Histograms
histogram(a[, bins, range, normed, weights, . . . ]) Compute the histogram of a set of data.
histogram2d(x, y[, bins, range, normed, weights]) Compute the bi-dimensional histogram of two data sam-
ples.
histogramdd(sample[, bins, range, normed, . . . ]) Compute the multidimensional histogram of some data.
bincount(x[, weights, minlength]) Count number of occurrences of each value in array of non-
negative ints.


digitize(x, bins[, right]) Return the indices of the bins to which each value in input
array belongs.
numpy.histogram(a, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None, density=None)

Compute the histogram of a set of data.
Input data. The histogram is computed over the flattened array.
bins : int or sequence of scalars or str, optional
If bins is an int, it defines the number of equal-width bins in the given range (10, by
default). If bins is a sequence, it defines the bin edges, including the rightmost edge,
allowing for non-uniform bin widths.
If bins is a string from the list below, histogram will use the method chosen to
calculate the optimal bin width and consequently the number of bins (see Notes for
more detail on the estimators) from the data that falls within the requested range. While
the bin width will be optimal for the actual data in the range, the number of bins will be
computed to fill the entire range, including the empty portions. For visualisation, using
the ‘auto’ option is suggested. Weighted data is not supported for automated bin size
selection.
‘auto’ Maximum of the ‘sturges’ and ‘fd’ estimators. Provides good all around perfor-
mance.
‘fd’ (Freedman Diaconis Estimator) Robust (resilient to outliers) estimator that takes
into account data variability and data size.
‘doane’ An improved version of Sturges’ estimator that works better with non-normal
datasets.
‘scott’ Less robust estimator that that takes into account data variability and data size.
‘rice’ Estimator does not take variability into account, only data size. Commonly over-
estimates number of bins required.
‘sturges’ R’s default method, only accounts for data size. Only optimal for gaussian
data and underestimates number of bins for large non-gaussian datasets.
‘sqrt’ Square root (of data size) estimator, used by Excel and other programs for its
speed and simplicity.
range : (float, float), optional
The lower and upper range of the bins. If not provided, range is simply (a.min(),
a.max()). Values outside the range are ignored. The first element of the range must
be less than or equal to the second. range affects the automatic bin computation as well.
While bin width is computed to be optimal based on the actual data within range, the
bin count will fill the entire range including portions containing no data.
normed : bool, optional
This keyword is deprecated in NumPy 1.6.0 due to confusing/buggy behavior. It will
be removed in NumPy 2.0.0. Use the density keyword instead. If False, the result
will contain the number of samples in each bin. If True, the result is the value of the
probability density function at the bin, normalized such that the integral over the range

is 1. Note that this latter behavior is known to be buggy with unequal bin widths; use
density instead.
An array of weights, of the same shape as a. Each value in a only contributes its
associated weight towards the bin count (instead of 1). If density is True, the weights
are normalized, so that the integral of the density over the range remains 1.
density : bool, optional
If False, the result will contain the number of samples in each bin. If True, the
result is the value of the probability density function at the bin, normalized such that the
integral over the range is 1. Note that the sum of the histogram values will not be equal
to 1 unless bins of unity width are chosen; it is not a probability mass function.
Overrides the normed keyword if given.
Returns hist : array
The values of the histogram. See density and weights for a description of the possible
semantics.
bin_edges : array of dtype float
Return the bin edges (length(hist)+1).
See also:
histogramdd, bincount, searchsorted, digitize
Notes
All but the last (righthand-most) bin is half-open. In other words, if bins is:
[1, 2, 3, 4]
then the first bin is [1, 2) (including 1, but excluding 2) and the second [2, 3). The last bin, however, is
[3, 4], which includes 4.
The methods to estimate the optimal number of bins are well founded in literature, and are inspired by the
choices R provides for histogram visualisation. Note that having the number of bins proportional to 𝑛1/3 is
asymptotically optimal, which is why it appears in most estimators. These are simply plug-in methods that give
good starting points for number of bins. In the equations below, ℎ is the binwidth and 𝑛ℎ is the number of bins.
All estimators that compute bin counts are recast to bin width using the ptp of the data. The final bin count is
obtained from ‘‘np.round(np.ceil(range / h))‘.
‘Auto’ (maximum of the ‘Sturges’ and ‘FD’ estimators) A compromise to get a good value. For small
datasets the Sturges value will usually be chosen, while larger datasets will usually default to FD. Avoids
the overly conservative behaviour of FD and Sturges for small and large datasets respectively. Switchover
point is usually 𝑎.𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 ≈ 1000.
‘FD’ (Freedman Diaconis Estimator)
𝐼𝑄𝑅
ℎ=2
𝑛1/3
The binwidth is proportional to the interquartile range (IQR) and inversely proportional to cube root of
a.size. Can be too conservative for small datasets, but is quite good for large datasets. The IQR is very
robust to outliers.

‘Scott’
√︂ √
3 24 * 𝜋
ℎ=𝜎
𝑛
The binwidth is proportional to the standard deviation of the data and inversely proportional to cube root
of x.size. Can be too conservative for small datasets, but is quite good for large datasets. The standard
deviation is not very robust to outliers. Values are very similar to the Freedman-Diaconis estimator in the
absence of outliers.
‘Rice’
𝑛ℎ = 2𝑛1/3
The number of bins is only proportional to cube root of a.size. It tends to overestimate the number of
bins and it does not take into account data variability.
‘Sturges’
𝑛ℎ = log2 𝑛 + 1
The number of bins is the base 2 log of a.size. This estimator assumes normality of data and is too
conservative for larger, non-normal datasets. This is the default method in R’s hist method.
‘Doane’
|𝑔1 |
𝑛ℎ = 1 + log2 (𝑛) + log2 (1 + )
𝜎𝑔 1
𝑥−𝜇 3
𝑔1 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛[( ) ]
√︃ 𝜎
6(𝑛 − 2)
𝜎𝑔 1 =
(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 3)
An improved version of Sturges’ formula that produces better estimates for non-normal datasets. This
estimator attempts to account for the skew of the data.
‘Sqrt’
√
𝑛ℎ = 𝑛
The simplest and fastest estimator. Only takes into account the data size.
Examples
>>> np.histogram([1, 2, 1], bins=[0, 1, 2, 3])

(array([0, 2, 1]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> np.histogram(np.arange(4), bins=np.arange(5), density=True)
(array([ 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25]), array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4]))
>>> np.histogram([[1, 2, 1], [1, 0, 1]], bins=[0,1,2,3])
(array([1, 4, 1]), array([0, 1, 2, 3]))
>>> hist, bin_edges = np.histogram(a, density=True)
>>> hist
array([ 0.5, 0. , 0.5, 0. , 0. , 0.5, 0. , 0.5, 0. , 0.5])
>>> hist.sum()
2.4999999999999996
>>> np.sum(hist * np.diff(bin_edges))
1.0


Automated Bin Selection Methods example, using 2 peak random data with 2000 points:

>>> rng = np.random.RandomState(10) # deterministic random data
>>> a = np.hstack((rng.normal(size=1000),
... rng.normal(loc=5, scale=2, size=1000)))
>>> plt.hist(a, bins='auto') # arguments are passed to np.histogram
>>> plt.title("Histogram with 'auto' bins")
>>> plt.show()
Histogram with 'auto' bins

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
2 0 2 4 6 8 10
numpy.histogram2d(x, y, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None)

Compute the bi-dimensional histogram of two data samples.
Parameters x : array_like, shape (N,)
An array containing the x coordinates of the points to be histogrammed.
y : array_like, shape (N,)
An array containing the y coordinates of the points to be histogrammed.
bins : int or array_like or [int, int] or [array, array], optional
The bin specification:
• If int, the number of bins for the two dimensions (nx=ny=bins).
• If array_like, the bin edges for the two dimensions (x_edges=y_edges=bins).
• If [int, int], the number of bins in each dimension (nx, ny = bins).
• If [array, array], the bin edges in each dimension (x_edges, y_edges = bins).
• A combination [int, array] or [array, int], where int is the number of bins and array is
the bin edges.
range : array_like, shape(2,2), optional

The leftmost and rightmost edges of the bins along each dimension (if not specified ex-
plicitly in the bins parameters): [[xmin, xmax], [ymin, ymax]]. All values
outside of this range will be considered outliers and not tallied in the histogram.
If False, returns the number of samples in each bin. If True, returns the bin density
bin_count / sample_count / bin_area.
weights : array_like, shape(N,), optional
An array of values w_i weighing each sample (x_i, y_i). Weights are normalized
to 1 if normed is True. If normed is False, the values of the returned histogram are equal
to the sum of the weights belonging to the samples falling into each bin.
Returns H : ndarray, shape(nx, ny)
The bi-dimensional histogram of samples x and y. Values in x are histogrammed along
the first dimension and values in y are histogrammed along the second dimension.
xedges : ndarray, shape(nx+1,)
The bin edges along the first dimension.
yedges : ndarray, shape(ny+1,)
The bin edges along the second dimension.
See also:
histogram 1D histogram
histogramdd Multidimensional histogram
Notes
When normed is True, then the returned histogram is the sample density, defined such that the sum over bins of
the product bin_value * bin_area is 1.
Please note that the histogram does not follow the Cartesian convention where x values are on the abscissa and
y values on the ordinate axis. Rather, x is histogrammed along the first dimension of the array (vertical), and y
along the second dimension of the array (horizontal). This ensures compatibility with histogramdd.
Examples
>>> import matplotlib as mpl

Construct a 2-D histogram with variable bin width. First define the bin edges:
>>> xedges = [0, 1, 3, 5]

>>> yedges = [0, 2, 3, 4, 6]
Next we create a histogram H with random bin content:
>>> x = np.random.normal(2, 1, 100)

>>> y = np.random.normal(1, 1, 100)
>>> H, xedges, yedges = np.histogram2d(x, y, bins=(xedges, yedges))
>>> H = H.T # Let each row list bins with common y range.

imshow can only display square bins:
>>> fig = plt.figure(figsize=(7, 3))

>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(131, title='imshow: square bins')
>>> plt.imshow(H, interpolation='nearest', origin='low',
... extent=[xedges[0], xedges[-1], yedges[0], yedges[-1]])
pcolormesh can display actual edges:
>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(132, title='pcolormesh: actual edges',

... aspect='equal')
>>> X, Y = np.meshgrid(xedges, yedges)
>>> ax.pcolormesh(X, Y, H)
NonUniformImage can be used to display actual bin edges with interpolation:
>>> ax = fig.add_subplot(133, title='NonUniformImage: interpolated',

... aspect='equal', xlim=xedges[[0, -1]], ylim=yedges[[0, -1]])
>>> im = mpl.image.NonUniformImage(ax, interpolation='bilinear')
>>> xcenters = (xedges[:-1] + xedges[1:]) / 2
>>> ycenters = (yedges[:-1] + yedges[1:]) / 2
>>> im.set_data(xcenters, ycenters, H)
>>> ax.images.append(im)
>>> plt.show()
imshow: square bins pcolormesh: actual edges NonUniformImage: interpolated

6 6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 2 4 0 2 4 0 2 4
numpy.histogramdd(sample, bins=10, range=None, normed=False, weights=None)

Compute the multidimensional histogram of some data.
Parameters sample : array_like
The data to be histogrammed. It must be an (N,D) array or data that can be converted to
such. The rows of the resulting array are the coordinates of points in a D dimensional
polytope.
bins : sequence or int, optional
The bin specification:
• A sequence of arrays describing the bin edges along each dimension.
• The number of bins for each dimension (nx, ny, . . . =bins)

• The number of bins for all dimensions (nx=ny=. . . =bins).

range : sequence, optional
A sequence of lower and upper bin edges to be used if the edges are not given explicitly
in bins. Defaults to the minimum and maximum values along each dimension.
If False, returns the number of samples in each bin. If True, returns the bin density
bin_count / sample_count / bin_volume.
weights : (N,) array_like, optional
An array of values w_i weighing each sample (x_i, y_i, z_i, . . . ). Weights are normalized
to 1 if normed is True. If normed is False, the values of the returned histogram are equal
to the sum of the weights belonging to the samples falling into each bin.
Returns H : ndarray
The multidimensional histogram of sample x. See normed and weights for the different
possible semantics.
edges : list
A list of D arrays describing the bin edges for each dimension.
See also:
histogram 1-D histogram

histogram2d 2-D histogram
Examples
>>> r = np.random.randn(100,3)
>>> H, edges = np.histogramdd(r, bins = (5, 8, 4))
>>> H.shape, edges[0].size, edges[1].size, edges[2].size
((5, 8, 4), 6, 9, 5)
numpy.bincount(x, weights=None, minlength=0)

Count number of occurrences of each value in array of non-negative ints.
The number of bins (of size 1) is one larger than the largest value in x. If minlength is specified, there will be
at least this number of bins in the output array (though it will be longer if necessary, depending on the contents
of x). Each bin gives the number of occurrences of its index value in x. If weights is specified the input array is
weighted by it, i.e. if a value n is found at position i, out[n] += weight[i] instead of out[n] += 1.
Parameters x : array_like, 1 dimension, nonnegative ints
Input array.
Weights, array of the same shape as x.
minlength : int, optional
A minimum number of bins for the output array.
Returns out : ndarray of ints

The result of binning the input array. The length of out is equal to np.amax(x)+1.
Raises ValueError
If the input is not 1-dimensional, or contains elements with negative values, or if min-
length is negative.
TypeError
If the type of the input is float or complex.
See also:
histogram, digitize, unique
Examples
>>> np.bincount(np.arange(5))
array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])
>>> np.bincount(np.array([0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 7]))
array([1, 3, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1])
>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 1, 7, 23])

>>> np.bincount(x).size == np.amax(x)+1
True
The input array needs to be of integer dtype, otherwise a TypeError is raised:
>>> np.bincount(np.arange(5, dtype=float))

TypeError: array cannot be safely cast to required type
A possible use of bincount is to perform sums over variable-size chunks of an array, using the weights
keyword.
>>> w = np.array([0.3, 0.5, 0.2, 0.7, 1., -0.6]) # weights

>>> x = np.array([0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2])
>>> np.bincount(x, weights=w)
array([ 0.3, 0.7, 1.1])
numpy.digitize(x, bins, right=False)

Return the indices of the bins to which each value in input array belongs.
Each index i returned is such that bins[i-1] <= x < bins[i] if bins is monotonically increasing, or
bins[i-1] > x >= bins[i] if bins is monotonically decreasing. If values in x are beyond the bounds of
bins, 0 or len(bins) is returned as appropriate. If right is True, then the right bin is closed so that the index i
is such that bins[i-1] < x <= bins[i] or bins[i-1] >= x > bins[i] if bins is monotonically
increasing or decreasing, respectively.
Input array to be binned. Prior to NumPy 1.10.0, this array had to be 1-dimensional, but
can now have any shape.
bins : array_like
Array of bins. It has to be 1-dimensional and monotonic.
right : bool, optional

Indicating whether the intervals include the right or the left bin edge. Default behavior
is (right==False) indicating that the interval does not include the right edge. The left
bin end is open in this case, i.e., bins[i-1] <= x < bins[i] is the default behavior for
monotonically increasing bins.
Returns out : ndarray of ints
Output array of indices, of same shape as x.
Raises ValueError
If bins is not monotonic.
TypeError
If the type of the input is complex.
See also:
bincount, histogram, unique, searchsorted
Notes
If values in x are such that they fall outside the bin range, attempting to index bins with the indices that
digitize returns will result in an IndexError.
np.digitize is implemented in terms of np.searchsorted. This means that a binary search is used to bin the
values, which scales much better for larger number of bins than the previous linear search. It also removes the
requirement for the input array to be 1-dimensional.
Examples
>>> x = np.array([0.2, 6.4, 3.0, 1.6])

>>> bins = np.array([0.0, 1.0, 2.5, 4.0, 10.0])
>>> inds = np.digitize(x, bins)
>>> inds
array([1, 4, 3, 2])
>>> for n in range(x.size):
... print(bins[inds[n]-1], "<=", x[n], "<", bins[inds[n]])
...
0.0 <= 0.2 < 1.0
4.0 <= 6.4 < 10.0
2.5 <= 3.0 < 4.0
1.0 <= 1.6 < 2.5
>>> x = np.array([1.2, 10.0, 12.4, 15.5, 20.])

>>> bins = np.array([0, 5, 10, 15, 20])
>>> np.digitize(x,bins,right=True)
array([1, 2, 3, 4, 4])
>>> np.digitize(x,bins,right=False)
array([1, 3, 3, 4, 5])

3.28 Test Support (numpy.testing)
Common test support for all numpy test scripts.

This single module should provide all the common functionality for numpy tests in a single location, so that test scripts
can just import it and work right away.
3.28.1 Asserts
assert_almost_equal(actual, desired[, . . . ]) Raises an AssertionError if two items are not equal up to

desired precision.
assert_approx_equal(actual, desired[, . . . ]) Raises an AssertionError if two items are not equal up to
significant digits.
assert_array_almost_equal(x, y[, decimal, . . . ]) Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal up to
desired precision.
assert_allclose(actual, desired[, rtol, . . . ]) Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal up to
desired tolerance.
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, y[, nulp]) Compare two arrays relatively to their spacing.
assert_array_max_ulp(a, b[, maxulp, dtype]) Check that all items of arrays differ in at most N Units in
the Last Place.
assert_array_equal(x, y[, err_msg, verbose]) Raises an AssertionError if two array_like objects are not
equal.
assert_array_less(x, y[, err_msg, verbose]) Raises an AssertionError if two array_like objects are not
ordered by less than.
assert_equal(actual, desired[, err_msg, verbose]) Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal.
assert_raises(exception_class, callable, . . . ) Fail unless an exception of class exception_class is thrown
by callable when invoked with arguments args and keyword
arguments kwargs.
assert_raises_regex(exception_class, . . . ) Fail unless an exception of class exception_class and
with message that matches expected_regexp is thrown by
callable when invoked with arguments args and keyword
arguments kwargs.
assert_warns(warning_class, *args, **kwargs) Fail unless the given callable throws the specified warning.
assert_string_equal(actual, desired) Test if two strings are equal.
numpy.testing.assert_almost_equal(actual, desired, decimal=7, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two items are not equal up to desired precision.
Note: It is recommended to use one of assert_allclose, assert_array_almost_equal_nulp or

assert_array_max_ulp instead of this function for more consistent floating point comparisons.
The test verifies that the elements of actual and desired satisfy.
abs(desired-actual) < 1.5 * 10**(-decimal)
That is a looser test than originally documented, but agrees with what the actual implementation in
assert_array_almost_equal did up to rounding vagaries. An exception is raised at conflicting val-
ues. For ndarrays this delegates to assert_array_almost_equal
Parameters actual : array_like
The object to check.

desired : array_like
The expected object.
decimal : int, optional
Desired precision, default is 7.
err_msg : str, optional
The error message to be printed in case of failure.
verbose : bool, optional
If True, the conflicting values are appended to the error message.
Raises AssertionError
If actual and desired are not equal up to specified precision.
See also:
assert_allclose Compare two array_like objects for equality with desired relative and/or absolute preci-
sion.
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp, assert_array_max_ulp, assert_equal
Examples
>>> import numpy.testing as npt

>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(2.3333333333333, 2.33333334)
>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(2.3333333333333, 2.33333334, decimal=10)
...
<type 'exceptions.AssertionError'>:
Items are not equal:
ACTUAL: 2.3333333333333002
DESIRED: 2.3333333399999998
>>> npt.assert_almost_equal(np.array([1.0,2.3333333333333]),
... np.array([1.0,2.33333334]), decimal=9)
...
Arrays are not almost equal
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1. , 2.33333333])
y: array([ 1. , 2.33333334])
numpy.testing.assert_approx_equal(actual, desired, significant=7, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two items are not equal up to significant digits.

Given two numbers, check that they are approximately equal. Approximately equal is defined as the number of
significant digits that agree.
Parameters actual : scalar
3.28. Test Support (numpy.testing) 1161


desired : scalar
significant : int, optional
See also:
sion.
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345677777777e-20, 0.1234567e-20)

>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345670e-20, 0.12345671e-20,
significant=8)
>>> np.testing.assert_approx_equal(0.12345670e-20, 0.12345672e-20,
significant=8)
...
Items are not equal to 8 significant digits:
ACTUAL: 1.234567e-021
DESIRED: 1.2345672000000001e-021
the evaluated condition that raises the exception is
>>> abs(0.12345670e-20/1e-21 - 0.12345672e-20/1e-21) >= 10**-(8-1)

True
numpy.testing.assert_array_almost_equal(x, y, decimal=6, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal up to desired precision.

The test verifies identical shapes and that the elements of actual and desired satisfy.
abs(desired-actual) < 1.5 * 10**(-decimal)

That is a looser test than originally documented, but agrees with what the actual implementation did up to
rounding vagaries. An exception is raised at shape mismatch or conflicting values. In contrast to the standard
usage in numpy, NaNs are compared like numbers, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same
positions.
The actual object to check.
y : array_like
The desired, expected object.
decimal : int, optional
See also:
sion.
Examples
the first assert does not raise an exception
>>> np.testing.assert_array_almost_equal([1.0,2.333,np.nan],
[1.0,2.333,np.nan])
... [1.0,2.33339,np.nan], decimal=5)
...
AssertionError:
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1. , 2.33333, NaN])
y: array([ 1. , 2.33339, NaN])
... [1.0,2.33333, 5], decimal=5)
<type 'exceptions.ValueError'>:
ValueError:

x: array([ 1. , 2.33333, NaN])

y: array([ 1. , 2.33333, 5. ])
numpy.testing.assert_allclose(actual, desired, rtol=1e-07, atol=0, equal_nan=True, err_msg=”,

verbose=True)
Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal up to desired tolerance.
The test is equivalent to allclose(actual, desired, rtol, atol). It compares the difference
between actual and desired to atol + rtol * abs(desired).
Array obtained.
Array desired.
rtol : float, optional
Relative tolerance.
atol : float, optional
Absolute tolerance.
equal_nan : bool, optional.
If True, NaNs will compare equal.
See also:
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp, assert_array_max_ulp
Examples
>>> x = [1e-5, 1e-3, 1e-1]

>>> y = np.arccos(np.cos(x))
>>> assert_allclose(x, y, rtol=1e-5, atol=0)
numpy.testing.assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, y, nulp=1)
Compare two arrays relatively to their spacing.
This is a relatively robust method to compare two arrays whose amplitude is variable.
Input arrays.
nulp : int, optional

The maximum number of unit in the last place for tolerance (see Notes). Default is 1.
Returns None
If the spacing between x and y for one or more elements is larger than nulp.
See also:
assert_array_max_ulp Check that all items of arrays differ in at most N Units in the Last Place.
spacing Return the distance between x and the nearest adjacent number.
Notes
An assertion is raised if the following condition is not met:
abs(x - y) <= nulps * spacing(maximum(abs(x), abs(y)))
Examples
>>> x = np.array([1., 1e-10, 1e-20])

>>> eps = np.finfo(x.dtype).eps
>>> np.testing.assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, x*eps/2 + x)
>>> np.testing.assert_array_almost_equal_nulp(x, x*eps + x)

...
AssertionError: X and Y are not equal to 1 ULP (max is 2)
numpy.testing.assert_array_max_ulp(a, b, maxulp=1, dtype=None)

Check that all items of arrays differ in at most N Units in the Last Place.
Input arrays to be compared.
maxulp : int, optional
The maximum number of units in the last place that elements of a and b can differ.
Default is 1.
Data-type to convert a and b to if given. Default is None.
Array containing number of representable floating point numbers between items in a
and b.
If one or more elements differ by more than maxulp.
See also:
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp Compare two arrays relatively to their spacing.

Examples
>>> a = np.linspace(0., 1., 100)

>>> res = np.testing.assert_array_max_ulp(a, np.arcsin(np.sin(a)))
numpy.testing.assert_array_equal(x, y, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two array_like objects are not equal.
Given two array_like objects, check that the shape is equal and all elements of these objects are equal. An
exception is raised at shape mismatch or conflicting values. In contrast to the standard usage in numpy, NaNs
are compared like numbers, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same positions.
The usual caution for verifying equality with floating point numbers is advised.
The actual object to check.
y : array_like
The desired, expected object.
If actual and desired objects are not equal.
See also:
sion.
Examples
The first assert does not raise an exception:
>>> np.testing.assert_array_equal([1.0,2.33333,np.nan],
... [np.exp(0),2.33333, np.nan])
Assert fails with numerical inprecision with floats:
>>> np.testing.assert_array_equal([1.0,np.pi,np.nan],
... [1, np.sqrt(np.pi)**2, np.nan])
...
AssertionError:
Arrays are not equal
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1. , 3.14159265, NaN])
y: array([ 1. , 3.14159265, NaN])

Use assert_allclose or one of the nulp (number of floating point values) functions for these cases instead:
>>> np.testing.assert_allclose([1.0,np.pi,np.nan],
... [1, np.sqrt(np.pi)**2, np.nan],
... rtol=1e-10, atol=0)
numpy.testing.assert_array_less(x, y, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two array_like objects are not ordered by less than.
Given two array_like objects, check that the shape is equal and all elements of the first object are strictly smaller
than those of the second object. An exception is raised at shape mismatch or incorrectly ordered values. Shape
mismatch does not raise if an object has zero dimension. In contrast to the standard usage in numpy, NaNs are
compared, no assertion is raised if both objects have NaNs in the same positions.
The smaller object to check.
y : array_like
The larger object to compare.
err_msg : string
verbose : bool
If actual and desired objects are not equal.
See also:
assert_array_equal tests objects for equality

assert_array_almost_equal test objects for equality up to precision
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 1.0, np.nan], [1.1, 2.0, np.nan])

>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 1.0, np.nan], [1, 2.0, np.nan])
...
Arrays are not less-ordered
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1., 1., NaN])
y: array([ 1., 2., NaN])
>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 4.0], 3)

...
(mismatch 50.0%)
x: array([ 1., 4.])
y: array(3)

>>> np.testing.assert_array_less([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], [4])

...
(shapes (3,), (1,) mismatch)
x: array([ 1., 2., 3.])
y: array([4])
numpy.testing.assert_equal(actual, desired, err_msg=”, verbose=True)

Raises an AssertionError if two objects are not equal.
Given two objects (scalars, lists, tuples, dictionaries or numpy arrays), check that all elements of these objects
are equal. An exception is raised at the first conflicting values.
If actual and desired are not equal.
Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_equal([4,5], [4,6])

...
Items are not equal:
item=1
ACTUAL: 5
DESIRED: 6
numpy.testing.assert_raises(exception_class, callable, *args, **kwargs) as-

sert_raises(exception_class)
Fail unless an exception of class exception_class is thrown by callable when invoked with arguments args and
keyword arguments kwargs. If a different type of exception is thrown, it will not be caught, and the test case
will be deemed to have suffered an error, exactly as for an unexpected exception.
Alternatively, assert_raises can be used as a context manager:
>>> from numpy.testing import assert_raises

>>> with assert_raises(ZeroDivisionError):
... 1 / 0
is equivalent to

>>> def div(x, y):

... return x / y
>>> assert_raises(ZeroDivisionError, div, 1, 0)
numpy.testing.assert_raises_regex(exception_class, expected_regexp, callable, *args,

**kwargs) assert_raises_regex(exception_class, ex-
pected_regexp)
Fail unless an exception of class exception_class and with message that matches expected_regexp is thrown by
callable when invoked with arguments args and keyword arguments kwargs.
Alternatively, can be used as a context manager like assert_raises.
Name of this function adheres to Python 3.2+ reference, but should work in all versions down to 2.6.
Notes

numpy.testing.assert_warns(warning_class, *args, **kwargs)
Fail unless the given callable throws the specified warning.
A warning of class warning_class should be thrown by the callable when invoked with arguments args and
keyword arguments kwargs. If a different type of warning is thrown, it will not be caught.
If called with all arguments other than the warning class omitted, may be used as a context manager:
with assert_warns(SomeWarning): do_something()
The ability to be used as a context manager is new in NumPy v1.11.0.
Parameters warning_class : class
The class defining the warning that func is expected to throw.
func : callable
The callable to test.
*args : Arguments
Arguments passed to func.
**kwargs : Kwargs
Keyword arguments passed to func.
Returns The value returned by func.
numpy.testing.assert_string_equal(actual, desired)
Test if two strings are equal.
If the given strings are equal, assert_string_equal does nothing. If they are not equal, an AssertionError
is raised, and the diff between the strings is shown.
Parameters actual : str
The string to test for equality against the expected string.
desired : str
The expected string.

Examples
>>> np.testing.assert_string_equal('abc', 'abc')

>>> np.testing.assert_string_equal('abc', 'abcd')
...
AssertionError: Differences in strings:
- abc+ abcd? +
3.28.2 Decorators
decorators.deprecated([conditional]) Filter deprecation warnings while running the test suite.

decorators.knownfailureif(fail_condition[, Make function raise KnownFailureException exception if
msg]) given condition is true.
decorators.setastest([tf]) Signals to nose that this function is or is not a test.
decorators.skipif(skip_condition[, msg]) Make function raise SkipTest exception if a given condition
is true.
decorators.slow(t) Label a test as ‘slow’.
decorate_methods(cls, decorator[, testmatch]) Apply a decorator to all methods in a class matching a reg-
ular expression.
numpy.testing.decorators.deprecated(conditional=True)
Filter deprecation warnings while running the test suite.
This decorator can be used to filter DeprecationWarning’s, to avoid printing them during the test suite run, while
checking that the test actually raises a DeprecationWarning.
Parameters conditional : bool or callable, optional
Flag to determine whether to mark test as deprecated or not. If the condition is a callable,
it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. Default is True.
Returns decorator : function
The deprecated decorator itself.
Notes

numpy.testing.decorators.knownfailureif(fail_condition, msg=None)
Make function raise KnownFailureException exception if given condition is true.
If the condition is a callable, it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. This is useful for tests that
may require costly imports, to delay the cost until the test suite is actually executed.
Parameters fail_condition : bool or callable
Flag to determine whether to mark the decorated test as a known failure (if True) or not
(if False).
msg : str, optional
Message to give on raising a KnownFailureException exception. Default is None.


Decorator, which, when applied to a function, causes KnownFailureException to be
raised when fail_condition is True, and the function to be called normally otherwise.
Notes
The decorator itself is decorated with the nose.tools.make_decorator function in order to transmit
function name, and various other metadata.
numpy.testing.decorators.setastest(tf=True)
Signals to nose that this function is or is not a test.
Parameters tf : bool
If True, specifies that the decorated callable is a test. If False, specifies that the decorated
callable is not a test. Default is True.
Notes
This decorator can’t use the nose namespace, because it can be called from a non-test module. See also istest
and nottest in nose.tools.
Examples
setastest can be used in the following way:
from numpy.testing import dec
@dec.setastest(False)
def func_with_test_in_name(arg1, arg2):
pass
numpy.testing.decorators.skipif(skip_condition, msg=None)
Make function raise SkipTest exception if a given condition is true.
If the condition is a callable, it is used at runtime to dynamically make the decision. This is useful for tests that
may require costly imports, to delay the cost until the test suite is actually executed.
Parameters skip_condition : bool or callable
Flag to determine whether to skip the decorated test.
msg : str, optional
Message to give on raising a SkipTest exception. Default is None.
Decorator which, when applied to a function, causes SkipTest to be raised when
skip_condition is True, and the function to be called normally otherwise.
Notes
The decorator itself is decorated with the nose.tools.make_decorator function in order to transmit
function name, and various other metadata.

numpy.testing.decorators.slow(t)
Label a test as ‘slow’.
The exact definition of a slow test is obviously both subjective and hardware-dependent, but in general any
individual test that requires more than a second or two should be labeled as slow (the whole suite consits of
thousands of tests, so even a second is significant).
Parameters t : callable
The test to label as slow.
Returns t : callable
The decorated test t.
Examples
The numpy.testing module includes import decorators as dec. A test can be decorated as slow
like this:
from numpy.testing import *
@dec.slow
def test_big(self):
print('Big, slow test')
numpy.testing.decorate_methods(cls, decorator, testmatch=None)

Apply a decorator to all methods in a class matching a regular expression.
The given decorator is applied to all public methods of cls that are matched by the regular expression testmatch
(testmatch.search(methodname)). Methods that are private, i.e. start with an underscore, are ignored.
Parameters cls : class
Class whose methods to decorate.
decorator : function
Decorator to apply to methods
testmatch : compiled regexp or str, optional
The regular expression. Default value is None, in which case the nose default (re.
compile(r'(?:^|[\b_\.%s-])[Tt]est' % os.sep)) is used. If test-
match is a string, it is compiled to a regular expression first.
3.28.3 Test Running
Tester alias of NoseTester

run_module_suite([file_to_run, argv]) Run a test module.
rundocs([filename, raise_on_error]) Run doctests found in the given file.
suppress_warnings([forwarding_rule]) Context manager and decorator doing much the same as
warnings.catch_warnings.
numpy.testing.Tester
alias of NoseTester
numpy.testing.run_module_suite(file_to_run=None, argv=None)

Run a test module.

Equivalent to calling $ nosetests <argv> <file_to_run> from the command line
Parameters file_to_run : str, optional
Path to test module, or None. By default, run the module from which this function is
called.
argv : list of strings
Arguments to be passed to the nose test runner. argv[0] is ignored. All command line
arguments accepted by nosetests will work. If it is the default value None, sys.argv
is used.
Examples
Adding the following:
if __name__ == "__main__" :
run_module_suite(argv=sys.argv)
at the end of a test module will run the tests when that module is called in the python interpreter.
Alternatively, calling:
>>> run_module_suite(file_to_run="numpy/tests/test_matlib.py")
from an interpreter will run all the test routine in ‘test_matlib.py’.

numpy.testing.rundocs(filename=None, raise_on_error=True)
Run doctests found in the given file.
By default rundocs raises an AssertionError on failure.
Parameters filename : str
The path to the file for which the doctests are run.
raise_on_error : bool
Whether to raise an AssertionError when a doctest fails. Default is True.
Notes
The doctests can be run by the user/developer by adding the doctests argument to the test() call. For
example, to run all tests (including doctests) for numpy.lib:
>>> np.lib.test(doctests=True)
class numpy.testing.suppress_warnings(forwarding_rule=’always’)
Context manager and decorator doing much the same as warnings.catch_warnings.
However, it also provides a filter mechanism to work around http://bugs.python.org/issue4180.
This bug causes Python before 3.4 to not reliably show warnings again after they have been ignored once (even
within catch_warnings). It means that no “ignore” filter can be used easily, since following tests might need to
see the warning. Additionally it allows easier specificity for testing warnings and can be nested.

Parameters forwarding_rule : str, optional

One of “always”, “once”, “module”, or “location”. Analogous to the usual warnings
module filter mode, it is useful to reduce noise mostly on the outmost level. Unsup-
pressed and unrecorded warnings will be forwarded based on this rule. Defaults to
“always”. “location” is equivalent to the warnings “default”, match by exact location
the warning warning originated from.
Notes
Filters added inside the context manager will be discarded again when leaving it. Upon entering all filters
defined outside a context will be applied automatically.
When a recording filter is added, matching warnings are stored in the log attribute as well as in the list returned
by record.
If filters are added and the module keyword is given, the warning registry of this module will additionally be
cleared when applying it, entering the context, or exiting it. This could cause warnings to appear a second time
after leaving the context if they were configured to be printed once (default) and were already printed before the
context was entered.
Nesting this context manager will work as expected when the forwarding rule is “always” (default). Unfiltered
and unrecorded warnings will be passed out and be matched by the outer level. On the outmost level they will
be printed (or caught by another warnings context). The forwarding rule argument can modify this behaviour.
Like catch_warnings this context manager is not threadsafe.
Examples
>>> with suppress_warnings() as sup:

... sup.filter(DeprecationWarning, "Some text")
... sup.filter(module=np.ma.core)
... log = sup.record(FutureWarning, "Does this occur?")
... command_giving_warnings()
... # The FutureWarning was given once, the filtered warnings were
... # ignored. All other warnings abide outside settings (may be
... # printed/error)
... assert_(len(log) == 1)
... assert_(len(sup.log) == 1) # also stored in log attribute
Or as a decorator:
>>> sup = suppress_warnings()

>>> sup.filter(module=np.ma.core) # module must match exact
>>> @sup
>>> def some_function():
... # do something which causes a warning in np.ma.core
... pass
Methods

__call__(func) Function decorator to apply certain suppressions to a

whole function.
filter([category, message, module]) Add a new suppressing filter or apply it if the state is
entered.
record([category, message, module]) Append a new recording filter or apply it if the state is
entered.
suppress_warnings.__call__(func)
Function decorator to apply certain suppressions to a whole function.
suppress_warnings.filter(category=<class ’Warning’>, message=”, module=None)
Add a new suppressing filter or apply it if the state is entered.
Parameters category : class, optional
Warning class to filter
message : string, optional
Regular expression matching the warning message.
module : module, optional
Module to filter for. Note that the module (and its file) must match exactly and cannot
be a submodule. This may make it unreliable for external modules.
Notes
When added within a context, filters are only added inside the context and will be forgotten when the
context is exited.
suppress_warnings.record(category=<class ’Warning’>, message=”, module=None)
Append a new recording filter or apply it if the state is entered.
All warnings matching will be appended to the log attribute.
Parameters category : class, optional
Warning class to filter
message : string, optional
Regular expression matching the warning message.
module : module, optional
Module to filter for. Note that the module (and its file) must match exactly and cannot
be a submodule. This may make it unreliable for external modules.
Returns log : list
A list which will be filled with all matched warnings.
Notes
When added within a context, filters are only added inside the context and will be forgotten when the
context is exited.

3.29 Window functions
3.29.1 Various windows
bartlett(M) Return the Bartlett window.

blackman(M) Return the Blackman window.
hamming(M) Return the Hamming window.
hanning(M) Return the Hanning window.
kaiser(M, beta) Return the Kaiser window.
numpy.bartlett(M)
Return the Bartlett window.
The Bartlett window is very similar to a triangular window, except that the end points are at zero. It is often
used in signal processing for tapering a signal, without generating too much ripple in the frequency domain.
Parameters M : int
Number of points in the output window. If zero or less, an empty array is returned.
Returns out : array
The triangular window, with the maximum value normalized to one (the value one ap-
pears only if the number of samples is odd), with the first and last samples equal to
zero.
See also:
blackman, hamming, hanning, kaiser
Notes
The Bartlett window is defined as

(︂ ⃒ ⃒)︂
2 𝑀 − 1 ⃒⃒ 𝑀 − 1 ⃒⃒
𝑤(𝑛) = − ⃒𝑛 −
𝑀 −1 2 2 ⃒
Most references to the Bartlett window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
many windowing functions for smoothing values. Note that convolution with this window produces linear in-
terpolation. It is also known as an apodization (which means”removing the foot”, i.e. smoothing discontinuities
at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function. The fourier transform of the Bartlett is the
product of two sinc functions. Note the excellent discussion in Kanasewich.
References
[R1418], [R1518], [R1618], [R1718], [R1818]
Examples
>>> np.bartlett(12)
array([ 0. , 0.18181818, 0.36363636, 0.54545455, 0.72727273,
0.90909091, 0.90909091, 0.72727273, 0.54545455, 0.36363636,
0.18181818, 0. ])

Plot the window and its frequency response (requires SciPy and matplotlib):
>>> from numpy.fft import fft, fftshift
>>> window = np.bartlett(51)
>>> plt.plot(window)
>>> plt.title("Bartlett window")
>>> plt.xlabel("Sample")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
<matplotlib.figure.Figure object at 0x...>
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> mag = np.abs(fftshift(A))
>>> freq = np.linspace(-0.5, 0.5, len(A))
>>> response = 20 * np.log10(mag)
>>> response = np.clip(response, -100, 100)
>>> plt.plot(freq, response)
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Bartlett window")
>>> plt.ylabel("Magnitude [dB]")
>>> plt.xlabel("Normalized frequency [cycles per sample]")
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.blackman(M)
Return the Blackman window.
The Blackman window is a taper formed by using the first three terms of a summation of cosines. It was designed
to have close to the minimal leakage possible. It is close to optimal, only slightly worse than a Kaiser window.
Parameters M : int
The window, with the maximum value normalized to one (the value one appears only if
the number of samples is odd).
See also:
bartlett, hamming, hanning, kaiser
Notes
The Blackman window is defined as

𝑤(𝑛) = 0.42 − 0.5 cos(2𝜋𝑛/𝑀 ) + 0.08 cos(4𝜋𝑛/𝑀 )
Most references to the Blackman window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
many windowing functions for smoothing values. It is also known as an apodization (which means “removing
3.29. Window functions 1177

the foot”, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function. It
is known as a “near optimal” tapering function, almost as good (by some measures) as the kaiser window.
References
Blackman, R.B. and Tukey, J.W., (1958) The measurement of power spectra, Dover Publications, New York.
Oppenheim, A.V., and R.W. Schafer. Discrete-Time Signal Processing. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1999, pp. 468-471.
Examples
>>> np.blackman(12)
array([ -1.38777878e-17, 3.26064346e-02, 1.59903635e-01,
4.14397981e-01, 7.36045180e-01, 9.67046769e-01,
9.67046769e-01, 7.36045180e-01, 4.14397981e-01,
1.59903635e-01, 3.26064346e-02, -1.38777878e-17])
Plot the window and the frequency response:

>>> window = np.blackman(51)
>>> plt.title("Blackman window")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Blackman window")
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.hamming(M)
Return the Hamming window.
The Hamming window is a taper formed by using a weighted cosine.

Parameters M : int
See also:
bartlett, blackman, hanning, kaiser
Notes
The Hamming window is defined as

(︂ )︂
2𝜋𝑛
𝑤(𝑛) = 0.54 − 0.46𝑐𝑜𝑠 0≤𝑛≤𝑀 −1
𝑀 −1
The Hamming was named for R. W. Hamming, an associate of J. W. Tukey and is described in Blackman and
Tukey. It was recommended for smoothing the truncated autocovariance function in the time domain. Most
references to the Hamming window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of many
windowing functions for smoothing values. It is also known as an apodization (which means “removing the
foot”, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R4245], [R4345], [R4445], [R4545]
Examples
>>> np.hamming(12)
array([ 0.08 , 0.15302337, 0.34890909, 0.60546483, 0.84123594,
0.98136677, 0.98136677, 0.84123594, 0.60546483, 0.34890909,
0.15302337, 0.08 ])

>>> window = np.hamming(51)
>>> plt.title("Hamming window")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5


>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Hamming window")
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.hanning(M)
Return the Hanning window.
The Hanning window is a taper formed by using a weighted cosine.
Parameters M : int
Returns out : ndarray, shape(M,)
M is odd).
See also:
bartlett, blackman, hamming, kaiser
Notes
The Hanning window is defined as

(︂ )︂
2𝜋𝑛
𝑤(𝑛) = 0.5 − 0.5𝑐𝑜𝑠 0≤𝑛≤𝑀 −1
𝑀 −1
The Hanning was named for Julius von Hann, an Austrian meteorologist. It is also known as the Cosine Bell.
Some authors prefer that it be called a Hann window, to help avoid confusion with the very similar Hamming
window.
Most references to the Hanning window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
the foot”, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R5053], [R5153], [R5253], [R5353]
Examples

>>> np.hanning(12)
array([ 0. , 0.07937323, 0.29229249, 0.57115742, 0.82743037,
0.97974649, 0.97974649, 0.82743037, 0.57115742, 0.29229249,
0.07937323, 0. ])
Plot the window and its frequency response:

>>> window = np.hanning(51)
>>> plt.title("Hann window")
>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of the Hann window")
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()
numpy.kaiser(M, beta)
Return the Kaiser window.
The Kaiser window is a taper formed by using a Bessel function.
Parameters M : int
beta : float
Shape parameter for window.
Returns out : array
See also:
bartlett, blackman, hamming, hanning

Notes
The Kaiser window is defined as

(︃ √︃ )︃
4𝑛2
𝑤(𝑛) = 𝐼0 𝛽 1− /𝐼0 (𝛽)
(𝑀 − 1)2
with
𝑀 −1 𝑀 −1
− ≤𝑛≤ ,
2 2
where 𝐼0 is the modified zeroth-order Bessel function.
The Kaiser was named for Jim Kaiser, who discovered a simple approximation to the DPSS window based on
Bessel functions. The Kaiser window is a very good approximation to the Digital Prolate Spheroidal Sequence,
or Slepian window, which is the transform which maximizes the energy in the main lobe of the window relative
to total energy.
The Kaiser can approximate many other windows by varying the beta parameter.
beta Window shape

0 Rectangular
5 Similar to a Hamming
6 Similar to a Hanning
8.6 Similar to a Blackman
A beta value of 14 is probably a good starting point. Note that as beta gets large, the window narrows, and so
the number of samples needs to be large enough to sample the increasingly narrow spike, otherwise NaNs will
get returned.
Most references to the Kaiser window come from the signal processing literature, where it is used as one of
the foot”, i.e. smoothing discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sampled signal) or tapering function.
References
[R6769], [R6869], [R6969]
Examples
>>> np.kaiser(12, 14)

array([ 7.72686684e-06, 3.46009194e-03, 4.65200189e-02,
2.29737120e-01, 5.99885316e-01, 9.45674898e-01,
9.45674898e-01, 5.99885316e-01, 2.29737120e-01,
4.65200189e-02, 3.46009194e-03, 7.72686684e-06])

>>> window = np.kaiser(51, 14)
>>> plt.title("Kaiser window")


>>> plt.show()
>>> plt.figure()
>>> A = fft(window, 2048) / 25.5
>>> plt.title("Frequency response of Kaiser window")
(-0.5, 0.5, -100.0, ...)
>>> plt.show()


CHAPTER
FOUR
PACKAGING (NUMPY.DISTUTILS)
NumPy provides enhanced distutils functionality to make it easier to build and install sub-packages, auto-generate
code, and extension modules that use Fortran-compiled libraries. To use features of NumPy distutils, use the
setup command from numpy.distutils.core. A useful Configuration class is also provided in numpy.
distutils.misc_util that can make it easier to construct keyword arguments to pass to the setup function (by
passing the dictionary obtained from the todict() method of the class). More information is available in the NumPy
Distutils Users Guide in <site-packages>/numpy/doc/DISTUTILS.txt.
4.1 Modules in numpy.distutils
4.1.1 misc_util
get_numpy_include_dirs()
dict_append(d, **kws)
appendpath(prefix, path)
allpath(name) Convert a /-separated pathname to one using the OS’s path
separator.
dot_join(*args)
generate_config_py(target) Generate config.py file containing system_info information
used during building the package.
get_cmd(cmdname[, _cache])
terminal_has_colors()
red_text(s)
green_text(s)
yellow_text(s)
blue_text(s)
cyan_text(s)
cyg2win32(path)
all_strings(lst) Return True if all items in lst are string objects.
has_f_sources(sources) Return True if sources contains Fortran files
has_cxx_sources(sources) Return True if sources contains C++ files
filter_sources(sources) Return four lists of filenames containing C, C++, Fortran,
and Fortran 90 module sources, respectively.
get_dependencies(sources)
is_local_src_dir(directory) Return true if directory is local directory.
get_ext_source_files(ext)
get_script_files(scripts)
1185
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_numpy_include_dirs()
numpy.distutils.misc_util.dict_append(d, **kws)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.appendpath(prefix, path)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.allpath(name)
Convert a /-separated pathname to one using the OS’s path separator.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.dot_join(*args)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.generate_config_py(target)
Generate config.py file containing system_info information used during building the package.
Usage: config[‘py_modules’].append((packagename, ‘__config__’,generate_config_py))
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_cmd(cmdname, _cache={})
numpy.distutils.misc_util.terminal_has_colors()
numpy.distutils.misc_util.red_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.green_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.yellow_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.blue_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.cyan_text(s)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.cyg2win32(path)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.all_strings(lst)
Return True if all items in lst are string objects.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.has_f_sources(sources)
Return True if sources contains Fortran files
numpy.distutils.misc_util.has_cxx_sources(sources)
Return True if sources contains C++ files
numpy.distutils.misc_util.filter_sources(sources)
Return four lists of filenames containing C, C++, Fortran, and Fortran 90 module sources, respectively.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_dependencies(sources)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.is_local_src_dir(directory)
Return true if directory is local directory.
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_ext_source_files(ext)
numpy.distutils.misc_util.get_script_files(scripts)
class numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration(package_name=None, par-
ent_name=None, top_path=None,
package_path=None, **attrs)
Construct a configuration instance for the given package name. If parent_name is not None, then construct the
package as a sub-package of the parent_name package. If top_path and package_path are None then they are
assumed equal to the path of the file this instance was created in. The setup.py files in the numpy distribution
are good examples of how to use the Configuration instance.
todict()
Return a dictionary compatible with the keyword arguments of distutils setup function.
1186 Chapter 4. Packaging (numpy.distutils)

Examples
>>> setup(**config.todict())
get_distribution()
Return the distutils distribution object for self.
get_subpackage(subpackage_name, subpackage_path=None, parent_name=None, caller_level=1)
Return list of subpackage configurations.
Parameters subpackage_name : str or None
Name of the subpackage to get the configuration. ‘*’ in subpackage_name is handled
as a wildcard.
subpackage_path : str
If None, then the path is assumed to be the local path plus the subpackage_name. If a
setup.py file is not found in the subpackage_path, then a default configuration is used.
parent_name : str
Parent name.
add_subpackage(subpackage_name, subpackage_path=None, standalone=False)
Add a sub-package to the current Configuration instance.
This is useful in a setup.py script for adding sub-packages to a package.
Parameters subpackage_name : str
name of the subpackage
subpackage_path : str
if given, the subpackage path such as the subpackage is in subpackage_path / subpack-
age_name. If None,the subpackage is assumed to be located in the local path / subpack-
age_name.
standalone : bool
add_data_files(*files)
Add data files to configuration data_files.
Parameters files : sequence
Argument(s) can be either
• 2-sequence (<datadir prefix>,<path to data file(s)>)
• paths to data files where python datadir prefix defaults to package dir.
Notes
The form of each element of the files sequence is very flexible allowing many combinations of where to
get the files from the package and where they should ultimately be installed on the system. The most basic
usage is for an element of the files argument sequence to be a simple filename. This will cause that file
from the local path to be installed to the installation path of the self.name package (package path). The file
argument can also be a relative path in which case the entire relative path will be installed into the package
directory. Finally, the file can be an absolute path name in which case the file will be found at the absolute
path name but installed to the package path.
4.1. Modules in numpy.distutils 1187

This basic behavior can be augmented by passing a 2-tuple in as the file argument. The first element of the
tuple should specify the relative path (under the package install directory) where the remaining sequence
of files should be installed to (it has nothing to do with the file-names in the source distribution). The
second element of the tuple is the sequence of files that should be installed. The files in this sequence can
be filenames, relative paths, or absolute paths. For absolute paths the file will be installed in the top-level
package installation directory (regardless of the first argument). Filenames and relative path names will be
installed in the package install directory under the path name given as the first element of the tuple.
Rules for installation paths:
1. file.txt -> (., file.txt)-> parent/file.txt
2. foo/file.txt -> (foo, foo/file.txt) -> parent/foo/file.txt
3. /foo/bar/file.txt -> (., /foo/bar/file.txt) -> parent/file.txt
4. *.txt -> parent/a.txt, parent/b.txt
5. foo/*.txt -> parent/foo/a.txt, parent/foo/b.txt
6. /.txt -> (, */.txt) -> parent/c/a.txt, parent/d/b.txt
7. (sun, file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
8. (sun, bar/file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
9. (sun, /foo/bar/file.txt) -> parent/sun/file.txt
10. (sun, *.txt) -> parent/sun/a.txt, parent/sun/b.txt
11. (sun, bar/*.txt) -> parent/sun/a.txt, parent/sun/b.txt
12. (sun/, */.txt) -> parent/sun/c/a.txt, parent/d/b.txt
An additional feature is that the path to a data-file can actually be a function that takes no arguments and
returns the actual path(s) to the data-files. This is useful when the data files are generated while building
the package.
Examples
Add files to the list of data_files to be included with the package.
>>> self.add_data_files('foo.dat',
... ('fun', ['gun.dat', 'nun/pun.dat', '/tmp/sun.dat']),
... 'bar/cat.dat',
... '/full/path/to/can.dat')
will install these data files to:
<package install directory>/

foo.dat
fun/
gun.dat
nun/
pun.dat
sun.dat
bar/
car.dat
can.dat

where <package install directory> is the package (or sub-package) directory such as
‘/usr/lib/python2.4/site-packages/mypackage’ (‘C: Python2.4 Lib site-packages mypackage’) or
‘/usr/lib/python2.4/site- packages/mypackage/mysubpackage’ (‘C: Python2.4 Lib site-packages my-
package mysubpackage’).
add_data_dir(data_path)
Recursively add files under data_path to data_files list.
Recursively add files under data_path to the list of data_files to be installed (and distributed). The data_path
can be either a relative path-name, or an absolute path-name, or a 2-tuple where the first argument shows
where in the install directory the data directory should be installed to.
Parameters data_path : seq or str
Argument can be either
• 2-sequence (<datadir suffix>, <path to data directory>)
• path to data directory where python datadir suffix defaults to package dir.
Notes
Rules for installation paths:
foo/bar -> (foo/bar, foo/bar) -> parent/foo/bar

(gun, foo/bar) -> parent/gun
foo/* -> (foo/a, foo/a), (foo/b, foo/b) -> parent/foo/a, parent/foo/b
(gun, foo/*) -> (gun, foo/a), (gun, foo/b) -> gun
(gun/*, foo/*) -> parent/gun/a, parent/gun/b
/foo/bar -> (bar, /foo/bar) -> parent/bar
(gun, /foo/bar) -> parent/gun
(fun/*/gun/*, sun/foo/bar) -> parent/fun/foo/gun/bar
Examples
For example suppose the source directory contains fun/foo.dat and fun/bar/car.dat:
>>> self.add_data_dir('fun')
>>> self.add_data_dir(('sun', 'fun'))
>>> self.add_data_dir(('gun', '/full/path/to/fun'))
Will install data-files to the locations:
<package install directory>/

fun/
foo.dat
bar/
car.dat
sun/
foo.dat
bar/
car.dat
gun/
foo.dat
car.dat

add_include_dirs(*paths)
Add paths to configuration include directories.
Add the given sequence of paths to the beginning of the include_dirs list. This list will be visible to all
extension modules of the current package.
add_headers(*files)
Add installable headers to configuration.
Add the given sequence of files to the beginning of the headers list. By default, headers will be installed
under <python- include>/<self.name.replace(‘.’,’/’)>/ directory. If an item of files is a tuple, then its first
argument specifies the actual installation location relative to the <python-include> path.
Parameters files : str or seq
Argument(s) can be either:
• 2-sequence (<includedir suffix>,<path to header file(s)>)
• path(s) to header file(s) where python includedir suffix will default to package name.
add_extension(name, sources, **kw)
Add extension to configuration.
Create and add an Extension instance to the ext_modules list. This method also takes the following optional
keyword arguments that are passed on to the Extension constructor.
Parameters name : str
name of the extension
sources : seq
list of the sources. The list of sources may contain functions (called source generators)
which must take an extension instance and a build directory as inputs and return a source
file or list of source files or None. If None is returned then no sources are generated.
If the Extension instance has no sources after processing all source generators, then no
extension module is built.
include_dirs :
define_macros :
undef_macros :
library_dirs :
libraries :
runtime_library_dirs :
extra_objects :
extra_compile_args :
extra_link_args :
extra_f77_compile_args :
extra_f90_compile_args :
export_symbols :
swig_opts :
depends :

The depends list contains paths to files or directories that the sources of the extension
module depend on. If any path in the depends list is newer than the extension module,
then the module will be rebuilt.
language :
f2py_options :
module_dirs :
extra_info : dict or list
dict or list of dict of keywords to be appended to keywords.
Notes
The self.paths(. . . ) method is applied to all lists that may contain paths.
add_library(name, sources, **build_info)
Add library to configuration.
Name of the extension.
sources : sequence
List of the sources. The list of sources may contain functions (called source generators)
which must take an extension instance and a build directory as inputs and return a source
file or list of source files or None. If None is returned then no sources are generated.
If the Extension instance has no sources after processing all source generators, then no
extension module is built.
build_info : dict, optional
The following keys are allowed:
• depends
• macros
• include_dirs
• extra_compiler_args
• extra_f77_compile_args
• f2py_options
• language
add_scripts(*files)
Add scripts to configuration.
Add the sequence of files to the beginning of the scripts list. Scripts will be installed under the <prefix>/bin/
directory.
add_installed_library(name, sources, install_dir, build_info=None)
Similar to add_library, but the specified library is installed.
Most C libraries used with distutils are only used to build python extensions, but libraries built
through this method will be installed so that they can be reused by third-party packages.


Name of the installed library.
sources : sequence
List of the library’s source files. See add_library for details.
install_dir : str
Path to install the library, relative to the current sub-package.
build_info : dict, optional
The following keys are allowed:
• depends
• macros
• include_dirs
• extra_compiler_args
• f2py_options
• language
Returns None
See also:
add_library, add_npy_pkg_config, get_info
Notes
The best way to encode the options required to link against the specified C libraries is to use a “libname.ini”
file, and use get_info to retrieve the required options (see add_npy_pkg_config for more infor-
mation).
add_npy_pkg_config(template, install_dir, subst_dict=None)
Generate and install a npy-pkg config file from a template.
The config file generated from template is installed in the given install directory, using subst_dict for
variable substitution.
Parameters template : str
The path of the template, relatively to the current package path.
install_dir : str
Where to install the npy-pkg config file, relatively to the current package path.
subst_dict : dict, optional
If given, any string of the form @key@ will be replaced by subst_dict[key] in the
template file when installed. The install prefix is always available through the variable
@prefix@, since the install prefix is not easy to get reliably from setup.py.
See also:
add_installed_library, get_info

Notes
This works for both standard installs and in-place builds, i.e. the @prefix@ refer to the source directory
for in-place builds.
Examples
config.add_npy_pkg_config('foo.ini.in', 'lib', {'foo': bar})
Assuming the foo.ini.in file has the following content:
[meta]
Name=@foo@
Version=1.0
Description=dummy description
[default]
Cflags=-I@prefix@/include
Libs=
The generated file will have the following content:
[meta]
Name=bar
Version=1.0
Description=dummy description
[default]
Cflags=-Iprefix_dir/include
Libs=
and will be installed as foo.ini in the ‘lib’ subpath.

paths(*paths, **kws)
Apply glob to paths and prepend local_path if needed.
Applies glob.glob(. . . ) to each path in the sequence (if needed) and pre-pends the local_path if needed.
Because this is called on all source lists, this allows wildcard characters to be specified in lists of sources
for extension modules and libraries and scripts and allows path-names be relative to the source directory.
get_config_cmd()
Returns the numpy.distutils config command instance.
get_build_temp_dir()
Return a path to a temporary directory where temporary files should be placed.
have_f77c()
Check for availability of Fortran 77 compiler.
Use it inside source generating function to ensure that setup distribution instance has been initialized.
Notes
True if a Fortran 77 compiler is available (because a simple Fortran 77 code was able to be compiled
successfully).

have_f90c()
Check for availability of Fortran 90 compiler.
Use it inside source generating function to ensure that setup distribution instance has been initialized.
Notes
True if a Fortran 90 compiler is available (because a simple Fortran 90 code was able to be compiled
successfully)
get_version(version_file=None, version_variable=None)
Try to get version string of a package.
Return a version string of the current package or None if the version information could not be detected.
Notes
This method scans files named __version__.py, <packagename>_version.py, version.py, and

__svn_version__.py for string variables version, __version__, and <packagename>_version, until a ver-
sion number is found.
make_svn_version_py(delete=True)
Appends a data function to the data_files list that will generate __svn_version__.py file to the current
package directory.
Generate package __svn_version__.py file from SVN revision number, it will be removed after python
exits but will be available when sdist, etc commands are executed.
Notes
If __svn_version__.py existed before, nothing is done.

This is intended for working with source directories that are in an SVN repository.
make_config_py(name=’__config__’)
Generate package __config__.py file containing system_info information used during building the pack-
age.
This file is installed to the package installation directory.
get_info(*names)
Get resources information.
Return information (from system_info.get_info) for all of the names in the argument list in a single dictio-
nary.
4.1.2 Other modules
system_info.get_info(name[, notfound_action]) notfound_action:

system_info.get_standard_file(fname) Returns a list of files named ‘fname’ from
cpuinfo.cpu
log.set_verbosity(v[, force])
exec_command exec_command

numpy.distutils.system_info.get_info(name, notfound_action=0)
notfound_action: 0 - do nothing 1 - display warning message 2 - raise error
numpy.distutils.system_info.get_standard_file(fname)
Returns a list of files named ‘fname’ from 1) System-wide directory (directory-location of this module) 2) Users
HOME directory (os.environ[‘HOME’]) 3) Local directory
numpy.distutils.cpuinfo.cpu = <numpy.distutils.cpuinfo.LinuxCPUInfo object>
numpy.distutils.log.set_verbosity(v, force=False)
exec_command
Implements exec_command function that is (almost) equivalent to commands.getstatusoutput function but on NT,
DOS systems the returned status is actually correct (though, the returned status values may be different by a factor).
In addition, exec_command takes keyword arguments for (re-)defining environment variables.
Provides functions:
exec_command — execute command in a specified directory and in the modified environment.
find_executable — locate a command using info from environment variable PATH. Equivalent to
posix which command.
Author: Pearu Peterson <pearu@cens.ioc.ee> Created: 11 January 2003
Requires: Python 2.x
Successfully tested on:
os.name
sys.platform
comments
posix linux2 Debian (sid) Linux, Python 2.1.3+, 2.2.3+, 2.3.3 PyCrust 0.9.3, Idle 1.0.2
posix linux2 Red Hat 9 Linux, Python 2.1.3, 2.2.2, 2.3.2
posix sunos5 SunOS 5.9, Python 2.2, 2.3.2
posix dar- Darwin 7.2.0, Python 2.3
win
nt win32 Windows Me Python 2.3(EE), Idle 1.0, PyCrust 0.7.2 Python 2.1.1 Idle 0.8
nt win32 Windows 98, Python 2.1.1. Idle 0.8
nt win32 Cygwin 98-4.10, Python 2.1.1(MSC) - echo tests fail i.e. redefining environment variables may not
work. FIXED: don’t use cygwin echo! Comment: also cmd /c echo will not work but redefining
environment variables do work.
posix cyg- Cygwin 98-4.10, Python 2.3.3(cygming special)
win
nt win32 Windows XP, Python 2.3.3
Known bugs:
• Tests, that send messages to stderr, fail when executed from MSYS prompt because the messages are lost at
some point.
Functions
exec_command(command[, execute_in, . . . ]) Return (status,output) of executed command.

find_executable(exe[, path, _cache]) Return full path of a executable or None.
get_pythonexe()
temp_file_name()

4.2 Building Installable C libraries
Conventional C libraries (installed through add_library) are not installed, and are just used during the build (they
are statically linked). An installable C library is a pure C library, which does not depend on the python C runtime,
and is installed such that it may be used by third-party packages. To build and install the C library, you just use
the method add_installed_library instead of add_library, which takes the same arguments except for an additional
install_dir argument:
>>> config.add_installed_library('foo', sources=['foo.c'], install_dir='lib')
4.2.1 npy-pkg-config files
To make the necessary build options available to third parties, you could use the npy-pkg-config mechanism imple-
mented in numpy.distutils. This mechanism is based on a .ini file which contains all the options. A .ini file is
very similar to .pc files as used by the pkg-config unix utility:
[meta]
Name: foo
Version: 1.0
Description: foo library
[variables]
prefix = /home/user/local
libdir = ${prefix}/lib
includedir = ${prefix}/include
[default]
cflags = -I${includedir}
libs = -L${libdir} -lfoo
Generally, the file needs to be generated during the build, since it needs some information known at build time only
(e.g. prefix). This is mostly automatic if one uses the Configuration method add_npy_pkg_config. Assuming we have
a template file foo.ini.in as follows:
[meta]
Name: foo
Version: @version@
Description: foo library
[variables]
prefix = @prefix@
libdir = ${prefix}/lib
includedir = ${prefix}/include
[default]
cflags = -I${includedir}
libs = -L${libdir} -lfoo
and the following code in setup.py:
>>> config.add_installed_library('foo', sources=['foo.c'], install_dir='lib')

>>> subst = {'version': '1.0'}
>>> config.add_npy_pkg_config('foo.ini.in', 'lib', subst_dict=subst)

This will install the file foo.ini into the directory package_dir/lib, and the foo.ini file will be generated from foo.ini.in,
where each @version@ will be replaced by subst_dict['version']. The dictionary has an additional prefix
substitution rule automatically added, which contains the install prefix (since this is not easy to get from setup.py).
npy-pkg-config files can also be installed at the same location as used for numpy, using the path returned from
get_npy_pkg_dir function.
4.2.2 Reusing a C library from another package
Info are easily retrieved from the get_info function in numpy.distutils.misc_util:
>>> info = get_info('npymath')

>>> config.add_extension('foo', sources=['foo.c'], extra_info=**info)
An additional list of paths to look for .ini files can be given to get_info.
4.3 Conversion of .src files
NumPy distutils supports automatic conversion of source files named <somefile>.src. This facility can be used to
maintain very similar code blocks requiring only simple changes between blocks. During the build phase of setup, if
a template file named <somefile>.src is encountered, a new file named <somefile> is constructed from the template
and placed in the build directory to be used instead. Two forms of template conversion are supported. The first form
occurs for files named <file>.ext.src where ext is a recognized Fortran extension (f, f90, f95, f77, for, ftn, pyf). The
second form is used for all other cases.
4.3.1 Fortran files
This template converter will replicate all function and subroutine blocks in the file with names that contain ‘<. . . >’
according to the rules in ‘<. . . >’. The number of comma-separated words in ‘<. . . >’ determines the number of times
the block is repeated. What these words are indicates what that repeat rule, ‘<. . . >’, should be replaced with in each
block. All of the repeat rules in a block must contain the same number of comma-separated words indicating the
number of times that block should be repeated. If the word in the repeat rule needs a comma, leftarrow, or rightarrow,
then prepend it with a backslash ‘ ‘. If a word in the repeat rule matches ‘ \<index>’ then it will be replaced with the
<index>-th word in the same repeat specification. There are two forms for the repeat rule: named and short.
Named repeat rule
A named repeat rule is useful when the same set of repeats must be used several times in a block. It is specified using
<rule1=item1, item2, item3,. . . , itemN>, where N is the number of times the block should be repeated. On each repeat
of the block, the entire expression, ‘<. . . >’ will be replaced first with item1, and then with item2, and so forth until N
repeats are accomplished. Once a named repeat specification has been introduced, the same repeat rule may be used
in the current block by referring only to the name (i.e. <rule1>.
Short repeat rule
A short repeat rule looks like <item1, item2, item3, . . . , itemN>. The rule specifies that the entire expression, ‘<. . . >’
should be replaced first with item1, and then with item2, and so forth until N repeats are accomplished.
4.3. Conversion of .src files 1197

Pre-defined names
The following predefined named repeat rules are available:

• <prefix=s,d,c,z>
• <_c=s,d,c,z>
• <_t=real, double precision, complex, double complex>
• <ftype=real, double precision, complex, double complex>
• <ctype=float, double, complex_float, complex_double>
• <ftypereal=float, double precision, \0, \1>
• <ctypereal=float, double, \0, \1>
4.3.2 Other files
Non-Fortran files use a separate syntax for defining template blocks that should be repeated using a variable expansion
similar to the named repeat rules of the Fortran-specific repeats. The template rules for these files are:
1. “/**begin repeat “on a line by itself marks the beginning of a segment that should be repeated.
2. Named variable expansions are defined using #name=item1, item2, item3, . . . , itemN# and placed on successive
lines. These variables are replaced in each repeat block with corresponding word. All named variables in the
same repeat block must define the same number of words.
3. In specifying the repeat rule for a named variable, item*N is short- hand for item, item, . . . , item repeated N
times. In addition, parenthesis in combination with *N can be used for grouping several items that should be
repeated. Thus, #name=(item1, item2)*4# is equivalent to #name=item1, item2, item1, item2, item1, item2,
item1, item2#
4. “*/ “on a line by itself marks the end of the variable expansion naming. The next line is the first line that will be
repeated using the named rules.
5. Inside the block to be repeated, the variables that should be expanded are specified as @name@.
6. “/**end repeat**/ “on a line by itself marks the previous line as the last line of the block to be repeated.

CHAPTER
FIVE
NUMPY C-API
Beware of the man who won’t be bothered with details.

— William Feather, Sr.
The truth is out there.

— Chris Carter, The X Files
NumPy provides a C-API to enable users to extend the system and get access to the array object for use in other
routines. The best way to truly understand the C-API is to read the source code. If you are unfamiliar with (C) source
code, however, this can be a daunting experience at first. Be assured that the task becomes easier with practice, and
you may be surprised at how simple the C-code can be to understand. Even if you don’t think you can write C-code
from scratch, it is much easier to understand and modify already-written source code then create it de novo.
Python extensions are especially straightforward to understand because they all have a very similar structure. Admit-
tedly, NumPy is not a trivial extension to Python, and may take a little more snooping to grasp. This is especially true
because of the code-generation techniques, which simplify maintenance of very similar code, but can make the code a
little less readable to beginners. Still, with a little persistence, the code can be opened to your understanding. It is my
hope, that this guide to the C-API can assist in the process of becoming familiar with the compiled-level work that can
be done with NumPy in order to squeeze that last bit of necessary speed out of your code.
5.1 Python Types and C-Structures
Several new types are defined in the C-code. Most of these are accessible from Python, but a few are not exposed due
to their limited use. Every new Python type has an associated PyObject * with an internal structure that includes
a pointer to a “method table” that defines how the new object behaves in Python. When you receive a Python object
into C code, you always get a pointer to a PyObject structure. Because a PyObject structure is very generic and
defines only PyObject_HEAD, by itself it is not very interesting. However, different objects contain more details
after the PyObject_HEAD (but you have to cast to the correct type to access them — or use accessor functions or
macros).
5.1.1 New Python Types Defined
Python types are the functional equivalent in C of classes in Python. By constructing a new Python type you make
available a new object for Python. The ndarray object is an example of a new type defined in C. New types are defined
in C by two basic steps:
1. creating a C-structure (usually named Py{Name}Object) that is binary- compatible with the PyObject
structure itself but holds the additional information needed for that particular object;
1199
2. populating the PyTypeObject table (pointed to by the ob_type member of the PyObject structure) with
pointers to functions that implement the desired behavior for the type.
Instead of special method names which define behavior for Python classes, there are “function tables” which point to
functions that implement the desired results. Since Python 2.2, the PyTypeObject itself has become dynamic which
allows C types that can be “sub-typed “from other C-types in C, and sub-classed in Python. The children types inherit
the attributes and methods from their parent(s).
There are two major new types: the ndarray ( PyArray_Type ) and the ufunc ( PyUFunc_Type ). Ad-
ditional types play a supportive role: the PyArrayIter_Type, the PyArrayMultiIter_Type, and the
PyArrayDescr_Type . The PyArrayIter_Type is the type for a flat iterator for an ndarray (the object that
is returned when getting the flat attribute). The PyArrayMultiIter_Type is the type of the object returned
when calling broadcast (). It handles iteration and broadcasting over a collection of nested sequences. Also, the
PyArrayDescr_Type is the data-type-descriptor type whose instances describe the data. Finally, there are 21 new
scalar-array types which are new Python scalars corresponding to each of the fundamental data types available for
arrays. An additional 10 other types are place holders that allow the array scalars to fit into a hierarchy of actual
Python types.
PyArray_Type
PyArray_Type
The Python type of the ndarray is PyArray_Type. In C, every ndarray is a pointer to a PyArrayObject
structure. The ob_type member of this structure contains a pointer to the PyArray_Type typeobject.
PyArrayObject
The PyArrayObject C-structure contains all of the required information for an array. All instances of an
ndarray (and its subclasses) will have this structure. For future compatibility, these structure members should
normally be accessed using the provided macros. If you need a shorter name, then you can make use of NPY_AO
which is defined to be equivalent to PyArrayObject.
typedef struct PyArrayObject {

PyObject_HEAD
char *data;
int nd;
npy_intp *dimensions;
npy_intp *strides;
PyObject *base;
PyArray_Descr *descr;
int flags;
PyObject *weakreflist;
} PyArrayObject;
char *PyArrayObject.data
A pointer to the first element of the array. This pointer can (and normally should) be recast to the data type of
the array.
int PyArrayObject.nd
An integer providing the number of dimensions for this array. When nd is 0, the array is sometimes called a
rank-0 array. Such arrays have undefined dimensions and strides and cannot be accessed. NPY_MAXDIMS is
the largest number of dimensions for any array.
npy_intp PyArrayObject.dimensions
An array of integers providing the shape in each dimension as long as nd ≥ 1. The integer is always large
enough to hold a pointer on the platform, so the dimension size is only limited by memory.
npy_intp *PyArrayObject.strides
An array of integers providing for each dimension the number of bytes that must be skipped to get to the next
1200 Chapter 5. NumPy C-API

element in that dimension.

PyObject *PyArrayObject.base
This member is used to hold a pointer to another Python object that is related to this array. There are two
use cases: 1) If this array does not own its own memory, then base points to the Python object that owns
it (perhaps another array object), 2) If this array has the (deprecated) NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY or
:c:data:NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY‘: flag set, then this array is a working copy of a “misbehaved”
array. When PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called, the array pointed to by base will be updated
with the contents of this array.
PyArray_Descr *PyArrayObject.descr
A pointer to a data-type descriptor object (see below). The data-type descriptor object is an instance of a new
built-in type which allows a generic description of memory. There is a descriptor structure for each data type
supported. This descriptor structure contains useful information about the type as well as a pointer to a table of
function pointers to implement specific functionality.
int PyArrayObject.flags
Flags indicating how the memory pointed to by data is to be interpreted. Possible flags
are NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA,
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY, and
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY.
PyObject *PyArrayObject.weakreflist
This member allows array objects to have weak references (using the weakref module).
PyArrayDescr_Type
PyArrayDescr_Type
The PyArrayDescr_Type is the built-in type of the data-type-descriptor objects used to describe how
the bytes comprising the array are to be interpreted. There are 21 statically-defined PyArray_Descr ob-
jects for the built-in data-types. While these participate in reference counting, their reference count should
never reach zero. There is also a dynamic table of user-defined PyArray_Descr objects that is also main-
tained. Once a data-type-descriptor object is “registered” it should never be deallocated either. The function
PyArray_DescrFromType (. . . ) can be used to retrieve a PyArray_Descr object from an enumerated
type-number (either built-in or user- defined).
PyArray_Descr
The format of the PyArray_Descr structure that lies at the heart of the PyArrayDescr_Type is
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
PyTypeObject *typeobj;
char kind;
char type;
char byteorder;
char unused;
int flags;
int type_num;
int elsize;
int alignment;
PyArray_ArrayDescr *subarray;
PyObject *fields;
PyArray_ArrFuncs *f;
} PyArray_Descr;
PyTypeObject *PyArray_Descr.typeobj
Pointer to a typeobject that is the corresponding Python type for the elements of this array. For the builtin
5.1. Python Types and C-Structures 1201

types, this points to the corresponding array scalar. For user-defined types, this should point to a user-defined
typeobject. This typeobject can either inherit from array scalars or not. If it does not inherit from array scalars,
then the NPY_USE_GETITEM and NPY_USE_SETITEM flags should be set in the flags member.
char PyArray_Descr.kind
A character code indicating the kind of array (using the array interface typestring notation). A ‘b’ represents
Boolean, a ‘i’ represents signed integer, a ‘u’ represents unsigned integer, ‘f’ represents floating point, ‘c’
represents complex floating point, ‘S’ represents 8-bit zero-terminated bytes, ‘U’ represents 32-bit/character
unicode string, and ‘V’ represents arbitrary.
char PyArray_Descr.type
A traditional character code indicating the data type.
char PyArray_Descr.byteorder
A character indicating the byte-order: ‘>’ (big-endian), ‘<’ (little- endian), ‘=’ (native), ‘|’ (irrelevant, ignore).
All builtin data- types have byteorder ‘=’.
int PyArray_Descr.flags
A data-type bit-flag that determines if the data-type exhibits object- array like behavior. Each bit in this member
is a flag which are named as:
NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT
NPY_ITEM_HASOBJECT
Indicates that items of this data-type must be reference counted (using Py_INCREF and Py_DECREF ).
NPY_LIST_PICKLE
Indicates arrays of this data-type must be converted to a list before pickling.
NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER
Indicates the item is a pointer to some other data-type
NPY_NEEDS_INIT
Indicates memory for this data-type must be initialized (set to 0) on creation.
NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI
Indicates this data-type requires the Python C-API during access (so don’t give up the GIL if array access
is going to be needed).
NPY_USE_GETITEM
On array access use the f->getitem function pointer instead of the standard conversion to an array
scalar. Must use if you don’t define an array scalar to go along with the data-type.
NPY_USE_SETITEM
When creating a 0-d array from an array scalar use f->setitem instead of the standard copy from an
array scalar. Must use if you don’t define an array scalar to go along with the data-type.
NPY_FROM_FIELDS
The bits that are inherited for the parent data-type if these bits are set in any field of the data-type. Currently
( NPY_NEEDS_INIT | NPY_LIST_PICKLE | NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT | NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI ).
NPY_OBJECT_DTYPE_FLAGS
Bits set for the object data-type: ( NPY_LIST_PICKLE | NPY_USE_GETITEM |
NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER | NPY_REFCOUNT | NPY_NEEDS_INIT | NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI).
PyDataType_FLAGCHK(PyArray_Descr *dtype, int flags)
Return true if all the given flags are set for the data-type object.
PyDataType_REFCHK(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Equivalent to PyDataType_FLAGCHK (dtype, NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT).

int PyArray_Descr.type_num
A number that uniquely identifies the data type. For new data-types, this number is assigned when the data-type
is registered.
int PyArray_Descr.elsize
For data types that are always the same size (such as long), this holds the size of the data type. For flexible data
types where different arrays can have a different elementsize, this should be 0.
int PyArray_Descr.alignment
A number providing alignment information for this data type. Specifically, it shows how far from the
start of a 2-element structure (whose first element is a char ), the compiler places an item of this type:
offsetof(struct {char c; type v;}, v)
PyArray_ArrayDescr *PyArray_Descr.subarray
If this is non- NULL, then this data-type descriptor is a C-style contiguous array of another data-type descriptor.
In other-words, each element that this descriptor describes is actually an array of some other base descriptor.
This is most useful as the data-type descriptor for a field in another data-type descriptor. The fields member
should be NULL if this is non- NULL (the fields member of the base descriptor can be non- NULL however). The
PyArray_ArrayDescr structure is defined using
typedef struct {
PyArray_Descr *base;
PyObject *shape;
} PyArray_ArrayDescr;
The elements of this structure are:

PyArray_Descr *PyArray_ArrayDescr.base
The data-type-descriptor object of the base-type.
PyObject *PyArray_ArrayDescr.shape
The shape (always C-style contiguous) of the sub-array as a Python tuple.
PyObject *PyArray_Descr.fields
If this is non-NULL, then this data-type-descriptor has fields described by a Python dictionary whose keys
are names (and also titles if given) and whose values are tuples that describe the fields. Recall that a data-
type-descriptor always describes a fixed-length set of bytes. A field is a named sub-region of that total, fixed-
length collection. A field is described by a tuple composed of another data- type-descriptor and a byte offset.
Optionally, the tuple may contain a title which is normally a Python string. These tuples are placed in this
dictionary keyed by name (and also title if given).
PyArray_ArrFuncs *PyArray_Descr.f
A pointer to a structure containing functions that the type needs to implement internal features. These functions
are not the same thing as the universal functions (ufuncs) described later. Their signatures can vary arbitrarily.
PyArray_ArrFuncs
Functions implementing internal features. Not all of these function pointers must be defined for a given type.
The required members are nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn, setitem, getitem, and cast. These are
assumed to be non- NULL and NULL entries will cause a program crash. The other functions may be NULL
which will just mean reduced functionality for that data-type. (Also, the nonzero function will be filled in with
a default function if it is NULL when you register a user-defined data-type).
typedef struct {
PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc *cast[NPY_NTYPES];
PyArray_GetItemFunc *getitem;
PyArray_SetItemFunc *setitem;
PyArray_CopySwapNFunc *copyswapn;
PyArray_CopySwapFunc *copyswap;
PyArray_CompareFunc *compare;

PyArray_ArgFunc *argmax;
PyArray_DotFunc *dotfunc;
PyArray_ScanFunc *scanfunc;
PyArray_FromStrFunc *fromstr;
PyArray_NonzeroFunc *nonzero;
PyArray_FillFunc *fill;
PyArray_FillWithScalarFunc *fillwithscalar;
PyArray_SortFunc *sort[NPY_NSORTS];
PyArray_ArgSortFunc *argsort[NPY_NSORTS];
PyObject *castdict;
PyArray_ScalarKindFunc *scalarkind;
int **cancastscalarkindto;
int *cancastto;
PyArray_FastClipFunc *fastclip;
PyArray_FastPutmaskFunc *fastputmask;
PyArray_FastTakeFunc *fasttake;
PyArray_ArgFunc *argmin;
} PyArray_ArrFuncs;
The concept of a behaved segment is used in the description of the function pointers. A behaved segment is one
that is aligned and in native machine byte-order for the data-type. The nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn,
getitem, and setitem functions can (and must) deal with mis-behaved arrays. The other functions require
behaved memory segments.
void cast(void *from, void *to, npy_intp n, void *fromarr, void *toarr)
An array of function pointers to cast from the current type to all of the other builtin types. Each func-
tion casts a contiguous, aligned, and notswapped buffer pointed at by from to a contiguous, aligned, and
notswapped buffer pointed at by to The number of items to cast is given by n, and the arguments fromarr
and toarr are interpreted as PyArrayObjects for flexible arrays to get itemsize information.
PyObject *getitem(void *data, void *arr)
A pointer to a function that returns a standard Python object from a single element of the array object arr
pointed to by data. This function must be able to deal with “misbehaved “(misaligned and/or swapped)
arrays correctly.
int setitem(PyObject *item, void *data, void *arr)
A pointer to a function that sets the Python object item into the array, arr, at the position pointed to by data
. This function deals with “misbehaved” arrays. If successful, a zero is returned, otherwise, a negative one
is returned (and a Python error set).
void copyswapn(void *dest, npy_intp dstride, void *src, npy_intp sstride, npy_intp n, int swap,
void *arr)
void copyswap(void *dest, void *src, int swap, void *arr)
These members are both pointers to functions to copy data from src to dest and swap if indicated. The
value of arr is only used for flexible ( NPY_STRING, NPY_UNICODE, and NPY_VOID ) arrays (and
is obtained from arr->descr->elsize ). The second function copies a single value, while the first
loops over n values with the provided strides. These functions can deal with misbehaved src data. If src
is NULL then no copy is performed. If swap is 0, then no byteswapping occurs. It is assumed that dest
and src do not overlap. If they overlap, then use memmove (. . . ) first followed by copyswap(n) with
NULL valued src.
int compare(const void* d1, const void* d2, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that compares two elements of the array, arr, pointed to by d1 and d2. This
function requires behaved (aligned and not swapped) arrays. The return value is 1 if * d1 > * d2, 0 if *
d1 == * d2, and -1 if * d1 < * d2. The array object arr is used to retrieve itemsize and field information
for flexible arrays.

int argmax(void* data, npy_intp n, npy_intp* max_ind, void* arr)

A pointer to a function that retrieves the index of the largest of n elements in arr beginning at the element
pointed to by data. This function requires that the memory segment be contiguous and behaved. The
return value is always 0. The index of the largest element is returned in max_ind.
void dotfunc(void* ip1, npy_intp is1, void* ip2, npy_intp is2, void* op, npy_intp n, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that multiplies two n -length sequences together, adds them, and places the result
in element pointed to by op of arr. The start of the two sequences are pointed to by ip1 and ip2. To get
to the next element in each sequence requires a jump of is1 and is2 bytes, respectively. This function
requires behaved (though not necessarily contiguous) memory.
int scanfunc(FILE* fd, void* ip, void* sep, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that scans (scanf style) one element of the corresponding type from the file descrip-
tor fd into the array memory pointed to by ip. The array is assumed to be behaved. If sep is not NULL,
then a separator string is also scanned from the file before returning. The last argument arr is the array
to be scanned into. A 0 is returned if the scan is successful. A negative number indicates something went
wrong: -1 means the end of file was reached before the separator string could be scanned, -4 means that
the end of file was reached before the element could be scanned, and -3 means that the element could not
be interpreted from the format string. Requires a behaved array.
int fromstr(char* str, void* ip, char** endptr, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that converts the string pointed to by str to one element of the corresponding type
and places it in the memory location pointed to by ip. After the conversion is completed, *endptr points
to the rest of the string. The last argument arr is the array into which ip points (needed for variable-size
data- types). Returns 0 on success or -1 on failure. Requires a behaved array.
Bool nonzero(void* data, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that returns TRUE if the item of arr pointed to by data is nonzero. This function
can deal with misbehaved arrays.
void fill(void* data, npy_intp length, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that fills a contiguous array of given length with data. The first two elements of
the array must already be filled- in. From these two values, a delta will be computed and the values from
item 3 to the end will be computed by repeatedly adding this computed delta. The data buffer must be
well-behaved.
void fillwithscalar(void* buffer, npy_intp length, void* value, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that fills a contiguous buffer of the given length with a single scalar value
whose address is given. The final argument is the array which is needed to get the itemsize for variable-
length arrays.
int sort(void* start, npy_intp length, void* arr)
An array of function pointers to a particular sorting algorithms. A particular sorting algorithm is obtained
using a key (so far NPY_QUICKSORT, NPY_HEAPSORT, and NPY_MERGESORT are defined). These
sorts are done in-place assuming contiguous and aligned data.
int argsort(void* start, npy_intp* result, npy_intp length, void *arr)
An array of function pointers to sorting algorithms for this data type. The same sorting algorithms as for
sort are available. The indices producing the sort are returned in result (which must be initialized with
indices 0 to length-1 inclusive).
PyObject *castdict
Either NULL or a dictionary containing low-level casting functions for user- defined data-types. Each
function is wrapped in a PyCObject * and keyed by the data-type number.
NPY_SCALARKIND scalarkind(PyArrayObject* arr)
A function to determine how scalars of this type should be interpreted. The argument is NULL or a 0-
dimensional array containing the data (if that is needed to determine the kind of scalar). The return value
must be of type NPY_SCALARKIND.

int **cancastscalarkindto
Either NULL or an array of NPY_NSCALARKINDS pointers. These pointers should each be either NULL
or a pointer to an array of integers (terminated by NPY_NOTYPE) indicating data-types that a scalar of this
data-type of the specified kind can be cast to safely (this usually means without losing precision).
int *cancastto
Either NULL or an array of integers (terminated by NPY_NOTYPE ) indicated data-types that this data-type
can be cast to safely (this usually means without losing precision).
void fastclip(void *in, npy_intp n_in, void *min, void *max, void *out)
A function that reads n_in items from in, and writes to out the read value if it is within the limits pointed
to by min and max, or the corresponding limit if outside. The memory segments must be contiguous and
behaved, and either min or max may be NULL, but not both.
void fastputmask(void *in, void *mask, npy_intp n_in, void *values, npy_intp nv)
A function that takes a pointer in to an array of n_in items, a pointer mask to an array of n_in boolean
values, and a pointer vals to an array of nv items. Items from vals are copied into in wherever the
value in mask is non-zero, tiling vals as needed if nv < n_in. All arrays must be contiguous and
behaved.
void fasttake(void *dest, void *src, npy_intp *indarray, npy_intp nindarray, npy_intp n_outer,
npy_intp m_middle, npy_intp nelem, NPY_CLIPMODE clipmode)
A function that takes a pointer src to a C contiguous, behaved segment, interpreted as a 3-dimensional ar-
ray of shape (n_outer, nindarray, nelem), a pointer indarray to a contiguous, behaved seg-
ment of m_middle integer indices, and a pointer dest to a C contiguous, behaved segment, interpreted
as a 3-dimensional array of shape (n_outer, m_middle, nelem). The indices in indarray are
used to index src along the second dimension, and copy the corresponding chunks of nelem items into
dest. clipmode (which can take on the values NPY_RAISE, NPY_WRAP or NPY_CLIP) determines
how will indices smaller than 0 or larger than nindarray will be handled.
int argmin(void* data, npy_intp n, npy_intp* min_ind, void* arr)
A pointer to a function that retrieves the index of the smallest of n elements in arr beginning at the
element pointed to by data. This function requires that the memory segment be contiguous and behaved.
The return value is always 0. The index of the smallest element is returned in min_ind.
The PyArray_Type typeobject implements many of the features of Python objects including the tp_as_number,
tp_as_sequence, tp_as_mapping, and tp_as_buffer interfaces. The rich comparison (tp_richcompare) is also used
along with new-style attribute lookup for methods (tp_methods) and properties (tp_getset). The PyArray_Type can
also be sub-typed.
Tip: The tp_as_number methods use a generic approach to call whatever function has been registered for handling
the operation. The function PyNumeric_SetOps(..) can be used to register functions to handle particular mathematical
operations (for all arrays). When the umath module is imported, it sets the numeric operations for all arrays to the
corresponding ufuncs. The tp_str and tp_repr methods can also be altered using PyString_SetStringFunction(. . . ).
PyUFunc_Type
PyUFunc_Type
The ufunc object is implemented by creation of the PyUFunc_Type. It is a very simple type that implements
only basic getattribute behavior, printing behavior, and has call behavior which allows these objects to act like
functions. The basic idea behind the ufunc is to hold a reference to fast 1-dimensional (vector) loops for each
data type that supports the operation. These one-dimensional loops all have the same signature and are the
key to creating a new ufunc. They are called by the generic looping code as appropriate to implement the N-
dimensional function. There are also some generic 1-d loops defined for floating and complexfloating arrays
that allow you to define a ufunc using a single scalar function (e.g. atanh).

PyUFuncObject
The core of the ufunc is the PyUFuncObject which contains all the information needed to call the underlying
C-code loops that perform the actual work. It has the following structure:
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int nin;
int nout;
int nargs;
int identity;
PyUFuncGenericFunction *functions;
void **data;
int ntypes;
int reserved1;
const char *name;
char *types;
const char *doc;
void *ptr;
PyObject *obj;
PyObject *userloops;
npy_uint32 *op_flags;
npy_uint32 *iter_flags;
} PyUFuncObject;
int PyUFuncObject.nin
The number of input arguments.
int PyUFuncObject.nout
The number of output arguments.
int PyUFuncObject.nargs
The total number of arguments (nin + nout). This must be less than NPY_MAXARGS.
int PyUFuncObject.identity
Either PyUFunc_One, PyUFunc_Zero, PyUFunc_None or PyUFunc_AllOnes to indicate the
identity for this operation. It is only used for a reduce-like call on an empty array.
void PyUFuncObject.functions(char** args, npy_intp* dims,
npy_intp* steps, void* extradata)
An array of function pointers — one for each data type supported by the ufunc. This is the vector loop
that is called to implement the underlying function dims [0] times. The first argument, args, is an array of
nargs pointers to behaved memory. Pointers to the data for the input arguments are first, followed by the
pointers to the data for the output arguments. How many bytes must be skipped to get to the next element
in the sequence is specified by the corresponding entry in the steps array. The last argument allows the
loop to receive extra information. This is commonly used so that a single, generic vector loop can be used
for multiple functions. In this case, the actual scalar function to call is passed in as extradata. The size of
this function pointer array is ntypes.
void **PyUFuncObject.data
Extra data to be passed to the 1-d vector loops or NULL if no extra-data is needed. This C-array must be
the same size ( i.e. ntypes) as the functions array. NULL is used if extra_data is not needed. Several C-API
calls for UFuncs are just 1-d vector loops that make use of this extra data to receive a pointer to the actual
function to call.
int PyUFuncObject.ntypes
The number of supported data types for the ufunc. This number specifies how many different 1-d loops (of
the builtin data types) are available.
char *PyUFuncObject.name

A string name for the ufunc. This is used dynamically to build the __doc__ attribute of ufuncs.
char *PyUFuncObject.types
An array of 𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑠 × 𝑛𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑠 8-bit type_numbers which contains the type signature for the function for
each of the supported (builtin) data types. For each of the ntypes functions, the corresponding set of type
numbers in this array shows how the args argument should be interpreted in the 1-d vector loop. These
type numbers do not have to be the same type and mixed-type ufuncs are supported.
char *PyUFuncObject.doc
Documentation for the ufunc. Should not contain the function signature as this is generated dynamically
when __doc__ is retrieved.
void *PyUFuncObject.ptr
Any dynamically allocated memory. Currently, this is used for dynamic ufuncs created from a python
function to store room for the types, data, and name members.
PyObject *PyUFuncObject.obj
For ufuncs dynamically created from python functions, this member holds a reference to the underlying
Python function.
PyObject *PyUFuncObject.userloops
A dictionary of user-defined 1-d vector loops (stored as CObject ptrs) for user-defined types. A loop may
be registered by the user for any user-defined type. It is retrieved by type number. User defined type
numbers are always larger than NPY_USERDEF.
npy_uint32 PyUFuncObject.op_flags
Override the default operand flags for each ufunc operand.
npy_uint32 PyUFuncObject.iter_flags
Override the default nditer flags for the ufunc.
PyArrayIter_Type
PyArrayIter_Type
This is an iterator object that makes it easy to loop over an N-dimensional array. It is the object returned from
the flat attribute of an ndarray. It is also used extensively throughout the implementation internals to loop over
an N-dimensional array. The tp_as_mapping interface is implemented so that the iterator object can be indexed
(using 1-d indexing), and a few methods are implemented through the tp_methods table. This object implements
the next method and can be used anywhere an iterator can be used in Python.
PyArrayIterObject
The C-structure corresponding to an object of PyArrayIter_Type is the PyArrayIterObject. The
PyArrayIterObject is used to keep track of a pointer into an N-dimensional array. It contains associated
information used to quickly march through the array. The pointer can be adjusted in three basic ways: 1) advance
to the “next” position in the array in a C-style contiguous fashion, 2) advance to an arbitrary N-dimensional
coordinate in the array, and 3) advance to an arbitrary one-dimensional index into the array. The members of
the PyArrayIterObject structure are used in these calculations. Iterator objects keep their own dimension
and strides information about an array. This can be adjusted as needed for “broadcasting,” or to loop over only
specific dimensions.
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int nd_m1;
npy_intp index;
npy_intp size;
npy_intp coordinates[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp dims_m1[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp strides[NPY_MAXDIMS];

npy_intp backstrides[NPY_MAXDIMS];
npy_intp factors[NPY_MAXDIMS];
PyArrayObject *ao;
char *dataptr;
Bool contiguous;
} PyArrayIterObject;
int PyArrayIterObject.nd_m1
𝑁 − 1 where 𝑁 is the number of dimensions in the underlying array.
npy_intp PyArrayIterObject.index
The current 1-d index into the array.
npy_intp PyArrayIterObject.size
The total size of the underlying array.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.coordinates
An 𝑁 -dimensional index into the array.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.dims_m1
The size of the array minus 1 in each dimension.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.strides
The strides of the array. How many bytes needed to jump to the next element in each dimension.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.backstrides
How many bytes needed to jump from the end of a dimension back to its beginning. Note that
backstrides[k] == strides[k] * dims_m1[k], but it is stored here as an optimization.
npy_intp *PyArrayIterObject.factors
This array is used in computing an N-d index from a 1-d index. It contains needed products of the dimen-
sions.
PyArrayObject *PyArrayIterObject.ao
A pointer to the underlying ndarray this iterator was created to represent.
char *PyArrayIterObject.dataptr
This member points to an element in the ndarray indicated by the index.
Bool PyArrayIterObject.contiguous
This flag is true if the underlying array is NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS. It is used to simplify calcula-
tions when possible.
How to use an array iterator on a C-level is explained more fully in later sections. Typically, you do not need to
concern yourself with the internal structure of the iterator object, and merely interact with it through the use of the
macros PyArray_ITER_NEXT (it), PyArray_ITER_GOTO (it, dest), or PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D (it, index).
All of these macros require the argument it to be a PyArrayIterObject *.
PyArrayMultiIter_Type
PyArrayMultiIter_Type
This type provides an iterator that encapsulates the concept of broadcasting. It allows 𝑁 arrays to be broadcast
together so that the loop progresses in C-style contiguous fashion over the broadcasted array. The corresponding
C-structure is the PyArrayMultiIterObject whose memory layout must begin any object, obj, passed in
to the PyArray_Broadcast (obj) function. Broadcasting is performed by adjusting array iterators so that
each iterator represents the broadcasted shape and size, but has its strides adjusted so that the correct element
from the array is used at each iteration.

PyArrayMultiIterObject
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
int numiter;
npy_intp size;
npy_intp index;
int nd;
npy_intp dimensions[NPY_MAXDIMS];
PyArrayIterObject *iters[NPY_MAXDIMS];
} PyArrayMultiIterObject;
int PyArrayMultiIterObject.numiter
The number of arrays that need to be broadcast to the same shape.
npy_intp PyArrayMultiIterObject.size
The total broadcasted size.
npy_intp PyArrayMultiIterObject.index
The current (1-d) index into the broadcasted result.
int PyArrayMultiIterObject.nd
The number of dimensions in the broadcasted result.
npy_intp *PyArrayMultiIterObject.dimensions
The shape of the broadcasted result (only nd slots are used).
PyArrayIterObject **PyArrayMultiIterObject.iters
An array of iterator objects that holds the iterators for the arrays to be broadcast together. On return, the
iterators are adjusted for broadcasting.
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type
This is an iterator object that makes it easy to loop over an N-dimensional neighborhood.
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject
The C-structure corresponding to an object of PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type is the
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject.
PyArrayFlags_Type
PyArrayFlags_Type
When the flags attribute is retrieved from Python, a special builtin object of this type is constructed. This special
type makes it easier to work with the different flags by accessing them as attributes or by accessing them as if
the object were a dictionary with the flag names as entries.
ScalarArrayTypes
There is a Python type for each of the different built-in data types that can be present in the array Most of these are sim-
ple wrappers around the corresponding data type in C. The C-names for these types are Py{TYPE}ArrType_Type
where {TYPE} can be
Bool, Byte, Short, Int, Long, LongLong, UByte, UShort, UInt, ULong, ULongLong, Half, Float,
Double, LongDouble, CFloat, CDouble, CLongDouble, String, Unicode, Void, and Object.

These type names are part of the C-API and can therefore be created in extension C-code. There is also a
PyIntpArrType_Type and a PyUIntpArrType_Type that are simple substitutes for one of the integer types
that can hold a pointer on the platform. The structure of these scalar objects is not exposed to C-code. The function
PyArray_ScalarAsCtype (..) can be used to extract the C-type value from the array scalar and the function
PyArray_Scalar (. . . ) can be used to construct an array scalar from a C-value.
5.1.2 Other C-Structures
A few new C-structures were found to be useful in the development of NumPy. These C-structures are used in at least
one C-API call and are therefore documented here. The main reason these structures were defined is to make it easy
to use the Python ParseTuple C-API to convert from Python objects to a useful C-Object.
PyArray_Dims
PyArray_Dims
This structure is very useful when shape and/or strides information is supposed to be interpreted. The structure
is:
typedef struct {
npy_intp *ptr;
int len;
} PyArray_Dims;
The members of this structure are

npy_intp *PyArray_Dims.ptr
A pointer to a list of (npy_intp) integers which usually represent array shape or array strides.
int PyArray_Dims.len
The length of the list of integers. It is assumed safe to access ptr [0] to ptr [len-1].
PyArray_Chunk
PyArray_Chunk
This is equivalent to the buffer object structure in Python up to the ptr member. On 32-bit platforms (i.e. if
NPY_SIZEOF_INT == NPY_SIZEOF_INTP), the len member also matches an equivalent member of the
buffer object. It is useful to represent a generic single-segment chunk of memory.
typedef struct {
PyObject_HEAD
PyObject *base;
void *ptr;
npy_intp len;
int flags;
} PyArray_Chunk;
The members are

PyObject *PyArray_Chunk.base
The Python object this chunk of memory comes from. Needed so that memory can be accounted for
properly.
void *PyArray_Chunk.ptr
A pointer to the start of the single-segment chunk of memory.

npy_intp PyArray_Chunk.len
The length of the segment in bytes.
int PyArray_Chunk.flags
Any data flags (e.g. NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE ) that should be used to interpret the memory.
PyArrayInterface
See also:
The Array Interface
PyArrayInterface
The PyArrayInterface structure is defined so that NumPy and other extension modules can use the rapid
array interface protocol. The __array_struct__ method of an object that supports the rapid array interface
protocol should return a PyCObject that contains a pointer to a PyArrayInterface structure with the
relevant details of the array. After the new array is created, the attribute should be DECREF’d which will
free the PyArrayInterface structure. Remember to INCREF the object (whose __array_struct__
attribute was retrieved) and point the base member of the new PyArrayObject to this same object. In this
way the memory for the array will be managed correctly.
typedef struct {
int two;
int nd;
char typekind;
int itemsize;
int flags;
npy_intp *shape;
npy_intp *strides;
void *data;
PyObject *descr;
} PyArrayInterface;
int PyArrayInterface.two
the integer 2 as a sanity check.
int PyArrayInterface.nd
the number of dimensions in the array.
char PyArrayInterface.typekind
A character indicating what kind of array is present according to the typestring convention with ‘t’ ->
bitfield, ‘b’ -> Boolean, ‘i’ -> signed integer, ‘u’ -> unsigned integer, ‘f’ -> floating point, ‘c’ -> complex
floating point, ‘O’ -> object, ‘S’ -> (byte-)string, ‘U’ -> unicode, ‘V’ -> void.
int PyArrayInterface.itemsize
The number of bytes each item in the array requires.
int PyArrayInterface.flags
Any of the bits NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS (1), NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS
(2), NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED (0x100), NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED (0x200), or
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE (0x400) to indicate something about the data. The NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED,
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, and NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS flags can actually be determined
from the other parameters. The flag NPY_ARR_HAS_DESCR (0x800) can also be set to indicate to
objects consuming the version 3 array interface that the descr member of the structure is present (it will
be ignored by objects consuming version 2 of the array interface).
npy_intp *PyArrayInterface.shape
An array containing the size of the array in each dimension.

npy_intp *PyArrayInterface.strides
An array containing the number of bytes to jump to get to the next element in each dimension.
void *PyArrayInterface.data
A pointer to the first element of the array.
PyObject *PyArrayInterface.descr
A Python object describing the data-type in more detail (same as the descr key in
__array_interface__). This can be NULL if typekind and itemsize provide enough informa-
tion. This field is also ignored unless ARR_HAS_DESCR flag is on in flags.
Internally used structures
Internally, the code uses some additional Python objects primarily for memory management. These types are not
accessible directly from Python, and are not exposed to the C-API. They are included here only for completeness and
assistance in understanding the code.
PyUFuncLoopObject
A loose wrapper for a C-structure that contains the information needed for looping. This is useful if you are
trying to understand the ufunc looping code. The PyUFuncLoopObject is the associated C-structure. It is
defined in the ufuncobject.h header.
PyUFuncReduceObject
A loose wrapper for the C-structure that contains the information needed for reduce-like methods of
ufuncs. This is useful if you are trying to understand the reduce, accumulate, and reduce-at code. The
PyUFuncReduceObject is the associated C-structure. It is defined in the ufuncobject.h header.
PyUFunc_Loop1d
A simple linked-list of C-structures containing the information needed to define a 1-d loop for a ufunc for every
defined signature of a user-defined data-type.
PyArrayMapIter_Type
Advanced indexing is handled with this Python type. It is simply a loose wrapper around the C-
structure containing the variables needed for advanced array indexing. The associated C-structure,
PyArrayMapIterObject, is useful if you are trying to understand the advanced-index mapping code. It
is defined in the arrayobject.h header. This type is not exposed to Python and could be replaced with a
C-structure. As a Python type it takes advantage of reference- counted memory management.
5.2 System configuration
When NumPy is built, information about system configuration is recorded, and is made available for extension modules
using NumPy’s C API. These are mostly defined in numpyconfig.h (included in ndarrayobject.h). The
public symbols are prefixed by NPY_*. NumPy also offers some functions for querying information about the platform
in use.
For private use, NumPy also constructs a config.h in the NumPy include directory, which is not exported by NumPy
(that is a python extension which use the numpy C API will not see those symbols), to avoid namespace pollution.
5.2.1 Data type sizes
The NPY_SIZEOF_{CTYPE} constants are defined so that sizeof information is available to the pre-processor.
NPY_SIZEOF_SHORT
NPY_SIZEOF_INT
5.2. System configuration 1213

NPY_SIZEOF_LONG
NPY_SIZEOF_LONGLONG
sizeof(longlong) where longlong is defined appropriately on the platform.
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_LONG_LONG
NPY_SIZEOF_FLOAT
NPY_SIZEOF_DOUBLE
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_INTPTR_T
Size of a pointer on this platform (sizeof(void *)) (A macro defines NPY_SIZEOF_INTP as well.)
5.2.2 Platform information
NPY_CPU_X86
NPY_CPU_AMD64
NPY_CPU_IA64
NPY_CPU_PPC
NPY_CPU_PPC64
NPY_CPU_SPARC
NPY_CPU_SPARC64
NPY_CPU_S390
NPY_CPU_PARISC
CPU architecture of the platform; only one of the above is defined.
Defined in numpy/npy_cpu.h
NPY_LITTLE_ENDIAN
NPY_BIG_ENDIAN
NPY_BYTE_ORDER
Portable alternatives to the endian.h macros of GNU Libc. If big endian, NPY_BYTE_ORDER ==
NPY_BIG_ENDIAN , and similarly for little endian architectures.
Defined in numpy/npy_endian.h.
PyArray_GetEndianness()
Returns the endianness of the current platform. One of NPY_CPU_BIG, NPY_CPU_LITTLE, or
NPY_CPU_UNKNOWN_ENDIAN.
5.3 Data Type API
The standard array can have 24 different data types (and has some support for adding your own types). These data
types all have an enumerated type, an enumerated type-character, and a corresponding array scalar Python type object

(placed in a hierarchy). There are also standard C typedefs to make it easier to manipulate elements of the given data
type. For the numeric types, there are also bit-width equivalent C typedefs and named typenumbers that make it easier
to select the precision desired.
Warning: The names for the types in c code follows c naming conventions more closely. The Python names for
these types follow Python conventions. Thus, NPY_FLOAT picks up a 32-bit float in C, but numpy.float_ in
Python corresponds to a 64-bit double. The bit-width names can be used in both Python and C for clarity.
5.3.1 Enumerated Types
There is a list of enumerated types defined providing the basic 24 data types plus some useful generic names. Whenever
the code requires a type number, one of these enumerated types is requested. The types are all called NPY_{NAME}:
NPY_BOOL
The enumeration value for the boolean type, stored as one byte. It may only be set to the values 0 and 1.
NPY_BYTE
NPY_INT8
The enumeration value for an 8-bit/1-byte signed integer.
NPY_SHORT
NPY_INT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte signed integer.
NPY_INT
NPY_INT32
NPY_LONG
Equivalent to either NPY_INT or NPY_LONGLONG, depending on the platform.
NPY_LONGLONG
NPY_INT64
NPY_UBYTE
NPY_UINT8
The enumeration value for an 8-bit/1-byte unsigned integer.
NPY_USHORT
NPY_UINT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte unsigned integer.
NPY_UINT
NPY_UINT32
NPY_ULONG
Equivalent to either NPY_UINT or NPY_ULONGLONG, depending on the platform.
NPY_ULONGLONG
NPY_UINT64
5.3. Data Type API 1215

NPY_HALF
NPY_FLOAT16
The enumeration value for a 16-bit/2-byte IEEE 754-2008 compatible floating point type.
NPY_FLOAT
NPY_FLOAT32
The enumeration value for a 32-bit/4-byte IEEE 754 compatible floating point type.
NPY_DOUBLE
NPY_FLOAT64
The enumeration value for a 64-bit/8-byte IEEE 754 compatible floating point type.
NPY_LONGDOUBLE
The enumeration value for a platform-specific floating point type which is at least as large as NPY_DOUBLE,
but larger on many platforms.
NPY_CFLOAT
NPY_COMPLEX64
The enumeration value for a 64-bit/8-byte complex type made up of two NPY_FLOAT values.
NPY_CDOUBLE
NPY_COMPLEX128
The enumeration value for a 128-bit/16-byte complex type made up of two NPY_DOUBLE values.
NPY_CLONGDOUBLE
The enumeration value for a platform-specific complex floating point type which is made up of two
NPY_LONGDOUBLE values.
NPY_DATETIME
The enumeration value for a data type which holds dates or datetimes with a precision based on selectable date
or time units.
NPY_TIMEDELTA
The enumeration value for a data type which holds lengths of times in integers of selectable date or time units.
NPY_STRING
The enumeration value for ASCII strings of a selectable size. The strings have a fixed maximum size within a
given array.
NPY_UNICODE
The enumeration value for UCS4 strings of a selectable size. The strings have a fixed maximum size within a
given array.
NPY_OBJECT
The enumeration value for references to arbitrary Python objects.
NPY_VOID
Primarily used to hold struct dtypes, but can contain arbitrary binary data.
Some useful aliases of the above types are
NPY_INTP
The enumeration value for a signed integer type which is the same size as a (void *) pointer. This is the type
used by all arrays of indices.
NPY_UINTP
The enumeration value for an unsigned integer type which is the same size as a (void *) pointer.

NPY_MASK
The enumeration value of the type used for masks, such as with the NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK iterator flag.
This is equivalent to NPY_UINT8.
NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE
The default type to use when no dtype is explicitly specified, for example when calling np.zero(shape). This is
equivalent to NPY_DOUBLE.
Other useful related constants are
NPY_NTYPES
The total number of built-in NumPy types. The enumeration covers the range from 0 to NPY_NTYPES-1.
NPY_NOTYPE
A signal value guaranteed not to be a valid type enumeration number.
NPY_USERDEF
The start of type numbers used for Custom Data types.
The various character codes indicating certain types are also part of an enumerated list. References to type characters
(should they be needed at all) should always use these enumerations. The form of them is NPY_{NAME}LTR where
{NAME} can be
BOOL, BYTE, UBYTE, SHORT, USHORT, INT, UINT, LONG, ULONG, LONGLONG, ULON-
GLONG, HALF, FLOAT, DOUBLE, LONGDOUBLE, CFLOAT, CDOUBLE, CLONGDOUBLE,
DATETIME, TIMEDELTA, OBJECT, STRING, VOID
INTP, UINTP
GENBOOL, SIGNED, UNSIGNED, FLOATING, COMPLEX
The latter group of {NAME}s corresponds to letters used in the array interface typestring specification.
5.3.2 Defines
Max and min values for integers
NPY_MAX_INT{bits}
NPY_MAX_UINT{bits}
NPY_MIN_INT{bits}
These are defined for {bits} = 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 and provide the maximum (minimum) value of the
corresponding (unsigned) integer type. Note: the actual integer type may not be available on all platforms (i.e.
128-bit and 256-bit integers are rare).
NPY_MIN_{type}
This is defined for {type} = BYTE, SHORT, INT, LONG, LONGLONG, INTP
NPY_MAX_{type}
This is defined for all defined for {type} = BYTE, UBYTE, SHORT, USHORT, INT, UINT, LONG,
ULONG, LONGLONG, ULONGLONG, INTP, UINTP
Number of bits in data types
All NPY_SIZEOF_{CTYPE} constants have corresponding NPY_BITSOF_{CTYPE} constants defined. The

NPY_BITSOF_{CTYPE} constants provide the number of bits in the data type. Specifically, the available
{CTYPE}s are
BOOL, CHAR, SHORT, INT, LONG, LONGLONG, FLOAT, DOUBLE, LONGDOUBLE
5.3. Data Type API 1217

Bit-width references to enumerated typenums
All of the numeric data types (integer, floating point, and complex) have constants that are defined to be a specific
enumerated type number. Exactly which enumerated type a bit-width type refers to is platform dependent. In partic-
ular, the constants available are PyArray_{NAME}{BITS} where {NAME} is INT, UINT, FLOAT, COMPLEX
and {BITS} can be 8, 16, 32, 64, 80, 96, 128, 160, 192, 256, and 512. Obviously not all bit-widths are available on
all platforms for all the kinds of numeric types. Commonly 8-, 16-, 32-, 64-bit integers; 32-, 64-bit floats; and 64-,
128-bit complex types are available.
Integer that can hold a pointer
The constants NPY_INTP and NPY_UINTP refer to an enumerated integer type that is large enough to hold a pointer
on the platform. Index arrays should always be converted to NPY_INTP , because the dimension of the array is of
type npy_intp.
5.3.3 C-type names
There are standard variable types for each of the numeric data types and the bool data type. Some of these are already
available in the C-specification. You can create variables in extension code with these types.
Boolean
npy_bool
unsigned char; The constants NPY_FALSE and NPY_TRUE are also defined.
(Un)Signed Integer
Unsigned versions of the integers can be defined by pre-pending a ‘u’ to the front of the integer name.
npy_(u)byte
(unsigned) char
npy_(u)short
(unsigned) short
npy_(u)int
(unsigned) int
npy_(u)long
(unsigned) long int
npy_(u)longlong
(unsigned long long int)
npy_(u)intp
(unsigned) Py_intptr_t (an integer that is the size of a pointer on the platform).
(Complex) Floating point
npy_(c)float
float
npy_(c)double
double

npy_(c)longdouble
long double
complex types are structures with .real and .imag members (in that order).
Bit-width names
There are also typedefs for signed integers, unsigned integers, floating point, and complex floating point types of
specific bit- widths. The available type names are
npy_int{bits}, npy_uint{bits}, npy_float{bits}, and npy_complex{bits}
where {bits} is the number of bits in the type and can be 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, and 256 for integer types; 16, 32 , 64,
80, 96, 128, and 256 for floating-point types; and 32, 64, 128, 160, 192, and 512 for complex-valued types. Which
bit-widths are available is platform dependent. The bolded bit-widths are usually available on all platforms.
5.3.4 Printf Formatting
For help in printing, the following strings are defined as the correct format specifier in printf and related commands.
NPY_LONGLONG_FMT, NPY_ULONGLONG_FMT, NPY_INTP_FMT, NPY_UINTP_FMT,
NPY_LONGDOUBLE_FMT
5.4 Array API
The test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two

opposed ideas in the mind at the same time, and still retain the
ability to function.
— F. Scott Fitzgerald
For a successful technology, reality must take precedence over public

relations, for Nature cannot be fooled.
— Richard P. Feynman
5.4.1 Array structure and data access
These macros all access the PyArrayObject structure members. The input argument, arr, can be any PyObject
* that is directly interpretable as a PyArrayObject * (any instance of the PyArray_Type and its sub-types).
int PyArray_NDIM(PyArrayObject *arr)
The number of dimensions in the array.
npy_intp *PyArray_DIMS(PyArrayObject *arr)
Returns a pointer to the dimensions/shape of the array. The number of elements matches the number of dimen-
sions of the array.
npy_intp *PyArray_SHAPE(PyArrayObject *arr)
New in version 1.7.
A synonym for PyArray_DIMS, named to be consistent with the ‘shape’ usage within Python.
5.4. Array API 1219

void *PyArray_DATA(PyArrayObject *arr)

char *PyArray_BYTES(PyArrayObject *arr)
These two macros are similar and obtain the pointer to the data-buffer for the array. The first macro can (and
should be) assigned to a particular pointer where the second is for generic processing. If you have not guaranteed
a contiguous and/or aligned array then be sure you understand how to access the data in the array to avoid
memory and/or alignment problems.
npy_intp *PyArray_STRIDES(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns a pointer to the strides of the array. The number of elements matches the number of dimensions of the
array.
npy_intp PyArray_DIM(PyArrayObject* arr, int n)
Return the shape in the n th dimension.
npy_intp PyArray_STRIDE(PyArrayObject* arr, int n)
Return the stride in the n th dimension.
PyObject *PyArray_BASE(PyArrayObject* arr)
This returns the base object of the array. In most cases, this means the object which owns the memory the array
is pointing at.
If you are constructing an array using the C API, and specifying your own memory, you should use the function
PyArray_SetBaseObject to set the base to an object which owns the memory.
If the (deprecated) NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY or the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY flags are set,
it has a different meaning, namely base is the array into which the current array will be copied upon copy
resolution. This overloading of the base property for two functions is likely to change in a future version of
NumPy.
PyArray_Descr *PyArray_DESCR(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns a borrowed reference to the dtype property of the array.
PyArray_Descr *PyArray_DTYPE(PyArrayObject* arr)
New in version 1.7.
A synonym for PyArray_DESCR, named to be consistent with the ‘dtype’ usage within Python.
void PyArray_ENABLEFLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr, int flags)
New in version 1.7.
Enables the specified array flags. This function does no validation, and assumes that you know what you’re
doing.
void PyArray_CLEARFLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr, int flags)
New in version 1.7.
Clears the specified array flags. This function does no validation, and assumes that you know what you’re doing.
int PyArray_FLAGS(PyArrayObject* arr)
npy_intp PyArray_ITEMSIZE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Return the itemsize for the elements of this array.
Note that, in the old API that was deprecated in version 1.7, this function had the return type int.
int PyArray_TYPE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Return the (builtin) typenumber for the elements of this array.
PyObject *PyArray_GETITEM(PyArrayObject* arr, void* itemptr)
Get a Python object from the ndarray, arr, at the location pointed to by itemptr. Return NULL on failure.

int PyArray_SETITEM(PyArrayObject* arr, void* itemptr, PyObject* obj)

Convert obj and place it in the ndarray, arr, at the place pointed to by itemptr. Return -1 if an error occurs or 0
on success.
npy_intp PyArray_SIZE(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns the total size (in number of elements) of the array.
npy_intp PyArray_Size(PyArrayObject* obj)
Returns 0 if obj is not a sub-class of ndarray. Otherwise, returns the total number of elements in the array. Safer
version of PyArray_SIZE (obj).
npy_intp PyArray_NBYTES(PyArrayObject* arr)
Returns the total number of bytes consumed by the array.
Data access
These functions and macros provide easy access to elements of the ndarray from C. These work for all arrays. You
may need to take care when accessing the data in the array, however, if it is not in machine byte-order, misaligned, or
not writeable. In other words, be sure to respect the state of the flags unless you know what you are doing, or have
previously guaranteed an array that is writeable, aligned, and in machine byte-order using PyArray_FromAny. If
you wish to handle all types of arrays, the copyswap function for each type is useful for handling misbehaved arrays.
Some platforms (e.g. Solaris) do not like misaligned data and will crash if you de-reference a misaligned pointer.
Other platforms (e.g. x86 Linux) will just work more slowly with misaligned data.
void* PyArray_GetPtr(PyArrayObject* aobj, npy_intp* ind)
Return a pointer to the data of the ndarray, aobj, at the N-dimensional index given by the c-array, ind, (which
must be at least aobj ->nd in size). You may want to typecast the returned pointer to the data type of the ndarray.
void* PyArray_GETPTR1(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i)
void* PyArray_GETPTR2(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j)
void* PyArray_GETPTR3(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j, npy_intp k)
void* PyArray_GETPTR4(PyArrayObject* obj, npy_intp i, npy_intp j, npy_intp k, npy_intp l)
Quick, inline access to the element at the given coordinates in the ndarray, obj, which must have respectively 1,
2, 3, or 4 dimensions (this is not checked). The corresponding i, j, k, and l coordinates can be any integer but
will be interpreted as npy_intp. You may want to typecast the returned pointer to the data type of the ndarray.
5.4.2 Creating arrays
From scratch
PyObject* PyArray_NewFromDescr(PyTypeObject* subtype, PyArray_Descr* descr, int nd,

npy_intp* dims, npy_intp* strides, void* data, int flags, Py-
Object* obj)
This function steals a reference to descr.
This is the main array creation function. Most new arrays are created with this flexible function.
The returned object is an object of Python-type subtype, which must be a subtype of PyArray_Type. The
array has nd dimensions, described by dims. The data-type descriptor of the new array is descr.
If subtype is of an array subclass instead of the base &PyArray_Type, then obj is the object to pass to the
__array_finalize__ method of the subclass.
5.4. Array API 1221

If data is NULL, then new memory will be allocated and flags can be non-zero to indicate a Fortran-style
contiguous array. If data is not NULL, then it is assumed to point to the memory to be used for the ar-
ray and the flags argument is used as the new flags for the array (except the state of NPY_OWNDATA,
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY and NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flags of the new array will be re-
set).
In addition, if data is non-NULL, then strides can also be provided. If strides is NULL, then the array strides are
computed as C-style contiguous (default) or Fortran-style contiguous (flags is nonzero for data = NULL or flags
& NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS is nonzero non-NULL data). Any provided dims and strides are copied into
newly allocated dimension and strides arrays for the new array object.
PyObject* PyArray_NewLikeArray(PyArrayObject* prototype, NPY_ORDER order,
PyArray_Descr* descr, int subok)
New in version 1.6.
This function steals a reference to descr if it is not NULL.
This array creation routine allows for the convenient creation of a new array matching an existing array’s shapes
and memory layout, possibly changing the layout and/or data type.
When order is NPY_ANYORDER, the result order is NPY_FORTRANORDER if prototype is a fortran array,
NPY_CORDER otherwise. When order is NPY_KEEPORDER, the result order matches that of prototype, even
when the axes of prototype aren’t in C or Fortran order.
If descr is NULL, the data type of prototype is used.
If subok is 1, the newly created array will use the sub-type of prototype to create the new array, otherwise it will
create a base-class array.
PyObject* PyArray_New(PyTypeObject* subtype, int nd, npy_intp* dims, int type_num, npy_intp* strides,
void* data, int itemsize, int flags, PyObject* obj)
This is similar to PyArray_NewFromDescr (. . . ) except you specify the data-type descriptor with type_num
and itemsize, where type_num corresponds to a builtin (or user-defined) type. If the type always has the same
number of bytes, then itemsize is ignored. Otherwise, itemsize specifies the particular size of this array.
Warning: If data is passed to PyArray_NewFromDescr or PyArray_New, this memory must not be deallo-
cated until the new array is deleted. If this data came from another Python object, this can be accomplished using
Py_INCREF on that object and setting the base member of the new array to point to that object. If strides are
passed in they must be consistent with the dimensions, the itemsize, and the data of the array.
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNew(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum)

Create a new uninitialized array of type, typenum, whose size in each of nd dimensions is given by the integer
array, dims. This function cannot be used to create a flexible-type array (no itemsize given).
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNewFromData(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum, void* data)
Create an array wrapper around data pointed to by the given pointer. The array flags will have a default that the
data area is well-behaved and C-style contiguous. The shape of the array is given by the dims c-array of length
nd. The data-type of the array is indicated by typenum.
PyObject* PyArray_SimpleNewFromDescr(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* descr)
This function steals a reference to descr if it is not NULL.
Create a new array with the provided data-type descriptor, descr , of the shape determined by nd and dims.
PyArray_FILLWBYTE(PyObject* obj, int val)
Fill the array pointed to by obj —which must be a (subclass of) ndarray—with the contents of val (evaluated as
a byte). This macro calls memset, so obj must be contiguous.

PyObject* PyArray_Zeros(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int fortran)

Construct a new nd -dimensional array with shape given by dims and data type given by dtype. If fortran is
non-zero, then a Fortran-order array is created, otherwise a C-order array is created. Fill the memory with zeros
(or the 0 object if dtype corresponds to NPY_OBJECT ).
PyObject* PyArray_ZEROS(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int type_num, int fortran)
Macro form of PyArray_Zeros which takes a type-number instead of a data-type object.
PyObject* PyArray_Empty(int nd, npy_intp* dims, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int fortran)
Construct a new nd -dimensional array with shape given by dims and data type given by dtype. If fortran is
non-zero, then a Fortran-order array is created, otherwise a C-order array is created. The array is uninitialized
unless the data type corresponds to NPY_OBJECT in which case the array is filled with Py_None.
PyObject* PyArray_EMPTY(int nd, npy_intp* dims, int typenum, int fortran)
Macro form of PyArray_Empty which takes a type-number, typenum, instead of a data-type object.
PyObject* PyArray_Arange(double start, double stop, double step, int typenum)
Construct a new 1-dimensional array of data-type, typenum, that ranges from start to stop (exclusive) in incre-
ments of step . Equivalent to arange (start, stop, step, dtype).
PyObject* PyArray_ArangeObj(PyObject* start, PyObject* stop, PyObject* step, PyArray_Descr* de-
scr)
Construct a new 1-dimensional array of data-type determined by descr, that ranges from start to stop
(exclusive) in increments of step. Equivalent to arange( start, stop, step, typenum ).
int PyArray_SetBaseObject(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)
New in version 1.7.
This function steals a reference to obj and sets it as the base property of arr.
If you construct an array by passing in your own memory buffer as a parameter, you need to set the array’s base
property to ensure the lifetime of the memory buffer is appropriate.
The return value is 0 on success, -1 on failure.
If the object provided is an array, this function traverses the chain of base pointers so that each array points to
the owner of the memory directly. Once the base is set, it may not be changed to another value.
From other objects
PyObject* PyArray_FromAny(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int min_depth, int max_depth, int re-
quirements, PyObject* context)
This is the main function used to obtain an array from any nested sequence, or object that exposes the ar-
ray interface, op. The parameters allow specification of the required dtype, the minimum (min_depth) and
maximum (max_depth) number of dimensions acceptable, and other requirements for the array. The dtype
argument needs to be a PyArray_Descr structure indicating the desired data-type (including required byte-
order). The dtype argument may be NULL, indicating that any data-type (and byteorder) is acceptable. Unless
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST is present in flags, this call will generate an error if the data type cannot be
safely obtained from the object. If you want to use NULL for the dtype and ensure the array is notswapped then
use PyArray_CheckFromAny. A value of 0 for either of the depth parameters causes the parameter to be
ignored. Any of the following array flags can be added (e.g. using |) to get the requirements argument. If your
code can handle general (e.g. strided, byte-swapped, or unaligned arrays) then requirements may be 0. Also, if
op is not already an array (or does not expose the array interface), then a new array will be created (and filled
from op using the sequence protocol). The new array will have NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT as its flags member.
The context argument is passed to the __array__ method of op and is only used if the array is constructed
that way. Almost always this parameter is NULL.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them.
That form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
5.4. Array API 1223

NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS
Make sure the returned array is C-style contiguous
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS
Make sure the returned array is Fortran-style contiguous.
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
Make sure the returned array is aligned on proper boundaries for its data type. An aligned array has the
data pointer and every strides factor as a multiple of the alignment factor for the data-type- descriptor.
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
Make sure the returned array can be written to.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY
Make sure a copy is made of op. If this flag is not present, data is not copied if it can be avoided.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY
Make sure the result is a base-class ndarray. By default, if op is an instance of a subclass of ndarray, an
instance of that same subclass is returned. If this flag is set, an ndarray object will be returned instead.
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST
Force a cast to the output type even if it cannot be done safely. Without this flag, a data cast will occur
only if it can be done safely, otherwise an error is raised.
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY
If op is already an array, but does not satisfy the requirements, then a copy is made (which will satisfy the
requirements). If this flag is present and a copy (of an object that is already an array) must be made, then
the corresponding NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag is set in the returned copy and op is made to
be read-only. You must be sure to call PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy to copy the contents
back into op and the op array will be made writeable again. If op is not writeable to begin with, or if it is
not already an array, then an error is raised.
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY
Deprecated. Use NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY, which is similar. This flag “automatically” copies
the data back when the returned array is deallocated, which is not supported in all python implementations.
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_IN_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_IN_FARRAY
NPY_OUT_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED

NPY_ARRAY_OUT_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_ARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED |
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY | NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY
NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED |
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY | NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY
int PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* requested_dtype,
npy_bool writeable, PyArray_Descr** out_dtype,
int* out_ndim, npy_intp* out_dims, PyArrayOb-
ject** out_arr, PyObject* context)
New in version 1.6.
Retrieves the array parameters for viewing/converting an arbitrary PyObject* to a NumPy array. This allows
the “innate type and shape” of Python list-of-lists to be discovered without actually converting to an array.
PyArray_FromAny calls this function to analyze its input.
In some cases, such as structured arrays and the __array__ interface, a data type needs to be used to make
sense of the object. When this is needed, provide a Descr for ‘requested_dtype’, otherwise provide NULL. This
reference is not stolen. Also, if the requested dtype doesn’t modify the interpretation of the input, out_dtype
will still get the “innate” dtype of the object, not the dtype passed in ‘requested_dtype’.
If writing to the value in ‘op’ is desired, set the boolean ‘writeable’ to 1. This raises an error when ‘op’ is
a scalar, list of lists, or other non-writeable ‘op’. This differs from passing NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE to
PyArray_FromAny, where the writeable array may be a copy of the input.
When success (0 return value) is returned, either out_arr is filled with a non-NULL PyArrayObject and the rest
of the parameters are untouched, or out_arr is filled with NULL, and the rest of the parameters are filled.
Typical usage:
PyArrayObject *arr = NULL;

PyArray_Descr *dtype = NULL;
int ndim = 0;
npy_intp dims[NPY_MAXDIMS];
if (PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject(op, NULL, 1, &dtype,

&ndim, &dims, &arr, NULL) < 0) {
return NULL;
}
if (arr == NULL) {
... validate/change dtype, validate flags, ndim, etc ...
// Could make custom strides here too
arr = PyArray_NewFromDescr(&PyArray_Type, dtype, ndim,
dims, NULL,
fortran ? NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS : 0,
NULL);
if (arr == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
if (PyArray_CopyObject(arr, op) < 0) {
Py_DECREF(arr);
return NULL;
}
}
else {
5.4. Array API 1225

... in this case the other parameters weren't filled, just

validate and possibly copy arr itself ...
}
... use arr ...
PyObject* PyArray_CheckFromAny(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int min_depth, int max_depth,

int requirements, PyObject* context)
Nearly identical to PyArray_FromAny (. . . ) except requirements can contain NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
(over-riding the specification in dtype) and NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES which indicates that the array
should be aligned in the sense that the strides are multiples of the element size.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them.
That form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Make sure the returned array has a data-type descriptor that is in machine byte-order, over-riding any specifi-
cation in the dtype argument. Normally, the byte-order requirement is determined by the dtype argument. If
this flag is set and the dtype argument does not indicate a machine byte-order descriptor (or is NULL and the
object is already an array with a data-type descriptor that is not in machine byteorder), then a new data-type
descriptor is created and used with its byte-order field set to native.
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES
Make sure the returned array has strides that are multiples of the element size.
PyObject* PyArray_FromArray(PyArrayObject* op, PyArray_Descr* newtype, int requirements)
Special case of PyArray_FromAny for when op is already an array but it needs to be of a specific newtype
(including byte-order) or has certain requirements.
PyObject* PyArray_FromStructInterface(PyObject* op)
Returns an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array_struct__ attribute and fol-
lows the array interface protocol. If the object does not contain this attribute then a borrowed reference to
Py_NotImplemented is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_FromInterface(PyObject* op)
Returns an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array_interface__ attribute fol-
lowing the array interface protocol. If the object does not contain this attribute then a borrowed reference to
Py_NotImplemented is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_FromArrayAttr(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyObject* context)
Return an ndarray object from a Python object that exposes the __array__ method. The __array__ method
can take 0, 1, or 2 arguments ([dtype, context]) where context is used to pass information about where the
__array__ method is being called from (currently only used in ufuncs).
PyObject* PyArray_ContiguousFromAny(PyObject* op, int typenum, int min_depth, int max_depth)
This function returns a (C-style) contiguous and behaved function array from any nested sequence or array
interface exporting object, op, of (non-flexible) type given by the enumerated typenum, of minimum depth
min_depth, and of maximum depth max_depth. Equivalent to a call to PyArray_FromAny with requirements
set to NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT and the type_num member of the type argument set to typenum.
PyObject *PyArray_FromObject(PyObject *op, int typenum, int min_depth, int max_depth)
Return an aligned and in native-byteorder array from any nested sequence or array-interface exporting object,
op, of a type given by the enumerated typenum. The minimum number of dimensions the array can have is
given by min_depth while the maximum is max_depth. This is equivalent to a call to PyArray_FromAny
with requirements set to BEHAVED.

PyObject* PyArray_EnsureArray(PyObject* op)

This function steals a reference to op and makes sure that op is a base-class ndarray. It special cases array
scalars, but otherwise calls PyArray_FromAny ( op, NULL, 0, 0, NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY, NULL).
PyObject* PyArray_FromString(char* string, npy_intp slen, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp num,
char* sep)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from a binary or (ASCII) text string of length slen.
The data-type of the array to-be-created is given by dtype. If num is -1, then copy the entire string and return
an appropriately sized array, otherwise, num is the number of items to copy from the string. If sep is NULL
(or “”), then interpret the string as bytes of binary data, otherwise convert the sub-strings separated by sep to
items of data-type dtype. Some data-types may not be readable in text mode and an error will be raised if that
occurs. All errors return NULL.
PyObject* PyArray_FromFile(FILE* fp, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp num, char* sep)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from a binary or text file. The open file pointer is fp, the
data-type of the array to be created is given by dtype. This must match the data in the file. If num is -1, then
read until the end of the file and return an appropriately sized array, otherwise, num is the number of items to
read. If sep is NULL (or “”), then read from the file in binary mode, otherwise read from the file in text mode
with sep providing the item separator. Some array types cannot be read in text mode in which case an error is
raised.
PyObject* PyArray_FromBuffer(PyObject* buf, PyArray_Descr* dtype, npy_intp count, npy_intp off-
set)
Construct a one-dimensional ndarray of a single type from an object, buf, that exports the (single-segment)
buffer protocol (or has an attribute __buffer__ that returns an object that exports the buffer protocol). A writeable
buffer will be tried first followed by a readonly buffer. The NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag of the returned
array will reflect which one was successful. The data is assumed to start at offset bytes from the start of the
memory location for the object. The type of the data in the buffer will be interpreted depending on the data-
type descriptor, dtype. If count is negative then it will be determined from the size of the buffer and the
requested itemsize, otherwise, count represents how many elements should be converted from the buffer.
int PyArray_CopyInto(PyArrayObject* dest, PyArrayObject* src)
Copy from the source array, src, into the destination array, dest, performing a data-type conversion if neces-
sary. If an error occurs return -1 (otherwise 0). The shape of src must be broadcastable to the shape of dest.
The data areas of dest and src must not overlap.
int PyArray_MoveInto(PyArrayObject* dest, PyArrayObject* src)
Move data from the source array, src, into the destination array, dest, performing a data-type conversion if
necessary. If an error occurs return -1 (otherwise 0). The shape of src must be broadcastable to the shape of
dest. The data areas of dest and src may overlap.
PyArrayObject* PyArray_GETCONTIGUOUS(PyObject* op)
If op is already (C-style) contiguous and well-behaved then just return a reference, otherwise return a (contigu-
ous and well-behaved) copy of the array. The parameter op must be a (sub-class of an) ndarray and no checking
for that is done.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_O(PyObject* obj)
Convert obj to an ndarray. The argument can be any nested sequence or object that exports the array interface.
This is a macro form of PyArray_FromAny using NULL, 0, 0, 0 for the other arguments. Your code must be
able to handle any data-type descriptor and any combination of data-flags to use this macro.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OF(PyObject* obj, int requirements)
Similar to PyArray_FROM_O except it can take an argument of requirements indicating properties the result-
ing array must have. Available requirements that can be enforced are NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS,
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE,
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED, NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY,
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY, NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST, and NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY. Stan-
dard combinations of flags can also be used:
5.4. Array API 1227

PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OT(PyObject* obj, int typenum)

Similar to PyArray_FROM_O except it can take an argument of typenum specifying the type-number the
returned array.
PyObject* PyArray_FROM_OTF(PyObject* obj, int typenum, int requirements)
Combination of PyArray_FROM_OF and PyArray_FROM_OT allowing both a typenum and a flags argu-
ment to be provided..
PyObject* PyArray_FROMANY(PyObject* obj, int typenum, int min, int max, int requirements)
Similar to PyArray_FromAny except the data-type is specified using a typenumber.
PyArray_DescrFromType (typenum) is passed directly to PyArray_FromAny. This macro also
adds NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT to requirements if NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY is passed in as requirements.
PyObject *PyArray_CheckAxis(PyObject* obj, int* axis, int requirements)
Encapsulate the functionality of functions and methods that take the axis= keyword and work properly with
None as the axis argument. The input array is obj, while *axis is a converted integer (so that >=MAXDIMS
is the None value), and requirements gives the needed properties of obj. The output is a converted version
of the input so that requirements are met and if needed a flattening has occurred. On output negative values of
*axis are converted and the new value is checked to ensure consistency with the shape of obj.
5.4.3 Dealing with types
General check of Python Type
PyArray_Check(op)
Evaluates true if op is a Python object whose type is a sub-type of PyArray_Type.
PyArray_CheckExact(op)
Evaluates true if op is a Python object with type PyArray_Type.
PyArray_HasArrayInterface(op, out)
If op implements any part of the array interface, then out will contain a new reference to the newly created
ndarray using the interface or out will contain NULL if an error during conversion occurs. Otherwise, out will
contain a borrowed reference to Py_NotImplemented and no error condition is set.
PyArray_HasArrayInterfaceType(op, type, context, out)
If op implements any part of the array interface, then out will contain a new reference to the newly created
ndarray using the interface or out will contain NULL if an error during conversion occurs. Otherwise, out will
contain a borrowed reference to Py_NotImplemented and no error condition is set. This version allows setting
of the type and context in the part of the array interface that looks for the __array__ attribute.
PyArray_IsZeroDim(op)
Evaluates true if op is an instance of (a subclass of) PyArray_Type and has 0 dimensions.
PyArray_IsScalar(op, cls)
Evaluates true if op is an instance of Py{cls}ArrType_Type.
PyArray_CheckScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is either an array scalar (an instance of a sub-type of PyGenericArr_Type ), or an
instance of (a sub-class of) PyArray_Type whose dimensionality is 0.
PyArray_IsPythonNumber(op)
Evaluates true if op is an instance of a builtin numeric type (int, float, complex, long, bool)
PyArray_IsPythonScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is a builtin Python scalar object (int, float, complex, str, unicode, long, bool).

PyArray_IsAnyScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is either a Python scalar object (see PyArray_IsPythonScalar) or an array scalar (an
instance of a subtype of PyGenericArr_Type ).
PyArray_CheckAnyScalar(op)
Evaluates true if op is a Python scalar object (see PyArray_IsPythonScalar), an array scalar (an instance
of a sub-type of PyGenericArr_Type) or an instance of a sub-type of PyArray_Type whose dimension-
ality is 0.
Data-type checking
For the typenum macros, the argument is an integer representing an enumerated array data type. For the array type
checking macros the argument must be a PyObject * that can be directly interpreted as a PyArrayObject *.
PyTypeNum_ISUNSIGNED(num)
PyDataType_ISUNSIGNED(descr)
PyArray_ISUNSIGNED(obj)
Type represents an unsigned integer.
PyTypeNum_ISSIGNED(num)
PyDataType_ISSIGNED(descr)
PyArray_ISSIGNED(obj)
Type represents a signed integer.
PyTypeNum_ISINTEGER(num)
PyDataType_ISINTEGER(descr)
PyArray_ISINTEGER(obj)
Type represents any integer.
PyTypeNum_ISFLOAT(num)
PyDataType_ISFLOAT(descr)
PyArray_ISFLOAT(obj)
Type represents any floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISCOMPLEX(num)
PyDataType_ISCOMPLEX(descr)
PyArray_ISCOMPLEX(obj)
Type represents any complex floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISNUMBER(num)
PyDataType_ISNUMBER(descr)
PyArray_ISNUMBER(obj)
Type represents any integer, floating point, or complex floating point number.
PyTypeNum_ISSTRING(num)
PyDataType_ISSTRING(descr)
PyArray_ISSTRING(obj)
Type represents a string data type.
PyTypeNum_ISPYTHON(num)
5.4. Array API 1229

PyDataType_ISPYTHON(descr)
PyArray_ISPYTHON(obj)
Type represents an enumerated type corresponding to one of the standard Python scalar (bool, int, float, or
complex).
PyTypeNum_ISFLEXIBLE(num)
PyDataType_ISFLEXIBLE(descr)
PyArray_ISFLEXIBLE(obj)
Type represents one of the flexible array types ( NPY_STRING, NPY_UNICODE, or NPY_VOID ).
PyDataType_ISUNSIZED(descr):
Type has no size information attached, and can be resized. Should only be called on flexible dtypes. Types that
are attached to an array will always be sized, hence the array form of this macro not existing.
PyTypeNum_ISUSERDEF(num)
PyDataType_ISUSERDEF(descr)
PyArray_ISUSERDEF(obj)
Type represents a user-defined type.
PyTypeNum_ISEXTENDED(num)
PyDataType_ISEXTENDED(descr)
PyArray_ISEXTENDED(obj)
Type is either flexible or user-defined.
PyTypeNum_ISOBJECT(num)
PyDataType_ISOBJECT(descr)
PyArray_ISOBJECT(obj)
Type represents object data type.
PyTypeNum_ISBOOL(num)
PyDataType_ISBOOL(descr)
PyArray_ISBOOL(obj)
Type represents Boolean data type.
PyDataType_HASFIELDS(descr)
PyArray_HASFIELDS(obj)
Type has fields associated with it.
PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED(m)
Evaluates true if the data area of the ndarray m is in machine byte-order according to the array’s data-type
descriptor.
PyArray_ISBYTESWAPPED(m)
Evaluates true if the data area of the ndarray m is not in machine byte-order according to the array’s data-type
descriptor.
Bool PyArray_EquivTypes(PyArray_Descr* type1, PyArray_Descr* type2)
Return NPY_TRUE if type1 and type2 actually represent equivalent types for this platform (the fortran mem-
ber of each type is ignored). For example, on 32-bit platforms, NPY_LONG and NPY_INT are equivalent.
Otherwise return NPY_FALSE.
Bool PyArray_EquivArrTypes(PyArrayObject* a1, PyArrayObject * a2)
Return NPY_TRUE if a1 and a2 are arrays with equivalent types for this platform.

Bool PyArray_EquivTypenums(int typenum1, int typenum2)

Special case of PyArray_EquivTypes (. . . ) that does not accept flexible data types but may be easier to
call.
int PyArray_EquivByteorders({byteorder} b1, {byteorder} b2)
True if byteorder characters ( NPY_LITTLE, NPY_BIG, NPY_NATIVE, NPY_IGNORE ) are either equal or
equivalent as to their specification of a native byte order. Thus, on a little-endian machine NPY_LITTLE and
NPY_NATIVE are equivalent where they are not equivalent on a big-endian machine.
Converting data types
PyObject* PyArray_Cast(PyArrayObject* arr, int typenum)

Mainly for backwards compatibility to the Numeric C-API and for simple casts to non-flexible types. Return a
new array object with the elements of arr cast to the data-type typenum which must be one of the enumerated
types and not a flexible type.
PyObject* PyArray_CastToType(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArray_Descr* type, int fortran)
Return a new array of the type specified, casting the elements of arr as appropriate. The fortran argument
specifies the ordering of the output array.
int PyArray_CastTo(PyArrayObject* out, PyArrayObject* in)
As of 1.6, this function simply calls PyArray_CopyInto, which handles the casting.
Cast the elements of the array in into the array out. The output array should be writeable, have an integer-
multiple of the number of elements in the input array (more than one copy can be placed in out), and have a data
type that is one of the builtin types. Returns 0 on success and -1 if an error occurs.
PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc* PyArray_GetCastFunc(PyArray_Descr* from, int totype)
Return the low-level casting function to cast from the given descriptor to the builtin type number. If no casting
function exists return NULL and set an error. Using this function instead of direct access to from ->f->cast will
allow support of any user-defined casting functions added to a descriptors casting dictionary.
int PyArray_CanCastSafely(int fromtype, int totype)
Returns non-zero if an array of data type fromtype can be cast to an array of data type totype without losing
information. An exception is that 64-bit integers are allowed to be cast to 64-bit floating point values even
though this can lose precision on large integers so as not to proliferate the use of long doubles without explicit
requests. Flexible array types are not checked according to their lengths with this function.
int PyArray_CanCastTo(PyArray_Descr* fromtype, PyArray_Descr* totype)
PyArray_CanCastTypeTo supersedes this function in NumPy 1.6 and later.
Equivalent to PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(fromtype, totype, NPY_SAFE_CASTING).
int PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(PyArray_Descr* fromtype, PyArray_Descr* totype, NPY_CASTING cast-
ing)
New in version 1.6.
Returns non-zero if an array of data type fromtype (which can include flexible types) can be cast safely to an
array of data type totype (which can include flexible types) according to the casting rule casting. For simple
types with NPY_SAFE_CASTING, this is basically a wrapper around PyArray_CanCastSafely, but for
flexible types such as strings or unicode, it produces results taking into account their sizes. Integer and float
types can only be cast to a string or unicode type using NPY_SAFE_CASTING if the string or unicode type is
big enough to hold the max value of the integer/float type being cast from.
int PyArray_CanCastArrayTo(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArray_Descr* totype, NPY_CASTING casting)
New in version 1.6.
Returns non-zero if arr can be cast to totype according to the casting rule given in casting. If arr is an array
scalar, its value is taken into account, and non-zero is also returned when the value will not overflow or be
5.4. Array API 1231

truncated to an integer when converting to a smaller type.

This is almost the same as the result of PyArray_CanCastTypeTo(PyArray_MinScalarType(arr), totype, casting),
but it also handles a special case arising because the set of uint values is not a subset of the int values for types
with the same number of bits.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_MinScalarType(PyArrayObject* arr)
New in version 1.6.
If arr is an array, returns its data type descriptor, but if arr is an array scalar (has 0 dimensions), it finds the data
type of smallest size to which the value may be converted without overflow or truncation to an integer.
This function will not demote complex to float or anything to boolean, but will demote a signed integer to an
unsigned integer when the scalar value is positive.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_PromoteTypes(PyArray_Descr* type1, PyArray_Descr* type2)
New in version 1.6.
Finds the data type of smallest size and kind to which type1 and type2 may be safely converted. This function
is symmetric and associative. A string or unicode result will be the proper size for storing the max value of the
input types converted to a string or unicode.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_ResultType(npy_intp narrs, PyArrayObject**arrs, npy_intp ndtypes,
PyArray_Descr**dtypes)
New in version 1.6.
This applies type promotion to all the inputs, using the NumPy rules for combining scalars and arrays, to
determine the output type of a set of operands. This is the same result type that ufuncs produce. The specific
algorithm used is as follows.
Categories are determined by first checking which of boolean, integer (int/uint), or floating point (float/complex)
the maximum kind of all the arrays and the scalars are.
If there are only scalars or the maximum category of the scalars is higher than the maximum category of the
arrays, the data types are combined with PyArray_PromoteTypes to produce the return value.
Otherwise, PyArray_MinScalarType is called on each array, and the resulting data types are all combined with
PyArray_PromoteTypes to produce the return value.
The set of int values is not a subset of the uint values for types with the same number of bits, something not
reflected in PyArray_MinScalarType, but handled as a special case in PyArray_ResultType.
int PyArray_ObjectType(PyObject* op, int mintype)
This function is superceded by PyArray_MinScalarType and/or PyArray_ResultType.
This function is useful for determining a common type that two or more arrays can be converted to. It only
works for non-flexible array types as no itemsize information is passed. The mintype argument represents the
minimum type acceptable, and op represents the object that will be converted to an array. The return value is
the enumerated typenumber that represents the data-type that op should have.
void PyArray_ArrayType(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* mintype, PyArray_Descr* outtype)
This function is superceded by PyArray_ResultType.
This function works similarly to PyArray_ObjectType (. . . ) except it handles flexible arrays. The mintype
argument can have an itemsize member and the outtype argument will have an itemsize member at least as big
but perhaps bigger depending on the object op.
PyArrayObject** PyArray_ConvertToCommonType(PyObject* op, int* n)
The functionality this provides is largely superceded by iterator NpyIter introduced in 1.6, with flag
NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE or with the same dtype parameter for all operands.
Convert a sequence of Python objects contained in op to an array of ndarrays each having the same data type.
The type is selected based on the typenumber (larger type number is chosen over a smaller one) ignoring objects

that are only scalars. The length of the sequence is returned in n, and an n -length array of PyArrayObject
pointers is the return value (or NULL if an error occurs). The returned array must be freed by the caller of this
routine (using PyDataMem_FREE ) and all the array objects in it DECREF ‘d or a memory-leak will occur.
The example template-code below shows a typically usage:
mps = PyArray_ConvertToCommonType(obj, &n);
if (mps==NULL) return NULL;
{code}
<before return>
for (i=0; i<n; i++) Py_DECREF(mps[i]);
PyDataMem_FREE(mps);
{return}
char* PyArray_Zero(PyArrayObject* arr)

A pointer to newly created memory of size arr ->itemsize that holds the representation of 0 for that type. The
returned pointer, ret, must be freed using PyDataMem_FREE (ret) when it is not needed anymore.
char* PyArray_One(PyArrayObject* arr)
A pointer to newly created memory of size arr ->itemsize that holds the representation of 1 for that type. The
returned pointer, ret, must be freed using PyDataMem_FREE (ret) when it is not needed anymore.
int PyArray_ValidType(int typenum)
Returns NPY_TRUE if typenum represents a valid type-number (builtin or user-defined or character code). Oth-
erwise, this function returns NPY_FALSE.
New data types
void PyArray_InitArrFuncs(PyArray_ArrFuncs* f )
Initialize all function pointers and members to NULL.
int PyArray_RegisterDataType(PyArray_Descr* dtype)
Register a data-type as a new user-defined data type for arrays. The type must have most of its entries filled
in. This is not always checked and errors can produce segfaults. In particular, the typeobj member of the
dtype structure must be filled with a Python type that has a fixed-size element-size that corresponds to the
elsize member of dtype. Also the f member must have the required functions: nonzero, copyswap, copyswapn,
getitem, setitem, and cast (some of the cast functions may be NULL if no support is desired). To avoid confusion,
you should choose a unique character typecode but this is not enforced and not relied on internally.
A user-defined type number is returned that uniquely identifies the type. A pointer to the new structure can then
be obtained from PyArray_DescrFromType using the returned type number. A -1 is returned if an error
occurs. If this dtype has already been registered (checked only by the address of the pointer), then return the
previously-assigned type-number.
int PyArray_RegisterCastFunc(PyArray_Descr* descr, int totype, PyArray_VectorUnaryFunc* cast-
func)
Register a low-level casting function, castfunc, to convert from the data-type, descr, to the given data-type
number, totype. Any old casting function is over-written. A 0 is returned on success or a -1 on failure.
int PyArray_RegisterCanCast(PyArray_Descr* descr, int totype, NPY_SCALARKIND scalar)
Register the data-type number, totype, as castable from data-type object, descr, of the given scalar kind. Use
scalar = NPY_NOSCALAR to register that an array of data-type descr can be cast safely to a data-type whose
type_number is totype.
Special functions for NPY_OBJECT
int PyArray_INCREF(PyArrayObject* op)

Used for an array, op, that contains any Python objects. It increments the reference count of every object in the
5.4. Array API 1233

array according to the data-type of op. A -1 is returned if an error occurs, otherwise 0 is returned.
void PyArray_Item_INCREF(char* ptr, PyArray_Descr* dtype)
A function to INCREF all the objects at the location ptr according to the data-type dtype. If ptr is the start of
a structured type with an object at any offset, then this will (recursively) increment the reference count of all
object-like items in the structured type.
int PyArray_XDECREF(PyArrayObject* op)
Used for an array, op, that contains any Python objects. It decrements the reference count of every object in the
array according to the data-type of op. Normal return value is 0. A -1 is returned if an error occurs.
void PyArray_Item_XDECREF(char* ptr, PyArray_Descr* dtype)
A function to XDECREF all the object-like items at the location ptr as recorded in the data-type, dtype. This
works recursively so that if dtype itself has fields with data-types that contain object-like items, all the object-
like fields will be XDECREF 'd.
void PyArray_FillObjectArray(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)
Fill a newly created array with a single value obj at all locations in the structure with object data-types. No
checking is performed but arr must be of data-type NPY_OBJECT and be single-segment and uninitialized (no
previous objects in position). Use PyArray_DECREF (arr) if you need to decrement all the items in the object
array prior to calling this function.
int PyArray_SetUpdateIfCopyBase(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArrayObject* base)
Precondition: arr is a copy of base (though possibly with different strides, ordering, etc.) Set the UP-
DATEIFCOPY flag and arr->base so that when arr is destructed, it will copy any changes back to base.
DEPRECATED, use PyArray_SetWritebackIfCopyBase`.
Returns 0 for success, -1 for failure.
int PyArray_SetWritebackIfCopyBase(PyArrayObject* arr, PyArrayObject* base)
Precondition: arr is a copy of base (though possibly with different strides, ordering, etc.) Sets
the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag and arr->base, and set base to READONLY. Call
PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy before calling Py_DECREF‘ in order copy any changes back to
base and reset the READONLY flag.
Returns 0 for success, -1 for failure.
5.4.4 Array flags
The flags attribute of the PyArrayObject structure contains important information about the memory used by
the array (pointed to by the data member) This flag information must be kept accurate or strange results and even
segfaults may result.
There are 6 (binary) flags that describe the memory area used by the data buffer. These constants are defined in
arrayobject.h and determine the bit-position of the flag. Python exposes a nice attribute- based interface as well
as a dictionary-like interface for getting (and, if appropriate, setting) these flags.
Memory areas of all kinds can be pointed to by an ndarray, necessitating these flags. If you get an arbitrary
PyArrayObject in C-code, you need to be aware of the flags that are set. If you need to guarantee a certain
kind of array (like NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS and NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED), then pass these requirements into
the PyArray_FromAny function.
Basic Array Flags
An ndarray can have a data segment that is not a simple contiguous chunk of well-behaved memory you can manip-
ulate. It may not be aligned with word boundaries (very important on some platforms). It might have its data in a

different byte-order than the machine recognizes. It might not be writeable. It might be in Fortan-contiguous order.
The array flags are used to indicate what can be said about data associated with an array.
In versions 1.6 and earlier of NumPy, the following flags did not have the _ARRAY_ macro namespace in them. That
form of the constant names is deprecated in 1.7.
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS
The data area is in C-style contiguous order (last index varies the fastest).
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS
The data area is in Fortran-style contiguous order (first index varies the fastest).
Note: Arrays can be both C-style and Fortran-style contiguous simultaneously. This is clear for 1-dimensional arrays,
but can also be true for higher dimensional arrays.
Even for contiguous arrays a stride for a given dimension arr.strides[dim] may be arbitrary if arr.
shape[dim] == 1 or the array has no elements. It does not generally hold that self.strides[-1] ==
self.itemsize for C-style contiguous arrays or self.strides[0] == self.itemsize for Fortran-
style contiguous arrays is true. The correct way to access the itemsize of an array from the C API is
PyArray_ITEMSIZE(arr).
See also:
Internal memory layout of an ndarray
NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA
The data area is owned by this array.
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
The data area and all array elements are aligned appropriately.
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
The data area can be written to.
Notice that the above 3 flags are defined so that a new, well- behaved array has these flags defined as true.
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY
The data area represents a (well-behaved) copy whose information should be transferred back to the original
when PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called.
This is a special flag that is set if this array represents a copy made because a user required certain flags in
PyArray_FromAny and a copy had to be made of some other array (and the user asked for this flag to be
set in such a situation). The base attribute then points to the “misbehaved” array (which is set read_only).
:c:func‘PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy‘ will copy its contents back to the “misbehaved” array (casting if
necessary) and will reset the “misbehaved” array to NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE. If the “misbehaved” array
was not NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE to begin with then PyArray_FromAny would have returned an error
because NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY would not have been possible.
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY
A deprecated version of NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY which depends upon dealloc to trigger the
writeback. For backwards compatibility, PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called at dealloc
but relying on that behavior is deprecated and not supported in PyPy.
PyArray_UpdateFlags (obj, flags) will update the obj->flags for flags which can be
any of NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, or
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE.
5.4. Array API 1235

Combinations of array flags
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED
NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATE_ALL
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS | NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
Flag-like constants
These constants are used in PyArray_FromAny (and its macro forms) to specify desired properties of the new array.
NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST
Cast to the desired type, even if it can’t be done without losing information.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY
Make sure the resulting array is a copy of the original.
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY
Make sure the resulting object is an actual ndarray, and not a sub-class.
NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Only used in PyArray_CheckFromAny to over-ride the byteorder of the data-type object passed in.
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED | NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE | NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED
Flag checking
For all of these macros arr must be an instance of a (subclass of) PyArray_Type, but no checking is done.
PyArray_CHKFLAGS(arr, flags)
The first parameter, arr, must be an ndarray or subclass. The parameter, flags, should
be an integer consisting of bitwise combinations of the possible flags an array can have:
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA,
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE, NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY,
NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY.
PyArray_IS_C_CONTIGUOUS(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is C-style contiguous.
PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is Fortran-style contiguous.

PyArray_ISFORTRAN(arr)
Evaluates true if arr is Fortran-style contiguous and not C-style contiguous. PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS
is the correct way to test for Fortran-style contiguity.
PyArray_ISWRITEABLE(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr can be written to
PyArray_ISALIGNED(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is properly aligned on the machine.
PyArray_ISBEHAVED(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is aligned and writeable and in machine byte-order according to its descrip-
tor.
PyArray_ISBEHAVED_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is aligned and in machine byte-order.
PyArray_ISCARRAY(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is C-style contiguous, and PyArray_ISBEHAVED (arr) is true.
PyArray_ISFARRAY(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is Fortran-style contiguous and PyArray_ISBEHAVED (arr) is true.
PyArray_ISCARRAY_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is C-style contiguous, aligned, and in machine byte-order.
PyArray_ISFARRAY_RO(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr is Fortran-style contiguous, aligned, and in machine byte-order .
PyArray_ISONESEGMENT(arr)
Evaluates true if the data area of arr consists of a single (C-style or Fortran-style) contiguous segment.
void PyArray_UpdateFlags(PyArrayObject* arr, int flagmask)
The NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS, NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED, and NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS array
flags can be “calculated” from the array object itself. This routine updates one or more of these flags of arr
as specified in flagmask by performing the required calculation.
Warning: It is important to keep the flags updated (using PyArray_UpdateFlags can help) whenever a
manipulation with an array is performed that might cause them to change. Later calculations in NumPy that rely
on the state of these flags do not repeat the calculation to update them.
5.4.5 Array method alternative API
Conversion
PyObject* PyArray_GetField(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int offset)

Equivalent to ndarray.getfield (self, dtype, offset). Return a new array of the given dtype using the data
in the current array at a specified offset in bytes. The offset plus the itemsize of the new array type must be
less than self ->descr->elsize or an error is raised. The same shape and strides as the original array are used.
Therefore, this function has the effect of returning a field from a structured array. But, it can also be used to
select specific bytes or groups of bytes from any array type.
int PyArray_SetField(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, int offset, PyObject* val)
Equivalent to ndarray.setfield (self, val, dtype, offset ). Set the field starting at offset in bytes and of the
given dtype to val. The offset plus dtype ->elsize must be less than self ->descr->elsize or an error is raised.
Otherwise, the val argument is converted to an array and copied into the field pointed to. If necessary, the
5.4. Array API 1237

elements of val are repeated to fill the destination array, But, the number of elements in the destination must be
an integer multiple of the number of elements in val.
PyObject* PyArray_Byteswap(PyArrayObject* self, Bool inplace)
Equivalent to ndarray.byteswap (self, inplace). Return an array whose data area is byteswapped. If inplace
is non-zero, then do the byteswap inplace and return a reference to self. Otherwise, create a byteswapped copy
and leave self unchanged.
PyObject* PyArray_NewCopy(PyArrayObject* old, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.copy (self, fortran). Make a copy of the old array. The returned array is always
aligned and writeable with data interpreted the same as the old array. If order is NPY_CORDER, then a C-
style contiguous array is returned. If order is NPY_FORTRANORDER, then a Fortran-style contiguous array is
returned. If order is NPY_ANYORDER, then the array returned is Fortran-style contiguous only if the old one is;
otherwise, it is C-style contiguous.
PyObject* PyArray_ToList(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.tolist (self ). Return a nested Python list from self.
PyObject* PyArray_ToString(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.tobytes (self, order). Return the bytes of this array in a Python string.
PyObject* PyArray_ToFile(PyArrayObject* self, FILE* fp, char* sep, char* format)
Write the contents of self to the file pointer fp in C-style contiguous fashion. Write the data as binary bytes if sep
is the string “”or NULL. Otherwise, write the contents of self as text using the sep string as the item separator.
Each item will be printed to the file. If the format string is not NULL or “”, then it is a Python print statement
format string showing how the items are to be written.
int PyArray_Dump(PyObject* self, PyObject* file, int protocol)
Pickle the object in self to the given file (either a string or a Python file object). If file is a Python string it is
considered to be the name of a file which is then opened in binary mode. The given protocol is used (if protocol
is negative, or the highest available is used). This is a simple wrapper around cPickle.dump(self, file, protocol).
PyObject* PyArray_Dumps(PyObject* self, int protocol)
Pickle the object in self to a Python string and return it. Use the Pickle protocol provided (or the highest
available if protocol is negative).
int PyArray_FillWithScalar(PyArrayObject* arr, PyObject* obj)
Fill the array, arr, with the given scalar object, obj. The object is first converted to the data type of arr, and then
copied into every location. A -1 is returned if an error occurs, otherwise 0 is returned.
PyObject* PyArray_View(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyTypeObject *ptype)
Equivalent to ndarray.view (self, dtype). Return a new view of the array self as possibly a different data-
type, dtype, and different array subclass ptype.
If dtype is NULL, then the returned array will have the same data type as self. The new data-type must be
consistent with the size of self. Either the itemsizes must be identical, or self must be single-segment and the
total number of bytes must be the same. In the latter case the dimensions of the returned array will be altered in
the last (or first for Fortran-style contiguous arrays) dimension. The data area of the returned array and self is
exactly the same.
Shape Manipulation
PyObject* PyArray_Newshape(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Dims* newshape, NPY_ORDER order)

Result will be a new array (pointing to the same memory location as self if possible), but having a shape given
by newshape. If the new shape is not compatible with the strides of self, then a copy of the array with the new
specified shape will be returned.
PyObject* PyArray_Reshape(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* shape)
Equivalent to ndarray.reshape (self, shape) where shape is a sequence. Converts shape to a

PyArray_Dims structure and calls PyArray_Newshape internally. For back-ward compatibility – Not
recommended
PyObject* PyArray_Squeeze(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.squeeze (self ). Return a new view of self with all of the dimensions of length 1
removed from the shape.
Warning: matrix objects are always 2-dimensional. Therefore, PyArray_Squeeze has no effect on arrays of
matrix sub-class.
PyObject* PyArray_SwapAxes(PyArrayObject* self, int a1, int a2)

Equivalent to ndarray.swapaxes (self, a1, a2). The returned array is a new view of the data in self with
the given axes, a1 and a2, swapped.
PyObject* PyArray_Resize(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Dims* newshape, int refcheck,
NPY_ORDER fortran)
Equivalent to ndarray.resize (self, newshape, refcheck = refcheck, order= fortran ). This function only
works on single-segment arrays. It changes the shape of self inplace and will reallocate the memory for self
if newshape has a different total number of elements then the old shape. If reallocation is necessary, then
self must own its data, have self - >base==NULL, have self - >weakrefs==NULL, and (unless refcheck
is 0) not be referenced by any other array. The fortran argument can be NPY_ANYORDER, NPY_CORDER, or
NPY_FORTRANORDER. It currently has no effect. Eventually it could be used to determine how the resize
operation should view the data when constructing a differently-dimensioned array. Returns None on success
and NULL on error.
PyObject* PyArray_Transpose(PyArrayObject* self, PyArray_Dims* permute)
Equivalent to ndarray.transpose (self, permute). Permute the axes of the ndarray object self according
to the data structure permute and return the result. If permute is NULL, then the resulting array has its axes
reversed. For example if self has shape 10 × 20 × 30, and permute .ptr is (0,2,1) the shape of the result is
10 × 30 × 20. If permute is NULL, the shape of the result is 30 × 20 × 10.
PyObject* PyArray_Flatten(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to ndarray.flatten (self, order). Return a 1-d copy of the array. If order is
NPY_FORTRANORDER the elements are scanned out in Fortran order (first-dimension varies the fastest). If
order is NPY_CORDER, the elements of self are scanned in C-order (last dimension varies the fastest). If
order NPY_ANYORDER, then the result of PyArray_ISFORTRAN (self ) is used to determine which order to
flatten.
PyObject* PyArray_Ravel(PyArrayObject* self, NPY_ORDER order)
Equivalent to self.ravel(order). Same basic functionality as PyArray_Flatten (self, order) except if order
is 0 and self is C-style contiguous, the shape is altered but no copy is performed.
PyObject* PyArray_TakeFrom(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* indices, int axis, PyArrayObject* ret,

NPY_CLIPMODE clipmode)
Equivalent to ndarray.take (self, indices, axis, ret, clipmode) except axis =None in Python is obtained by
setting axis = NPY_MAXDIMS in C. Extract the items from self indicated by the integer-valued indices along
the given axis. The clipmode argument can be NPY_RAISE, NPY_WRAP, or NPY_CLIP to indicate what to
do with out-of-bound indices. The ret argument can specify an output array rather than having one created
internally.
PyObject* PyArray_PutTo(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* values, PyObject* indices,
Equivalent to self.put(values, indices, clipmode ). Put values into self at the corresponding (flattened) indices.
If values is too small it will be repeated as necessary.
5.4. Array API 1239

PyObject* PyArray_PutMask(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* values, PyObject* mask)

Place the values in self wherever corresponding positions (using a flattened context) in mask are true. The
mask and self arrays must have the same total number of elements. If values is too small, it will be repeated as
necessary.
PyObject* PyArray_Repeat(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* op, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.repeat (self, op, axis). Copy the elements of self, op times along the given axis.
Either op is a scalar integer or a sequence of length self ->dimensions[ axis ] indicating how many times to
repeat each item along the axis.
PyObject* PyArray_Choose(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* op, PyArrayObject* ret,
Equivalent to ndarray.choose (self, op, ret, clipmode). Create a new array by selecting elements from the
sequence of arrays in op based on the integer values in self. The arrays must all be broadcastable to the same
shape and the entries in self should be between 0 and len(op). The output is placed in ret unless it is NULL in
which case a new output is created. The clipmode argument determines behavior for when entries in self are not
between 0 and len(op).
NPY_RAISE
raise a ValueError;
NPY_WRAP
wrap values < 0 by adding len(op) and values >=len(op) by subtracting len(op) until they are in range;
NPY_CLIP
all values are clipped to the region [0, len(op) ).
PyObject* PyArray_Sort(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.sort (self, axis). Return an array with the items of self sorted along axis.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgSort(PyArrayObject* self, int axis)
Equivalent to ndarray.argsort (self, axis). Return an array of indices such that selection of these indices
along the given axis would return a sorted version of self. If self ->descr is a data-type with fields defined,
then self->descr->names is used to determine the sort order. A comparison where the first field is equal will use
the second field and so on. To alter the sort order of a structured array, create a new data-type with a different
order of names and construct a view of the array with that new data-type.
PyObject* PyArray_LexSort(PyObject* sort_keys, int axis)
Given a sequence of arrays (sort_keys) of the same shape, return an array of indices (similar to
PyArray_ArgSort (. . . )) that would sort the arrays lexicographically. A lexicographic sort specifies that
when two keys are found to be equal, the order is based on comparison of subsequent keys. A merge sort (which
leaves equal entries unmoved) is required to be defined for the types. The sort is accomplished by sorting the
indices first using the first sort_key and then using the second sort_key and so forth. This is equivalent to the
lexsort(sort_keys, axis) Python command. Because of the way the merge-sort works, be sure to understand the
order the sort_keys must be in (reversed from the order you would use when comparing two elements).
If these arrays are all collected in a structured array, then PyArray_Sort (. . . ) can also be used to sort the
array directly.
PyObject* PyArray_SearchSorted(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* values, NPY_SEARCHSIDE side,
PyObject* perm)
Equivalent to ndarray.searchsorted (self, values, side, perm). Assuming self is a 1-d array in ascending
order, then the output is an array of indices the same shape as values such that, if the elements in values were
inserted before the indices, the order of self would be preserved. No checking is done on whether or not self is
in ascending order.
The side argument indicates whether the index returned should be that of the first suitable location (if
NPY_SEARCHLEFT) or of the last (if NPY_SEARCHRIGHT).
The sorter argument, if not NULL, must be a 1D array of integer indices the same length as self, that sorts it into

ascending order. This is typically the result of a call to PyArray_ArgSort (. . . ) Binary search is used to find
the required insertion points.
int PyArray_Partition(PyArrayObject *self, PyArrayObject * ktharray, int axis,
NPY_SELECTKIND which)
Equivalent to ndarray.partition (self, ktharray, axis, kind). Partitions the array so that the values of the
element indexed by ktharray are in the positions they would be if the array is fully sorted and places all elements
smaller than the kth before and all elements equal or greater after the kth element. The ordering of all elements
within the partitions is undefined. If self ->descr is a data-type with fields defined, then self->descr->names is
used to determine the sort order. A comparison where the first field is equal will use the second field and so on.
To alter the sort order of a structured array, create a new data-type with a different order of names and construct
a view of the array with that new data-type. Returns zero on success and -1 on failure.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgPartition(PyArrayObject *op, PyArrayObject * ktharray, int axis,
NPY_SELECTKIND which)
Equivalent to ndarray.argpartition (self, ktharray, axis, kind). Return an array of indices such that
selection of these indices along the given axis would return a partitioned version of self.
PyObject* PyArray_Diagonal(PyArrayObject* self, int offset, int axis1, int axis2)
Equivalent to ndarray.diagonal (self, offset, axis1, axis2 ). Return the offset diagonals of the 2-d arrays
defined by axis1 and axis2.
npy_intp PyArray_CountNonzero(PyArrayObject* self )
New in version 1.6.
Counts the number of non-zero elements in the array object self.
PyObject* PyArray_Nonzero(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.nonzero (self ). Returns a tuple of index arrays that select elements of self that are
nonzero. If (nd= PyArray_NDIM ( self ))==1, then a single index array is returned. The index arrays have
data type NPY_INTP. If a tuple is returned (nd ̸= 1), then its length is nd.
PyObject* PyArray_Compress(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* condition, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.compress (self, condition, axis ). Return the elements along axis corresponding to
elements of condition that are true.
Calculation
Tip: Pass in NPY_MAXDIMS for axis in order to achieve the same effect that is obtained by passing in axis = None
in Python (treating the array as a 1-d array).
PyObject* PyArray_ArgMax(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.argmax (self, axis). Return the index of the largest element of self along axis.
PyObject* PyArray_ArgMin(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.argmin (self, axis). Return the index of the smallest element of self along axis.
Note: The out argument specifies where to place the result. If out is NULL, then the output array is created,
otherwise the output is placed in out which must be the correct size and type. A new reference to the output array
is always returned even when out is not NULL. The caller of the routine has the responsibility to DECREF out if not
NULL or a memory-leak will occur.
PyObject* PyArray_Max(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.max (self, axis). Returns the largest element of self along the given axis. When the
result is a single element, returns a numpy scalar instead of an ndarray.
5.4. Array API 1241

PyObject* PyArray_Min(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.min (self, axis). Return the smallest element of self along the given axis. When the
result is a single element, returns a numpy scalar instead of an ndarray.
PyObject* PyArray_Ptp(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.ptp (self, axis). Return the difference between the largest element of self along axis
and the smallest element of self along axis. When the result is a single element, returns a numpy scalar instead
of an ndarray.
Note: The rtype argument specifies the data-type the reduction should take place over. This is important if the data-
type of the array is not “large” enough to handle the output. By default, all integer data-types are made at least as large
as NPY_LONG for the “add” and “multiply” ufuncs (which form the basis for mean, sum, cumsum, prod, and cumprod
functions).
PyObject* PyArray_Mean(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)

Equivalent to ndarray.mean (self, axis, rtype). Returns the mean of the elements along the given axis, using
the enumerated type rtype as the data type to sum in. Default sum behavior is obtained using NPY_NOTYPE for
rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Trace(PyArrayObject* self, int offset, int axis1, int axis2, int rtype, PyArrayOb-
ject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.trace (self, offset, axis1, axis2, rtype). Return the sum (using rtype as the data
type of summation) over the offset diagonal elements of the 2-d arrays defined by axis1 and axis2 variables. A
positive offset chooses diagonals above the main diagonal. A negative offset selects diagonals below the main
diagonal.
PyObject* PyArray_Clip(PyArrayObject* self, PyObject* min, PyObject* max)
Equivalent to ndarray.clip (self, min, max). Clip an array, self, so that values larger than max are fixed to
max and values less than min are fixed to min.
PyObject* PyArray_Conjugate(PyArrayObject* self )
Equivalent to ndarray.conjugate (self ). Return the complex conjugate of self. If self is not of complex
data type, then return self with a reference.
PyObject* PyArray_Round(PyArrayObject* self, int decimals, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.round (self, decimals, out). Returns the array with elements rounded to the nearest
decimal place. The decimal place is defined as the 10−decimals digit so that negative decimals cause rounding to
the nearest 10’s, 100’s, etc. If out is NULL, then the output array is created, otherwise the output is placed in out
which must be the correct size and type.
PyObject* PyArray_Std(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.std (self, axis, rtype). Return the standard deviation using data along axis converted
to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Sum(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.sum (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d vector sums of elements in self along axis. Perform
the sum after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_CumSum(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.cumsum (self, axis, rtype). Return cumulative 1-d sums of elements in self along
axis. Perform the sum after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_Prod(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.prod (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d products of elements in self along axis. Perform
the product after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_CumProd(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, int rtype, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.cumprod (self, axis, rtype). Return 1-d cumulative products of elements in self

along axis. Perform the product after converting data to data type rtype.
PyObject* PyArray_All(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.all (self, axis). Return an array with True elements for every 1-d sub-array of self
defined by axis in which all the elements are True.
PyObject* PyArray_Any(PyArrayObject* self, int axis, PyArrayObject* out)
Equivalent to ndarray.any (self, axis). Return an array with True elements for every 1-d sub-array of self
defined by axis in which any of the elements are True.
5.4.6 Functions
Array Functions
int PyArray_AsCArray(PyObject** op, void* ptr, npy_intp* dims, int nd, int typenum, int itemsize)
Sometimes it is useful to access a multidimensional array as a C-style multi-dimensional array so that algorithms
can be implemented using C’s a[i][j][k] syntax. This routine returns a pointer, ptr, that simulates this kind of
C-style array, for 1-, 2-, and 3-d ndarrays.
Parameters
• op – The address to any Python object. This Python object will be replaced with an equiv-
alent well-behaved, C-style contiguous, ndarray of the given data type specified by the last
two arguments. Be sure that stealing a reference in this way to the input object is justified.
• ptr – The address to a (ctype* for 1-d, ctype** for 2-d or ctype*** for 3-d) variable where
ctype is the equivalent C-type for the data type. On return, ptr will be addressable as a 1-d,
2-d, or 3-d array.
• dims – An output array that contains the shape of the array object. This array gives bound-
aries on any looping that will take place.
• nd – The dimensionality of the array (1, 2, or 3).
• typenum – The expected data type of the array.
• itemsize – This argument is only needed when typenum represents a flexible array. Oth-
erwise it should be 0.
Note: The simulation of a C-style array is not complete for 2-d and 3-d arrays. For example, the simulated arrays of
pointers cannot be passed to subroutines expecting specific, statically-defined 2-d and 3-d arrays. To pass to functions
requiring those kind of inputs, you must statically define the required array and copy data.
int PyArray_Free(PyObject* op, void* ptr)

Must be called with the same objects and memory locations returned from PyArray_AsCArray (. . . ). This
function cleans up memory that otherwise would get leaked.
PyObject* PyArray_Concatenate(PyObject* obj, int axis)
Join the sequence of objects in obj together along axis into a single array. If the dimensions or types are not
compatible an error is raised.
PyObject* PyArray_InnerProduct(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj2)
Compute a product-sum over the last dimensions of obj1 and obj2. Neither array is conjugated.
PyObject* PyArray_MatrixProduct(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj)
Compute a product-sum over the last dimension of obj1 and the second-to-last dimension of obj2. For 2-d arrays
this is a matrix-product. Neither array is conjugated.
5.4. Array API 1243

PyObject* PyArray_MatrixProduct2(PyObject* obj1, PyObject* obj, PyArrayObject* out)

New in version 1.6.
Same as PyArray_MatrixProduct, but store the result in out. The output array must have the correct shape, type,
and be C-contiguous, or an exception is raised.
PyObject* PyArray_EinsteinSum(char* subscripts, npy_intp nop, PyArrayObject** op_in,
PyArray_Descr* dtype, NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting,
PyArrayObject* out)
New in version 1.6.
Applies the Einstein summation convention to the array operands provided, returning a new array or placing the
result in out. The string in subscripts is a comma separated list of index letters. The number of operands is in
nop, and op_in is an array containing those operands. The data type of the output can be forced with dtype,
the output order can be forced with order (NPY_KEEPORDER is recommended), and when dtype is specified,
casting indicates how permissive the data conversion should be.
See the einsum function for more details.
PyObject* PyArray_CopyAndTranspose(PyObject * op)
A specialized copy and transpose function that works only for 2-d arrays. The returned array is a transposed
copy of op.
PyObject* PyArray_Correlate(PyObject* op1, PyObject* op2, int mode)
Compute the 1-d correlation of the 1-d arrays op1 and op2 . The correlation is computed at each output point
by multiplying op1 by a shifted version of op2 and summing the result. As a result of the shift, needed values
outside of the defined range of op1 and op2 are interpreted as zero. The mode determines how many shifts to
return: 0 - return only shifts that did not need to assume zero- values; 1 - return an object that is the same size
as op1, 2 - return all possible shifts (any overlap at all is accepted).
Notes
This does not compute the usual correlation: if op2 is larger than op1, the arguments are swapped, and the
conjugate is never taken for complex arrays. See PyArray_Correlate2 for the usual signal processing correlation.
PyObject* PyArray_Correlate2(PyObject* op1, PyObject* op2, int mode)
Updated version of PyArray_Correlate, which uses the usual definition of correlation for 1d arrays. The corre-
lation is computed at each output point by multiplying op1 by a shifted version of op2 and summing the result.
As a result of the shift, needed values outside of the defined range of op1 and op2 are interpreted as zero. The
mode determines how many shifts to return: 0 - return only shifts that did not need to assume zero- values; 1 -
return an object that is the same size as op1, 2 - return all possible shifts (any overlap at all is accepted).
Notes
Compute z as follows:
z[k] = sum_n op1[n] * conj(op2[n+k])
PyObject* PyArray_Where(PyObject* condition, PyObject* x, PyObject* y)

If both x and y are NULL, then return PyArray_Nonzero (condition). Otherwise, both x and y must be given
and the object returned is shaped like condition and has elements of x and y where condition is respectively True
or False.

Other functions
Bool PyArray_CheckStrides(int elsize, int nd, npy_intp numbytes, npy_intp* dims, npy_intp* new-
strides)
Determine if newstrides is a strides array consistent with the memory of an nd -dimensional array with shape
dims and element-size, elsize. The newstrides array is checked to see if jumping by the provided number of
bytes in each direction will ever mean jumping more than numbytes which is the assumed size of the available
memory segment. If numbytes is 0, then an equivalent numbytes is computed assuming nd, dims, and elsize refer
to a single-segment array. Return NPY_TRUE if newstrides is acceptable, otherwise return NPY_FALSE.
npy_intp PyArray_MultiplyList(npy_intp* seq, int n)
int PyArray_MultiplyIntList(int* seq, int n)
Both of these routines multiply an n -length array, seq, of integers and return the result. No overflow checking
is performed.
int PyArray_CompareLists(npy_intp* l1, npy_intp* l2, int n)
Given two n -length arrays of integers, l1, and l2, return 1 if the lists are identical; otherwise, return 0.
5.4.7 Auxiliary Data With Object Semantics

NpyAuxData
When working with more complex dtypes which are composed of other dtypes, such as the struct dtype, creating inner
loops that manipulate the dtypes requires carrying along additional data. NumPy supports this idea through a struct
NpyAuxData, mandating a few conventions so that it is possible to do this.
Defining an NpyAuxData is similar to defining a class in C++, but the object semantics have to be tracked manually
since the API is in C. Here’s an example for a function which doubles up an element using an element copier function
as a primitive.:
typedef struct {
NpyAuxData base;
ElementCopier_Func *func;
NpyAuxData *funcdata;
} eldoubler_aux_data;
void free_element_doubler_aux_data(NpyAuxData *data)

{
eldoubler_aux_data *d = (eldoubler_aux_data *)data;
/* Free the memory owned by this auxdata */
NPY_AUXDATA_FREE(d->funcdata);
PyArray_free(d);
}
NpyAuxData *clone_element_doubler_aux_data(NpyAuxData *data)

{
eldoubler_aux_data *ret = PyArray_malloc(sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
if (ret == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
/* Raw copy of all data */

memcpy(ret, data, sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
/* Fix up the owned auxdata so we have our own copy */
5.4. Array API 1245

ret->funcdata = NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE(ret->funcdata);
if (ret->funcdata == NULL) {
PyArray_free(ret);
return NULL;
}
return (NpyAuxData *)ret;

}
NpyAuxData *create_element_doubler_aux_data(
ElementCopier_Func *func,
NpyAuxData *funcdata)
{
eldoubler_aux_data *ret = PyArray_malloc(sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
if (ret == NULL) {
PyErr_NoMemory();
return NULL;
}
memset(&ret, 0, sizeof(eldoubler_aux_data));
ret->base->free = &free_element_doubler_aux_data;
ret->base->clone = &clone_element_doubler_aux_data;
ret->func = func;
ret->funcdata = funcdata;
return (NpyAuxData *)ret;

}
NpyAuxData_FreeFunc
The function pointer type for NpyAuxData free functions.
NpyAuxData_CloneFunc
The function pointer type for NpyAuxData clone functions. These functions should never set the Python excep-
tion on error, because they may be called from a multi-threaded context.
NPY_AUXDATA_FREE(auxdata)
A macro which calls the auxdata’s free function appropriately, does nothing if auxdata is NULL.
NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE(auxdata)
A macro which calls the auxdata’s clone function appropriately, returning a deep copy of the auxiliary data.
5.4.8 Array Iterators
As of NumPy 1.6.0, these array iterators are superceded by the new array iterator, NpyIter.
An array iterator is a simple way to access the elements of an N-dimensional array quickly and efficiently. Section 2
provides more description and examples of this useful approach to looping over an array.
PyObject* PyArray_IterNew(PyObject* arr)
Return an array iterator object from the array, arr. This is equivalent to arr. flat. The array iterator object makes
it easy to loop over an N-dimensional non-contiguous array in C-style contiguous fashion.
PyObject* PyArray_IterAllButAxis(PyObject* arr, int *axis)
Return an array iterator that will iterate over all axes but the one provided in *axis. The returned iterator cannot
be used with PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D. This iterator could be used to write something similar to what ufuncs
do wherein the loop over the largest axis is done by a separate sub-routine. If *axis is negative then *axis will
be set to the axis having the smallest stride and that axis will be used.

PyObject *PyArray_BroadcastToShape(PyObject* arr, npy_intp *dimensions, int nd)

Return an array iterator that is broadcast to iterate as an array of the shape provided by dimensions and nd.
int PyArrayIter_Check(PyObject* op)
Evaluates true if op is an array iterator (or instance of a subclass of the array iterator type).
void PyArray_ITER_RESET(PyObject* iterator)
Reset an iterator to the beginning of the array.
void PyArray_ITER_NEXT(PyObject* iterator)
Incremement the index and the dataptr members of the iterator to point to the next element of the array. If the
array is not (C-style) contiguous, also increment the N-dimensional coordinates array.
void *PyArray_ITER_DATA(PyObject* iterator)
A pointer to the current element of the array.
void PyArray_ITER_GOTO(PyObject* iterator, npy_intp* destination)
Set the iterator index, dataptr, and coordinates members to the location in the array indicated by the N-
dimensional c-array, destination, which must have size at least iterator ->nd_m1+1.
PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D(PyObject* iterator, npy_intp index)
Set the iterator index and dataptr to the location in the array indicated by the integer index which points to an
element in the C-styled flattened array.
int PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE(PyObject* iterator)
Evaluates TRUE as long as the iterator has not looped through all of the elements, otherwise it evaluates FALSE.
5.4.9 Broadcasting (multi-iterators)
PyObject* PyArray_MultiIterNew(int num, ...)

A simplified interface to broadcasting. This function takes the number of arrays to broadcast and then
num extra ( PyObject * ) arguments. These arguments are converted to arrays and iterators are created.
PyArray_Broadcast is then called on the resulting multi-iterator object. The resulting, broadcasted mult-
iterator object is then returned. A broadcasted operation can then be performed using a single loop and using
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT (..)
void PyArray_MultiIter_RESET(PyObject* multi)
Reset all the iterators to the beginning in a multi-iterator object, multi.
void PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT(PyObject* multi)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to its next (broadcasted) element.
void *PyArray_MultiIter_DATA(PyObject* multi, int i)
Return the data-pointer of the i th iterator in a multi-iterator object.
void PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi(PyObject* multi, int i)
Advance the pointer of only the i th iterator.
void PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO(PyObject* multi, npy_intp* destination)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to the given 𝑁 -dimensional destination where 𝑁 is the
number of dimensions in the broadcasted array.
void PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D(PyObject* multi, npy_intp index)
Advance each iterator in a multi-iterator object, multi, to the corresponding location of the index into the flattened
broadcasted array.
int PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE(PyObject* multi)
Evaluates TRUE as long as the multi-iterator has not looped through all of the elements (of the broadcasted
result), otherwise it evaluates FALSE.
5.4. Array API 1247

int PyArray_Broadcast(PyArrayMultiIterObject* mit)

This function encapsulates the broadcasting rules. The mit container should already contain iterators for all
the arrays that need to be broadcast. On return, these iterators will be adjusted so that iteration over each
simultaneously will accomplish the broadcasting. A negative number is returned if an error occurs.
int PyArray_RemoveSmallest(PyArrayMultiIterObject* mit)
This function takes a multi-iterator object that has been previously “broadcasted,” finds the dimension with
the smallest “sum of strides” in the broadcasted result and adapts all the iterators so as not to iterate over
that dimension (by effectively making them of length-1 in that dimension). The corresponding dimension is
returned unless mit ->nd is 0, then -1 is returned. This function is useful for constructing ufunc-like routines
that broadcast their inputs correctly and then call a strided 1-d version of the routine as the inner-loop. This 1-d
version is usually optimized for speed and for this reason the loop should be performed over the axis that won’t
require large stride jumps.
5.4.10 Neighborhood iterator

Neighborhood iterators are subclasses of the iterator object, and can be used to iter over a neighborhood of a point. For
example, you may want to iterate over every voxel of a 3d image, and for every such voxel, iterate over an hypercube.
Neighborhood iterator automatically handle boundaries, thus making this kind of code much easier to write than
manual boundaries handling, at the cost of a slight overhead.
PyObject* PyArray_NeighborhoodIterNew(PyArrayIterObject* iter, npy_intp bounds, int mode,
PyArrayObject* fill_value)
This function creates a new neighborhood iterator from an existing iterator. The neighborhood will be computed
relatively to the position currently pointed by iter, the bounds define the shape of the neighborhood iterator, and
the mode argument the boundaries handling mode.
The bounds argument is expected to be a (2 * iter->ao->nd) arrays, such as the range bound[2*i]->bounds[2*i+1]
defines the range where to walk for dimension i (both bounds are included in the walked coordinates). The
bounds should be ordered for each dimension (bounds[2*i] <= bounds[2*i+1]).
The mode should be one of:
• NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ZERO_PADDING: zero padding. Outside bounds values will be 0.
• NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ONE_PADDING: one padding, Outside bounds values will be 1.
• NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CONSTANT_PADDING: constant padding. Outside bounds values
will be the same as the first item in fill_value.
• NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_MIRROR_PADDING: mirror padding. Outside bounds values will be
as if the array items were mirrored. For example, for the array [1, 2, 3, 4], x[-2] will be 2, x[-2] will be 1,
x[4] will be 4, x[5] will be 1, etc. . .
• NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CIRCULAR_PADDING: circular padding. Outside bounds values will
be as if the array was repeated. For example, for the array [1, 2, 3, 4], x[-2] will be 3, x[-2] will be 4, x[4]
will be 1, x[5] will be 2, etc. . .
If the mode is constant filling (NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_CONSTANT_PADDING), fill_value should
point to an array object which holds the filling value (the first item will be the filling value if the array contains
more than one item). For other cases, fill_value may be NULL.
• The iterator holds a reference to iter
• Return NULL on failure (in which case the reference count of iter is not changed)
• iter itself can be a Neighborhood iterator: this can be useful for .e.g automatic boundaries handling
• the object returned by this function should be safe to use as a normal iterator

• If the position of iter is changed, any subsequent call to PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next is undefined

behavior, and PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset must be called.
PyArrayIterObject \*iter;
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject \*neigh_iter;
iter = PyArray_IterNew(x);
//For a 3x3 kernel

bounds = {-1, 1, -1, 1};
neigh_iter = (PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject*)PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_New(
iter, bounds, NPY_NEIGHBORHOOD_ITER_ZERO_PADDING, NULL);
for(i = 0; i < iter->size; ++i) {

for (j = 0; j < neigh_iter->size; ++j) {
// Walk around the item currently pointed by iter->dataptr
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next(neigh_iter);
}
// Move to the next point of iter

PyArrayIter_Next(iter);
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset(neigh_iter);
}
int PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset(PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject* iter)

Reset the iterator position to the first point of the neighborhood. This should be called whenever the iter argu-
ment given at PyArray_NeighborhoodIterObject is changed (see example)
int PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next(PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject* iter)
After this call, iter->dataptr points to the next point of the neighborhood. Calling this function after every point
of the neighborhood has been visited is undefined.
5.4.11 Array Scalars
PyObject* PyArray_Return(PyArrayObject* arr)

This function steals a reference to arr.
This function checks to see if arr is a 0-dimensional array and, if so, returns the appropriate array scalar. It
should be used whenever 0-dimensional arrays could be returned to Python.
PyObject* PyArray_Scalar(void* data, PyArray_Descr* dtype, PyObject* itemsize)
Return an array scalar object of the given enumerated typenum and itemsize by copying from memory pointed
to by data . If swap is nonzero then this function will byteswap the data if appropriate to the data-type because
array scalars are always in correct machine-byte order.
PyObject* PyArray_ToScalar(void* data, PyArrayObject* arr)
Return an array scalar object of the type and itemsize indicated by the array object arr copied from the memory
pointed to by data and swapping if the data in arr is not in machine byte-order.
PyObject* PyArray_FromScalar(PyObject* scalar, PyArray_Descr* outcode)
Return a 0-dimensional array of type determined by outcode from scalar which should be an array-scalar object.
If outcode is NULL, then the type is determined from scalar.
void PyArray_ScalarAsCtype(PyObject* scalar, void* ctypeptr)
Return in ctypeptr a pointer to the actual value in an array scalar. There is no error checking so scalar must be
an array-scalar object, and ctypeptr must have enough space to hold the correct type. For flexible-sized types,
a pointer to the data is copied into the memory of ctypeptr, for all other types, the actual data is copied into the
address pointed to by ctypeptr.
5.4. Array API 1249

void PyArray_CastScalarToCtype(PyObject* scalar, void* ctypeptr, PyArray_Descr* outcode)

Return the data (cast to the data type indicated by outcode) from the array-scalar, scalar, into the memory
pointed to by ctypeptr (which must be large enough to handle the incoming memory).
PyObject* PyArray_TypeObjectFromType(int type)
Returns a scalar type-object from a type-number, type . Equivalent to PyArray_DescrFromType (type)-
>typeobj except for reference counting and error-checking. Returns a new reference to the typeobject on success
or NULL on failure.
NPY_SCALARKIND PyArray_ScalarKind(int typenum, PyArrayObject** arr)
See the function PyArray_MinScalarType for an alternative mechanism introduced in NumPy 1.6.0.
Return the kind of scalar represented by typenum and the array in *arr (if arr is not NULL ). The array is assumed
to be rank-0 and only used if typenum represents a signed integer. If arr is not NULL and the first element is neg-
ative then NPY_INTNEG_SCALAR is returned, otherwise NPY_INTPOS_SCALAR is returned. The possible
return values are NPY_{kind}_SCALAR where {kind} can be INTPOS, INTNEG, FLOAT, COMPLEX,
BOOL, or OBJECT. NPY_NOSCALAR is also an enumerated value NPY_SCALARKIND variables can take
on.
int PyArray_CanCoerceScalar(char thistype, char neededtype, NPY_SCALARKIND scalar)
See the function PyArray_ResultType for details of NumPy type promotion, updated in NumPy 1.6.0.
Implements the rules for scalar coercion. Scalars are only silently coerced from thistype to needed-
type if this function returns nonzero. If scalar is NPY_NOSCALAR, then this function is equivalent to
PyArray_CanCastSafely. The rule is that scalars of the same KIND can be coerced into arrays of the
same KIND. This rule means that high-precision scalars will never cause low-precision arrays of the same
KIND to be upcast.
5.4.12 Data-type descriptors
Warning: Data-type objects must be reference counted so be aware of the action on the data-type reference
of different C-API calls. The standard rule is that when a data-type object is returned it is a new reference.
Functions that take PyArray_Descr * objects and return arrays steal references to the data-type their inputs
unless otherwise noted. Therefore, you must own a reference to any data-type object used as input to such a
function.
int PyArray_DescrCheck(PyObject* obj)

Evaluates as true if obj is a data-type object ( PyArray_Descr * ).
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNew(PyArray_Descr* obj)
Return a new data-type object copied from obj (the fields reference is just updated so that the new object points
to the same fields dictionary if any).
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNewFromType(int typenum)
Create a new data-type object from the built-in (or user-registered) data-type indicated by typenum. All builtin
types should not have any of their fields changed. This creates a new copy of the PyArray_Descr structure
so that you can fill it in as appropriate. This function is especially needed for flexible data-types which need to
have a new elsize member in order to be meaningful in array construction.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrNewByteorder(PyArray_Descr* obj, char newendian)
Create a new data-type object with the byteorder set according to newendian. All referenced data-type ob-
jects (in subdescr and fields members of the data-type object) are also changed (recursively). If a byteorder of
NPY_IGNORE is encountered it is left alone. If newendian is NPY_SWAP, then all byte-orders are swapped.
Other valid newendian values are NPY_NATIVE, NPY_LITTLE, and NPY_BIG which all cause the returned
data-typed descriptor (and all it’s referenced data-type descriptors) to have the corresponding byteorder.

PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromObject(PyObject* op, PyArray_Descr* mintype)

Determine an appropriate data-type object from the object op (which should be a “nested” sequence object) and
the minimum data-type descriptor mintype (which can be NULL ). Similar in behavior to array(op).dtype. Don’t
confuse this function with PyArray_DescrConverter. This function essentially looks at all the objects in
the (nested) sequence and determines the data-type from the elements it finds.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromScalar(PyObject* scalar)
Return a data-type object from an array-scalar object. No checking is done to be sure that scalar is an array
scalar. If no suitable data-type can be determined, then a data-type of NPY_OBJECT is returned by default.
PyArray_Descr* PyArray_DescrFromType(int typenum)
Returns a data-type object corresponding to typenum. The typenum can be one of the enumerated types, a
character code for one of the enumerated types, or a user-defined type.
int PyArray_DescrConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Convert any compatible Python object, obj, to a data-type object in dtype. A large number of Python objects can
be converted to data-type objects. See Data type objects (dtype) for a complete description. This version of the
converter converts None objects to a NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE data-type object. This function can be used with
the “O&” character code in PyArg_ParseTuple processing.
int PyArray_DescrConverter2(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Convert any compatible Python object, obj, to a data-type object in dtype. This version of the converter converts
None objects so that the returned data-type is NULL. This function can also be used with the “O&” character in
PyArg_ParseTuple processing.
int Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Like PyArray_DescrConverter except it aligns C-struct-like objects on word-boundaries as the compiler
would.
int Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter2(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Descr** dtype)
Like PyArray_DescrConverter2 except it aligns C-struct-like objects on word-boundaries as the com-
piler would.
PyObject *PyArray_FieldNames(PyObject* dict)
Take the fields dictionary, dict, such as the one attached to a data-type object and construct an ordered-list of
field names such as is stored in the names field of the PyArray_Descr object.
5.4.13 Conversion Utilities
For use with PyArg_ParseTuple
All of these functions can be used in PyArg_ParseTuple (. . . ) with the “O&” format specifier to automatically
convert any Python object to the required C-object. All of these functions return NPY_SUCCEED if successful and
NPY_FAIL if not. The first argument to all of these function is a Python object. The second argument is the address
of the C-type to convert the Python object to.
Warning: Be sure to understand what steps you should take to manage the memory when using these conversion
functions. These functions can require freeing memory, and/or altering the reference counts of specific objects
based on your use.
int PyArray_Converter(PyObject* obj, PyObject** address)

Convert any Python object to a PyArrayObject. If PyArray_Check (obj) is TRUE then its reference
count is incremented and a reference placed in address. If obj is not an array, then convert it to an array using
PyArray_FromAny . No matter what is returned, you must DECREF the object returned by this routine in
address when you are done with it.
5.4. Array API 1251

int PyArray_OutputConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArrayObject** address)

This is a default converter for output arrays given to functions. If obj is Py_None or NULL, then *address will
be NULL but the call will succeed. If PyArray_Check ( obj) is TRUE then it is returned in *address without
incrementing its reference count.
int PyArray_IntpConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Dims* seq)
Convert any Python sequence, obj, smaller than NPY_MAXDIMS to a C-array of npy_intp. The Python
object could also be a single number. The seq variable is a pointer to a structure with members ptr and len. On
successful return, seq ->ptr contains a pointer to memory that must be freed, by calling PyDimMem_FREE, to
avoid a memory leak. The restriction on memory size allows this converter to be conveniently used for sequences
intended to be interpreted as array shapes.
int PyArray_BufferConverter(PyObject* obj, PyArray_Chunk* buf )
Convert any Python object, obj, with a (single-segment) buffer interface to a variable with members that detail
the object’s use of its chunk of memory. The buf variable is a pointer to a structure with base, ptr, len, and flags
members. The PyArray_Chunk structure is binary compatible with the Python’s buffer object (through its
len member on 32-bit platforms and its ptr member on 64-bit platforms or in Python 2.5). On return, the base
member is set to obj (or its base if obj is already a buffer object pointing to another object). If you need to hold
on to the memory be sure to INCREF the base member. The chunk of memory is pointed to by buf ->ptr member
and has length buf ->len. The flags member of buf is NPY_BEHAVED_RO with the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE
flag set if obj has a writeable buffer interface.
int PyArray_AxisConverter(PyObject * obj, int* axis)
Convert a Python object, obj, representing an axis argument to the proper value for passing to the functions that
take an integer axis. Specifically, if obj is None, axis is set to NPY_MAXDIMS which is interpreted correctly by
the C-API functions that take axis arguments.
int PyArray_BoolConverter(PyObject* obj, Bool* value)
Convert any Python object, obj, to NPY_TRUE or NPY_FALSE, and place the result in value.
int PyArray_ByteorderConverter(PyObject* obj, char* endian)
Convert Python strings into the corresponding byte-order character: ‘>’, ‘<’, ‘s’, ‘=’, or ‘|’.
int PyArray_SortkindConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_SORTKIND* sort)
Convert Python strings into one of NPY_QUICKSORT (starts with ‘q’ or ‘Q’) , NPY_HEAPSORT (starts with
‘h’ or ‘H’), or NPY_MERGESORT (starts with ‘m’ or ‘M’).
int PyArray_SearchsideConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_SEARCHSIDE* side)
Convert Python strings into one of NPY_SEARCHLEFT (starts with ‘l’ or ‘L’), or NPY_SEARCHRIGHT (starts
with ‘r’ or ‘R’).
int PyArray_OrderConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_ORDER* order)
Convert the Python strings ‘C’, ‘F’, ‘A’, and ‘K’ into the NPY_ORDER enumeration NPY_CORDER,
NPY_FORTRANORDER, NPY_ANYORDER, and NPY_KEEPORDER.
int PyArray_CastingConverter(PyObject* obj, NPY_CASTING* casting)
Convert the Python strings ‘no’, ‘equiv’, ‘safe’, ‘same_kind’, and ‘unsafe’ into the NPY_CASTING enumeration
NPY_NO_CASTING, NPY_EQUIV_CASTING, NPY_SAFE_CASTING, NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING, and
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING.
int PyArray_ClipmodeConverter(PyObject* object, NPY_CLIPMODE* val)
Convert the Python strings ‘clip’, ‘wrap’, and ‘raise’ into the NPY_CLIPMODE enumeration NPY_CLIP,
NPY_WRAP, and NPY_RAISE.
int PyArray_ConvertClipmodeSequence(PyObject* object, NPY_CLIPMODE* modes, int n)
Converts either a sequence of clipmodes or a single clipmode into a C array of NPY_CLIPMODE values. The
number of clipmodes n must be known before calling this function. This function is provided to help functions
allow a different clipmode for each dimension.

Other conversions
int PyArray_PyIntAsInt(PyObject* op)

Convert all kinds of Python objects (including arrays and array scalars) to a standard integer. On error, -1 is
returned and an exception set. You may find useful the macro:
#define error_converting(x) (((x) == -1) && PyErr_Occurred()
npy_intp PyArray_PyIntAsIntp(PyObject* op)

Convert all kinds of Python objects (including arrays and array scalars) to a (platform-pointer-sized) integer. On
error, -1 is returned and an exception set.
int PyArray_IntpFromSequence(PyObject* seq, npy_intp* vals, int maxvals)
Convert any Python sequence (or single Python number) passed in as seq to (up to) maxvals pointer-sized
integers and place them in the vals array. The sequence can be smaller then maxvals as the number of converted
objects is returned.
int PyArray_TypestrConvert(int itemsize, int gentype)
Convert typestring characters (with itemsize) to basic enumerated data types. The typestring character cor-
responding to signed and unsigned integers, floating point numbers, and complex-floating point numbers are
recognized and converted. Other values of gentype are returned. This function can be used to convert, for
example, the string ‘f4’ to NPY_FLOAT32.
5.4.14 Miscellaneous
Importing the API
In order to make use of the C-API from another extension module, the import_array function must be called.
If the extension module is self-contained in a single .c file, then that is all that needs to be done. If, however, the
extension module involves multiple files where the C-API is needed then some additional steps must be taken.
void import_array(void)
This function must be called in the initialization section of a module that will make use of the C-API. It imports
the module where the function-pointer table is stored and points the correct variable to it.
PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL
NO_IMPORT_ARRAY
Using these #defines you can use the C-API in multiple files for a single extension module. In each file
you must define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to some name that will hold the C-API (e.g. myexten-
sion_ARRAY_API). This must be done before including the numpy/arrayobject.h file. In the module initial-
ization routine you call import_array. In addition, in the files that do not have the module initialization
sub_routine define NO_IMPORT_ARRAY prior to including numpy/arrayobject.h.
Suppose I have two files coolmodule.c and coolhelper.c which need to be compiled and linked into a single
extension module. Suppose coolmodule.c contains the required initcool module initialization function (with the
import_array() function called). Then, coolmodule.c would have at the top:
#define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL cool_ARRAY_API

#include numpy/arrayobject.h
On the other hand, coolhelper.c would contain at the top:
#define NO_IMPORT_ARRAY
#define PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL cool_ARRAY_API
#include numpy/arrayobject.h
5.4. Array API 1253

You can also put the common two last lines into an extension-local header file as long as you make sure that
NO_IMPORT_ARRAY is #defined before #including that file.
Internally, these #defines work as follows:
• If neither is defined, the C-API is declared to be static void**, so it is only visible within the com-
pilation unit that #includes numpy/arrayobject.h.
• If PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL is #defined, but NO_IMPORT_ARRAY is not, the C-API is declared to
be void**, so that it will also be visible to other compilation units.
• If NO_IMPORT_ARRAY is #defined, regardless of whether PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL is, the C-API
is declared to be extern void**, so it is expected to be defined in another compilation unit.
• Whenever PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL is #defined, it also changes the name of the variable holding
the C-API, which defaults to PyArray_API, to whatever the macro is #defined to.
Checking the API Version
Because python extensions are not used in the same way as usual libraries on most platforms, some errors cannot
be automatically detected at build time or even runtime. For example, if you build an extension using a function
available only for numpy >= 1.3.0, and you import the extension later with numpy 1.2, you will not get an import error
(but almost certainly a segmentation fault when calling the function). That’s why several functions are provided to
check for numpy versions. The macros NPY_VERSION and NPY_FEATURE_VERSION corresponds to the numpy
version used to build the extension, whereas the versions returned by the functions PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion
and PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion corresponds to the runtime numpy’s version.
The rules for ABI and API compatibilities can be summarized as follows:
• Whenever NPY_VERSION != PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion, the extension has to be recompiled (ABI incom-
patibility).
• NPY_VERSION == PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion and NPY_FEATURE_VERSION <=
PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion means backward compatible changes.
ABI incompatibility is automatically detected in every numpy’s version. API incompatibility detection was added in
numpy 1.4.0. If you want to supported many different numpy versions with one extension binary, you have to build
your extension with the lowest NPY_FEATURE_VERSION as possible.
unsigned int PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion(void)
This just returns the value NPY_VERSION . NPY_VERSION changes whenever a backward incompatible
change at the ABI level. Because it is in the C-API, however, comparing the output of this function from the
value defined in the current header gives a way to test if the C-API has changed thus requiring a re-compilation
of extension modules that use the C-API. This is automatically checked in the function import_array.
unsigned int PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion(void)
This just returns the value NPY_FEATURE_VERSION. NPY_FEATURE_VERSION changes whenever the API
changes (e.g. a function is added). A changed value does not always require a recompile.
Internal Flexibility
int PyArray_SetNumericOps(PyObject* dict)

NumPy stores an internal table of Python callable objects that are used to implement arithmetic operations for
arrays as well as certain array calculation methods. This function allows the user to replace any or all of these
Python objects with their own versions. The keys of the dictionary, dict, are the named functions to replace and
the paired value is the Python callable object to use. Care should be taken that the function used to replace an
internal array operation does not itself call back to that internal array operation (unless you have designed the

function to handle that), or an unchecked infinite recursion can result (possibly causing program crash). The key
names that represent operations that can be replaced are:
add, subtract, multiply, divide, remainder, power, square, reciprocal, ones_like, sqrt, nega-
tive, positive, absolute, invert, left_shift, right_shift, bitwise_and, bitwise_xor, bitwise_or, less,
less_equal, equal, not_equal, greater, greater_equal, floor_divide, true_divide, logical_or, logi-
cal_and, floor, ceil, maximum, minimum, rint.
These functions are included here because they are used at least once in the array object’s methods. The function
returns -1 (without setting a Python Error) if one of the objects being assigned is not callable.
PyObject* PyArray_GetNumericOps(void)
Return a Python dictionary containing the callable Python objects stored in the internal arithmetic operation
table. The keys of this dictionary are given in the explanation for PyArray_SetNumericOps.
void PyArray_SetStringFunction(PyObject* op, int repr)
This function allows you to alter the tp_str and tp_repr methods of the array object to any Python function. Thus
you can alter what happens for all arrays when str(arr) or repr(arr) is called from Python. The function to be
called is passed in as op. If repr is non-zero, then this function will be called in response to repr(arr), otherwise
the function will be called in response to str(arr). No check on whether or not op is callable is performed. The
callable passed in to op should expect an array argument and should return a string to be printed.
Memory management
char* PyDataMem_NEW(size_t nbytes)

PyDataMem_FREE(char* ptr)
char* PyDataMem_RENEW(void * ptr, size_t newbytes)
Macros to allocate, free, and reallocate memory. These macros are used internally to create arrays.
npy_intp* PyDimMem_NEW(nd)
PyDimMem_FREE(npy_intp* ptr)
npy_intp* PyDimMem_RENEW(npy_intp* ptr, npy_intp newnd)
Macros to allocate, free, and reallocate dimension and strides memory.
PyArray_malloc(nbytes)
PyArray_free(ptr)
PyArray_realloc(ptr, nbytes)
These macros use different memory allocators, depending on the constant NPY_USE_PYMEM. The system mal-
loc is used when NPY_USE_PYMEM is 0, if NPY_USE_PYMEM is 1, then the Python memory allocator is used.
int PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy(PyArrayObject* obj)
If obj.flags has NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY or (deprecated) NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY,
this function copies obj->data to obj->base->data, clears the flags, DECREF s obj->base and makes it
writeable, and sets obj->base to NULL. This is the opposite of PyArray_SetWritebackIfCopyBase.
Usually this is called once you are finished with obj, just before Py_DECREF(obj). It may be called multiple
times, or with NULL input.
Returns 0 if nothing was done, -1 on error, and 1 if action was taken.
Threading support
These macros are only meaningful if NPY_ALLOW_THREADS evaluates True during compilation of the extension
module. Otherwise, these macros are equivalent to whitespace. Python uses a single Global Interpreter Lock (GIL)
5.4. Array API 1255

for each Python process so that only a single thread may execute at a time (even on multi-cpu machines). When
calling out to a compiled function that may take time to compute (and does not have side-effects for other threads like
updated global variables), the GIL should be released so that other Python threads can run while the time-consuming
calculations are performed. This can be accomplished using two groups of macros. Typically, if one macro in a group
is used in a code block, all of them must be used in the same code block. Currently, NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is
defined to the python-defined WITH_THREADS constant unless the environment variable NPY_NOSMP is set in which
case NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is defined to be 0.
Group 1
This group is used to call code that may take some time but does not use any Python C-API calls. Thus,
the GIL should be released during its calculation.
NPY_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
Equivalent to Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS except it uses NPY_ALLOW_THREADS to determine
if the macro if replaced with white-space or not.
NPY_END_ALLOW_THREADS
Equivalent to Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS except it uses NPY_ALLOW_THREADS to determine if
the macro if replaced with white-space or not.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF
Place in the variable declaration area. This macro sets up the variable needed for storing the Python
state.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS
Place right before code that does not need the Python interpreter (no Python C-API calls). This
macro saves the Python state and releases the GIL.
NPY_END_THREADS
Place right after code that does not need the Python interpreter. This macro acquires the GIL and
restores the Python state from the saved variable.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DESCR(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Useful to release the GIL only if dtype does not contain arbitrary Python objects which may need
the Python interpreter during execution of the loop. Equivalent to
NPY_END_THREADS_DESCR(PyArray_Descr *dtype)
Useful to regain the GIL in situations where it was released using the BEGIN form of this macro.
NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_THRESHOLDED(int loop_size)
Useful to release the GIL only if loop_size exceeds a minimum threshold, currently set to 500.
Should be matched with a NPY_END_THREADS to regain the GIL.
Group 2
This group is used to re-acquire the Python GIL after it has been released. For example, suppose the
GIL has been released (using the previous calls), and then some path in the code (perhaps in a different
subroutine) requires use of the Python C-API, then these macros are useful to acquire the GIL. These
macros accomplish essentially a reverse of the previous three (acquire the LOCK saving what state it had)
and then re-release it with the saved state.
NPY_ALLOW_C_API_DEF
Place in the variable declaration area to set up the necessary variable.

NPY_ALLOW_C_API
Place before code that needs to call the Python C-API (when it is known that the GIL has already
been released).
NPY_DISABLE_C_API
Place after code that needs to call the Python C-API (to re-release the GIL).
Tip: Never use semicolons after the threading support macros.
Priority
NPY_PRIORITY
Default priority for arrays.
NPY_SUBTYPE_PRIORITY
Default subtype priority.
NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY
Default scalar priority (very small)
double PyArray_GetPriority(PyObject* obj, double def )
Return the __array_priority__ attribute (converted to a double) of obj or def if no attribute of that name
exists. Fast returns that avoid the attribute lookup are provided for objects of type PyArray_Type.
Default buffers
NPY_BUFSIZE
Default size of the user-settable internal buffers.
NPY_MIN_BUFSIZE
Smallest size of user-settable internal buffers.
NPY_MAX_BUFSIZE
Largest size allowed for the user-settable buffers.
Other constants
NPY_NUM_FLOATTYPE
The number of floating-point types
NPY_MAXDIMS
The maximum number of dimensions allowed in arrays.
NPY_VERSION
The current version of the ndarray object (check to see if this variable is defined to guarantee the
numpy/arrayobject.h header is being used).
NPY_FALSE
Defined as 0 for use with Bool.
NPY_TRUE
Defined as 1 for use with Bool.
NPY_FAIL
The return value of failed converter functions which are called using the “O&” syntax in
PyArg_ParseTuple-like functions.
5.4. Array API 1257

NPY_SUCCEED
The return value of successful converter functions which are called using the “O&” syntax in
PyArg_ParseTuple-like functions.
Miscellaneous Macros
PyArray_SAMESHAPE(a1, a2)
Evaluates as True if arrays a1 and a2 have the same shape.
PyArray_MAX(a, b)
Returns the maximum of a and b. If (a) or (b) are expressions they are evaluated twice.
PyArray_MIN(a, b)
Returns the minimum of a and b. If (a) or (b) are expressions they are evaluated twice.
PyArray_CLT(a, b)
PyArray_CGT(a, b)
PyArray_CLE(a, b)
PyArray_CGE(a, b)
PyArray_CEQ(a, b)
PyArray_CNE(a, b)
Implements the complex comparisons between two complex numbers (structures with a real and imag member)
using NumPy’s definition of the ordering which is lexicographic: comparing the real parts first and then the
complex parts if the real parts are equal.
PyArray_REFCOUNT(PyObject* op)
Returns the reference count of any Python object.
PyArray_DiscardWritebackIfCopy(PyObject* obj)
Reset the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY and deprecated NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY flag. Resets
the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag on the base object. It also discards pending changes to the base object.
This is useful for recovering from an error condition when writeback semantics are used.
PyArray_XDECREF_ERR(PyObject* obj)
Deprecated in 1.14, use PyArray_DiscardWritebackIfCopy followed by Py_XDECREF
DECREF’s an array object which may have the (deprecated) NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY or
NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag set without causing the contents to be copied back into the origi-
nal array. Resets the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag on the base object. This is useful for recovering from an
error condition when writeback semantics are used, but will lead to wrong results.
Enumerated Types
NPY_SORTKIND
A special variable-type which can take on the values NPY_{KIND} where {KIND} is
QUICKSORT, HEAPSORT, MERGESORT
NPY_NSORTS
Defined to be the number of sorts.
NPY_SCALARKIND
A special variable type indicating the number of “kinds” of scalars distinguished in determining scalar-coercion
rules. This variable can take on the values NPY_{KIND} where {KIND} can be

NOSCALAR, BOOL_SCALAR, INTPOS_SCALAR, INTNEG_SCALAR, FLOAT_SCALAR,

COMPLEX_SCALAR, OBJECT_SCALAR
NPY_NSCALARKINDS
Defined to be the number of scalar kinds (not including NPY_NOSCALAR).
NPY_ORDER
An enumeration type indicating the element order that an array should be interpreted in. When a brand new
array is created, generally only NPY_CORDER and NPY_FORTRANORDER are used, whereas when one
or more inputs are provided, the order can be based on them.
NPY_ANYORDER
Fortran order if all the inputs are Fortran, C otherwise.
NPY_CORDER
C order.
NPY_FORTRANORDER
Fortran order.
NPY_KEEPORDER
An order as close to the order of the inputs as possible, even if the input is in neither C nor Fortran order.
NPY_CLIPMODE
A variable type indicating the kind of clipping that should be applied in certain functions.
NPY_RAISE
The default for most operations, raises an exception if an index is out of bounds.
NPY_CLIP
Clips an index to the valid range if it is out of bounds.
NPY_WRAP
Wraps an index to the valid range if it is out of bounds.
NPY_CASTING
New in version 1.6.
An enumeration type indicating how permissive data conversions should be. This is used by the iterator added
in NumPy 1.6, and is intended to be used more broadly in a future version.
NPY_NO_CASTING
Only allow identical types.
NPY_EQUIV_CASTING
Allow identical and casts involving byte swapping.
NPY_SAFE_CASTING
Only allow casts which will not cause values to be rounded, truncated, or otherwise changed.
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING
Allow any safe casts, and casts between types of the same kind. For example, float64 -> float32 is permitted
with this rule.
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING
Allow any cast, no matter what kind of data loss may occur.
5.5 Array Iterator API
New in version 1.6.
5.5. Array Iterator API 1259

5.5.1 Array Iterator
The array iterator encapsulates many of the key features in ufuncs, allowing user code to support features like output
parameters, preservation of memory layouts, and buffering of data with the wrong alignment or type, without requiring
difficult coding.
This page documents the API for the iterator. The iterator is named NpyIter and functions are named NpyIter_*.
There is an introductory guide to array iteration which may be of interest for those using this C API. In many instances,
testing out ideas by creating the iterator in Python is a good idea before writing the C iteration code.
5.5.2 Simple Iteration Example
The best way to become familiar with the iterator is to look at its usage within the NumPy codebase itself. For example,
here is a slightly tweaked version of the code for PyArray_CountNonzero, which counts the number of non-zero
elements in an array.
npy_intp PyArray_CountNonzero(PyArrayObject* self)

{
/* Nonzero boolean function */
PyArray_NonzeroFunc* nonzero = PyArray_DESCR(self)->f->nonzero;
NpyIter* iter;
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext;
char** dataptr;
npy_intp nonzero_count;
npy_intp* strideptr,* innersizeptr;
/* Handle zero-sized arrays specially */

if (PyArray_SIZE(self) == 0) {
return 0;
}
/*
* Create and use an iterator to count the nonzeros.
* flag NPY_ITER_READONLY
* - The array is never written to.
* flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
* - Inner loop is done outside the iterator for efficiency.
* flag NPY_ITER_NPY_ITER_REFS_OK
* - Reference types are acceptable.
* order NPY_KEEPORDER
* - Visit elements in memory order, regardless of strides.
* This is good for performance when the specific order
* elements are visited is unimportant.
* casting NPY_NO_CASTING
* - No casting is required for this operation.
*/
iter = NpyIter_New(self, NPY_ITER_READONLY|
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP|
NPY_ITER_REFS_OK,
NPY_KEEPORDER, NPY_NO_CASTING,
NULL);
if (iter == NULL) {
return -1;
}

/*
* The iternext function gets stored in a local variable
* so it can be called repeatedly in an efficient manner.
*/
iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);
if (iternext == NULL) {
NpyIter_Deallocate(iter);
return -1;
}
/* The location of the data pointer which the iterator may update */
dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
/* The location of the stride which the iterator may update */
strideptr = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
/* The location of the inner loop size which the iterator may update */
innersizeptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter);
nonzero_count = 0;
do {
/* Get the inner loop data/stride/count values */
char* data = *dataptr;
npy_intp stride = *strideptr;
npy_intp count = *innersizeptr;
/* This is a typical inner loop for NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP */

while (count--) {
if (nonzero(data, self)) {
++nonzero_count;
}
data += stride;
}
/* Increment the iterator to the next inner loop */

} while(iternext(iter));
NpyIter_Deallocate(iter);
return nonzero_count;
}
5.5.3 Simple Multi-Iteration Example
Here is a simple copy function using the iterator. The order parameter is used to control the memory layout of the
allocated result, typically NPY_KEEPORDER is desired.
PyObject *CopyArray(PyObject *arr, NPY_ORDER order)

{
NpyIter *iter;
NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext;
PyObject *op[2], *ret;
npy_uint32 flags;
npy_uint32 op_flags[2];
npy_intp itemsize, *innersizeptr, innerstride;
char **dataptrarray;
/*
* No inner iteration - inner loop is handled by CopyArray code

*/
flags = NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP;
/*
* Tell the constructor to automatically allocate the output.
* The data type of the output will match that of the input.
*/
op[0] = arr;
op[1] = NULL;
op_flags[0] = NPY_ITER_READONLY;
op_flags[1] = NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY | NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE;
/* Construct the iterator */

iter = NpyIter_MultiNew(2, op, flags, order, NPY_NO_CASTING,
op_flags, NULL);
if (iter == NULL) {
return NULL;
}
/*
* Make a copy of the iternext function pointer and
* a few other variables the inner loop needs.
*/
iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);
innerstride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter)[0];
itemsize = NpyIter_GetDescrArray(iter)[0]->elsize;
/*
* The inner loop size and data pointers may change during the
* loop, so just cache the addresses.
*/
innersizeptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter);
dataptrarray = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
/*
* Note that because the iterator allocated the output,
* it matches the iteration order and is packed tightly,
* so we don't need to check it like the input.
*/
if (innerstride == itemsize) {
do {
memcpy(dataptrarray[1], dataptrarray[0],
itemsize * (*innersizeptr));
} while (iternext(iter));
} else {
/* For efficiency, should specialize this based on item size... */
npy_intp i;
do {
npy_intp size = *innersizeptr;
char *src = dataptrarray[0], *dst = dataptrarray[1];
for(i = 0; i < size; i++, src += innerstride, dst += itemsize) {
memcpy(dst, src, itemsize);
}
} while (iternext(iter));
}
/* Get the result from the iterator object array */

ret = NpyIter_GetOperandArray(iter)[1];
Py_INCREF(ret);

if (NpyIter_Deallocate(iter) != NPY_SUCCEED) {
Py_DECREF(ret);
return NULL;
}
return ret;
}
5.5.4 Iterator Data Types
The iterator layout is an internal detail, and user code only sees an incomplete struct.
NpyIter
This is an opaque pointer type for the iterator. Access to its contents can only be done through the iterator API.
NpyIter_Type
This is the type which exposes the iterator to Python. Currently, no API is exposed which provides access to the
values of a Python-created iterator. If an iterator is created in Python, it must be used in Python and vice versa.
Such an API will likely be created in a future version.
NpyIter_IterNextFunc
This is a function pointer for the iteration loop, returned by NpyIter_GetIterNext.
NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc
This is a function pointer for getting the current iterator multi-index, returned by
NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex.
5.5.5 Construction and Destruction
NpyIter* NpyIter_New(PyArrayObject* op, npy_uint32 flags, NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting,

PyArray_Descr* dtype)
Creates an iterator for the given numpy array object op.
Flags that may be passed in flags are any combination of the global and per-operand flags documented in
NpyIter_MultiNew, except for NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE.
Any of the NPY_ORDER enum values may be passed to order. For efficient iteration, NPY_KEEPORDER is
the best option, and the other orders enforce the particular iteration pattern.
Any of the NPY_CASTING enum values may be passed to casting. The values include
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING. To allow the casts to occur, copying or buffering must also be enabled.
If dtype isn’t NULL, then it requires that data type. If copying is allowed, it will make a temporary copy if the
data is castable. If NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY is enabled, it will also copy the data back with another cast
upon iterator destruction.
Returns NULL if there is an error, otherwise returns the allocated iterator.
To make an iterator similar to the old iterator, this should work.
iter = NpyIter_New(op, NPY_ITER_READWRITE,

NPY_CORDER, NPY_NO_CASTING, NULL);
If you want to edit an array with aligned double code, but the order doesn’t matter, you would use this.

dtype = PyArray_DescrFromType(NPY_DOUBLE);
iter = NpyIter_New(op, NPY_ITER_READWRITE|
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED|
NPY_ITER_NBO|
NPY_ITER_ALIGNED,
NPY_KEEPORDER,
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING,
dtype);
Py_DECREF(dtype);
NpyIter* NpyIter_MultiNew(npy_intp nop, PyArrayObject** op, npy_uint32 flags,

NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, npy_uint32* op_flags,
PyArray_Descr** op_dtypes)
Creates an iterator for broadcasting the nop array objects provided in op, using regular NumPy broadcasting
rules.
Any of the NPY_ORDER enum values may be passed to order. For efficient iteration, NPY_KEEPORDER is
the best option, and the other orders enforce the particular iteration pattern. When using NPY_KEEPORDER,
if you also want to ensure that the iteration is not reversed along an axis, you should pass the flag
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES.
Any of the NPY_CASTING enum values may be passed to casting. The values include
NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING. To allow the casts to occur, copying or buffering must also be enabled.
If op_dtypes isn’t NULL, it specifies a data type or NULL for each op[i].
Flags that may be passed in flags, applying to the whole iterator, are:
NPY_ITER_C_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a raveled flat index matching C order. This option cannot be used
with NPY_ITER_F_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_F_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a raveled flat index matching Fortran order. This option cannot be
used with NPY_ITER_C_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX
Causes the iterator to track a multi-index. This prevents the iterator from coalescing axes to
produce bigger inner loops. If the loop is also not buffered and no index is being tracked
(NpyIter_RemoveAxis can be called), then the iterator size can be -1 to indicate that the iter-
ator is too large. This can happen due to complex broadcasting and will result in errors being
created when the setting the iterator range, removing the multi index, or getting the next func-
tion. However, it is possible to remove axes again and use the iterator normally if the size is
small enough after removal.
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
Causes the iterator to skip iteration of the innermost loop, requiring the user of the iterator to
handle it.
This flag is incompatible with NPY_ITER_C_INDEX, NPY_ITER_F_INDEX, and
NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX.
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES
This only affects the iterator when NPY_KEEPORDER is specified for the order parameter. By
default with NPY_KEEPORDER, the iterator reverses axes which have negative strides, so that
memory is traversed in a forward direction. This disables this step. Use this flag if you want

to use the underlying memory-ordering of the axes, but don’t want an axis reversed. This is the
behavior of numpy.ravel(a, order='K'), for instance.
NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE
Causes the iterator to convert all the operands to a common data type, calculated based on the
ufunc type promotion rules. Copying or buffering must be enabled.
If the common data type is known ahead of time, don’t use this flag. Instead, set the requested
dtype for all the operands.
NPY_ITER_REFS_OK
Indicates that arrays with reference types (object arrays or structured arrays containing an object
type) may be accepted and used in the iterator. If this flag is enabled, the caller must be sure to
check whether NpyIter_IterationNeedsAPI(iter) is true, in which case it may not
release the GIL during iteration.
NPY_ITER_ZEROSIZE_OK
Indicates that arrays with a size of zero should be permitted. Since the typical iteration loop does
not naturally work with zero-sized arrays, you must check that the IterSize is larger than zero
before entering the iteration loop. Currently only the operands are checked, not a forced shape.
NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK
Permits writeable operands with a dimension with zero stride and size greater than one. Note
that such operands must be read/write.
When buffering is enabled, this also switches to a special buffering mode which reduces the loop
length as necessary to not trample on values being reduced.
Note that if you want to do a reduction on an automatically allocated output, you must use
NpyIter_GetOperandArray to get its reference, then set every value to the reduction unit
before doing the iteration loop. In the case of a buffered reduction, this means you must also
specify the flag NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC, then reset the iterator after initializing the
allocated operand to prepare the buffers.
NPY_ITER_RANGED
Enables support for iteration of sub-ranges of the full iterindex
range [0, NpyIter_IterSize(iter)). Use the function
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange to specify a range for iteration.
This flag can only be used with NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP when
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED is enabled. This is because without buffering, the inner loop is
always the size of the innermost iteration dimension, and allowing it to get cut up would require
special handling, effectively making it more like the buffered version.
NPY_ITER_BUFFERED
Causes the iterator to store buffering data, and use buffering to satisfy data type, alignment,
and byte-order requirements. To buffer an operand, do not specify the NPY_ITER_COPY or
NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY flags, because they will override buffering. Buffering is espe-
cially useful for Python code using the iterator, allowing for larger chunks of data at once to
amortize the Python interpreter overhead.
If used with NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP, the inner loop for the caller may get larger chunks
than would be possible without buffering, because of how the strides are laid out.
Note that if an operand is given the flag NPY_ITER_COPY or NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY,
a copy will be made in preference to buffering. Buffering will still occur when the array was
broadcast so elements need to be duplicated to get a constant stride.
In normal buffering, the size of each inner loop is equal to the buffer size, or possibly larger if
NPY_ITER_GROWINNER is specified. If NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK is enabled and a reduction

occurs, the inner loops may become smaller depending on the structure of the reduction.
NPY_ITER_GROWINNER
When buffering is enabled, this allows the size of the inner loop to grow when buffering isn’t
necessary. This option is best used if you’re doing a straight pass through all the data, rather
than anything with small cache-friendly arrays of temporary values for each inner loop.
NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC
When buffering is enabled, this delays allocation of the buffers until NpyIter_Reset or an-
other reset function is called. This flag exists to avoid wasteful copying of buffer data when
making multiple copies of a buffered iterator for multi-threaded iteration.
Another use of this flag is for setting up reduction operations. After the iterator is created, and a
reduction output is allocated automatically by the iterator (be sure to use READWRITE access),
its value may be initialized to the reduction unit. Use NpyIter_GetOperandArray to get
the object. Then, call NpyIter_Reset to allocate and fill the buffers with their initial values.
NPY_ITER_COPY_IF_OVERLAP
If any write operand has overlap with any read operand, eliminate all overlap by making tem-
porary copies (enabling UPDATEIFCOPY for write operands, if necessary). A pair of operands
has overlap if there is a memory address that contains data common to both arrays.
Because exact overlap detection has exponential runtime in the number of dimensions, the de-
cision is made based on heuristics, which has false positives (needless copies in unusual cases)
but has no false negatives.
If any read/write overlap exists, this flag ensures the result of the operation is the same as if
all operands were copied. In cases where copies would need to be made, the result of the
computation may be undefined without this flag!
Flags that may be passed in op_flags[i], where 0 <= i < nop:
NPY_ITER_READWRITE
NPY_ITER_READONLY
NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY
Indicate how the user of the iterator will read or write to op[i]. Exactly one of these flags must
be specified per operand.
NPY_ITER_COPY
Allow a copy of op[i] to be made if it does not meet the data type or alignment requirements
as specified by the constructor flags and parameters.
NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY
Triggers NPY_ITER_COPY, and when an array operand is flagged for writing and is copied,
causes the data in a copy to be copied back to op[i] when the iterator is destroyed.
If the operand is flagged as write-only and a copy is needed, an uninitialized temporary array will
be created and then copied to back to op[i] on destruction, instead of doing the unnecessary
copy operation.
NPY_ITER_NBO
NPY_ITER_ALIGNED
NPY_ITER_CONTIG
Causes the iterator to provide data for op[i] that is in native byte order, aligned according to
the dtype requirements, contiguous, or any combination.
By default, the iterator produces pointers into the arrays provided, which may be aligned or
unaligned, and with any byte order. If copying or buffering is not enabled and the operand data

doesn’t satisfy the constraints, an error will be raised.

The contiguous constraint applies only to the inner loop, successive inner loops may have arbi-
trary pointer changes.
If the requested data type is in non-native byte order, the NBO flag overrides it and the requested
data type is converted to be in native byte order.
NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE
This is for output arrays, and requires that the flag NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY or
NPY_ITER_READWRITE be set. If op[i] is NULL, creates a new array with the final broad-
cast dimensions, and a layout matching the iteration order of the iterator.
When op[i] is NULL, the requested data type op_dtypes[i] may be NULL as well, in
which case it is automatically generated from the dtypes of the arrays which are flagged as
readable. The rules for generating the dtype are the same is for UFuncs. Of special note is
handling of byte order in the selected dtype. If there is exactly one input, the input’s dtype is
used as is. Otherwise, if more than one input dtypes are combined together, the output will be in
native byte order.
After being allocated with this flag, the caller may retrieve the new array by calling
NpyIter_GetOperandArray and getting the i-th object in the returned C array. The caller
must call Py_INCREF on it to claim a reference to the array.
NPY_ITER_NO_SUBTYPE
For use with NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE, this flag disables allocating an array subtype for the
output, forcing it to be a straight ndarray.
TODO: Maybe it would be better to introduce a function NpyIter_GetWrappedOutput
and remove this flag?
NPY_ITER_NO_BROADCAST
Ensures that the input or output matches the iteration dimensions exactly.
NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK
New in version 1.7.
Indicates that this operand is the mask to use for selecting elements when writing to operands
which have the NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED flag applied to them. Only one operand may have
NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK flag applied to it.
The data type of an operand with this flag should be either NPY_BOOL, NPY_MASK, or a struct
dtype whose fields are all valid mask dtypes. In the latter case, it must match up with a struct
operand being WRITEMASKED, as it is specifying a mask for each field of that array.
This flag only affects writing from the buffer back to the array. This means that if the operand is
also NPY_ITER_READWRITE or NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY, code doing iteration can write to
this operand to control which elements will be untouched and which ones will be modified. This
is useful when the mask should be a combination of input masks, for example. Mask values can
be created with the NpyMask_Create function.
NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED
New in version 1.7.
Indicates that only elements which the operand with the ARRAYMASK flag indicates are in-
tended to be modified by the iteration. In general, the iterator does not enforce this, it is up to
the code doing the iteration to follow that promise. Code can use the NpyMask_IsExposed
inline function to test whether the mask at a particular element allows writing.
When this flag is used, and this operand is buffered, this changes how data is copied from the
buffer into the array. A masked copying routine is used, which only copies the elements in the

buffer for which NpyMask_IsExposed returns true from the corresponding element in the
ARRAYMASK operand.
NPY_ITER_OVERLAP_ASSUME_ELEMENTWISE
In memory overlap checks, assume that operands with
NPY_ITER_OVERLAP_ASSUME_ELEMENTWISE enabled are accessed only in the iter-
ator order.
This enables the iterator to reason about data dependency, possibly avoiding unnecessary copies.
This flag has effect only if NPY_ITER_COPY_IF_OVERLAP is enabled on the iterator.
NpyIter* NpyIter_AdvancedNew(npy_intp nop, PyArrayObject** op, npy_uint32 flags,
NPY_ORDER order, NPY_CASTING casting, npy_uint32* op_flags,
PyArray_Descr** op_dtypes, int oa_ndim, int** op_axes,
npy_intp* itershape, npy_intp buffersize)
Extends NpyIter_MultiNew with several advanced options providing more control over broadcasting and
buffering.
If -1/NULL values are passed to oa_ndim, op_axes, itershape, and buffersize, it is equivalent to
NpyIter_MultiNew.
The parameter oa_ndim, when not zero or -1, specifies the number of dimensions that will be iterated with cus-
tomized broadcasting. If it is provided, op_axes must and itershape can also be provided. The op_axes
parameter let you control in detail how the axes of the operand arrays get matched together and iterated. In
op_axes, you must provide an array of nop pointers to oa_ndim-sized arrays of type npy_intp. If an en-
try in op_axes is NULL, normal broadcasting rules will apply. In op_axes[j][i] is stored either a valid
axis of op[j], or -1 which means newaxis. Within each op_axes[j] array, axes may not be repeated. The
following example is how normal broadcasting applies to a 3-D array, a 2-D array, a 1-D array and a scalar.
Note: Before NumPy 1.8 oa_ndim == 0` was used for signalling that that `òp_axes
and itershape are unused. This is deprecated and should be replaced with -1. Better backward compatibility
may be achieved by using NpyIter_MultiNew for this case.
int oa_ndim = 3; /* # iteration axes */

int op0_axes[] = {0, 1, 2}; /* 3-D operand */
int op1_axes[] = {-1, 0, 1}; /* 2-D operand */
int op2_axes[] = {-1, -1, 0}; /* 1-D operand */
int op3_axes[] = {-1, -1, -1} /* 0-D (scalar) operand */
int* op_axes[] = {op0_axes, op1_axes, op2_axes, op3_axes};
The itershape parameter allows you to force the iterator to have a specific iteration shape. It is an array of
length oa_ndim. When an entry is negative, its value is determined from the operands. This parameter allows
automatically allocated outputs to get additional dimensions which don’t match up with any dimension of an
input.
If buffersize is zero, a default buffer size is used, otherwise it specifies how big of a buffer to use. Buffers
which are powers of 2 such as 4096 or 8192 are recommended.
NpyIter* NpyIter_Copy(NpyIter* iter)
Makes a copy of the given iterator. This function is provided primarily to enable multi-threaded iteration of the
data.
TODO: Move this to a section about multithreaded iteration.
The recommended approach to multithreaded iteration is to first create an iterator with
the flags NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP, NPY_ITER_RANGED, NPY_ITER_BUFFERED,
NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC, and possibly NPY_ITER_GROWINNER. Create a copy of this it-
erator for each thread (minus one for the first iterator). Then, take the iteration index range [0,

NpyIter_GetIterSize(iter)) and split it up into tasks, for example using a TBB paral-
lel_for loop. When a thread gets a task to execute, it then uses its copy of the iterator by calling
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange and iterating over the full range.
When using the iterator in multi-threaded code or in code not holding the Python GIL, care must be taken to
only call functions which are safe in that context. NpyIter_Copy cannot be safely called without the Python
GIL, because it increments Python references. The Reset* and some other functions may be safely called by
passing in the errmsg parameter as non-NULL, so that the functions will pass back errors through it instead
of setting a Python exception.
int NpyIter_RemoveAxis(NpyIter* iter, int axis)``
Removes an axis from iteration. This requires that NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX was set for iterator creation,
and does not work if buffering is enabled or an index is being tracked. This function also resets the iterator to
its initial state.
This is useful for setting up an accumulation loop, for example. The iterator can first be created with all the
dimensions, including the accumulation axis, so that the output gets created correctly. Then, the accumulation
axis can be removed, and the calculation done in a nested fashion.
WARNING: This function may change the internal memory layout of the iterator. Any cached functions or
pointers from the iterator must be retrieved again! The iterator range will be reset as well.
Returns NPY_SUCCEED or NPY_FAIL.
int NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter)
If the iterator is tracking a multi-index, this strips support for them, and does further iterator optimizations that
are possible if multi-indices are not needed. This function also resets the iterator to its initial state.
WARNING: This function may change the internal memory layout of the iterator. Any cached functions or
pointers from the iterator must be retrieved again!
After calling this function, NpyIter_HasMultiIndex(iter) will return false.
int NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop(NpyIter* iter)
If NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex was called, you may want to enable the flag
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP. This flag is not permitted together with NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX,
so this function is provided to enable the feature after NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex is called. This
function also resets the iterator to its initial state.
WARNING: This function changes the internal logic of the iterator. Any cached functions or pointers from the
iterator must be retrieved again!
int NpyIter_Deallocate(NpyIter* iter)
Deallocates the iterator object. This additionally frees any copies made, triggering UPDATEIFCOPY behavior
where necessary.
int NpyIter_Reset(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator back to its initial state, at the beginning of the iteration range.
Returns NPY_SUCCEED or NPY_FAIL. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL
is returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
called without holding the Python GIL.
int NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp istart, npy_intp iend, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator and restricts it to the iterindex range [istart, iend). See NpyIter_Copy for

an explanation of how to use this for multi-threaded iteration. This requires that the flag NPY_ITER_RANGED
was passed to the iterator constructor.
If you want to reset both the iterindex range and the base pointers at the same time, you can do the following
to avoid extra buffer copying (be sure to add the return code error checks when you copy this code).
/* Set to a trivial empty range */

NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(iter, 0, 0);
/* Set the base pointers */
NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(iter, baseptrs);
/* Set to the desired range */
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange(iter, istart, iend);
int NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(NpyIter *iter, char** baseptrs, char** errmsg)
Resets the iterator back to its initial state, but using the values in baseptrs for the data instead of the pointers
from the arrays being iterated. This functions is intended to be used, together with the op_axes parameter, by
nested iteration code with two or more iterators.
TODO: Move the following into a special section on nested iterators.
Creating iterators for nested iteration requires some care. All the iterator operands must match exactly, or the
calls to NpyIter_ResetBasePointers will be invalid. This means that automatic copies and output al-
location should not be used haphazardly. It is possible to still use the automatic data conversion and casting
features of the iterator by creating one of the iterators with all the conversion parameters enabled, then grabbing
the allocated operands with the NpyIter_GetOperandArray function and passing them into the construc-
tors for the rest of the iterators.
WARNING: When creating iterators for nested iteration, the code must not use a dimension more than once in
the different iterators. If this is done, nested iteration will produce out-of-bounds pointers during iteration.
WARNING: When creating iterators for nested iteration, buffering can only be applied to the innermost iterator.
If a buffered iterator is used as the source for baseptrs, it will point into a small buffer instead of the array
and the inner iteration will be invalid.
The pattern for using nested iterators is as follows.
NpyIter *iter1, *iter1;

NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext1, *iternext2;
char **dataptrs1;
/*
* With the exact same operands, no copies allowed, and
* no axis in op_axes used both in iter1 and iter2.
* Buffering may be enabled for iter2, but not for iter1.
*/
iter1 = ...; iter2 = ...;
iternext1 = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter1);
iternext2 = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter2);
dataptrs1 = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter1);
do {

NpyIter_ResetBasePointers(iter2, dataptrs1);
do {
/* Use the iter2 values */
} while (iternext2(iter2));
} while (iternext1(iter1));
int NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* multi_index)

Adjusts the iterator to point to the ndim indices pointed to by multi_index. Returns an error if a multi-index
is not being tracked, the indices are out of bounds, or inner loop iteration is disabled.
int NpyIter_GotoIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp index)
Adjusts the iterator to point to the index specified. If the iterator was constructed with the flag
NPY_ITER_C_INDEX, index is the C-order index, and if the iterator was constructed with the flag
NPY_ITER_F_INDEX, index is the Fortran-order index. Returns an error if there is no index being tracked,
the index is out of bounds, or inner loop iteration is disabled.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetIterSize(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of elements being iterated. This is the product of all the dimensions in the shape. When a
multi index is being tracked (and NpyIter_RemoveAxis may be called) the size may be -1 to indicate an iterator
is too large. Such an iterator is invalid, but may become valid after NpyIter_RemoveAxis is called. It is not
necessary to check for this case.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetIterIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Gets the iterindex of the iterator, which is an index matching the iteration order of the iterator.
void NpyIter_GetIterIndexRange(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* istart, npy_intp* iend)
Gets the iterindex sub-range that is being iterated. If NPY_ITER_RANGED was not specified, this always
returns the range [0, NpyIter_IterSize(iter)).
int NpyIter_GotoIterIndex(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp iterindex)
Adjusts the iterator to point to the iterindex specified. The IterIndex is an index matching the iteration order
of the iterator. Returns an error if the iterindex is out of bounds, buffering is enabled, or inner loop iteration
is disabled.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasDelayedBufAlloc(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the flag NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC was passed to the iterator constructor, and no call to one
of the Reset functions has been done yet, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasExternalLoop(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the caller needs to handle the inner-most 1-dimensional loop, or 0 if the iterator
handles all looping. This is controlled by the constructor flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP or
NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_HasIndex(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_C_INDEX or NPY_ITER_F_INDEX flag, 0 other-
wise.
npy_bool NpyIter_RequiresBuffering(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator requires buffering, which occurs when an operand needs conversion or alignment and
so cannot be used directly.

npy_bool NpyIter_IsBuffered(NpyIter* iter)

Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_BUFFERED flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_bool NpyIter_IsGrowInner(NpyIter* iter)
Returns 1 if the iterator was created with the NPY_ITER_GROWINNER flag, 0 otherwise.
npy_intp NpyIter_GetBufferSize(NpyIter* iter)
If the iterator is buffered, returns the size of the buffer being used, otherwise returns 0.
int NpyIter_GetNDim(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of dimensions being iterated. If a multi-index was not requested in the iterator constructor,
this value may be smaller than the number of dimensions in the original objects.
int NpyIter_GetNOp(NpyIter* iter)
Returns the number of operands in the iterator.
When NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA is used on an operand, a new operand is added to the end of the operand list
in the iterator to track that operand’s NA mask. Thus, this equals the number of construction operands plus the
number of operands for which the flag NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA was specified.
int NpyIter_GetFirstMaskNAOp(NpyIter* iter)
New in version 1.7.
Returns the index of the first NA mask operand in the array. This value is equal to the number of operands
passed into the constructor.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetAxisStrideArray(NpyIter* iter, int axis)
Gets the array of strides for the specified axis. Requires that the iterator be tracking a multi-index, and that
buffering not be enabled.
This may be used when you want to match up operand axes in some fashion, then remove them with
NpyIter_RemoveAxis to handle their processing manually. By calling this function before removing the
axes, you can get the strides for the manual processing.
Returns NULL on error.
int NpyIter_GetShape(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* outshape)
Returns the broadcast shape of the iterator in outshape. This can only be called on an iterator which is
tracking a multi-index.
PyArray_Descr** NpyIter_GetDescrArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop data type Descrs for the objects being iterated. The result points into iter,
so the caller does not gain any references to the Descrs.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it.
PyObject** NpyIter_GetOperandArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop operand PyObjects that are being iterated. The result points into iter, so
the caller does not gain any references to the PyObjects.
npy_int8* NpyIter_GetMaskNAIndexArray(NpyIter* iter)
New in version 1.7.
This gives back a pointer to the nop indices which map construction operands with NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA
flagged to their corresponding NA mask operands and vice versa. For operands which were not flagged with
NPY_ITER_USE_MASKNA, this array contains negative values.
PyObject* NpyIter_GetIterView(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp i)
This gives back a reference to a new ndarray view, which is a view into the i-th object in the array
NpyIter_GetOperandArray, whose dimensions and strides match the internal optimized iteration pat-
tern. A C-order iteration of this view is equivalent to the iterator’s iteration order.

For example, if an iterator was created with a single array as its input, and it was possible to rearrange all its
axes and then collapse it into a single strided iteration, this would return a view that is a one-dimensional array.
void NpyIter_GetReadFlags(NpyIter* iter, char* outreadflags)
Fills nop flags. Sets outreadflags[i] to 1 if op[i] can be read from, and to 0 if not.
void NpyIter_GetWriteFlags(NpyIter* iter, char* outwriteflags)
Fills nop flags. Sets outwriteflags[i] to 1 if op[i] can be written to, and to 0 if not.
int NpyIter_CreateCompatibleStrides(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp itemsize, npy_intp* outstrides)
Builds a set of strides which are the same as the strides of an output array created using the
NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE flag, where NULL was passed for op_axes. This is for data packed contiguously,
but not necessarily in C or Fortran order. This should be used together with NpyIter_GetShape and
NpyIter_GetNDim with the flag NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX passed into the constructor.
A use case for this function is to match the shape and layout of the iterator and tack on one or more dimensions.
For example, in order to generate a vector per input value for a numerical gradient, you pass in ndim*itemsize
for itemsize, then add another dimension to the end with size ndim and stride itemsize. To do the Hessian matrix,
you do the same thing but add two dimensions, or take advantage of the symmetry and pack it into 1 dimension
with a particular encoding.
This function may only be called if the iterator is tracking a multi-index and if
NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES was used to prevent an axis from being iterated in reverse or-
der.
If an array is created with this method, simply adding ‘itemsize’ for each iteration will traverse the new array
matching the iterator.
npy_bool NpyIter_IsFirstVisit(NpyIter* iter, int iop)
New in version 1.7.
Checks to see whether this is the first time the elements of the specified reduction operand which the iterator
points at are being seen for the first time. The function returns a reasonable answer for reduction operands and
when buffering is disabled. The answer may be incorrect for buffered non-reduction operands.
This function is intended to be used in EXTERNAL_LOOP mode only, and will produce some wrong answers
when that mode is not enabled.
If this function returns true, the caller should also check the inner loop stride of the operand, because if that
stride is 0, then only the first element of the innermost external loop is being visited for the first time.
WARNING: For performance reasons, ‘iop’ is not bounds-checked, it is not confirmed that ‘iop’ is actually a
reduction operand, and it is not confirmed that EXTERNAL_LOOP mode is enabled. These checks are the
responsibility of the caller, and should be done outside of any inner loops.
5.5.6 Functions For Iteration
NpyIter_IterNextFunc* NpyIter_GetIterNext(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)

Returns a function pointer for iteration. A specialized version of the function pointer may be calculated by this
function instead of being stored in the iterator structure. Thus, to get good performance, it is required that the
function pointer be saved in a variable rather than retrieved for each loop iteration.
Returns NULL if there is an error. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL is
returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
The typical looping construct is as follows.

NpyIter_IterNextFunc *iternext = NpyIter_GetIterNext(iter, NULL);

char** dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
do {
/* use the addresses dataptr[0], ... dataptr[nop-1] */
} while(iternext(iter));
When NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP is specified, the typical inner loop construct is as follows.

char** dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
npy_intp* stride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
npy_intp* size_ptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter), size;
npy_intp iop, nop = NpyIter_GetNOp(iter);
do {
size = *size_ptr;
while (size--) {
for (iop = 0; iop < nop; ++iop) {
dataptr[iop] += stride[iop];
}
}
} while (iternext());
Observe that we are using the dataptr array inside the iterator, not copying the values to a local temporary.
This is possible because when iternext() is called, these pointers will be overwritten with fresh values, not
incrementally updated.
If a compile-time fixed buffer is being used (both flags NPY_ITER_BUFFERED and
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP), the inner size may be used as a signal as well. The size is guaranteed
to become zero when iternext() returns false, enabling the following loop construct. Note that if you use
this construct, you should not pass NPY_ITER_GROWINNER as a flag, because it will cause larger sizes under
some circumstances.
/* The constructor should have buffersize passed as this value */
#define FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE 1024

char **dataptr = NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(iter);
npy_intp *stride = NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(iter);
npy_intp *size_ptr = NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(iter), size;
npy_intp i, iop, nop = NpyIter_GetNOp(iter);
/* One loop with a fixed inner size */

size = *size_ptr;
while (size == FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE) {
/*
* This loop could be manually unrolled by a factor
* which divides into FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE
*/
for (i = 0; i < FIXED_BUFFER_SIZE; ++i) {
}
}
iternext();

size = *size_ptr;
}
/* Finish-up loop with variable inner size */

if (size > 0) do {
size = *size_ptr;
while (size--) {
}
}
} while (iternext());
NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc *NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex(NpyIter* iter, char** errmsg)

Returns a function pointer for getting the current multi-index of the iterator. Returns NULL if the iterator is
not tracking a multi-index. It is recommended that this function pointer be cached in a local variable before the
iteration loop.
Returns NULL if there is an error. If errmsg is non-NULL, no Python exception is set when NPY_FAIL is
returned. Instead, *errmsg is set to an error message. When errmsg is non-NULL, the function may be safely
char** NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the nop data pointers. If NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP was not specified, each
data pointer points to the current data item of the iterator. If no inner iteration was specified, it points to the first
data item of the inner loop.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. This function may
be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
char** NpyIter_GetInitialDataPtrArray(NpyIter* iter)
Gets the array of data pointers directly into the arrays (never into the buffers), corresponding to iteration index
0.
These pointers are different from the pointers accepted by NpyIter_ResetBasePointers, because the
direction along some axes may have been reversed.
This function may be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetIndexPtr(NpyIter* iter)
This gives back a pointer to the index being tracked, or NULL if no index is being tracked. It is only useable if
one of the flags NPY_ITER_C_INDEX or NPY_ITER_F_INDEX were specified during construction.
When the flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP is used, the code needs to know the parameters for doing the inner
loop. These functions provide that information.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray(NpyIter* iter)
Returns a pointer to an array of the nop strides, one for each iterated object, to be used by the inner loop.
This pointer may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. This function may
be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
WARNING: While the pointer may be cached, its values may change if the iterator is buffered.
npy_intp* NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr(NpyIter* iter)
Returns a pointer to the number of iterations the inner loop should execute.
This address may be cached before the iteration loop, calling iternext will not change it. The value itself
may change during iteration, in particular if buffering is enabled. This function may be safely called without
holding the Python GIL.

void NpyIter_GetInnerFixedStrideArray(NpyIter* iter, npy_intp* out_strides)

Gets an array of strides which are fixed, or will not change during the entire iteration. For strides that may
change, the value NPY_MAX_INTP is placed in the stride.
Once the iterator is prepared for iteration (after a reset if NPY_DELAY_BUFALLOC was used), call this to get
the strides which may be used to select a fast inner loop function. For example, if the stride is 0, that means
the inner loop can always load its value into a variable once, then use the variable throughout the loop, or if the
stride equals the itemsize, a contiguous version for that operand may be used.
This function may be safely called without holding the Python GIL.
5.5.7 Converting from Previous NumPy Iterators
The old iterator API includes functions like PyArrayIter_Check, PyArray_Iter* and PyArray_ITER_*. The multi-
iterator array includes PyArray_MultiIter*, PyArray_Broadcast, and PyArray_RemoveSmallest. The new iterator
design replaces all of this functionality with a single object and associated API. One goal of the new API is that all
uses of the existing iterator should be replaceable with the new iterator without significant effort. In 1.6, the major
exception to this is the neighborhood iterator, which does not have corresponding features in this iterator.
Here is a conversion table for which functions to use with the new iterator:
Iterator Functions
PyArray_IterNew NpyIter_New
PyArray_IterAllButAxis NpyIter_New + axes parameter or Iterator flag
NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
PyArray_BroadcastToShape NOT SUPPORTED (Use the support for multiple operands instead.)
PyArrayIter_Check Will need to add this in Python exposure
PyArray_ITER_RESET NpyIter_Reset
PyArray_ITER_NEXT Function pointer from NpyIter_GetIterNext
PyArray_ITER_DATA NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray
PyArray_ITER_GOTO NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex
PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D NpyIter_GotoIndex or NpyIter_GotoIterIndex
PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE Return value of iternext function pointer
Multi-iterator Functions
PyArray_MultiIterNew NpyIter_MultiNew
PyArray_MultiIter_RESET NpyIter_Reset
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT Function pointer from NpyIter_GetIterNext
PyArray_MultiIter_DATA NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray
PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi NOT SUPPORTED (always lock-step iteration)
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex
PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D NpyIter_GotoIndex or NpyIter_GotoIterIndex
PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE Return value of iternext function pointer
PyArray_Broadcast Handled by NpyIter_MultiNew
PyArray_RemoveSmallest Iterator flag NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP
Other Functions
Iterator flag NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE
PyArray_ConvertToCommonType

5.6 UFunc API
5.6.1 Constants
UFUNC_ERR_{HANDLER}
{HANDLER} can be IGNORE, WARN, RAISE, or CALL
UFUNC_{THING}_{ERR}
{THING} can be MASK, SHIFT, or FPE, and {ERR} can be DIVIDEBYZERO, OVERFLOW, UNDER-
FLOW, and INVALID.
PyUFunc_{VALUE}
{VALUE} can be One (1), Zero (0), or None (-1)
5.6.2 Macros
NPY_LOOP_BEGIN_THREADS
Used in universal function code to only release the Python GIL if loop->obj is not true (i.e. this is not an
OBJECT array loop). Requires use of NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF in variable declaration area.
NPY_LOOP_END_THREADS
Used in universal function code to re-acquire the Python GIL if it was released (because loop->obj was not true).
UFUNC_CHECK_ERROR(loop)
A macro used internally to check for errors and goto fail if found. This macro requires a fail label in the current
code block. The loop variable must have at least members (obj, errormask, and errorobj). If loop ->obj is
nonzero, then PyErr_Occurred () is called (meaning the GIL must be held). If loop ->obj is zero, then if
loop ->errormask is nonzero, PyUFunc_checkfperr is called with arguments loop ->errormask and loop
->errobj. If the result of this check of the IEEE floating point registers is true then the code redirects to the fail
label which must be defined.
UFUNC_CHECK_STATUS(ret)
Deprecated: use npy_clear_floatstatus from npy_math.h instead.
A macro that expands to platform-dependent code. The ret variable can be any integer. The
UFUNC_FPE_{ERR} bits are set in ret according to the status of the corresponding error flags of the float-
ing point processor.
5.6.3 Functions
PyObject* PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData(PyUFuncGenericFunction* func, void** data, char* types,

int ntypes, int nin, int nout, int identity, char* name, char* doc,
int unused)
Create a new broadcasting universal function from required variables. Each ufunc builds around the notion
of an element-by-element operation. Each ufunc object contains pointers to 1-d loops implementing the basic
functionality for each supported type.
Note: The func, data, types, name, and doc arguments are not copied by PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData.
The caller must ensure that the memory used by these arrays is not freed as long as the ufunc object is alive.
Parameters
5.6. UFunc API 1277

• func – Must to an array of length ntypes containing PyUFuncGenericFunction

items. These items are pointers to functions that actually implement the underlying
(element-by-element) function 𝑁 times.
• data – Should be NULL or a pointer to an array of size ntypes . This array may contain
arbitrary extra-data to be passed to the corresponding 1-d loop function in the func array.
• types – Must be of length (nin + nout) * ntypes, and it contains the data-types (built-in
only) that the corresponding function in the func array can deal with.
• ntypes – How many different data-type “signatures” the ufunc has implemented.
• nin – The number of inputs to this operation.
• nout – The number of outputs
• name – The name for the ufunc. Specifying a name of ‘add’ or ‘multiply’ enables a special
behavior for integer-typed reductions when no dtype is given. If the input type is an integer
(or boolean) data type smaller than the size of the int_ data type, it will be internally upcast
to the int_ (or uint) data type.
• doc – Allows passing in a documentation string to be stored with the ufunc. The docu-
mentation string should not contain the name of the function or the calling signature as that
will be dynamically determined from the object and available when accessing the __doc__
attribute of the ufunc.
• unused – Unused and present for backwards compatibility of the C-API.
PyObject* PyUFunc_FromFuncAndDataAndSignature(PyUFuncGenericFunction* func, void** data,

char* types, int ntypes, int nin, int nout,
int identity, char* name, char* doc, int unused,
char *signature)
This function is very similar to PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData above, but has an extra signature argument, to de-
fine generalized universal functions. Similarly to how ufuncs are built around an element-by-element operation,
gufuncs are around subarray-by-subarray operations, the signature defining the subarrays to operate on.
Parameters
• signature – The signature for the new gufunc. Setting it to NULL is equivalent to calling
PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData. A copy of the string is made, so the passed in buffer can be
freed.
int PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType(PyUFuncObject* ufunc, int usertype, PyUFuncGenericFunc-
tion function, int* arg_types, void* data)
This function allows the user to register a 1-d loop with an already- created ufunc to be used whenever the ufunc
is called with any of its input arguments as the user-defined data-type. This is needed in order to make ufuncs
work with built-in data-types. The data-type must have been previously registered with the numpy system. The
loop is passed in as function. This loop can take arbitrary data which should be passed in as data. The data-types
the loop requires are passed in as arg_types which must be a pointer to memory at least as large as ufunc->nargs.
int PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForDescr(PyUFuncObject* ufunc, PyArray_Descr* userdtype, PyU-
FuncGenericFunction function, PyArray_Descr** arg_dtypes,
void* data)
This function behaves like PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType above, except that it allows the user to register a 1-d
loop using PyArray_Descr objects instead of dtype type num values. This allows a 1-d loop to be registered for
structured array data-dtypes and custom data-types instead of scalar data-types.
int PyUFunc_ReplaceLoopBySignature(PyUFuncObject* ufunc, PyUFuncGenericFunction newfunc,
int* signature, PyUFuncGenericFunction* oldfunc)
Replace a 1-d loop matching the given signature in the already-created ufunc with the new 1-d loop newfunc.
Return the old 1-d loop function in oldfunc. Return 0 on success and -1 on failure. This function works only

with built-in types (use PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType for user-defined types). A signature is an array
of data-type numbers indicating the inputs followed by the outputs assumed by the 1-d loop.
int PyUFunc_GenericFunction(PyUFuncObject* self, PyObject* args, PyObject* kwds, PyArrayOb-
ject** mps)
A generic ufunc call. The ufunc is passed in as self, the arguments to the ufunc as args and kwds. The mps
argument is an array of PyArrayObject pointers whose values are discarded and which receive the converted
input arguments as well as the ufunc outputs when success is returned. The user is responsible for managing
this array and receives a new reference for each array in mps. The total number of arrays in mps is given by self
->nin + self ->nout.
Returns 0 on success, -1 on error.
int PyUFunc_checkfperr(int errmask, PyObject* errobj)
A simple interface to the IEEE error-flag checking support. The errmask argument is a mask of
UFUNC_MASK_{ERR} bitmasks indicating which errors to check for (and how to check for them). The errobj
must be a Python tuple with two elements: a string containing the name which will be used in any communica-
tion of error and either a callable Python object (call-back function) or Py_None. The callable object will only
be used if UFUNC_ERR_CALL is set as the desired error checking method. This routine manages the GIL and
is safe to call even after releasing the GIL. If an error in the IEEE-compatible hardware is determined a -1 is
returned, otherwise a 0 is returned.
void PyUFunc_clearfperr()
Clear the IEEE error flags.
void PyUFunc_GetPyValues(char* name, int* bufsize, int* errmask, PyObject** errobj)
Get the Python values used for ufunc processing from the thread-local storage area unless the defaults have been
set in which case the name lookup is bypassed. The name is placed as a string in the first element of *errobj.
The second element is the looked-up function to call on error callback. The value of the looked-up buffer-size
to use is passed into bufsize, and the value of the error mask is placed into errmask.
5.6.4 Generic functions
At the core of every ufunc is a collection of type-specific functions that defines the basic functionality for each of the
supported types. These functions must evaluate the underlying function 𝑁 ≥ 1 times. Extra-data may be passed in
that may be used during the calculation. This feature allows some general functions to be used as these basic looping
functions. The general function has all the code needed to point variables to the right place and set up a function call.
The general function assumes that the actual function to call is passed in as the extra data and calls it with the correct
values. All of these functions are suitable for placing directly in the array of functions stored in the functions member
of the PyUFuncObject structure.
void PyUFunc_f_f_As_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_f_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_g_g(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_F_F_As_D_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_F_F(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_D_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_G_G(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_e_e(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_e_e_As_f_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
5.6. UFunc API 1279

void PyUFunc_e_e_As_d_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)

Type specific, core 1-d functions for ufuncs where each calculation is obtained by calling a function taking one
input argument and returning one output. This function is passed in func. The letters correspond to dtype-
char’s of the supported data types ( e - half, f - float, d - double, g - long double, F - cfloat, D - cdouble,
G - clongdouble). The argument func must support the same signature. The _As_X_X variants assume ndar-
ray’s of one data type but cast the values to use an underlying function that takes a different data type. Thus,
PyUFunc_f_f_As_d_d uses ndarrays of data type NPY_FLOAT but calls out to a C-function that takes
double and returns double.
void PyUFunc_ff_f_As_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_ff_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_gg_g(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_FF_F_As_DD_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_DD_D(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_FF_F(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_GG_G(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_ee_e(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_ee_e_As_ff_f(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_ee_e_As_dd_d(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
Type specific, core 1-d functions for ufuncs where each calculation is obtained by calling a function taking two
input arguments and returning one output. The underlying function to call is passed in as func. The letters
correspond to dtypechar’s of the specific data type supported by the general-purpose function. The argument
func must support the corresponding signature. The _As_XX_X variants assume ndarrays of one data type but
cast the values at each iteration of the loop to use the underlying function that takes a different data type.
void PyUFunc_O_O(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
void PyUFunc_OO_O(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
One-input, one-output, and two-input, one-output core 1-d functions for the NPY_OBJECT data type.
These functions handle reference count issues and return early on error. The actual function to call is
func and it must accept calls with the signature (PyObject*) (PyObject*) for PyUFunc_O_O or
(PyObject*)(PyObject *, PyObject *) for PyUFunc_OO_O.
void PyUFunc_O_O_method(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
This general purpose 1-d core function assumes that func is a string representing a method of the input object.
For each iteration of the loop, the Python object is extracted from the array and its func method is called returning
the result to the output array.
void PyUFunc_OO_O_method(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
This general purpose 1-d core function assumes that func is a string representing a method of the input object
that takes one argument. The first argument in args is the method whose function is called, the second argument
in args is the argument passed to the function. The output of the function is stored in the third entry of args.
void PyUFunc_On_Om(char** args, npy_intp* dimensions, npy_intp* steps, void* func)
This is the 1-d core function used by the dynamic ufuncs created by umath.frompyfunc(function, nin, nout). In
this case func is a pointer to a PyUFunc_PyFuncData structure which has definition
PyUFunc_PyFuncData

typedef struct {
int nin;
int nout;
PyObject *callable;
} PyUFunc_PyFuncData;
At each iteration of the loop, the nin input objects are extracted from their object arrays and placed into an
argument tuple, the Python callable is called with the input arguments, and the nout outputs are placed into their
object arrays.
5.6.5 Importing the API
PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL
NO_IMPORT_UFUNC
void import_ufunc(void)
These are the constants and functions for accessing the ufunc C-API from extension modules in precisely the
same way as the array C-API can be accessed. The import_ufunc () function must always be called (in
the initialization subroutine of the extension module). If your extension module is in one file then that is all
that is required. The other two constants are useful if your extension module makes use of multiple files.
In that case, define PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to something unique to your code and then in source
files that do not contain the module initialization function but still need access to the UFUNC API, define
PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL to the same name used previously and also define NO_IMPORT_UFUNC.
The C-API is actually an array of function pointers. This array is created (and pointed to by a global variable)
by import_ufunc. The global variable is either statically defined or allowed to be seen by other files depending
on the state of PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL and NO_IMPORT_UFUNC.
5.7 Generalized Universal Function API
There is a general need for looping over not only functions on scalars but also over functions on vectors (or arrays).
This concept is realized in NumPy by generalizing the universal functions (ufuncs). In regular ufuncs, the elementary
function is limited to element-by-element operations, whereas the generalized version (gufuncs) supports “sub-array”
by “sub-array” operations. The Perl vector library PDL provides a similar functionality and its terms are re-used in
the following.
Each generalized ufunc has information associated with it that states what the “core” dimensionality of the inputs is,
as well as the corresponding dimensionality of the outputs (the element-wise ufuncs have zero core dimensions). The
list of the core dimensions for all arguments is called the “signature” of a ufunc. For example, the ufunc numpy.add
has signature (),()->() defining two scalar inputs and one scalar output.
Another example is the function inner1d(a, b) with a signature of (i),(i)->(). This applies the inner
product along the last axis of each input, but keeps the remaining indices intact. For example, where a is of shape (3,
5, N) and b is of shape (5, N), this will return an output of shape (3,5). The underlying elementary function
is called 3 * 5 times. In the signature, we specify one core dimension (i) for each input and zero core dimensions
() for the output, since it takes two 1-d arrays and returns a scalar. By using the same name i, we specify that the
two corresponding dimensions should be of the same size.
The dimensions beyond the core dimensions are called “loop” dimensions. In the above example, this corresponds to
(3, 5).
The signature determines how the dimensions of each input/output array are split into core and loop dimensions:
5.7. Generalized Universal Function API 1281

1. Each dimension in the signature is matched to a dimension of the corresponding passed-in array, starting from
the end of the shape tuple. These are the core dimensions, and they must be present in the arrays, or an error
will be raised.
2. Core dimensions assigned to the same label in the signature (e.g. the i in inner1d’s (i),(i)->()) must
have exactly matching sizes, no broadcasting is performed.
3. The core dimensions are removed from all inputs and the remaining dimensions are broadcast together, defining
the loop dimensions.
4. The shape of each output is determined from the loop dimensions plus the output’s core dimensions
Typically, the size of all core dimensions in an output will be determined by the size of a core dimension with the same
label in an input array. This is not a requirement, and it is possible to define a signature where a label comes up for
the first time in an output, although some precautions must be taken when calling such a function. An example would
be the function euclidean_pdist(a), with signature (n,d)->(p), that given an array of n d-dimensional
vectors, computes all unique pairwise Euclidean distances among them. The output dimension p must therefore be
equal to n * (n - 1) / 2, but it is the caller’s responsibility to pass in an output array of the right size. If the size
of a core dimension of an output cannot be determined from a passed in input or output array, an error will be raised.
Note: Prior to NumPy 1.10.0, less strict checks were in place: missing core dimensions were created by prepending 1’s
to the shape as necessary, core dimensions with the same label were broadcast together, and undetermined dimensions
were created with size 1.
5.7.1 Definitions
Elementary Function Each ufunc consists of an elementary function that performs the most basic operation on the
smallest portion of array arguments (e.g. adding two numbers is the most basic operation in adding two arrays).
The ufunc applies the elementary function multiple times on different parts of the arrays. The input/output of
elementary functions can be vectors; e.g., the elementary function of inner1d takes two vectors as input.
Signature A signature is a string describing the input/output dimensions of the elementary function of a ufunc. See
section below for more details.
Core Dimension The dimensionality of each input/output of an elementary function is defined by its core dimen-
sions (zero core dimensions correspond to a scalar input/output). The core dimensions are mapped to the last
dimensions of the input/output arrays.
Dimension Name A dimension name represents a core dimension in the signature. Different dimensions may share
a name, indicating that they are of the same size.
Dimension Index A dimension index is an integer representing a dimension name. It enumerates the dimension
names according to the order of the first occurrence of each name in the signature.
5.7.2 Details of Signature
The signature defines “core” dimensionality of input and output variables, and thereby also defines the contraction of
the dimensions. The signature is represented by a string of the following format:
• Core dimensions of each input or output array are represented by a list of dimension names in parentheses,
(i_1,...,i_N); a scalar input/output is denoted by (). Instead of i_1, i_2, etc, one can use any valid
Python variable name.
• Dimension lists for different arguments are separated by ",". Input/output arguments are separated by "->".
• If one uses the same dimension name in multiple locations, this enforces the same size of the corresponding
dimensions.

The formal syntax of signatures is as follows:
<Signature> ::= <Input arguments> "->" <Output arguments>

<Input arguments> ::= <Argument list>
<Output arguments> ::= <Argument list>
<Argument list> ::= nil | <Argument> | <Argument> "," <Argument list>
<Argument> ::= "(" <Core dimension list> ")"
<Core dimension list> ::= nil | <Dimension name> |
<Dimension name> "," <Core dimension list>
<Dimension name> ::= valid Python variable name
Notes:
1. All quotes are for clarity.
2. Core dimensions that share the same name must have the exact same size. Each dimension name typically
corresponds to one level of looping in the elementary function’s implementation.
3. White spaces are ignored.
Here are some examples of signatures:
add (),()->()
inner1d (i),(i)->()
sum1d (i)->()
dot2d (m,n),(n, matrix multiplication
p)->(m,p)
outer_inner (i,t),(j, inner over the last dimension, outer over the second to last, and
t)->(i,j) loop/broadcast over the rest.
5.7.3 C-API for implementing Elementary Functions
The current interface remains unchanged, and PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData can still be used to implement (spe-
cialized) ufuncs, consisting of scalar elementary functions.
One can use PyUFunc_FromFuncAndDataAndSignature to declare a more general ufunc. The argument list
is the same as PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData, with an additional argument specifying the signature as C string.
Furthermore, the callback function is of the same type as before, void (*foo)(char **args, intp
*dimensions, intp *steps, void *func). When invoked, args is a list of length nargs containing
the data of all input/output arguments. For a scalar elementary function, steps is also of length nargs, denoting the
strides used for the arguments. dimensions is a pointer to a single integer defining the size of the axis to be looped
over.
For a non-trivial signature, dimensions will also contain the sizes of the core dimensions as well, starting at the
second entry. Only one size is provided for each unique dimension name and the sizes are given according to the first
occurrence of a dimension name in the signature.
The first nargs elements of steps remain the same as for scalar ufuncs. The following elements contain the strides
of all core dimensions for all arguments in order.
For example, consider a ufunc with signature (i,j),(i)->(). In this case, args will contain three pointers to the
data of the input/output arrays a, b, c. Furthermore, dimensions will be [N, I, J] to define the size of N of
the loop and the sizes I and J for the core dimensions i and j. Finally, steps will be [a_N, b_N, c_N, a_i,
a_j, b_i], containing all necessary strides.
5.7. Generalized Universal Function API 1283

5.8 NumPy core libraries

Starting from numpy 1.3.0, we are working on separating the pure C, “computational” code from the python dependent
code. The goal is twofolds: making the code cleaner, and enabling code reuse by other extensions outside numpy
(scipy, etc. . . ).
5.8.1 NumPy core math library
The numpy core math library (‘npymath’) is a first step in this direction. This library contains most math-related C99
functionality, which can be used on platforms where C99 is not well supported. The core math functions have the
same API as the C99 ones, except for the npy_* prefix.
The available functions are defined in <numpy/npy_math.h> - please refer to this header when in doubt.
Floating point classification
NPY_NAN
This macro is defined to a NaN (Not a Number), and is guaranteed to have the signbit unset (‘positive’ NaN).
The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available with the suffix F and L.
NPY_INFINITY
This macro is defined to a positive inf. The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available
with the suffix F and L.
NPY_PZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero. The corresponding single and extension precision macro are available
with the suffix F and L.
NPY_NZERO
This macro is defined to negative zero (that is with the sign bit set). The corresponding single and extension
precision macro are available with the suffix F and L.
int npy_isnan(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isnan: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is a NaN.
int npy_isfinite(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isfinite: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is neither a NaN nor an infinity.
int npy_isinf(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 isinf: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x is infinite (positive and negative).
int npy_signbit(x)
This is a macro, and is equivalent to C99 signbit: works for single, double and extended precision, and return a
non 0 value is x has the signbit set (that is the number is negative).
double npy_copysign(double x, double y)
This is a function equivalent to C99 copysign: return x with the same sign as y. Works for any value, including
inf and nan. Single and extended precisions are available with suffix f and l.

Useful math constants
The following math constants are available in npy_math.h. Single and extended precision are also available by adding
the F and L suffixes respectively.
NPY_E
Base of natural logarithm (𝑒)
NPY_LOG2E
ln(𝑒)
Logarithm to base 2 of the Euler constant ( ln(2) )
NPY_LOG10E
ln(𝑒)
Logarithm to base 10 of the Euler constant ( ln(10) )
NPY_LOGE2
Natural logarithm of 2 (ln(2))
NPY_LOGE10
Natural logarithm of 10 (ln(10))
NPY_PI
Pi (𝜋)
NPY_PI_2
Pi divided by 2 ( 𝜋2 )
NPY_PI_4
Pi divided by 4 ( 𝜋4 )
NPY_1_PI
Reciprocal of pi ( 𝜋1 )
NPY_2_PI
Two times the reciprocal of pi ( 𝜋2 )
NPY_EULER
∑︀𝑛 1
The Euler constant lim𝑛→∞ ( 𝑘=1 𝑘 − ln 𝑛)
Low-level floating point manipulation
Those can be useful for precise floating point comparison.

double npy_nextafter(double x, double y)
This is a function equivalent to C99 nextafter: return next representable floating point value from x in the
direction of y. Single and extended precisions are available with suffix f and l.
double npy_spacing(double x)
This is a function equivalent to Fortran intrinsic. Return distance between x and next representable floating point
value from x, e.g. spacing(1) == eps. spacing of nan and +/- inf return nan. Single and extended precisions are
available with suffix f and l.
void npy_set_floatstatus_divbyzero()
Set the divide by zero floating point exception
5.8. NumPy core libraries 1285

void npy_set_floatstatus_overflow()
Set the overflow floating point exception
void npy_set_floatstatus_underflow()
Set the underflow floating point exception
void npy_set_floatstatus_invalid()
Set the invalid floating point exception
int npy_get_floatstatus()
Get floating point status. Returns a bitmask with following possible flags:
• NPY_FPE_DIVIDEBYZERO
• NPY_FPE_OVERFLOW
• NPY_FPE_UNDERFLOW
• NPY_FPE_INVALID
int npy_clear_floatstatus()
Clears the floating point status. Returns the previous status mask.
Complex functions

C99-like complex functions have been added. Those can be used if you wish to implement portable C extensions.
Since we still support platforms without C99 complex type, you need to restrict to C90-compatible syntax, e.g.:
/* a = 1 + 2i \*/
npy_complex a = npy_cpack(1, 2);
npy_complex b;
b = npy_log(a);
Linking against the core math library in an extension

To use the core math library in your own extension, you need to add the npymath compile and link options to your
extension in your setup.py:
>>> from numpy.distutils.misc_util import get_info

>>> info = get_info('npymath')
>>> config.add_extension('foo', sources=['foo.c'], extra_info=info)
In other words, the usage of info is exactly the same as when using blas_info and co.

Half-precision functions

The header file <numpy/halffloat.h> provides functions to work with IEEE 754-2008 16-bit floating point values.
While this format is not typically used for numerical computations, it is useful for storing values which require floating
point but do not need much precision. It can also be used as an educational tool to understand the nature of floating
point round-off error.
Like for other types, NumPy includes a typedef npy_half for the 16 bit float. Unlike for most of the other types, you
cannot use this as a normal type in C, since is is a typedef for npy_uint16. For example, 1.0 looks like 0x3c00 to C,
and if you do an equality comparison between the different signed zeros, you will get -0.0 != 0.0 (0x8000 != 0x0000),
which is incorrect.
For these reasons, NumPy provides an API to work with npy_half values accessible by including <numpy/halffloat.h>
and linking to ‘npymath’. For functions that are not provided directly, such as the arithmetic operations, the preferred
method is to convert to float or double and back again, as in the following example.
npy_half sum(int n, npy_half *array) {

float ret = 0;
while(n--) {
ret += npy_half_to_float(*array++);
}
return npy_float_to_half(ret);
}
External Links:
• 754-2008 IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic
• Half-precision Float Wikipedia Article.
• OpenGL Half Float Pixel Support
• The OpenEXR image format.
NPY_HALF_ZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero.
NPY_HALF_PZERO
This macro is defined to positive zero.
NPY_HALF_NZERO
This macro is defined to negative zero.
NPY_HALF_ONE
This macro is defined to 1.0.
NPY_HALF_NEGONE
This macro is defined to -1.0.
NPY_HALF_PINF
This macro is defined to +inf.
NPY_HALF_NINF
This macro is defined to -inf.
NPY_HALF_NAN
This macro is defined to a NaN value, guaranteed to have its sign bit unset.
float npy_half_to_float(npy_half h)
Converts a half-precision float to a single-precision float.
5.8. NumPy core libraries 1287

double npy_half_to_double(npy_half h)
Converts a half-precision float to a double-precision float.
npy_half npy_float_to_half(float f )
Converts a single-precision float to a half-precision float. The value is rounded to the nearest representable half,
with ties going to the nearest even. If the value is too small or too big, the system’s floating point underflow or
overflow bit will be set.
npy_half npy_double_to_half(double d)
Converts a double-precision float to a half-precision float. The value is rounded to the nearest representable half,
with ties going to the nearest even. If the value is too small or too big, the system’s floating point underflow or
overflow bit will be set.
int npy_half_eq(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 == h2).
int npy_half_ne(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 != h2).
int npy_half_le(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 <= h2).
int npy_half_lt(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 < h2).
int npy_half_ge(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 >= h2).
int npy_half_gt(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats (h1 > h2).
int npy_half_eq_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 == h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
int npy_half_lt_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 < h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
int npy_half_le_nonan(npy_half h1, npy_half h2)
Compares two half-precision floats that are known to not be NaN (h1 <= h2). If a value is NaN, the result is
undefined.
int npy_half_iszero(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float has a value equal to zero. This may be slightly faster than calling
npy_half_eq(h, NPY_ZERO).
int npy_half_isnan(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is a NaN.
int npy_half_isinf(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is plus or minus Inf.
int npy_half_isfinite(npy_half h)
Tests whether the half-precision float is finite (not NaN or Inf).
int npy_half_signbit(npy_half h)
Returns 1 is h is negative, 0 otherwise.
npy_half npy_half_copysign(npy_half x, npy_half y)
Returns the value of x with the sign bit copied from y. Works for any value, including Inf and NaN.

npy_half npy_half_spacing(npy_half h)
This is the same for half-precision float as npy_spacing and npy_spacingf described in the low-level floating
point section.
npy_half npy_half_nextafter(npy_half x, npy_half y)
This is the same for half-precision float as npy_nextafter and npy_nextafterf described in the low-level floating
point section.
npy_uint16 npy_floatbits_to_halfbits(npy_uint32 f )
Low-level function which converts a 32-bit single-precision float, stored as a uint32, into a 16-bit half-precision
float.
npy_uint16 npy_doublebits_to_halfbits(npy_uint64 d)
Low-level function which converts a 64-bit double-precision float, stored as a uint64, into a 16-bit half-precision
float.
npy_uint32 npy_halfbits_to_floatbits(npy_uint16 h)
Low-level function which converts a 16-bit half-precision float into a 32-bit single-precision float, stored as a
uint32.
npy_uint64 npy_halfbits_to_doublebits(npy_uint16 h)
Low-level function which converts a 16-bit half-precision float into a 64-bit double-precision float, stored as a
uint64.
5.9 C API Deprecations
5.9.1 Background
The API exposed by NumPy for third-party extensions has grown over years of releases, and has allowed programmers
to directly access NumPy functionality from C. This API can be best described as “organic”. It has emerged from
multiple competing desires and from multiple points of view over the years, strongly influenced by the desire to make
it easy for users to move to NumPy from Numeric and Numarray. The core API originated with Numeric in 1995 and
there are patterns such as the heavy use of macros written to mimic Python’s C-API as well as account for compiler
technology of the late 90’s. There is also only a small group of volunteers who have had very little time to spend on
improving this API.
There is an ongoing effort to improve the API. It is important in this effort to ensure that code that compiles for
NumPy 1.X continues to compile for NumPy 1.X. At the same time, certain API’s will be marked as deprecated so
that future-looking code can avoid these API’s and follow better practices.
Another important role played by deprecation markings in the C API is to move towards hiding internal details of the
NumPy implementation. For those needing direct, easy, access to the data of ndarrays, this will not remove this ability.
Rather, there are many potential performance optimizations which require changing the implementation details, and
NumPy developers have been unable to try them because of the high value of preserving ABI compatibility. By
deprecating this direct access, we will in the future be able to improve NumPy’s performance in ways we cannot
presently.
5.9.2 Deprecation Mechanism NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API
In C, there is no equivalent to the deprecation warnings that Python supports. One way to do deprecations is to flag
them in the documentation and release notes, then remove or change the deprecated features in a future major version
(NumPy 2.0 and beyond). Minor versions of NumPy should not have major C-API changes, however, that prevent
code that worked on a previous minor release. For example, we will do our best to ensure that code that compiled and
worked on NumPy 1.4 should continue to work on NumPy 1.7 (but perhaps with compiler warnings).
5.9. C API Deprecations 1289

To use the NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API mechanism, you need to #define it to the target API version of NumPy
before #including any NumPy headers. If you want to confirm that your code is clean against 1.7, use:
#define NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API NPY_1_7_API_VERSION
On compilers which support a #warning mechanism, NumPy issues a compiler warning if you do not define the
symbol NPY_NO_DEPRECATED_API. This way, the fact that there are deprecations will be flagged for third-party
developers who may not have read the release notes closely.

CHAPTER
SIX
NUMPY INTERNALS
6.1 NumPy C Code Explanations
Fanaticism consists of redoubling your efforts when you have forgotten your aim. — George Santayana
An authority is a person who can tell you more about something than you really care to know. — Unknown
This Chapter attempts to explain the logic behind some of the new pieces of code. The purpose behind these explana-
tions is to enable somebody to be able to understand the ideas behind the implementation somewhat more easily than
just staring at the code. Perhaps in this way, the algorithms can be improved on, borrowed from, and/or optimized.
6.1.1 Memory model
One fundamental aspect of the ndarray is that an array is seen as a “chunk” of memory starting at some location. The
interpretation of this memory depends on the stride information. For each dimension in an 𝑁 -dimensional array, an
integer (stride) dictates how many bytes must be skipped to get to the next element in that dimension. Unless you have
a single-segment array, this stride information must be consulted when traversing through an array. It is not difficult
to write code that accepts strides, you just have to use (char *) pointers because strides are in units of bytes. Keep
in mind also that strides do not have to be unit-multiples of the element size. Also, remember that if the number of
dimensions of the array is 0 (sometimes called a rank-0 array), then the strides and dimensions variables are NULL.
Besides the structural information contained in the strides and dimensions members of the PyArrayObject, the
flags contain important information about how the data may be accessed. In particular, the NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED
flag is set when the memory is on a suitable boundary according to the data-type array. Even if you have a contiguous
chunk of memory, you cannot just assume it is safe to dereference a data- type-specific pointer to an element. Only
if the NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED flag is set is this a safe operation (on some platforms it will work but on others, like
Solaris, it will cause a bus error). The NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE should also be ensured if you plan on writing to
the memory area of the array. It is also possible to obtain a pointer to an unwritable memory area. Sometimes, writing
to the memory area when the NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE flag is not set will just be rude. Other times it can cause
program crashes ( e.g. a data-area that is a read-only memory-mapped file).
6.1.2 Data-type encapsulation
The data-type is an important abstraction of the ndarray. Operations will look to the data-type to provide the key
functionality that is needed to operate on the array. This functionality is provided in the list of function pointers
pointed to by the ‘f’ member of the PyArray_Descr structure. In this way, the number of data-types can be
extended simply by providing a PyArray_Descr structure with suitable function pointers in the ‘f’ member. For
built-in types there are some optimizations that by-pass this mechanism, but the point of the data- type abstraction is
to allow new data-types to be added.
1291
One of the built-in data-types, the void data-type allows for arbitrary structured types containing 1 or more fields as
elements of the array. A field is simply another data-type object along with an offset into the current structured type. In
order to support arbitrarily nested fields, several recursive implementations of data-type access are implemented for the
void type. A common idiom is to cycle through the elements of the dictionary and perform a specific operation based
on the data-type object stored at the given offset. These offsets can be arbitrary numbers. Therefore, the possibility of
encountering misaligned data must be recognized and taken into account if necessary.
6.1.3 N-D Iterators
A very common operation in much of NumPy code is the need to iterate over all the elements of a general, strided,
N-dimensional array. This operation of a general-purpose N-dimensional loop is abstracted in the notion of an iterator
object. To write an N-dimensional loop, you only have to create an iterator object from an ndarray, work with the
dataptr member of the iterator object structure and call the macro PyArray_ITER_NEXT (it) on the iterator object
to move to the next element. The “next” element is always in C-contiguous order. The macro works by first special
casing the C-contiguous, 1-D, and 2-D cases which work very simply.
For the general case, the iteration works by keeping track of a list of coordinate counters in the iterator object. At each
iteration, the last coordinate counter is increased (starting from 0). If this counter is smaller than one less than the size
of the array in that dimension (a pre-computed and stored value), then the counter is increased and the dataptr member
is increased by the strides in that dimension and the macro ends. If the end of a dimension is reached, the counter
for the last dimension is reset to zero and the dataptr is moved back to the beginning of that dimension by subtracting
the strides value times one less than the number of elements in that dimension (this is also pre-computed and stored
in the backstrides member of the iterator object). In this case, the macro does not end, but a local dimension counter
is decremented so that the next-to-last dimension replaces the role that the last dimension played and the previously-
described tests are executed again on the next-to-last dimension. In this way, the dataptr is adjusted appropriately for
arbitrary striding.
The coordinates member of the PyArrayIterObject structure maintains the current N-d counter unless
the underlying array is C-contiguous in which case the coordinate counting is by-passed. The index mem-
ber of the PyArrayIterObject keeps track of the current flat index of the iterator. It is updated by the
PyArray_ITER_NEXT macro.
6.1.4 Broadcasting
In Numeric, broadcasting was implemented in several lines of code buried deep in ufuncobject.c. In NumPy, the
notion of broadcasting has been abstracted so that it can be performed in multiple places. Broadcasting is handled by
the function PyArray_Broadcast. This function requires a PyArrayMultiIterObject (or something that
is a binary equivalent) to be passed in. The PyArrayMultiIterObject keeps track of the broadcast number of
dimensions and size in each dimension along with the total size of the broadcast result. It also keeps track of the
number of arrays being broadcast and a pointer to an iterator for each of the arrays being broadcast.
The PyArray_Broadcast function takes the iterators that have already been defined and uses them to determine
the broadcast shape in each dimension (to create the iterators at the same time that broadcasting occurs then use the
PyMultiIter_New function). Then, the iterators are adjusted so that each iterator thinks it is iterating over an array
with the broadcast size. This is done by adjusting the iterators number of dimensions, and the shape in each dimension.
This works because the iterator strides are also adjusted. Broadcasting only adjusts (or adds) length-1 dimensions. For
these dimensions, the strides variable is simply set to 0 so that the data-pointer for the iterator over that array doesn’t
move as the broadcasting operation operates over the extended dimension.
Broadcasting was always implemented in Numeric using 0-valued strides for the extended dimensions. It
is done in exactly the same way in NumPy. The big difference is that now the array of strides is kept
track of in a PyArrayIterObject, the iterators involved in a broadcast result are kept track of in a
PyArrayMultiIterObject, and the PyArray_BroadCast call implements the broad-casting rules.
1292 Chapter 6. NumPy internals

6.1.5 Array Scalars
The array scalars offer a hierarchy of Python types that allow a one- to-one correspondence between the data-type
stored in an array and the Python-type that is returned when an element is extracted from the array. An exception to
this rule was made with object arrays. Object arrays are heterogeneous collections of arbitrary Python objects. When
you select an item from an object array, you get back the original Python object (and not an object array scalar which
does exist but is rarely used for practical purposes).
The array scalars also offer the same methods and attributes as arrays with the intent that the same code can be used to
support arbitrary dimensions (including 0-dimensions). The array scalars are read-only (immutable) with the exception
of the void scalar which can also be written to so that structured array field setting works more naturally (a[0][‘f1’] =
value ).
6.1.6 Indexing
All python indexing operations arr[index] are organized by first preparing the index and finding the index type.
The supported index types are:
• integer
• newaxis
• slice
• ellipsis
• integer arrays/array-likes (fancy)
• boolean (single boolean array); if there is more than one boolean array as index or the shape does not match
exactly, the boolean array will be converted to an integer array instead.
• 0-d boolean (and also integer); 0-d boolean arrays are a special case which has to be handled in the advanced
indexing code. They signal that a 0-d boolean array had to be interpreted as an integer array.
As well as the scalar array special case signaling that an integer array was interpreted as an integer index, which is
important because an integer array index forces a copy but is ignored if a scalar is returned (full integer index). The
prepared index is guaranteed to be valid with the exception of out of bound values and broadcasting errors for advanced
indexing. This includes that an ellipsis is added for incomplete indices for example when a two dimensional array is
indexed with a single integer.
The next step depends on the type of index which was found. If all dimensions are indexed with an integer a scalar
is returned or set. A single boolean indexing array will call specialized boolean functions. Indices containing an
ellipsis or slice but no advanced indexing will always create a view into the old array by calculating the new strides
and memory offset. This view can then either be returned or, for assignments, filled using PyArray_CopyObject.
Note that PyArray_CopyObject may also be called on temporary arrays in other branches to support complicated
assignments when the array is of object dtype.
Advanced indexing
By far the most complex case is advanced indexing, which may or may not be combined with typical view based
indexing. Here integer indices are interpreted as view based. Before trying to understand this, you may want to make
yourself familiar with its subtleties. The advanced indexing code has three different branches and one special case:
• There is one indexing array and it, as well as the assignment array, can be iterated trivially. For example they
may be contiguous. Also the indexing array must be of intp type and the value array in assignments should be
of the correct type. This is purely a fast path.
• There are only integer array indices so that no subarray exists.
6.1. NumPy C Code Explanations 1293

• View based and advanced indexing is mixed. In this case the view based indexing defines a collection of
subarrays that are combined by the advanced indexing. For example, arr[[1, 2, 3], :] is created by
vertically stacking the subarrays arr[1, :], arr[2,:], and arr[3, :].
• There is a subarray but it has exactly one element. This case can be handled as if there is no subarray, but needs
some care during setup.
Deciding what case applies, checking broadcasting, and determining the kind of transposition needed are all done in
PyArray_MapIterNew. After setting up, there are two cases. If there is no subarray or it only has one element, no
subarray iteration is necessary and an iterator is prepared which iterates all indexing arrays as well as the result or
value array. If there is a subarray, there are three iterators prepared. One for the indexing arrays, one for the result or
value array (minus its subarray), and one for the subarrays of the original and the result/assignment array. The first
two iterators give (or allow calculation) of the pointers into the start of the subarray, which then allows to restart the
subarray iteration.
When advanced indices are next to each other transposing may be necessary. All necessary transposing is handled
by PyArray_MapIterSwapAxes and has to be handled by the caller unless PyArray_MapIterNew is asked to
allocate the result.
After preparation, getting and setting is relatively straight forward, although the different modes of iteration need to
be considered. Unless there is only a single indexing array during item getting, the validity of the indices is checked
beforehand. Otherwise it is handled in the inner loop itself for optimization.
6.1.7 Universal Functions
Universal functions are callable objects that take 𝑁 inputs and produce 𝑀 outputs by wrapping basic 1-D loops that
work element-by-element into full easy-to use functions that seamlessly implement broadcasting, type-checking and
buffered coercion, and output-argument handling. New universal functions are normally created in C, although there
is a mechanism for creating ufuncs from Python functions (frompyfunc). The user must supply a 1-D loop that
implements the basic function taking the input scalar values and placing the resulting scalars into the appropriate
output slots as explained in implementation.
Setup
Every ufunc calculation involves some overhead related to setting up the calculation. The practical significance of
this overhead is that even though the actual calculation of the ufunc is very fast, you will be able to write array and
type-specific code that will work faster for small arrays than the ufunc. In particular, using ufuncs to perform many
calculations on 0-D arrays will be slower than other Python-based solutions (the silently-imported scalarmath module
exists precisely to give array scalars the look-and-feel of ufunc based calculations with significantly reduced overhead).
When a ufunc is called, many things must be done. The information collected from these setup operations is stored
in a loop-object. This loop object is a C-structure (that could become a Python object but is not initialized as such
because it is only used internally). This loop object has the layout needed to be used with PyArray_Broadcast so that
the broadcasting can be handled in the same way as it is handled in other sections of code.
The first thing done is to look-up in the thread-specific global dictionary the current values for the buffer-size, the error
mask, and the associated error object. The state of the error mask controls what happens when an error condition is
found. It should be noted that checking of the hardware error flags is only performed after each 1-D loop is executed.
This means that if the input and output arrays are contiguous and of the correct type so that a single 1-D loop is
performed, then the flags may not be checked until all elements of the array have been calculated. Looking up these
values in a thread- specific dictionary takes time which is easily ignored for all but very small arrays.
After checking, the thread-specific global variables, the inputs are evaluated to determine how the ufunc should proceed
and the input and output arrays are constructed if necessary. Any inputs which are not arrays are converted to arrays
(using context if necessary). Which of the inputs are scalars (and therefore converted to 0-D arrays) is noted.

Next, an appropriate 1-D loop is selected from the 1-D loops available to the ufunc based on the input array types. This
1-D loop is selected by trying to match the signature of the data-types of the inputs against the available signatures.
The signatures corresponding to built-in types are stored in the types member of the ufunc structure. The signatures
corresponding to user-defined types are stored in a linked-list of function-information with the head element stored
as a CObject in the userloops dictionary keyed by the data-type number (the first user-defined type in the argument
list is used as the key). The signatures are searched until a signature is found to which the input arrays can all be cast
safely (ignoring any scalar arguments which are not allowed to determine the type of the result). The implication of
this search procedure is that “lesser types” should be placed below “larger types” when the signatures are stored. If no
1-D loop is found, then an error is reported. Otherwise, the argument_list is updated with the stored signature — in
case casting is necessary and to fix the output types assumed by the 1-D loop.
If the ufunc has 2 inputs and 1 output and the second input is an Object array then a special-case check is performed
so that NotImplemented is returned if the second input is not an ndarray, has the __array_priority__ attribute, and
has an __r{op}__ special method. In this way, Python is signaled to give the other object a chance to complete the
operation instead of using generic object-array calculations. This allows (for example) sparse matrices to override the
multiplication operator 1-D loop.
For input arrays that are smaller than the specified buffer size, copies are made of all non-contiguous, mis-aligned, or
out-of- byteorder arrays to ensure that for small arrays, a single loop is used. Then, array iterators are created for all
the input arrays and the resulting collection of iterators is broadcast to a single shape.
The output arguments (if any) are then processed and any missing return arrays are constructed. If any pro-
vided output array doesn’t have the correct type (or is mis-aligned) and is smaller than the buffer size, then
a new output array is constructed with the special WRITEBACKIFCOPY flag set. At the end of the function,
PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called so that its contents will be copied back into the output array.
Iterators for the output arguments are then processed.
Finally, the decision is made about how to execute the looping mechanism to ensure that all elements of the input
arrays are combined to produce the output arrays of the correct type. The options for loop execution are one-loop (for
contiguous, aligned, and correct data type), strided-loop (for non-contiguous but still aligned and correct data type),
and a buffered loop (for mis-aligned or incorrect data type situations). Depending on which execution method is called
for, the loop is then setup and computed.
Function call
This section describes how the basic universal function computation loop is setup and executed for each of the three
different kinds of execution. If NPY_ALLOW_THREADS is defined during compilation, then as long as no object
arrays are involved, the Python Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is released prior to calling the loops. It is re-acquired if
necessary to handle error conditions. The hardware error flags are checked only after the 1-D loop is completed.
One Loop
This is the simplest case of all. The ufunc is executed by calling the underlying 1-D loop exactly once. This is possible
only when we have aligned data of the correct type (including byte-order) for both input and output and all arrays have
uniform strides (either contiguous, 0-D, or 1-D). In this case, the 1-D computational loop is called once to compute
the calculation for the entire array. Note that the hardware error flags are only checked after the entire calculation is
complete.
Strided Loop
When the input and output arrays are aligned and of the correct type, but the striding is not uniform (non-contiguous
and 2-D or larger), then a second looping structure is employed for the calculation. This approach converts all of the
iterators for the input and output arguments to iterate over all but the largest dimension. The inner loop is then handled

by the underlying 1-D computational loop. The outer loop is a standard iterator loop on the converted iterators. The
hardware error flags are checked after each 1-D loop is completed.
Buffered Loop
This is the code that handles the situation whenever the input and/or output arrays are either misaligned or of the wrong
data-type (including being byte-swapped) from what the underlying 1-D loop expects. The arrays are also assumed to
be non-contiguous. The code works very much like the strided-loop except for the inner 1-D loop is modified so that
pre-processing is performed on the inputs and post- processing is performed on the outputs in bufsize chunks (where
bufsize is a user-settable parameter). The underlying 1-D computational loop is called on data that is copied over (if it
needs to be). The setup code and the loop code is considerably more complicated in this case because it has to handle:
• memory allocation of the temporary buffers
• deciding whether or not to use buffers on the input and output data (mis-aligned and/or wrong data-type)
• copying and possibly casting data for any inputs or outputs for which buffers are necessary.
• special-casing Object arrays so that reference counts are properly handled when copies and/or casts are neces-
sary.
• breaking up the inner 1-D loop into bufsize chunks (with a possible remainder).
Again, the hardware error flags are checked at the end of each 1-D loop.
Final output manipulation
Ufuncs allow other array-like classes to be passed seamlessly through the interface in that inputs of a particu-
lar class will induce the outputs to be of that same class. The mechanism by which this works is the following.
If any of the inputs are not ndarrays and define the __array_wrap__ method, then the class with the largest
__array_priority__ attribute determines the type of all the outputs (with the exception of any output arrays
passed in). The __array_wrap__ method of the input array will be called with the ndarray being returned from
the ufunc as it’s input. There are two calling styles of the __array_wrap__ function supported. The first takes
the ndarray as the first argument and a tuple of “context” as the second argument. The context is (ufunc, arguments,
output argument number). This is the first call tried. If a TypeError occurs, then the function is called with just the
ndarray as the first argument.
Methods
There are three methods of ufuncs that require calculation similar to the general-purpose ufuncs. These are reduce,
accumulate, and reduceat. Each of these methods requires a setup command followed by a loop. There are four loop
styles possible for the methods corresponding to no-elements, one-element, strided-loop, and buffered- loop. These
are the same basic loop styles as implemented for the general purpose function call except for the no-element and one-
element cases which are special-cases occurring when the input array objects have 0 and 1 elements respectively.
Setup
The setup function for all three methods is construct_reduce. This function creates a reducing loop object and
fills it with parameters needed to complete the loop. All of the methods only work on ufuncs that take 2-inputs and
return 1 output. Therefore, the underlying 1-D loop is selected assuming a signature of [ otype, otype, otype
] where otype is the requested reduction data-type. The buffer size and error handling is then retrieved from (per-
thread) global storage. For small arrays that are mis-aligned or have incorrect data-type, a copy is made so that the
un-buffered section of code is used. Then, the looping strategy is selected. If there is 1 element or 0 elements in the
array, then a simple looping method is selected. If the array is not mis-aligned and has the correct data-type, then

strided looping is selected. Otherwise, buffered looping must be performed. Looping parameters are then established,
and the return array is constructed. The output array is of a different shape depending on whether the method is reduce,
accumulate, or reduceat. If an output array is already provided, then it’s shape is checked. If the output array is not
C-contiguous, aligned, and of the correct data type, then a temporary copy is made with the WRITEBACKIFCOPY
flag set. In this way, the methods will be able to work with a well-behaved output array but the result will be copied
back into the true output array when PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy is called at function completion.
Finally, iterators are set up to loop over the correct axis (depending on the value of axis provided to the method) and
the setup routine returns to the actual computation routine.
Reduce
All of the ufunc methods use the same underlying 1-D computational loops with input and output arguments adjusted
so that the appropriate reduction takes place. For example, the key to the functioning of reduce is that the 1-D loop is
called with the output and the second input pointing to the same position in memory and both having a stepsize of 0.
The first input is pointing to the input array with a stepsize given by the appropriate stride for the selected axis. In
this way, the operation performed is
𝑜= 𝑖[0]
𝑜= 𝑖[𝑘]<op>𝑜 𝑘 = 1...𝑁
where 𝑁 + 1 is the number of elements in the input, 𝑖, 𝑜 is the output, and 𝑖[𝑘] is the 𝑘 th element of 𝑖 along the selected
axis. This basic operations is repeated for arrays with greater than 1 dimension so that the reduction takes place for
every 1-D sub-array along the selected axis. An iterator with the selected dimension removed handles this looping.
For buffered loops, care must be taken to copy and cast data before the loop function is called because the underlying
loop expects aligned data of the correct data-type (including byte-order). The buffered loop must handle this copying
and casting prior to calling the loop function on chunks no greater than the user-specified bufsize.
Accumulate
The accumulate function is very similar to the reduce function in that the output and the second input both point to the
output. The difference is that the second input points to memory one stride behind the current output pointer. Thus,
the operation performed is
𝑜[0] = 𝑖[0]
𝑜[𝑘] = 𝑖[𝑘]<op>𝑜[𝑘 − 1] 𝑘 = 1 . . . 𝑁.
The output has the same shape as the input and each 1-D loop operates over 𝑁 elements when the shape in the selected
axis is 𝑁 +1. Again, buffered loops take care to copy and cast the data before calling the underlying 1-D computational
loop.
Reduceat
The reduceat function is a generalization of both the reduce and accumulate functions. It implements a reduce over
ranges of the input array specified by indices. The extra indices argument is checked to be sure that every input
is not too large for the input array along the selected dimension before the loop calculations take place. The loop
implementation is handled using code that is very similar to the reduce code repeated as many times as there are
elements in the indices input. In particular: the first input pointer passed to the underlying 1-D computational loop
points to the input array at the correct location indicated by the index array. In addition, the output pointer and the
second input pointer passed to the underlying 1-D loop point to the same position in memory. The size of the 1-D
computational loop is fixed to be the difference between the current index and the next index (when the current index

is the last index, then the next index is assumed to be the length of the array along the selected dimension). In this
way, the 1-D loop will implement a reduce over the specified indices.
Mis-aligned or a loop data-type that does not match the input and/or output data-type is handled using buffered code
where-in data is copied to a temporary buffer and cast to the correct data-type if necessary prior to calling the under-
lying 1-D function. The temporary buffers are created in (element) sizes no bigger than the user settable buffer-size
value. Thus, the loop must be flexible enough to call the underlying 1-D computational loop enough times to complete
the total calculation in chunks no bigger than the buffer-size.
6.2 Internal organization of numpy arrays
It helps to understand a bit about how numpy arrays are handled under the covers to help understand numpy better.
This section will not go into great detail. Those wishing to understand the full details are referred to Travis Oliphant’s
book “Guide to NumPy”.
NumPy arrays consist of two major components, the raw array data (from now on, referred to as the data buffer), and
the information about the raw array data. The data buffer is typically what people think of as arrays in C or Fortran,
a contiguous (and fixed) block of memory containing fixed sized data items. NumPy also contains a significant set of
data that describes how to interpret the data in the data buffer. This extra information contains (among other things):
1. The basic data element’s size in bytes
2. The start of the data within the data buffer (an offset relative to the beginning of the data buffer).
3. The number of dimensions and the size of each dimension
4. The separation between elements for each dimension (the ‘stride’). This does not have to be a multiple of the
element size
5. The byte order of the data (which may not be the native byte order)
6. Whether the buffer is read-only
7. Information (via the dtype object) about the interpretation of the basic data element. The basic data element
may be as simple as a int or a float, or it may be a compound object (e.g., struct-like), a fixed character field, or
Python object pointers.
8. Whether the array is to interpreted as C-order or Fortran-order.
This arrangement allow for very flexible use of arrays. One thing that it allows is simple changes of the metadata
to change the interpretation of the array buffer. Changing the byteorder of the array is a simple change involving no
rearrangement of the data. The shape of the array can be changed very easily without changing anything in the data
buffer or any data copying at all
Among other things that are made possible is one can create a new array metadata object that uses the same data buffer
to create a new view of that data buffer that has a different interpretation of the buffer (e.g., different shape, offset,
byte order, strides, etc) but shares the same data bytes. Many operations in numpy do just this such as slices. Other
operations, such as transpose, don’t move data elements around in the array, but rather change the information about
the shape and strides so that the indexing of the array changes, but the data in the doesn’t move.
Typically these new versions of the array metadata but the same data buffer are new ‘views’ into the data buffer. There
is a different ndarray object, but it uses the same data buffer. This is why it is necessary to force copies through use of
the .copy() method if one really wants to make a new and independent copy of the data buffer.
New views into arrays mean the object reference counts for the data buffer increase. Simply doing away with the
original array object will not remove the data buffer if other views of it still exist.

6.3 Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues
What is the right way to index multi-dimensional arrays? Before you jump to conclusions about the one and true
way to index multi-dimensional arrays, it pays to understand why this is a confusing issue. This section will try to
explain in detail how numpy indexing works and why we adopt the convention we do for images, and when it may be
appropriate to adopt other conventions.
The first thing to understand is that there are two conflicting conventions for indexing 2-dimensional arrays. Matrix
notation uses the first index to indicate which row is being selected and the second index to indicate which column
is selected. This is opposite the geometrically oriented-convention for images where people generally think the first
index represents x position (i.e., column) and the second represents y position (i.e., row). This alone is the source of
much confusion; matrix-oriented users and image-oriented users expect two different things with regard to indexing.
The second issue to understand is how indices correspond to the order the array is stored in memory. In Fortran the first
index is the most rapidly varying index when moving through the elements of a two dimensional array as it is stored
in memory. If you adopt the matrix convention for indexing, then this means the matrix is stored one column at a time
(since the first index moves to the next row as it changes). Thus Fortran is considered a Column-major language. C
has just the opposite convention. In C, the last index changes most rapidly as one moves through the array as stored
in memory. Thus C is a Row-major language. The matrix is stored by rows. Note that in both cases it presumes that
the matrix convention for indexing is being used, i.e., for both Fortran and C, the first index is the row. Note this
convention implies that the indexing convention is invariant and that the data order changes to keep that so.
But that’s not the only way to look at it. Suppose one has large two-dimensional arrays (images or matrices) stored
in data files. Suppose the data are stored by rows rather than by columns. If we are to preserve our index convention
(whether matrix or image) that means that depending on the language we use, we may be forced to reorder the data
if it is read into memory to preserve our indexing convention. For example if we read row-ordered data into memory
without reordering, it will match the matrix indexing convention for C, but not for Fortran. Conversely, it will match
the image indexing convention for Fortran, but not for C. For C, if one is using data stored in row order, and one wants
to preserve the image index convention, the data must be reordered when reading into memory.
In the end, which you do for Fortran or C depends on which is more important, not reordering data or preserving the
indexing convention. For large images, reordering data is potentially expensive, and often the indexing convention is
inverted to avoid that.
The situation with numpy makes this issue yet more complicated. The internal machinery of numpy arrays is flexible
enough to accept any ordering of indices. One can simply reorder indices by manipulating the internal stride infor-
mation for arrays without reordering the data at all. NumPy will know how to map the new index order to the data
without moving the data.
So if this is true, why not choose the index order that matches what you most expect? In particular, why not define
row-ordered images to use the image convention? (This is sometimes referred to as the Fortran convention vs the C
convention, thus the ‘C’ and ‘FORTRAN’ order options for array ordering in numpy.) The drawback of doing this
is potential performance penalties. It’s common to access the data sequentially, either implicitly in array operations
or explicitly by looping over rows of an image. When that is done, then the data will be accessed in non-optimal
order. As the first index is incremented, what is actually happening is that elements spaced far apart in memory are
being sequentially accessed, with usually poor memory access speeds. For example, for a two dimensional image ‘im’
defined so that im[0, 10] represents the value at x=0, y=10. To be consistent with usual Python behavior then im[0]
would represent a column at x=0. Yet that data would be spread over the whole array since the data are stored in
row order. Despite the flexibility of numpy’s indexing, it can’t really paper over the fact basic operations are rendered
inefficient because of data order or that getting contiguous subarrays is still awkward (e.g., im[:,0] for the first row,
vs im[0]), thus one can’t use an idiom such as for row in im; for col in im does work, but doesn’t yield contiguous
column data.
As it turns out, numpy is smart enough when dealing with ufuncs to determine which index is the most rapidly varying
one in memory and uses that for the innermost loop. Thus for ufuncs there is no large intrinsic advantage to either
approach in most cases. On the other hand, use of .flat with an FORTRAN ordered array will lead to non-optimal
memory access as adjacent elements in the flattened array (iterator, actually) are not contiguous in memory.
6.3. Multidimensional Array Indexing Order Issues 1299

Indeed, the fact is that Python indexing on lists and other sequences naturally leads to an outside-to inside ordering
(the first index gets the largest grouping, the next the next largest, and the last gets the smallest element). Since image
data are normally stored by rows, this corresponds to position within rows being the last item indexed.
If you do want to use Fortran ordering realize that there are two approaches to consider: 1) accept that the first index
is just not the most rapidly changing in memory and have all your I/O routines reorder your data when going from
memory to disk or visa versa, or use numpy’s mechanism for mapping the first index to the most rapidly varying
data. We recommend the former if possible. The disadvantage of the latter is that many of numpy’s functions will
yield arrays without Fortran ordering unless you are careful to use the ‘order’ keyword. Doing this would be highly
inconvenient.
Otherwise we recommend simply learning to reverse the usual order of indices when accessing elements of an array.
Granted, it goes against the grain, but it is more in line with Python semantics and the natural order of the data.

CHAPTER
SEVEN
NUMPY AND SWIG
7.0.1 Introduction
The Simple Wrapper and Interface Generator (or SWIG) is a powerful tool for generating wrapper code for interfacing
to a wide variety of scripting languages. SWIG can parse header files, and using only the code prototypes, create an
interface to the target language. But SWIG is not omnipotent. For example, it cannot know from the prototype:
double rms(double* seq, int n);
what exactly seq is. Is it a single value to be altered in-place? Is it an array, and if so what is its length? Is it
input-only? Output-only? Input-output? SWIG cannot determine these details, and does not attempt to do so.
If we designed rms, we probably made it a routine that takes an input-only array of length n of double values called
seq and returns the root mean square. The default behavior of SWIG, however, will be to create a wrapper function
that compiles, but is nearly impossible to use from the scripting language in the way the C routine was intended.
For Python, the preferred way of handling contiguous (or technically, strided) blocks of homogeneous data is with
NumPy, which provides full object-oriented access to multidimensial arrays of data. Therefore, the most logical
Python interface for the rms function would be (including doc string):
def rms(seq):
"""
rms: return the root mean square of a sequence
rms(numpy.ndarray) -> double
rms(list) -> double
rms(tuple) -> double
"""
where seq would be a NumPy array of double values, and its length n would be extracted from seq internally
before being passed to the C routine. Even better, since NumPy supports construction of arrays from arbitrary Python
sequences, seq itself could be a nearly arbitrary sequence (so long as each element can be converted to a double)
and the wrapper code would internally convert it to a NumPy array before extracting its data and length.
SWIG allows these types of conversions to be defined via a mechanism called typemaps. This document provides
information on how to use numpy.i, a SWIG interface file that defines a series of typemaps intended to make the
type of array-related conversions described above relatively simple to implement. For example, suppose that the rms
function prototype defined above was in a header file named rms.h. To obtain the Python interface discussed above,
your SWIG interface file would need the following:
%{
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT
#include "rms.h"
%}
%include "numpy.i"
1301
%init %{
import_array();
%}
%apply (double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1) {(double* seq, int n)};

%include "rms.h"
Typemaps are keyed off a list of one or more function arguments, either by type or by type and name. We will
refer to such lists as signatures. One of the many typemaps defined by numpy.i is used above and has the signature
(double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1). The argument names are intended to suggest that the double* argument
is an input array of one dimension and that the int represents the size of that dimension. This is precisely the pattern
in the rms prototype.
Most likely, no actual prototypes to be wrapped will have the argument names IN_ARRAY1 and DIM1. We use
the SWIG %apply directive to apply the typemap for one-dimensional input arrays of type double to the actual
prototype used by rms. Using numpy.i effectively, therefore, requires knowing what typemaps are available and
what they do.
A SWIG interface file that includes the SWIG directives given above will produce wrapper code that looks something
like:
1 PyObject *_wrap_rms(PyObject *args) {

2 PyObject *resultobj = 0;
3 double *arg1 = (double *) 0 ;
4 int arg2 ;
5 double result;
6 PyArrayObject *array1 = NULL ;
7 int is_new_object1 = 0 ;
8 PyObject * obj0 = 0 ;
9
10 if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args,(char *)"O:rms",&obj0)) SWIG_fail;
11 {
12 array1 = obj_to_array_contiguous_allow_conversion(
13 obj0, NPY_DOUBLE, &is_new_object1);
14 npy_intp size[1] = {
15 -1
16 };
17 if (!array1 || !require_dimensions(array1, 1) ||
18 !require_size(array1, size, 1)) SWIG_fail;
19 arg1 = (double*) array1->data;
20 arg2 = (int) array1->dimensions[0];
21 }
22 result = (double)rms(arg1,arg2);
23 resultobj = SWIG_From_double((double)(result));
24 {
25 if (is_new_object1 && array1) Py_DECREF(array1);
26 }
27 return resultobj;
28 fail:
29 {
30 if (is_new_object1 && array1) Py_DECREF(array1);
31 }
32 return NULL;
33 }
The typemaps from numpy.i are responsible for the following lines of code: 12–20, 25 and 30. Line 10 parses
the input to the rms function. From the format string "O:rms", we can see that the argument list is expected to
1302 Chapter 7. NumPy and SWIG

be a single Python object (specified by the O before the colon) and whose pointer is stored in obj0. A number of
functions, supplied by numpy.i, are called to make and check the (possible) conversion from a generic Python object
to a NumPy array. These functions are explained in the section Helper Functions, but hopefully their names are self-
explanatory. At line 12 we use obj0 to construct a NumPy array. At line 17, we check the validity of the result: that
it is non-null and that it has a single dimension of arbitrary length. Once these states are verified, we extract the data
buffer and length in lines 19 and 20 so that we can call the underlying C function at line 22. Line 25 performs memory
management for the case where we have created a new array that is no longer needed.
This code has a significant amount of error handling. Note the SWIG_fail is a macro for goto fail, referring to
the label at line 28. If the user provides the wrong number of arguments, this will be caught at line 10. If construction
of the NumPy array fails or produces an array with the wrong number of dimensions, these errors are caught at line
17. And finally, if an error is detected, memory is still managed correctly at line 30.
Note that if the C function signature was in a different order:
double rms(int n, double* seq);
that SWIG would not match the typemap signature given above with the argument list for rms. Fortunately, numpy.i
has a set of typemaps with the data pointer given last:
%apply (int DIM1, double* IN_ARRAY1) {(int n, double* seq)};
This simply has the effect of switching the definitions of arg1 and arg2 in lines 3 and 4 of the generated code above,
and their assignments in lines 19 and 20.
7.0.2 Using numpy.i
The numpy.i file is currently located in the tools/swig sub-directory under the numpy installation directory.
Typically, you will want to copy it to the directory where you are developing your wrappers.
A simple module that only uses a single SWIG interface file should include the following:
%{
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT
%}
%include "numpy.i"
%init %{
import_array();
%}
Within a compiled Python module, import_array() should only get called once. This could be in a C/C++
file that you have written and is linked to the module. If this is the case, then none of your interface files should
#define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT or call import_array(). Or, this initialization call could be in a wrapper
file generated by SWIG from an interface file that has the %init block as above. If this is the case, and you have
more than one SWIG interface file, then only one interface file should #define SWIG_FILE_WITH_INIT and
call import_array().
7.0.3 Available Typemaps
The typemap directives provided by numpy.i for arrays of different data types, say double and int, and dimen-
sions of different types, say int or long, are identical to one another except for the C and NumPy type specifications.
The typemaps are therefore implemented (typically behind the scenes) via a macro:
%numpy_typemaps(DATA_TYPE, DATA_TYPECODE, DIM_TYPE)
1303
that can be invoked for appropriate (DATA_TYPE, DATA_TYPECODE, DIM_TYPE) triplets. For example:
%numpy_typemaps(double, NPY_DOUBLE, int)

%numpy_typemaps(int, NPY_INT , int)
The numpy.i interface file uses the %numpy_typemaps macro to implement typemaps for the following C data
types and int dimension types:
• signed char
• unsigned char
• short
• unsigned short
• int
• unsigned int
• long
• unsigned long
• long long
• unsigned long long
• float
• double
In the following descriptions, we reference a generic DATA_TYPE, which could be any of the C data types listed
above, and DIM_TYPE which should be one of the many types of integers.
The typemap signatures are largely differentiated on the name given to the buffer pointer. Names with FARRAY are
for Fortran-ordered arrays, and names with ARRAY are for C-ordered (or 1D arrays).
Input Arrays
Input arrays are defined as arrays of data that are passed into a routine but are not altered in-place or returned to
the user. The Python input array is therefore allowed to be almost any Python sequence (such as a list) that can be
converted to the requested type of array. The input array signatures are
1D:
• ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY1[ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
• ( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY1 )
2D:
• ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY2 )
• ( DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY2 )
3D:
• ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )

• ( DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )

• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY3 )
• ( DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY3 )
4D:
• (DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY])
• (DATA_TYPE* IN_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
• (DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, , DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
IN_ARRAY4)
• (DATA_TYPE* IN_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
• (DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
IN_FARRAY4)
The first signature listed, ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY[ANY] ) is for one-dimensional arrays with hard-coded di-
mensions. Likewise, ( DATA_TYPE IN_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] ) is for two-dimensional arrays with hard-coded
dimensions, and similarly for three-dimensional.
In-Place Arrays
In-place arrays are defined as arrays that are modified in-place. The input values may or may not be used, but the
values at the time the function returns are significant. The provided Python argument must therefore be a NumPy
array of the required type. The in-place signatures are
1D:
• ( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY1[ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
• ( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY1 )
2D:
• ( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY2 )
• ( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY2, int DIM1, int DIM2 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY2 )
3D:
• ( DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY3 )
• ( DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY3, int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3 )
• ( int DIM1, int DIM2, int DIM3, DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY3 )
4D:
1305
• (DATA_TYPE INPLACE_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY])
• (DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
• (DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, , DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
INPLACE_ARRAY4)
• (DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3,
DIM_TYPE DIM4)
• (DIM_TYPE DIM1, DIM_TYPE DIM2, DIM_TYPE DIM3, DIM_TYPE DIM4, DATA_TYPE*
INPLACE_FARRAY4)
These typemaps now check to make sure that the INPLACE_ARRAY arguments use native byte ordering. If not, an
exception is raised.
There is also a “flat” in-place array for situations in which you would like to modify or process each element, regardless
of the number of dimensions. One example is a “quantization” function that quantizes each element of an array in-
place, be it 1D, 2D or whatever. This form checks for continuity but allows either C or Fortran ordering.
ND:
• (DATA_TYPE* INPLACE_ARRAY_FLAT, DIM_TYPE DIM_FLAT)
Argout Arrays
Argout arrays are arrays that appear in the input arguments in C, but are in fact output arrays. This pattern occurs
often when there is more than one output variable and the single return argument is therefore not sufficient. In Python,
the conventional way to return multiple arguments is to pack them into a sequence (tuple, list, etc.) and return the
sequence. This is what the argout typemaps do. If a wrapped function that uses these argout typemaps has more than
one return argument, they are packed into a tuple or list, depending on the version of Python. The Python user does
not pass these arrays in, they simply get returned. For the case where a dimension is specified, the python user must
provide that dimension as an argument. The argout signatures are
1D:
• ( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY1[ANY] )
• ( DATA_TYPE* ARGOUT_ARRAY1, int DIM1 )
• ( int DIM1, DATA_TYPE* ARGOUT_ARRAY1 )
2D:
• ( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY2[ANY][ANY] )
3D:
• ( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY3[ANY][ANY][ANY] )
4D:
• ( DATA_TYPE ARGOUT_ARRAY4[ANY][ANY][ANY][ANY] )
These are typically used in situations where in C/C++, you would allocate a(n) array(s) on the heap, and call the
function to fill the array(s) values. In Python, the arrays are allocated for you and returned as new array objects.
Note that we support DATA_TYPE* argout typemaps in 1D, but not 2D or 3D. This is because of a quirk with the
SWIG typemap syntax and cannot be avoided. Note that for these types of 1D typemaps, the Python function will take
a single argument representing DIM1.

Argout View Arrays
Argoutview arrays are for when your C code provides you with a view of its internal data and does not require any
memory to be allocated by the user. This can be dangerous. There is almost no way to guarantee that the internal data
from the C code will remain in existence for the entire lifetime of the NumPy array that encapsulates it. If the user
destroys the object that provides the view of the data before destroying the NumPy array, then using that array may
result in bad memory references or segmentation faults. Nevertheless, there are situations, working with large data
sets, where you simply have no other choice.
The C code to be wrapped for argoutview arrays are characterized by pointers: pointers to the dimensions and double
pointers to the data, so that these values can be passed back to the user. The argoutview typemap signatures are
therefore
1D:
• ( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY1, DIM_TYPE* DIM1 )
• ( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY1 )
2D:
• ( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2 )
• ( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY2 )
• ( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2 )
• ( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY2 )
3D:
• ( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3)
• ( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY3)
• ( DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3)
• ( DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY3)
4D:
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4,
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_ARRAY4)
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEW_FARRAY4)
Note that arrays with hard-coded dimensions are not supported. These cannot follow the double pointer signatures of
these typemaps.
1307
Memory Managed Argout View Arrays
A recent addition to numpy.i are typemaps that permit argout arrays with views into memory that is managed. See
the discussion here.
1D:
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY1, DIM_TYPE* DIM1)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY1)
2D:
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY2)
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY2, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY2)
3D:
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DIM3)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY3)
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY3, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3)
• (DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DATA_TYPE**
ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY3)
4D:
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2, DIM_TYPE*
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_ARRAY4)
• (DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY4, DIM_TYPE* DIM1, DIM_TYPE* DIM2,
DIM_TYPE* DIM3, DIM_TYPE* DIM4)
DATA_TYPE** ARGOUTVIEWM_FARRAY4)
Output Arrays
The numpy.i interface file does not support typemaps for output arrays, for several reasons. First, C/C++ return
arguments are limited to a single value. This prevents obtaining dimension information in a general way. Second,
arrays with hard-coded lengths are not permitted as return arguments. In other words:
double[3] newVector(double x, double y, double z);
is not legal C/C++ syntax. Therefore, we cannot provide typemaps of the form:
%typemap(out) (TYPE[ANY]);

If you run into a situation where a function or method is returning a pointer to an array, your best bet is to write your
own version of the function to be wrapped, either with %extend for the case of class methods or %ignore and
%rename for the case of functions.
Other Common Types: bool
Note that C++ type bool is not supported in the list in the Available Typemaps section. NumPy bools are a single
byte, while the C++ bool is four bytes (at least on my system). Therefore:
%numpy_typemaps(bool, NPY_BOOL, int)
will result in typemaps that will produce code that reference improper data lengths. You can implement the following
macro expansion:
%numpy_typemaps(bool, NPY_UINT, int)
to fix the data length problem, and Input Arrays will work fine, but In-Place Arrays might fail type-checking.
Other Common Types: complex
Typemap conversions for complex floating-point types is also not supported automatically. This is because Python and
NumPy are written in C, which does not have native complex types. Both Python and NumPy implement their own
(essentially equivalent) struct definitions for complex variables:
/* Python */
typedef struct {double real; double imag;} Py_complex;
/* NumPy */
typedef struct {float real, imag;} npy_cfloat;
typedef struct {double real, imag;} npy_cdouble;
We could have implemented:
%numpy_typemaps(Py_complex , NPY_CDOUBLE, int)

%numpy_typemaps(npy_cfloat , NPY_CFLOAT , int)
%numpy_typemaps(npy_cdouble, NPY_CDOUBLE, int)
which would have provided automatic type conversions for arrays of type Py_complex, npy_cfloat and
npy_cdouble. However, it seemed unlikely that there would be any independent (non-Python, non-NumPy) ap-
plication code that people would be using SWIG to generate a Python interface to, that also used these definitions
for complex types. More likely, these application codes will define their own complex types, or in the case of
C++, use std::complex. Assuming these data structures are compatible with Python and NumPy complex types,
%numpy_typemap expansions as above (with the user’s complex type substituted for the first argument) should
work.
7.0.4 NumPy Array Scalars and SWIG
SWIG has sophisticated type checking for numerical types. For example, if your C/C++ routine expects an integer
as input, the code generated by SWIG will check for both Python integers and Python long integers, and raise an
overflow error if the provided Python integer is too big to cast down to a C integer. With the introduction of NumPy
scalar arrays into your Python code, you might conceivably extract an integer from a NumPy array and attempt to
pass this to a SWIG-wrapped C/C++ function that expects an int, but the SWIG type checking will not recognize
the NumPy array scalar as an integer. (Often, this does in fact work – it depends on whether NumPy recognizes the
1309
integer type you are using as inheriting from the Python integer type on the platform you are using. Sometimes, this
means that code that works on a 32-bit machine will fail on a 64-bit machine.)
If you get a Python error that looks like the following:
TypeError: in method 'MyClass_MyMethod', argument 2 of type 'int'
and the argument you are passing is an integer extracted from a NumPy array, then you have stumbled upon this
problem. The solution is to modify the SWIG type conversion system to accept NumPy array scalars in addition to the
standard integer types. Fortunately, this capability has been provided for you. Simply copy the file:
pyfragments.swg
to the working build directory for you project, and this problem will be fixed. It is suggested that you do this anyway,
as it only increases the capabilities of your Python interface.
Why is There a Second File?
The SWIG type checking and conversion system is a complicated combination of C macros, SWIG macros, SWIG
typemaps and SWIG fragments. Fragments are a way to conditionally insert code into your wrapper file if it is needed,
and not insert it if not needed. If multiple typemaps require the same fragment, the fragment only gets inserted into
your wrapper code once.
There is a fragment for converting a Python integer to a C long. There is a different fragment that converts a Python
integer to a C int, that calls the routine defined in the long fragment. We can make the changes we want here by
changing the definition for the long fragment. SWIG determines the active definition for a fragment using a “first
come, first served” system. That is, we need to define the fragment for long conversions prior to SWIG doing it
internally. SWIG allows us to do this by putting our fragment definitions in the file pyfragments.swg. If we were
to put the new fragment definitions in numpy.i, they would be ignored.
7.0.5 Helper Functions
The numpy.i file contains several macros and routines that it uses internally to build its typemaps. However, these
functions may be useful elsewhere in your interface file. These macros and routines are implemented as fragments,
which are described briefly in the previous section. If you try to use one or more of the following macros or functions,
but your compiler complains that it does not recognize the symbol, then you need to force these fragments to appear
in your code using:
%fragment("NumPy_Fragments");
in your SWIG interface file.
Macros
is_array(a) Evaluates as true if a is non-NULL and can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.

array_type(a) Evaluates to the integer data type code of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_numdims(a) Evaluates to the integer number of dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_dimensions(a) Evaluates to an array of type npy_intp and length array_numdims(a), giv-
ing the lengths of all of the dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.

array_size(a,i) Evaluates to the i-th dimension size of a, assuming a can be cast to a

PyArrayObject*.
array_strides(a) Evaluates to an array of type npy_intp and length array_numdims(a), giving
the stridess of all of the dimensions of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*. A stride
is the distance in bytes between an element and its immediate neighbor along the same axis.
array_stride(a,i) Evaluates to the i-th stride of a, assuming a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_data(a) Evaluates to a pointer of type void* that points to the data buffer of a, assuming a can
be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_descr(a) Returns a borrowed reference to the dtype property (PyArray_Descr*) of a, assum-
ing a can be cast to a PyArrayObject*.
array_flags(a) Returns an integer representing the flags of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_enableflags(a,f) Sets the flag represented by f of a, assuming a can be cast to a
PyArrayObject*.
array_is_contiguous(a) Evaluates as true if a is a contiguous array. Equivalent to
(PyArray_ISCONTIGUOUS(a)).
array_is_native(a) Evaluates as true if the data buffer of a uses native byte order. Equivalent to
(PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED(a)).
array_is_fortran(a) Evaluates as true if a is FORTRAN ordered.
Routines
pytype_string()
Return type: const char*
Arguments:
• PyObject* py_obj, a general Python object.
Return a string describing the type of py_obj.
typecode_string()
Return type: const char*
Arguments:
• int typecode, a NumPy integer typecode.
Return a string describing the type corresponding to the NumPy typecode.
type_match()
Return type: int
Arguments:
• int actual_type, the NumPy typecode of a NumPy array.
• int desired_type, the desired NumPy typecode.
Make sure that actual_type is compatible with desired_type. For example, this al-
lows character and byte types, or int and long types, to match. This is now equivalent to
PyArray_EquivTypenums().
obj_to_array_no_conversion()
1311
Return type: PyArrayObject*

Arguments:
• PyObject* input, a general Python object.
• int typecode, the desired NumPy typecode.
Cast input to a PyArrayObject* if legal, and ensure that it is of type typecode. If
input cannot be cast, or the typecode is wrong, set a Python error and return NULL.
obj_to_array_allow_conversion()
Arguments:
• int typecode, the desired NumPy typecode of the resulting array.
• int* is_new_object, returns a value of 0 if no conversion performed, else 1.
Convert input to a NumPy array with the given typecode. On success, return a valid
PyArrayObject* with the correct type. On failure, the Python error string will be set and
the routine returns NULL.
make_contiguous()
Arguments:
• PyArrayObject* ary, a NumPy array.
• int min_dims, minimum allowable dimensions.
• int max_dims, maximum allowable dimensions.
Check to see if ary is contiguous. If so, return the input pointer and flag it as not a new object.
If it is not contiguous, create a new PyArrayObject* using the original data, flag it as a
new object and return the pointer.
make_fortran()
Arguments
Check to see if ary is Fortran contiguous. If so, return the input pointer and flag it as not a
new object. If it is not Fortran contiguous, create a new PyArrayObject* using the original
data, flag it as a new object and return the pointer.
obj_to_array_contiguous_allow_conversion()
Arguments:


Convert input to a contiguous PyArrayObject* of the specified type. If the input object
is not a contiguous PyArrayObject*, a new one will be created and the new object flag
will be set.
obj_to_array_fortran_allow_conversion()
Arguments:
Convert input to a Fortran contiguous PyArrayObject* of the specified type. If the input
object is not a Fortran contiguous PyArrayObject*, a new one will be created and the new
object flag will be set.
require_contiguous()
Return type: int
Arguments:
Test whether ary is contiguous. If so, return 1. Otherwise, set a Python error and return 0.
require_native()
Return type: int
Arguments:
• PyArray_Object* ary, a NumPy array.
Require that ary is not byte-swapped. If the array is not byte-swapped, return 1. Otherwise,
set a Python error and return 0.
require_dimensions()
Return type: int
Arguments:
• int exact_dimensions, the desired number of dimensions.
Require ary to have a specified number of dimensions. If the array has the specified number
of dimensions, return 1. Otherwise, set a Python error and return 0.
require_dimensions_n()
Return type: int
Arguments:
• int* exact_dimensions, an array of integers representing acceptable numbers of
dimensions.
• int n, the length of exact_dimensions.
1313
Require ary to have one of a list of specified number of dimensions. If the array has one of
the specified number of dimensions, return 1. Otherwise, set the Python error string and return
0.
require_size()
Return type: int
Arguments:
• npy_int* size, an array representing the desired lengths of each dimension.
• int n, the length of size.
Require ary to have a specified shape. If the array has the specified shape, return 1. Otherwise,
set the Python error string and return 0.
require_fortran()
Return type: int
Arguments:
Require the given PyArrayObject to to be Fortran ordered. If the PyArrayObject is
already Fortran ordered, do nothing. Else, set the Fortran ordering flag and recompute the
strides.
7.0.6 Beyond the Provided Typemaps
There are many C or C++ array/NumPy array situations not covered by a simple %include "numpy.i" and
subsequent %apply directives.
A Common Example
Consider a reasonable prototype for a dot product function:

double dot(int len, double* vec1, double* vec2);
The Python interface that we want is:

def dot(vec1, vec2):
"""
dot(PyObject,PyObject) -> double
"""
The problem here is that there is one dimension argument and two array arguments, and our typemaps are set up for
dimensions that apply to a single array (in fact, SWIG does not provide a mechanism for associating len with vec2
that takes two Python input arguments). The recommended solution is the following:
%apply (int DIM1, double* IN_ARRAY1) {(int len1, double* vec1),
(int len2, double* vec2)}
%rename (dot) my_dot;
%exception my_dot {
$action
if (PyErr_Occurred()) SWIG_fail;
}

%inline %{
double my_dot(int len1, double* vec1, int len2, double* vec2) {
if (len1 != len2) {
PyErr_Format(PyExc_ValueError,
"Arrays of lengths (%d,%d) given",
len1, len2);
return 0.0;
}
return dot(len1, vec1, vec2);
}
%}
If the header file that contains the prototype for double dot() also contains other prototypes that you want to
wrap, so that you need to %include this header file, then you will also need a %ignore dot; directive, placed
after the %rename and before the %include directives. Or, if the function in question is a class method, you will
want to use %extend rather than %inline in addition to %ignore.
A note on error handling: Note that my_dot returns a double but that it can also raise a Python error. The resulting
wrapper function will return a Python float representation of 0.0 when the vector lengths do not match. Since this is
not NULL, the Python interpreter will not know to check for an error. For this reason, we add the %exception
directive above for my_dot to get the behavior we want (note that $action is a macro that gets expanded to a valid
call to my_dot). In general, you will probably want to write a SWIG macro to perform this task.
Other Situations
There are other wrapping situations in which numpy.i may be helpful when you encounter them.
• In some situations, it is possible that you could use the %numpy_typemaps macro to implement typemaps for
your own types. See the Other Common Types: bool or Other Common Types: complex sections for examples.
Another situation is if your dimensions are of a type other than int (say long for example):
%numpy_typemaps(double, NPY_DOUBLE, long)
• You can use the code in numpy.i to write your own typemaps. For example, if you had a five-dimensional
array as a function argument, you could cut-and-paste the appropriate four-dimensional typemaps into your
interface file. The modifications for the fourth dimension would be trivial.
• Sometimes, the best approach is to use the %extend directive to define new methods for your classes (or
overload existing ones) that take a PyObject* (that either is or can be converted to a PyArrayObject*)
instead of a pointer to a buffer. In this case, the helper routines in numpy.i can be very useful.
• Writing typemaps can be a bit nonintuitive. If you have specific questions about writing SWIG typemaps for
NumPy, the developers of numpy.i do monitor the Numpy-discussion and Swig-user mail lists.
A Final Note
When you use the %apply directive, as is usually necessary to use numpy.i, it will remain in effect until you tell
SWIG that it shouldn’t be. If the arguments to the functions or methods that you are wrapping have common names,
such as length or vector, these typemaps may get applied in situations you do not expect or want. Therefore, it is
always a good idea to add a %clear directive after you are done with a specific typemap:
%apply (double* IN_ARRAY1, int DIM1) {(double* vector, int length)}

%include "my_header.h"
%clear (double* vector, int length);
1315
In general, you should target these typemap signatures specifically where you want them, and then clear them after
you are done.
7.0.7 Summary
Out of the box, numpy.i provides typemaps that support conversion between NumPy arrays and C arrays:
• That can be one of 12 different scalar types: signed char, unsigned char, short, unsigned
short, int, unsigned int, long, unsigned long, long long, unsigned long long,
float and double.
• That support 74 different argument signatures for each data type, including:
– One-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional and four-dimensional arrays.
– Input-only, in-place, argout, argoutview, and memory managed argoutview behavior.
– Hard-coded dimensions, data-buffer-then-dimensions specification, and dimensions-then-data-buffer spec-
ification.
– Both C-ordering (“last dimension fastest”) or Fortran-ordering (“first dimension fastest”) support for 2D,
3D and 4D arrays.
The numpy.i interface file also provides additional tools for wrapper developers, including:
• A SWIG macro (%numpy_typemaps) with three arguments for implementing the 74 argument signatures for
the user’s choice of (1) C data type, (2) NumPy data type (assuming they match), and (3) dimension type.
• Fourteen C macros and fifteen C functions that can be used to write specialized typemaps, extensions, or inlined
functions that handle cases not covered by the provided typemaps. Note that the macros and functions are coded
specifically to work with the NumPy C/API regardless of NumPy version number, both before and after the
deprecation of some aspects of the API after version 1.6.
7.1 Testing the numpy.i Typemaps
7.1.1 Introduction
Writing tests for the numpy.i SWIG interface file is a combinatorial headache. At present, 12 different data types
are supported, each with 74 different argument signatures, for a total of 888 typemaps supported “out of the box”.
Each of these typemaps, in turn, might require several unit tests in order to verify expected behavior for both proper
and improper inputs. Currently, this results in more than 1,000 individual unit tests executed when make test is
run in the numpy/tools/swig subdirectory.
To facilitate this many similar unit tests, some high-level programming techniques are employed, including C and
SWIG macros, as well as Python inheritance. The purpose of this document is to describe the testing infrastructure
employed to verify that the numpy.i typemaps are working as expected.
7.1.2 Testing Organization
There are three indepedent testing frameworks supported, for one-, two-, and three-dimensional arrays respectively.
For one-dimensional arrays, there are two C++ files, a header and a source, named:
Vector.h
Vector.cxx

that contain prototypes and code for a variety of functions that have one-dimensional arrays as function arguments.
The file:
Vector.i
is a SWIG interface file that defines a python module Vector that wraps the functions in Vector.h while utilizing
the typemaps in numpy.i to correctly handle the C arrays.
The Makefile calls swig to generate Vector.py and Vector_wrap.cxx, and also executes the setup.py
script that compiles Vector_wrap.cxx and links together the extension module _Vector.so or _Vector.
dylib, depending on the platform. This extension module and the proxy file Vector.py are both placed in a
subdirectory under the build directory.
The actual testing takes place with a Python script named:
testVector.py
that uses the standard Python library module unittest, which performs several tests of each function defined in
Vector.h for each data type supported.
Two-dimensional arrays are tested in exactly the same manner. The above description applies, but with Matrix
substituted for Vector. For three-dimensional tests, substitute Tensor for Vector. For four-dimensional tests,
substitute SuperTensor for Vector. For flat in-place array tests, substitute Flat for Vector. For the descrip-
tions that follow, we will reference the Vector tests, but the same information applies to Matrix, Tensor and
SuperTensor tests.
The command make test will ensure that all of the test software is built and then run all three test scripts.
7.1.3 Testing Header Files
Vector.h is a C++ header file that defines a C macro called TEST_FUNC_PROTOS that takes two arguments:
TYPE, which is a data type name such as unsigned int; and SNAME, which is a short name for the same data type
with no spaces, e.g. uint. This macro defines several function prototypes that have the prefix SNAME and have at
least one argument that is an array of type TYPE. Those functions that have return arguments return a TYPE value.
TEST_FUNC_PROTOS is then implemented for all of the data types supported by numpy.i:
• signed char
• unsigned char
• short
• unsigned short
• int
• unsigned int
• long
• unsigned long
• long long
• unsigned long long
• float
• double
7.1. Testing the numpy.i Typemaps 1317

7.1.4 Testing Source Files
Vector.cxx is a C++ source file that implements compilable code for each of the function prototypes specified
in Vector.h. It defines a C macro TEST_FUNCS that has the same arguments and works in the same way as
TEST_FUNC_PROTOS does in Vector.h. TEST_FUNCS is implemented for each of the 12 data types as above.
7.1.5 Testing SWIG Interface Files
Vector.i is a SWIG interface file that defines python module Vector. It follows the conventions for using
numpy.i as described in this chapter. It defines a SWIG macro %apply_numpy_typemaps that has a single
argument TYPE. It uses the SWIG directive %apply to apply the provided typemaps to the argument signatures
found in Vector.h. This macro is then implemented for all of the data types supported by numpy.i. It then does
a %include "Vector.h" to wrap all of the function prototypes in Vector.h using the typemaps in numpy.i.
7.1.6 Testing Python Scripts
After make is used to build the testing extension modules, testVector.py can be run to execute the tests. As
with other scripts that use unittest to facilitate unit testing, testVector.py defines a class that inherits from
unittest.TestCase:
class VectorTestCase(unittest.TestCase):
However, this class is not run directly. Rather, it serves as a base class to several other python classes, each one specific
to a particular data type. The VectorTestCase class stores two strings for typing information:
self.typeStr A string that matches one of the SNAME prefixes used in Vector.h and Vector.cxx.
For example, "double".
self.typeCode A short (typically single-character) string that represents a data type in numpy and cor-
responds to self.typeStr. For example, if self.typeStr is "double", then self.
typeCode should be "d".
Each test defined by the VectorTestCase class extracts the python function it is trying to test by accessing the
Vector module’s dictionary:
length = Vector.__dict__[self.typeStr + "Length"]
In the case of double precision tests, this will return the python function Vector.doubleLength.
We then define a new test case class for each supported data type with a short definition such as:
class doubleTestCase(VectorTestCase):
def __init__(self, methodName="runTest"):
VectorTestCase.__init__(self, methodName)
self.typeStr = "double"
self.typeCode = "d"
Each of these 12 classes is collected into a unittest.TestSuite, which is then executed. Errors and failures are
summed together and returned as the exit argument. Any non-zero result indicates that at least one test did not pass.

CHAPTER
EIGHT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Large parts of this manual originate from Travis E. Oliphant’s book Guide to NumPy (which generously entered Public
Domain in August 2008). The reference documentation for many of the functions are written by numerous contributors
and developers of NumPy, both prior to and during the NumPy Documentation Marathon.
Please help to improve NumPy’s documentation! Instructions on how to join the ongoing documentation marathon
can be found on the scipy.org website
1319
1320 Chapter 8. Acknowledgements

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htm
[R429430] David McKay, “Information Theory, Inference and Learning Algorithms,” chapter 23, http://www.
inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/
[R430430] Wikipedia, “Dirichlet distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirichlet_distribution
[R433435] Peyton Z. Peebles Jr., “Probability, Random Variables and Random Signal Principles”, 4th ed, 2001, p.
57.
[R434435] Wikipedia, “Poisson process”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_process
[R435435] Wikipedia, “Exponential distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_distribution
[R440440] Wikipedia, “F-distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-distribution
[R443444] Weisstein, Eric W. “Gamma Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.
wolfram.com/GammaDistribution.html
[R444444] Wikipedia, “Gamma distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_distribution
[R447448] Gumbel, E. J., “Statistics of Extremes,” New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.
[R448448] Reiss, R.-D. and Thomas, M., “Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values from Insurance, Finance, Hydrology
and Other Fields,” Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001.
[R452453] Weisstein, Eric W. “Hypergeometric Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http:
//mathworld.wolfram.com/HypergeometricDistribution.html
[R453453] Wikipedia, “Hypergeometric distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypergeometric_distribution
[R457460] Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). “Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs,
and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing,” New York: Dover, 1972.
[R458460] Kotz, Samuel, et. al. “The Laplace Distribution and Generalizations, ” Birkhauser, 2001.
[R459460] Weisstein, Eric W. “Laplace Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.
wolfram.com/LaplaceDistribution.html
[R460460] Wikipedia, “Laplace distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace_distribution
[R465467] Reiss, R.-D. and Thomas M. (2001), “Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values, from Insurance, Finance,
Hydrology and Other Fields,” Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, pp 132-133.
[R466467] Weisstein, Eric W. “Logistic Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http://
mathworld.wolfram.com/LogisticDistribution.html
[R467467] Wikipedia, “Logistic-distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_distribution
[R471472] Limpert, E., Stahel, W. A., and Abbt, M., “Log-normal Distributions across the Sciences: Keys and Clues,”
BioScience, Vol. 51, No. 5, May, 2001. http://stat.ethz.ch/~stahel/lognormal/bioscience.pdf
1324 Bibliography
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[R476478] Fisher, R.A„ A.S. Corbet, and C.B. Williams. 1943. The relation between the number of species and the
number of individuals in a random sample of an animal population. Journal of Animal Ecology, 12:42-58.
[R477478] D. J. Hand, F. Daly, D. Lunn, E. Ostrowski, A Handbook of Small Data Sets, CRC Press, 1994.
[R478478] Wikipedia, “Logarithmic distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_distribution
[R483484] Papoulis, A., “Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes,” 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1991.
[R484484] Duda, R. O., Hart, P. E., and Stork, D. G., “Pattern Classification,” 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2001.
[R487488] Weisstein, Eric W. “Negative Binomial Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http:
//mathworld.wolfram.com/NegativeBinomialDistribution.html
[R488488] Wikipedia, “Negative binomial distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_binomial_distribution
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ness”, Metrika, Volume 15, Number 1 / December, 1970.
[R492492] Wikipedia, “Noncentral chi-square distribution” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_chi-square_
distribution
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[R496496] Wikipedia, “Noncentral F-distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_F-distribution
[R499500] Wikipedia, “Normal distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution
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[R330330] Reiss, R.D. and Thomas, M., “Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values,” Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2001,
pp. 31-32.
[R333336] Buzas, Martin A.; Culver, Stephen J., Understanding regional species diversity through the log series dis-
tribution of occurrences: BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH Diversity & Distributions, Volume 5, Number 5, Septem-
ber 1999 , pp. 187-195(9).
[R334336] Fisher, R.A„ A.S. Corbet, and C.B. Williams. 1943. The relation between the number of species and the
number of individuals in a random sample of an animal population. Journal of Animal Ecology, 12:42-58.
[R335336] D. J. Hand, F. Daly, D. Lunn, E. Ostrowski, A Handbook of Small Data Sets, CRC Press, 1994.
[R336336] Wikipedia, “Logarithmic distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithmic_distribution
[R341342] Papoulis, A., “Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes,” 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1991.
[R342342] Duda, R. O., Hart, P. E., and Stork, D. G., “Pattern Classification,” 2nd ed., New York: Wiley, 2001.
[R345346] Weisstein, Eric W. “Negative Binomial Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http:
//mathworld.wolfram.com/NegativeBinomialDistribution.html
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[R353354] Weisstein, Eric W. “Noncentral F-Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http:
//mathworld.wolfram.com/NoncentralF-Distribution.html
[R354354] Wikipedia, “Noncentral F-distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noncentral_F-distribution
[R357358] Wikipedia, “Normal distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution
[R358358] P. R. Peebles Jr., “Central Limit Theorem” in “Probability, Random Variables and Random Signal Princi-
ples”, 4th ed., 2001, pp. 51, 51, 125.
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[R362364] Pareto, V. (1896). Course of Political Economy. Lausanne.
[R363364] Reiss, R.D., Thomas, M.(2001), Statistical Analysis of Extreme Values, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, pp
23-30.
[R364364] Wikipedia, “Pareto distribution”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_distribution
[R369370] Weisstein, Eric W. “Poisson Distribution.” From MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.
wolfram.com/PoissonDistribution.html
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PYTHON MODULE INDEX
n
numpy, 1
numpy.distutils, 1185
numpy.distutils.exec_command, 1195
numpy.distutils.misc_util, 1185
numpy.doc.internals, 1298
numpy.dual, 532
numpy.fft, 538
numpy.lib.scimath, 533
numpy.polynomial.polyutils, 972
1331
1332 Python Module Index

INDEX
Symbols __call__() (numpy.vectorize method), 576

__abs__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 255 __contains__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 260
__abs__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 __contains__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46
__add__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 __copy__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
__add__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255 __copy__() (numpy.ndarray method), 45
__and__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 __deepcopy__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
__and__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 __deepcopy__() (numpy.ndarray method), 45
__array__() (numpy.class method), 99 __delitem__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 260
__array__() (numpy.generic method), 62 __div__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255
__array__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259 __divmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256
__array__() (numpy.ndarray method), 46 __divmod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__array_finalize__() (numpy.class method), 98 __eq__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42
__array_interface__ (built-in variable), 348 __eq__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 254
__array_interface__ (numpy.generic attribute), 52 __float__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46
__array_prepare__() (numpy.class method), 98 __float__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 227
__array_priority__ (numpy.class attribute), 98 __floordiv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__array_priority__ (numpy.generic attribute), 52 __floordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256
__array_priority__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), __ge__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 254
226 __ge__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42
__array_struct__ (C variable), 350 __getitem__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46
__array_struct__ (numpy.generic attribute), 52 __getitem__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 260
__array_ufunc__() (numpy.class method), 96 __getstate__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
__array_wrap__() (numpy.class method), 98 __gt__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 254
__array_wrap__() (numpy.generic method), 52 __gt__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42
__array_wrap__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), __iadd__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
259 __iadd__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257
__array_wrap__() (numpy.ndarray method), 46 __iand__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
__call__() (numpy.poly1d method), 979 __iand__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev __idiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257
method), 841 __ifloordiv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), __ifloordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257
920 __ilshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE __ilshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
method), 947 __imod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre __imod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
method), 894 __imul__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre __imul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257
method), 868 __int__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46
__call__() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial __int__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 227
method), 816 __invert__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__call__() (numpy.testing.suppress_warnings method), __ior__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257
1175 __ior__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 45
1333
__ipow__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44 __rxor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256

__ipow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257 __setitem__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46
__irshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257 __setitem__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 260
__irshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44 __setmask__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 260
__isub__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44 __setstate__() (numpy.dtype method), 76
__isub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257 __setstate__() (numpy.generic method), 62
__itruediv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 44 __setstate__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259
__itruediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 257 __setstate__() (numpy.ndarray method), 45
__ixor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 257 __str__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 47
__ixor__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 45 __str__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 258
__le__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 254 __sub__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__le__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42 __sub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255
__len__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 260 __truediv__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__len__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 46 __truediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256
__long__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 227 __xor__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256
__lshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 __xor__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__lshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43
__lt__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 254 A
__lt__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42 A (numpy.matrix attribute), 100
__matmul__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 45 absolute (in module numpy), 785
__mod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 abspath() (numpy.DataSource method), 639
__mod__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 accumulate
__mul__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 ufunc methods, 1297
__mul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255 accumulate() (numpy.ufunc method), 374
__ne__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42 add (in module numpy), 764
__ne__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 254 add() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 470
__neg__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42 add_data_dir() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__new__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray static method), 259 method), 1189
__new__() (numpy.ndarray method), 46 add_data_files() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__or__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 method), 1187
__or__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 add_extension() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__pos__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 42 method), 1190
__pow__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 add_headers() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__pow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256 method), 1190
__radd__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255 add_include_dirs() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__rand__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 method), 1189
__rdivmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 add_installed_library() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__reduce__() (numpy.dtype method), 76 method), 1191
__reduce__() (numpy.generic method), 62 add_library() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__reduce__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 259 method), 1191
__reduce__() (numpy.ndarray method), 45 add_npy_pkg_config() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__repr__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 47 method), 1192
__repr__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 258 add_scripts() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__rfloordiv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256 method), 1191
__rlshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 add_subpackage() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
__rmod__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 method), 1187
__rmul__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255 aligned, 37
__ror__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 alignment (numpy.dtype attribute), 76
__rpow__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256 all (in module numpy.ma), 271
__rrshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 all() (in module numpy), 684
__rshift__ (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 256 all() (numpy.generic method), 54
__rshift__ (numpy.ndarray attribute), 43 all() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 247
__rsub__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 255 all() (numpy.matrix method), 104
__rtruediv__() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 256 all() (numpy.ndarray method), 16
1334 Index
all() (numpy.recarray method), 165 argpartition() (numpy.ndarray method), 16

all() (numpy.record method), 187 argpartition() (numpy.recarray method), 165
all_strings() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186 argsort() (in module numpy), 1112
allclose() (in module numpy), 699 argsort() (in module numpy.ma), 325
allclose() (in module numpy.ma), 341 argsort() (numpy.chararray method), 143
allequal() (in module numpy.ma), 341 argsort() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
allpath() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186 493
amax() (in module numpy), 1125 argsort() (numpy.generic method), 55
amin() (in module numpy), 1124 argsort() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 238
angle() (in module numpy), 778 argsort() (numpy.matrix method), 106
anom (in module numpy.ma), 313 argsort() (numpy.ndarray method), 16
anom() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 247 argsort() (numpy.recarray method), 165
anomalies (in module numpy.ma), 314 argsort() (numpy.record method), 187
any (in module numpy.ma), 272 argwhere() (in module numpy), 1120
any() (in module numpy), 685 arithmetic, 42, 254
any() (numpy.generic method), 54 around (in module numpy.ma), 339
any() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 247 around() (in module numpy), 726
any() (numpy.matrix method), 105 array
any() (numpy.ndarray method), 16 C-API, 1219
any() (numpy.recarray method), 165 interface, 347
any() (numpy.record method), 187 protocol, 347
append() (in module numpy), 452 array iterator, 195, 1292
append() (in module numpy.ma), 294 array scalars, 1293
appendpath() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186 array() (in module numpy), 392
apply_along_axis() (in module numpy), 571 array() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 159
apply_along_axis() (in module numpy.ma), 342 array() (in module numpy.core.records), 403
apply_over_axes() (in module numpy), 573 array() (in module numpy.ma), 200
arange (in module numpy.ma), 344 array2string() (in module numpy), 627
arange() (in module numpy), 406 array_equal() (in module numpy), 701
arccos (in module numpy), 711 array_equiv() (in module numpy), 702
arccosh (in module numpy), 724 array_repr() (in module numpy), 629
arcsin (in module numpy), 710 array_split() (in module numpy), 445
arcsinh (in module numpy), 723 array_str() (in module numpy), 630
arctan (in module numpy), 712 Arrayterator (class in numpy.lib), 614
arctan2 (in module numpy), 715 as_array() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 509
arctanh (in module numpy), 725 as_ctypes() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 509
argmax (in module numpy.ma), 323 as_series() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils), 973
argmax() (in module numpy), 1117 as_strided() (in module numpy.lib.stride_tricks), 602
argmax() (numpy.generic method), 54 asanyarray() (in module numpy), 395
argmax() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 237 asanyarray() (in module numpy.ma), 203
argmax() (numpy.matrix method), 105 asarray() (in module numpy), 394
argmax() (numpy.ndarray method), 16 asarray() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 405
argmax() (numpy.recarray method), 165 asarray() (in module numpy.ma), 202
argmax() (numpy.record method), 187 asarray_chkfinite() (in module numpy), 433
argmin (in module numpy.ma), 323 ascontiguousarray() (in module numpy), 396
argmin() (in module numpy), 1118 asfarray() (in module numpy), 432
argmin() (numpy.generic method), 54 asfortranarray() (in module numpy), 432
argmin() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 237 asmatrix() (in module numpy), 132
argmin() (numpy.matrix method), 106 asscalar() (in module numpy), 434
argmin() (numpy.ndarray method), 16 assert_allclose() (in module numpy.testing), 1164
argmin() (numpy.recarray method), 165 assert_almost_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1160
argmin() (numpy.record method), 187 assert_approx_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1161
argpartition() (in module numpy), 1115 assert_array_almost_equal() (in module numpy.testing),
argpartition() (numpy.matrix method), 106 1162
Index 1335
assert_array_almost_equal_nulp() (in module binary_repr() (in module numpy), 468

numpy.testing), 1164 bincount() (in module numpy), 1157
assert_array_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1166 binomial() (in module numpy.random), 1001
assert_array_less() (in module numpy.testing), 1167 binomial() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1049
assert_array_max_ulp() (in module numpy.testing), 1165 bitwise_and (in module numpy), 461
assert_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1168 bitwise_or (in module numpy), 462
assert_raises() (in module numpy.testing), 1168 bitwise_xor (in module numpy), 463
assert_raises_regex() (in module numpy.testing), 1169 blackman() (in module numpy), 1177
assert_string_equal() (in module numpy.testing), 1169 block() (in module numpy), 441
assert_warns() (in module numpy.testing), 1169 blue_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
astype() (numpy.chararray method), 142 bmat() (in module numpy), 132
astype() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), broadcast (class in numpy), 197
491 broadcast_arrays() (in module numpy), 429
astype() (numpy.generic method), 55 broadcast_to() (in module numpy), 429
astype() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 228 broadcastable, 361
astype() (numpy.matrix method), 106 broadcasting, 361, 1292
astype() (numpy.ndarray method), 16 buffers, 362
astype() (numpy.recarray method), 165 busday_count() (in module numpy), 516
astype() (numpy.record method), 188 busday_offset() (in module numpy), 515
at() (numpy.ufunc method), 378 busdaycalendar (class in numpy), 513
atleast_1d (in module numpy.ma), 284 byteorder (numpy.dtype attribute), 75
atleast_1d() (in module numpy), 427 bytes() (in module numpy.random), 998
atleast_2d (in module numpy.ma), 285 bytes() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1050
atleast_2d() (in module numpy), 427 byteswap() (numpy.generic method), 55
atleast_3d (in module numpy.ma), 285 byteswap() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 229
atleast_3d() (in module numpy), 428 byteswap() (numpy.matrix method), 108
attributes byteswap() (numpy.ndarray method), 18
ufunc, 368 byteswap() (numpy.recarray method), 167
average() (in module numpy), 1135 byteswap() (numpy.record method), 188
average() (in module numpy.ma), 314
axis, 40 C
C-API
B array, 1219
bartlett() (in module numpy), 1176 iterator, 1259, 1276
base, 3 ndarray, 1219, 1259
base (numpy.generic attribute), 51 ufunc, 1277, 1281
base (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 219 C-order, 37
base (numpy.ndarray attribute), 14 c_ (in module numpy), 582
base_repr() (in module numpy), 637 can_cast() (in module numpy), 518
baseclass (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 219 capitalize() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 471
basis() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev cast() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
method), 841 method), 842
basis() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), cast() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), 921
920 cast() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
basis() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), 947
947 cast() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
basis() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), 894
894 cast() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
basis() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), 868
868 cast() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
basis() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial method), 816
method), 816 casting rules
beta() (in module numpy.random), 1001 ufunc, 365
beta() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1048 cbrt (in module numpy), 784
1336 Index
ceil (in module numpy), 729 chisquare() (in module numpy.random), 1002
center() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 472 chisquare() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1050
char (numpy.dtype attribute), 74 choice() (in module numpy.random), 997
character arrays, 137 choice() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1051
chararray (class in numpy), 138 cholesky() (in module numpy.linalg), 658
chararray (class in numpy.core.defchararray), 487 choose() (in module numpy), 597
cheb2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), choose() (in module numpy.ma), 345
865 choose() (numpy.generic method), 55
chebadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 860 choose() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 239
chebcompanion() (in module choose() (numpy.matrix method), 108
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 864 choose() (numpy.ndarray method), 18
chebder() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 857 choose() (numpy.recarray method), 167
chebdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 862 choose() (numpy.record method), 188
chebdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), clip() (in module numpy), 782
864 clip() (in module numpy.ma), 339
chebfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 853 clip() (numpy.generic method), 55
chebfromroots() (in module clip() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 248
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 852 clip() (numpy.matrix method), 108
chebgauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), clip() (numpy.ndarray method), 18
863 clip() (numpy.recarray method), 167
chebgrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), clip() (numpy.record method), 188
850 clump_masked() (in module numpy.ma), 301
chebgrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), clump_unmasked() (in module numpy.ma), 301
851 code generation, 1197
chebint() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 858 column-major, 37
chebline() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 865 column_stack (in module numpy.ma), 287
chebmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), column_stack() (in module numpy), 438
861 common_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 310
chebmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), common_type() (in module numpy), 522
861 comparison, 42, 254
chebone (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 864 compress() (in module numpy), 599
chebpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), compress() (numpy.generic method), 55
862 compress() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 239
chebroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), compress() (numpy.matrix method), 108
852 compress() (numpy.ndarray method), 18
chebsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 860 compress() (numpy.recarray method), 167
chebtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), compress() (numpy.record method), 188
864 compress_cols() (in module numpy.ma), 306
chebval() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 848 compress_rowcols() (in module numpy.ma), 306
chebval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), compress_rows() (in module numpy.ma), 307
849 compressed() (in module numpy.ma), 307
chebval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), compressed() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 229
850 concatenate() (in module numpy), 436
chebvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), concatenate() (in module numpy.ma), 288
855 cond() (in module numpy.linalg), 671
chebvander2d() (in module Configuration (class in numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 855 conj (in module numpy), 780
chebvander3d() (in module conj() (numpy.generic method), 55
numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 856 conj() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 248
chebweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), conj() (numpy.matrix method), 109
863 conj() (numpy.ndarray method), 19
chebx (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 864 conj() (numpy.recarray method), 168
Chebyshev (class in numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 840 conj() (numpy.record method), 188
chebzero (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev), 864 conjugate (in module numpy.ma), 315
Index 1337
conjugate() (numpy.generic method), 55 copyto() (in module numpy), 420

conjugate() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 248 corrcoef() (in module numpy), 1147
conjugate() (numpy.matrix method), 109 corrcoef() (in module numpy.ma), 315
conjugate() (numpy.ndarray method), 19 correlate() (in module numpy), 1147
conjugate() (numpy.recarray method), 168 cos (in module numpy), 708
conjugate() (numpy.record method), 188 cosh (in module numpy), 721
construction count (in module numpy.ma), 272
from dict, dtype, 72 count() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 483
from dtype, dtype, 69 count() (numpy.chararray method), 143
from list, dtype, 72 count() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 493
from None, dtype, 69 count() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 262
from string, dtype, 70 count_masked() (in module numpy.ma), 273
from tuple, dtype, 71 count_nonzero() (in module numpy), 1123
from type, dtype, 69 cov() (in module numpy), 1148
container (class in numpy.lib.user_array), 195 cov() (in module numpy.ma), 316
container class, 195 cpu (in module numpy.distutils.cpuinfo), 1195
contiguous, 37 cross() (in module numpy), 745
convert() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev ctypes (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 220
method), 842 ctypes (numpy.ndarray attribute), 12
convert() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), ctypes_load_library() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 509
921 cumprod (in module numpy.ma), 318
convert() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE cumprod() (in module numpy), 737
method), 948 cumprod() (numpy.generic method), 56
convert() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), cumprod() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 248
895 cumprod() (numpy.matrix method), 109
convert() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre cumprod() (numpy.ndarray method), 20
method), 869 cumprod() (numpy.recarray method), 168
convert() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial cumprod() (numpy.record method), 189
method), 817 cumsum (in module numpy.ma), 317
convolve() (in module numpy), 781 cumsum() (in module numpy), 738
copy (in module numpy.ma), 264 cumsum() (numpy.generic method), 56
copy() (in module numpy), 396 cumsum() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 248
copy() (numpy.chararray method), 143 cumsum() (numpy.matrix method), 110
copy() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 493 cumsum() (numpy.ndarray method), 20
copy() (numpy.flatiter method), 614 cumsum() (numpy.recarray method), 169
copy() (numpy.generic method), 56 cumsum() (numpy.record method), 189
copy() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 245 cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
copy() (numpy.matrix method), 109 method), 843
copy() (numpy.ndarray method), 19 cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
copy() (numpy.nditer method), 611 922
copy() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
copy() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), 922 cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
copy() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), 895
948 cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method),
copy() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), 869
895 cutdeg() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
copy() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), method), 817
869 cyan_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
copy() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial cyg2win32() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
method), 817
copy() (numpy.recarray method), 168 D
copy() (numpy.record method), 189 data (numpy.generic attribute), 51
copysign (in module numpy), 760 data (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 218, 280
1338 Index
data (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6 dict_append() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),

DataSource (class in numpy), 638 1186
datetime_as_string() (in module numpy), 511 diff() (in module numpy), 741
datetime_data() (in module numpy), 512 digitize() (in module numpy), 1158
debug_print() (numpy.nditer method), 612 dirichlet() (in module numpy.random), 1003
decode() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 472 dirichlet() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1052
decode() (numpy.chararray method), 144 distutils, 1185
decode() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), divide (in module numpy), 767
493 divmod (in module numpy), 777
decorate_methods() (in module numpy.testing), 1172 dot() (in module numpy), 640
default_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 310 dot() (in module numpy.ma), 328
deg2rad (in module numpy), 719 dot() (numpy.matrix method), 110
degree() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev dot() (numpy.ndarray method), 20
method), 843 dot() (numpy.recarray method), 169
degree() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), dot_join() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
922 dsplit() (in module numpy), 445
degree() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE dstack (in module numpy.ma), 289
method), 948 dstack() (in module numpy), 438
degree() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), dtype, 1291
895 construction from dict, 72
degree() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), construction from dtype, 69
869 construction from list, 72
degree() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial construction from None, 69
method), 818 construction from string, 70
degrees (in module numpy), 716 construction from tuple, 71
delete() (in module numpy), 450 construction from type, 69
deprecated() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1170 field, 63
deriv() (numpy.poly1d method), 979 scalar, 63
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev sub-array, 63, 71
method), 843 dtype (class in numpy), 64
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), dtype (numpy.generic attribute), 51
922 dtype (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 221
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), dtype (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6
949 dump() (in module numpy.ma), 308
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), dump() (numpy.chararray method), 144
895 dump() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 493
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), dump() (numpy.generic method), 56
869 dump() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 246
deriv() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial dump() (numpy.matrix method), 110
method), 818 dump() (numpy.ndarray method), 20
descr (numpy.dtype attribute), 66 dump() (numpy.recarray method), 169
det() (in module numpy.linalg), 673 dump() (numpy.record method), 189
diag() (in module numpy), 415 dumps() (in module numpy.ma), 309
diag() (in module numpy.ma), 328 dumps() (numpy.chararray method), 144
diag_indices() (in module numpy), 590 dumps() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
diag_indices_from() (in module numpy), 591 493
diagflat() (in module numpy), 415 dumps() (numpy.generic method), 56
diagonal() (in module numpy), 600 dumps() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 246
diagonal() (numpy.generic method), 56 dumps() (numpy.matrix method), 110
diagonal() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 240 dumps() (numpy.ndarray method), 21
diagonal() (numpy.matrix method), 110 dumps() (numpy.recarray method), 169
diagonal() (numpy.ndarray method), 20 dumps() (numpy.record method), 189
diagonal() (numpy.recarray method), 169
diagonal() (numpy.record method), 189
Index 1339
E field() (numpy.recarray method), 169

ediff1d() (in module numpy), 742 fields (numpy.dtype attribute), 66
ediff1d() (in module numpy.ma), 345 fill() (numpy.chararray method), 144
eig() (in module numpy.linalg), 663 fill() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 494
eigh() (in module numpy.linalg), 665 fill() (numpy.generic method), 57
eigvals() (in module numpy.linalg), 667 fill() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 240
eigvalsh() (in module numpy.linalg), 668 fill() (numpy.matrix method), 110
einsum() (in module numpy), 650 fill() (numpy.ndarray method), 21
einsum_path() (in module numpy), 654 fill() (numpy.recarray method), 170
ellipsis, 77 fill() (numpy.record method), 189
empty (in module numpy.ma), 266 fill_diagonal() (in module numpy), 605
empty() (in module numpy), 383 fill_value (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 218, 312
empty() (in module numpy.matlib), 797 filled() (in module numpy.ma), 307
empty_like (in module numpy.ma), 267 filled() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 230
empty_like() (in module numpy), 384 filter() (numpy.testing.suppress_warnings method), 1175
enable_external_loop() (numpy.nditer method), 612 filter_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
encode() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 473 1186
encode() (numpy.chararray method), 144 find() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 484
encode() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), find() (numpy.chararray method), 145
494 find() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 494
endswith() (numpy.chararray method), 144 find_common_type() (in module numpy), 529
endswith() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), finfo (class in numpy), 524
494 fit() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev method),
equal (in module numpy), 705 843
equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 481 fit() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), 922
error handling, 363 fit() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method),
errstate (class in numpy), 535 949
exists() (numpy.DataSource method), 639 fit() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), 896
exp (in module numpy), 748 fit() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), 870
exp2 (in module numpy), 750 fit() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial method),
expand_dims() (in module numpy), 430 818
expand_dims() (in module numpy.ma), 286 fix() (in module numpy), 728
expandtabs() (numpy.chararray method), 144 fix_invalid() (in module numpy.ma), 203
expandtabs() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray flags (numpy.dtype attribute), 76
method), 494 flags (numpy.generic attribute), 51
expm1 (in module numpy), 749 flags (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 221
exponential() (in module numpy.random), 1004 flags (numpy.ndarray attribute), 7
exponential() (numpy.random.RandomState method), flat (numpy.generic attribute), 51
1053 flat (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 226
extract() (in module numpy), 1122 flat (numpy.ndarray attribute), 8
eye() (in module numpy), 385 flatiter (class in numpy), 613
eye() (in module numpy.matlib), 799 flatnonzero() (in module numpy), 1120
flatnotmasked_contiguous() (in module numpy.ma), 298
F flatnotmasked_edges() (in module numpy.ma), 299
f() (in module numpy.random), 1005 flatten() (numpy.chararray method), 145
f() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1054 flatten() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
fabs (in module numpy), 786 494
fft() (in module numpy.fft), 538 flatten() (numpy.generic method), 57
fft2() (in module numpy.fft), 541 flatten() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 233
fftfreq() (in module numpy.fft), 557 flatten() (numpy.matrix method), 111
fftn() (in module numpy.fft), 544 flatten() (numpy.ndarray method), 21
fftshift() (in module numpy.fft), 558 flatten() (numpy.recarray method), 170
field flatten() (numpy.record method), 190
dtype, 63 flip() (in module numpy), 456
1340 Index
fliplr() (in module numpy), 457 full_like() (in module numpy), 391
flipud() (in module numpy), 458 fv() (in module numpy), 561
float_power (in module numpy), 772
floor (in module numpy), 729 G
floor_divide (in module numpy), 771 gamma() (in module numpy.random), 1006
flush() (numpy.memmap method), 137 gamma() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1055
fmax (in module numpy), 791 generate_config_py() (in module
fmin (in module numpy), 792 numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
fmod (in module numpy), 773 generic (class in numpy), 52
format_float_positional() (in module numpy), 631 genfromtxt() (in module numpy), 622
format_float_scientific() (in module numpy), 632 geometric() (in module numpy.random), 1007
format_parser (class in numpy), 523 geometric() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1056
Fortran-order, 37 geomspace() (in module numpy), 409
frexp (in module numpy), 760 get_build_temp_dir() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
from dict method), 1193
dtype construction, 72 get_cmd() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
from dtype get_config_cmd() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
dtype construction, 69 method), 1193
from list get_dependencies() (in module
dtype construction, 72 numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
from None get_distribution() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
from string get_ext_source_files() (in module
dtype construction, 70 numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
from tuple get_fill_value() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261
dtype construction, 71 get_info() (in module numpy.distutils.system_info), 1195
from type get_info() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
fromarrays() (in module numpy.core.records), 403 get_numpy_include_dirs() (in module
frombuffer (in module numpy.ma), 264 numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
frombuffer() (in module numpy), 397 get_printoptions() (in module numpy), 636
fromfile() (in module numpy), 398 get_script_files() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util),
fromfile() (in module numpy.core.records), 404 1186
fromfunction (in module numpy.ma), 265 get_standard_file() (in module
fromfunction() (in module numpy), 399 numpy.distutils.system_info), 1195
fromiter() (in module numpy), 400 get_state() (in module numpy.random), 1102
frompyfunc() (in module numpy), 576 get_state() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1057
fromrecords() (in module numpy.core.records), 403 get_subpackage() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
fromregex() (in module numpy), 626 method), 1187
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev get_version() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite getA() (numpy.matrix method), 111
method), 923 getA1() (numpy.matrix method), 112
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE getbufsize() (in module numpy), 802
method), 950 getdata() (in module numpy.ma), 275
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre getdomain() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils),
method), 897 975
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre geterr() (in module numpy), 534
method), 871 geterrcall() (in module numpy), 534
fromroots() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial geterrobj() (in module numpy), 537
method), 819 getfield() (numpy.chararray method), 145
fromstring() (in module numpy), 400 getfield() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
fromstring() (in module numpy.core.records), 404 495
full() (in module numpy), 390 getfield() (numpy.generic method), 57
Index 1341
getfield() (numpy.matrix method), 113 has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial

getfield() (numpy.ndarray method), 21 method), 820
getfield() (numpy.recarray method), 170 has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
getfield() (numpy.record method), 190 method), 845
getH() (numpy.matrix method), 112 has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite
getI() (numpy.matrix method), 112 method), 924
getitem has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
ndarray special methods, 77 method), 951
getmask() (in module numpy.ma), 274 has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
getmaskarray() (in module numpy.ma), 275 method), 897
getT() (numpy.matrix method), 113 has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
gradient() (in module numpy), 743 method), 871
greater (in module numpy), 702 has_sametype() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
greater() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 482 method), 820
greater_equal (in module numpy), 703 has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
greater_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), method), 845
481 has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite
green_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186 method), 924
gumbel() (in module numpy.random), 1008 has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
gumbel() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1057 method), 951
has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
H method), 898
H (numpy.matrix attribute), 100 has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
hamming() (in module numpy), 1178 method), 872
hanning() (in module numpy), 1180 has_samewindow() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
harden_mask (in module numpy.ma), 305 method), 820
harden_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 260 hasobject (numpy.dtype attribute), 66
hardmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 219 have_f77c() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
has_cxx_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), method), 1193
1186 have_f90c() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
has_f_sources() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), method), 1193
1186 heaviside (in module numpy), 788
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev herm2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 945
method), 845 hermadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 939
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite hermcompanion() (in module
method), 924 numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE hermder() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 936
method), 950 hermdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 941
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre hermdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943
method), 897 herme2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre 971
method), 871 hermeadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
has_samecoef() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial 965
method), 819 hermecompanion() (in module
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 970
method), 845 hermeder() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite 963
method), 924 hermediv() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE 967
method), 950 hermedomain (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre 970
method), 897 hermefit() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 959
has_samedomain() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre hermefromroots() (in module
method), 871 numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 958
1342 Index
hermegauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 931

969 hermsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 939
hermegrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943
956 hermval() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 927
hermegrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 928
956 hermval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 929
hermeint() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 964 hermvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
hermeline() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 934
971 hermvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
hermemul() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 935
966 hermvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
hermemulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 935
967 hermweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite),
hermeone (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 970 942
hermepow() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hermx (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943
968 hermzero (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943
hermeroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hfft() (in module numpy.fft), 555
957 histogram() (in module numpy), 1151
hermesub() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), histogram2d() (in module numpy), 1154
966 histogramdd() (in module numpy), 1156
hermetrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hsplit (in module numpy.ma), 290
970 hsplit() (in module numpy), 446
hermeval() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hstack (in module numpy.ma), 290
953 hstack() (in module numpy), 439
hermeval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), hypergeometric() (in module numpy.random), 1010
954 hypergeometric() (numpy.random.RandomState method),
hermeval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 1059
955 hypot (in module numpy), 714
hermevander() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
960 I
hermevander2d() (in module I (numpy.matrix attribute), 100
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 961 i0() (in module numpy), 757
hermevander3d() (in module identity (in module numpy.ma), 329
numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 962 identity (numpy.ufunc attribute), 371
hermeweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), identity() (in module numpy), 386
969 identity() (in module numpy.matlib), 800
hermex (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 970 identity() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
hermezero (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 970 method), 845
hermfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 932 identity() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method),
hermfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 925
931 identity() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
hermgauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 942 method), 951
hermgrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), identity() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method),
929 898
hermgrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), identity() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
930 method), 872
hermint() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 937 identity() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
Hermite (class in numpy.polynomial.hermite), 920 method), 820
HermiteE (class in numpy.polynomial.hermite_e), 946 ids() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 258
hermline() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 944 ifft() (in module numpy.fft), 540
hermmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 940 ifft2() (in module numpy.fft), 543
hermmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 940 ifftn() (in module numpy.fft), 546
hermone (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 943 ifftshift() (in module numpy.fft), 559
hermpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 941 ihfft() (in module numpy.fft), 556
Index 1343
iinfo (class in numpy), 525 isalpha() (numpy.chararray method), 146

imag (numpy.generic attribute), 51 isalpha() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
imag (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 226 496
imag (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9 isbuiltin (numpy.dtype attribute), 66
imag() (in module numpy), 779 isclose() (in module numpy), 700
import_array (C function), 1253 iscomplex() (in module numpy), 693
import_ufunc (C function), 1281 iscomplexobj() (in module numpy), 693
in1d() (in module numpy), 1104 iscontiguous() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 258
index() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 484 isdecimal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 485
index() (numpy.chararray method), 146 isdecimal() (numpy.chararray method), 146
index() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 495 isdecimal() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
indexing, 76, 84, 1293 496
indices() (in module numpy), 586 isdigit() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 485
indices() (in module numpy.ma), 346 isdigit() (numpy.chararray method), 146
info() (in module numpy), 580 isdigit() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
inner() (in module numpy), 644 496
inner() (in module numpy.ma), 329 isfinite (in module numpy), 687
innerproduct() (in module numpy.ma), 330 isfortran() (in module numpy), 694
insert() (in module numpy), 450 isin() (in module numpy), 1106
integ() (numpy.poly1d method), 979 isinf (in module numpy), 688
integ() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev islower() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 485
method), 846 islower() (numpy.chararray method), 146
integ() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), islower() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
925 496
integ() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), isnan (in module numpy), 689
951 isnat (in module numpy), 690
integ() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), isnative (numpy.dtype attribute), 67
898 isneginf() (in module numpy), 691
integ() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), isnumeric() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 485
872 isnumeric() (numpy.chararray method), 146
integ() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial isnumeric() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
method), 820 496
interface isposinf() (in module numpy), 692
array, 347 isreal() (in module numpy), 694
interp() (in module numpy), 795 isrealobj() (in module numpy), 695
interpolate() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev isscalar() (in module numpy), 695
class method), 846 issctype() (in module numpy), 527
intersect1d() (in module numpy), 1105 isspace() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 486
inv() (in module numpy.linalg), 680 isspace() (numpy.chararray method), 147
invert (in module numpy), 464 isspace() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
ipmt() (in module numpy), 567 496
irfft() (in module numpy.fft), 550 issubclass_() (in module numpy), 529
irfft2() (in module numpy.fft), 551 issubdtype() (in module numpy), 528
irfftn() (in module numpy.fft), 553 issubsctype() (in module numpy), 528
irr() (in module numpy), 568 istitle() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 486
is_busday() (in module numpy), 514 istitle() (numpy.chararray method), 147
is_local_src_dir() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), istitle() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 496
1186 isupper() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 486
is_mask() (in module numpy.ma), 280 isupper() (numpy.chararray method), 147
is_masked() (in module numpy.ma), 279 isupper() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
isalnum() (numpy.chararray method), 146 496
isalnum() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), item() (numpy.chararray method), 147
495 item() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 497
isalpha() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 484 item() (numpy.generic method), 57
1344 Index
item() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 240 lagsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 913

item() (numpy.matrix method), 114 lagtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 917
item() (numpy.ndarray method), 22 Laguerre (class in numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 893
item() (numpy.recarray method), 171 lagval() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 900
item() (numpy.record method), 190 lagval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 901
itemset() (numpy.generic method), 57 lagval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 902
itemset() (numpy.matrix method), 115 lagvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 907
itemset() (numpy.ndarray method), 23 lagvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
itemset() (numpy.recarray method), 172 908
itemset() (numpy.record method), 190 lagvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre),
itemsize (numpy.dtype attribute), 74 909
itemsize (numpy.generic attribute), 51 lagweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 916
itemsize (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 223 lagx (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 917
itemsize (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10 lagzero (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 917
iterator laplace() (in module numpy.random), 1012
C-API, 1259, 1276 laplace() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1061
iternext() (numpy.nditer method), 612 ldexp (in module numpy), 761
ix_() (in module numpy), 587 left_shift (in module numpy), 465
leg2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 891
J legadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 886
join() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 473 legcompanion() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
join() (numpy.chararray method), 148 890
join() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 497 legder() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 883
legdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 888
K legdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 890
kaiser() (in module numpy), 1181 Legendre (class in numpy.polynomial.legendre), 867
keyword arguments legfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 879
ufunc, 367 legfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
kind (numpy.dtype attribute), 74 878
knownfailureif() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), leggauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 889
1170 leggrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 876
kron() (in module numpy), 657 leggrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 877
legint() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 884
L legline() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 891
lag2poly() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 918 legmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 887
lagadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 912 legmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 887
lagcompanion() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), legone (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 890
917 legpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 888
lagder() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 910 legroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 878
lagdiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 914 legsub() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 886
lagdomain (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 917 legtrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 890
lagfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 906 legval() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 874
lagfromroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), legval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 875
905 legval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 876
laggauss() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 916 legvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 881
laggrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 903 legvander2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
laggrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 903 881
lagint() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 911 legvander3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre),
lagline() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 918 882
lagmul() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 913 legweight() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 889
lagmulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 914 legx (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 890
lagone (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 917 legzero (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 890
lagpow() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 915 less (in module numpy), 704
lagroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 904 less() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 482
Index 1345
less_equal (in module numpy), 704 make_config_py() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration

less_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 481 method), 1194
lexsort() (in module numpy), 1111 make_mask() (in module numpy.ma), 295
LinAlgError, 683 make_mask_descr() (in module numpy.ma), 297
linspace() (in module numpy), 406 make_mask_none() (in module numpy.ma), 296
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev make_svn_version_py() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), mapdomain() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils),
925 975
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE mapparms() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils),
method), 952 976
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite
linspace() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE
ljust() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 473 mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre
ljust() (numpy.chararray method), 148 method), 899
ljust() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 497 mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre
load() (in module numpy), 616 method), 873
load() (in module numpy.ma), 309 mapparms() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial
load_library() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 509 method), 821
loads() (in module numpy.ma), 309 mask (numpy.ma.masked_array attribute), 298
loadtxt() (in module numpy), 401 mask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 218, 281
log (in module numpy), 751 mask_cols() (in module numpy.ma), 302
log10 (in module numpy), 752 mask_indices() (in module numpy), 591
log1p (in module numpy), 754 mask_or() (in module numpy.ma), 297
log2 (in module numpy), 753 mask_rowcols() (in module numpy.ma), 303
logaddexp (in module numpy), 755 mask_rows() (in module numpy.ma), 304
logaddexp2 (in module numpy), 756 masked (in module numpy.ma), 217
logical_and (in module numpy), 696 masked arrays, 199
logical_not (in module numpy), 697 masked_all() (in module numpy.ma), 268
logical_or (in module numpy), 697 masked_all_like() (in module numpy.ma), 268
logical_xor (in module numpy), 698 masked_array (in module numpy.ma), 201
logistic() (in module numpy.random), 1013 masked_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 204
logistic() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1062 masked_greater() (in module numpy.ma), 205
lognormal() (in module numpy.random), 1014 masked_greater_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 205
lognormal() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1063 masked_inside() (in module numpy.ma), 205
logseries() (in module numpy.random), 1016 masked_invalid() (in module numpy.ma), 206
logseries() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1065 masked_less() (in module numpy.ma), 206
logspace() (in module numpy), 408 masked_less_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 207
lookfor() (in module numpy), 579 masked_not_equal() (in module numpy.ma), 207
lower() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 474 masked_object() (in module numpy.ma), 208
lower() (numpy.chararray method), 148 masked_outside() (in module numpy.ma), 208
lower() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 498 masked_print_options (in module numpy.ma), 218
lstrip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 474 masked_values() (in module numpy.ma), 209
lstrip() (numpy.chararray method), 148 masked_where() (in module numpy.ma), 210
lstrip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 498 MaskedArray (class in numpy.ma), 218
lstsq() (in module numpy.linalg), 678 MaskType (in module numpy.ma), 263
mat() (in module numpy), 419
M matmul() (in module numpy), 646
MachAr (class in numpy), 526 matrix, 42, 99
matrix (class in numpy), 101
1346 Index
matrix_power() (in module numpy.linalg), 656 multiply (in module numpy), 766
matrix_rank() (in module numpy.linalg), 673 multiply() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 471
max() (in module numpy.ma), 324 multivariate_normal() (in module numpy.random), 1019
max() (numpy.generic method), 57 multivariate_normal() (numpy.random.RandomState
max() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 249 method), 1068
max() (numpy.matrix method), 115
max() (numpy.ndarray method), 23 N
max() (numpy.recarray method), 172 name (numpy.dtype attribute), 67
max() (numpy.record method), 190 names (numpy.dtype attribute), 67
maximum (in module numpy), 789 nan_to_num() (in module numpy), 793
maximum_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 310 nanargmax() (in module numpy), 1118
may_share_memory() (in module numpy), 803 nanargmin() (in module numpy), 1119
mean (in module numpy.ma), 318 nancumprod() (in module numpy), 739
mean() (in module numpy), 1136 nancumsum() (in module numpy), 740
mean() (numpy.generic method), 57 nanmax() (in module numpy), 1128
mean() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 249 nanmean() (in module numpy), 1142
mean() (numpy.matrix method), 116 nanmedian() (in module numpy), 1141
mean() (numpy.ndarray method), 24 nanmin() (in module numpy), 1126
mean() (numpy.recarray method), 173 nanpercentile() (in module numpy), 1131
mean() (numpy.record method), 190 nanprod() (in module numpy), 734
median() (in module numpy), 1134 nanstd() (in module numpy), 1143
median() (in module numpy.ma), 318 nansum() (in module numpy), 735
memmap (class in numpy), 134 nanvar() (in module numpy), 1145
memory maps, 134 nargs (numpy.ufunc attribute), 369
memory model nbytes (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 223
ndarray, 1291 nbytes (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10
meshgrid() (in module numpy), 411 ndarray, 84
methods C-API, 1219, 1259
accumulate, ufunc, 1297 memory model, 1291
reduce, ufunc, 1297 special methods getitem, 77
reduceat, ufunc, 1297 special methods setitem, 77
ufunc, 372 view, 78
mgrid (in module numpy), 413 ndarray (class in numpy), 4
min() (in module numpy.ma), 324 NDArrayOperatorsMixin (class in numpy.lib.mixins), 804
min() (numpy.generic method), 58 ndenumerate (class in numpy), 196
min() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 250 ndim (numpy.generic attribute), 51
min() (numpy.matrix method), 116 ndim (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 224
min() (numpy.ndarray method), 24 ndim (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10
min() (numpy.recarray method), 173 ndincr() (numpy.ndindex method), 613
min() (numpy.record method), 190 ndindex (class in numpy), 612
min_scalar_type() (in module numpy), 520 nditer (class in numpy), 607
minimum (in module numpy), 790 ndpointer() (in module numpy.ctypeslib), 510
mintypecode() (in module numpy), 531 negative (in module numpy), 766
mirr() (in module numpy), 569 negative_binomial() (in module numpy.random), 1020
mod (in module numpy), 774 negative_binomial() (numpy.random.RandomState
mod() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 471 method), 1069
modf (in module numpy), 775 newaxis, 77
moveaxis() (in module numpy), 424 newaxis (in module numpy), 79
mr_ (in module numpy.ma), 292 newbyteorder() (numpy.dtype method), 67
msort() (in module numpy), 1113 newbyteorder() (numpy.generic method), 58
multi_dot() (in module numpy.linalg), 642 newbyteorder() (numpy.matrix method), 117
multinomial() (in module numpy.random), 1018 newbyteorder() (numpy.ndarray method), 24
multinomial() (numpy.random.RandomState method), newbyteorder() (numpy.recarray method), 173
1067 newbyteorder() (numpy.record method), 190
Index 1347
next() (numpy.ndenumerate method), 197 NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY (C variable), 1224, 1236

next() (numpy.ndindex method), 613 NPY_ARRAY_FARRAY_RO (C variable), 1224, 1236
nextafter (in module numpy), 762 NPY_ARRAY_FORCECAST (C variable), 1224, 1236
nin (numpy.ufunc attribute), 369 NPY_ARRAY_IN_ARRAY (C variable), 1224
NO_IMPORT_ARRAY (C macro), 1253 NPY_ARRAY_IN_FARRAY (C variable), 1224
NO_IMPORT_UFUNC (C variable), 1281 NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_ARRAY (C variable), 1225
nomask (in module numpy.ma), 217 NPY_ARRAY_INOUT_FARRAY (C variable), 1225
non-contiguous, 37 NPY_ARRAY_NOTSWAPPED (C variable), 1226, 1236
noncentral_chisquare() (in module numpy.random), 1021 NPY_ARRAY_OUT_FARRAY (C variable), 1224
noncentral_chisquare() (numpy.random.RandomState NPY_ARRAY_OWNDATA (C variable), 1235
method), 1070 NPY_ARRAY_UPDATE_ALL (C variable), 1236
noncentral_f() (in module numpy.random), 1023 NPY_ARRAY_UPDATEIFCOPY (C variable), 1224,
noncentral_f() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1235
1072 NPY_ARRAY_WRITEABLE (C variable), 1224, 1235
nonzero (in module numpy.ma), 276 NPY_ARRAY_WRITEBACKIFCOPY (C variable),
nonzero() (in module numpy), 584 1224, 1235
nonzero() (numpy.chararray method), 148 NPY_AUXDATA_CLONE (C function), 1246
nonzero() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), NPY_AUXDATA_FREE (C function), 1246
498 NPY_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro), 1256
nonzero() (numpy.generic method), 58 NPY_BEGIN_THREADS (C macro), 1256
nonzero() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 241 NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DEF (C macro), 1256
nonzero() (numpy.matrix method), 117 NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_DESCR (C function), 1256
nonzero() (numpy.ndarray method), 24 NPY_BEGIN_THREADS_THRESHOLDED (C func-
nonzero() (numpy.recarray method), 173 tion), 1256
nonzero() (numpy.record method), 191 NPY_BIG_ENDIAN (C variable), 1214
norm() (in module numpy.linalg), 669 npy_bool (C type), 1218
normal() (in module numpy.random), 1024 NPY_BOOL (C variable), 1215
normal() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1074 NPY_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1257
not_equal (in module numpy), 706 NPY_BYTE (C variable), 1215
not_equal() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 481 NPY_BYTE_ORDER (C variable), 1214
notmasked_contiguous() (in module numpy.ma), 300 NPY_CASTING (C type), 1259
notmasked_edges() (in module numpy.ma), 300 NPY_CDOUBLE (C variable), 1216
nout (numpy.ufunc attribute), 369 NPY_CFLOAT (C variable), 1216
nper() (in module numpy), 569 npy_clear_floatstatus (C function), 1286
npv() (in module numpy), 564 NPY_CLIP (C variable), 1240, 1259
NPY_1_PI (C variable), 1285 NPY_CLIPMODE (C type), 1259
NPY_2_PI (C variable), 1285 NPY_CLONGDOUBLE (C variable), 1216
NPY_ALLOW_C_API (C macro), 1256 NPY_COMPLEX128 (C variable), 1216
NPY_ALLOW_C_API_DEF (C macro), 1256 NPY_COMPLEX64 (C variable), 1216
NPY_ANYORDER (C variable), 1259 npy_copysign (C function), 1284
NPY_ARRAY_ALIGNED (C variable), 1224, 1235 NPY_CORDER (C variable), 1259
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED (C variable), 1224, 1236 NPY_CPU_AMD64 (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_BEHAVED_NS (C variable), 1226, 1236 NPY_CPU_IA64 (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_C_CONTIGUOUS (C variable), 1223, NPY_CPU_PARISC (C variable), 1214
1235 NPY_CPU_PPC (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY (C variable), 1224, 1236 NPY_CPU_PPC64 (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_CARRAY_RO (C variable), 1224, 1236 NPY_CPU_S390 (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_DEFAULT (C variable), 1224, 1236 NPY_CPU_SPARC (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_ELEMENTSTRIDES (C variable), 1226 NPY_CPU_SPARC64 (C variable), 1214
NPY_ARRAY_ENSUREARRAY (C variable), 1224, NPY_CPU_X86 (C variable), 1214
1236 NPY_DATETIME (C variable), 1216
NPY_ARRAY_ENSURECOPY (C variable), 1224, 1236 NPY_DEFAULT_TYPE (C variable), 1217
NPY_ARRAY_F_CONTIGUOUS (C variable), 1224, NPY_DISABLE_C_API (C macro), 1257
1235 NPY_DOUBLE (C variable), 1216
1348 Index
npy_double_to_half (C function), 1288 NPY_INT8 (C variable), 1215

npy_doublebits_to_halfbits (C function), 1289 NPY_INTP (C variable), 1216
NPY_E (C variable), 1285 npy_isfinite (C function), 1284
NPY_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro), 1256 npy_isinf (C function), 1284
NPY_END_THREADS (C macro), 1256 npy_isnan (C function), 1284
NPY_END_THREADS_DESCR (C function), 1256 NPY_ITEM_HASOBJECT (C variable), 1202
NPY_EQUIV_CASTING (C variable), 1259 NPY_ITEM_IS_POINTER (C variable), 1202
NPY_EULER (C variable), 1285 NPY_ITEM_REFCOUNT (C variable), 1202
NPY_FAIL (C variable), 1257 NPY_ITER_ALIGNED (C variable), 1266
NPY_FALSE (C variable), 1257 NPY_ITER_ALLOCATE (C variable), 1267
NPY_FLOAT (C variable), 1216 NPY_ITER_ARRAYMASK (C variable), 1267
NPY_FLOAT16 (C variable), 1216 NPY_ITER_BUFFERED (C variable), 1265
NPY_FLOAT32 (C variable), 1216 NPY_ITER_C_INDEX (C variable), 1264
NPY_FLOAT64 (C variable), 1216 NPY_ITER_COMMON_DTYPE (C variable), 1265
npy_float_to_half (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_CONTIG (C variable), 1266
npy_floatbits_to_halfbits (C function), 1289 NPY_ITER_COPY (C variable), 1266
NPY_FORTRANORDER (C variable), 1259 NPY_ITER_COPY_IF_OVERLAP (C variable), 1266
NPY_FROM_FIELDS (C variable), 1202 NPY_ITER_DELAY_BUFALLOC (C variable), 1266
npy_get_floatstatus (C function), 1286 NPY_ITER_DONT_NEGATE_STRIDES (C variable),
NPY_HALF (C variable), 1215 1264
npy_half_copysign (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_EXTERNAL_LOOP (C variable), 1264
npy_half_eq (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_F_INDEX (C variable), 1264
npy_half_eq_nonan (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_GROWINNER (C variable), 1266
npy_half_ge (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_MULTI_INDEX (C variable), 1264
npy_half_gt (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_NBO (C variable), 1266
npy_half_isfinite (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_NO_BROADCAST (C variable), 1267
npy_half_isinf (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_NO_SUBTYPE (C variable), 1267
npy_half_isnan (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_OVERLAP_ASSUME_ELEMENTWISE
npy_half_iszero (C function), 1288 (C variable), 1268
npy_half_le (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_RANGED (C variable), 1265
npy_half_le_nonan (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_READONLY (C variable), 1266
npy_half_lt (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_READWRITE (C variable), 1266
npy_half_lt_nonan (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_REDUCE_OK (C variable), 1265
NPY_HALF_NAN (C variable), 1287 NPY_ITER_REFS_OK (C variable), 1265
npy_half_ne (C function), 1288 NPY_ITER_UPDATEIFCOPY (C variable), 1266
NPY_HALF_NEGONE (C variable), 1287 NPY_ITER_WRITEMASKED (C variable), 1267
npy_half_nextafter (C function), 1289 NPY_ITER_WRITEONLY (C variable), 1266
NPY_HALF_NINF (C variable), 1287 NPY_ITER_ZEROSIZE_OK (C variable), 1265
NPY_HALF_NZERO (C variable), 1287 NPY_KEEPORDER (C variable), 1259
NPY_HALF_ONE (C variable), 1287 NPY_LIST_PICKLE (C variable), 1202
NPY_HALF_PINF (C variable), 1287 NPY_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C variable), 1214
NPY_HALF_PZERO (C variable), 1287 NPY_LOG10E (C variable), 1285
npy_half_signbit (C function), 1288 NPY_LOG2E (C variable), 1285
npy_half_spacing (C function), 1288 NPY_LOGE10 (C variable), 1285
npy_half_to_double (C function), 1287 NPY_LOGE2 (C variable), 1285
npy_half_to_float (C function), 1287 NPY_LONG (C variable), 1215
NPY_HALF_ZERO (C variable), 1287 NPY_LONGDOUBLE (C variable), 1216
npy_halfbits_to_doublebits (C function), 1289 NPY_LONGLONG (C variable), 1215
npy_halfbits_to_floatbits (C function), 1289 NPY_LOOP_BEGIN_THREADS (C macro), 1277
NPY_INFINITY (C variable), 1284 NPY_LOOP_END_THREADS (C macro), 1277
NPY_INT (C variable), 1215 NPY_MASK (C variable), 1216
NPY_INT16 (C variable), 1215 NPY_MAX_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1257
NPY_INT32 (C variable), 1215 NPY_MAXDIMS (C variable), 1257
NPY_INT64 (C variable), 1215 NPY_MIN_BUFSIZE (C variable), 1257
Index 1349
NPY_NAN (C variable), 1284 NPY_ULONG (C variable), 1215

NPY_NEEDS_INIT (C variable), 1202 NPY_ULONGLONG (C variable), 1215
NPY_NEEDS_PYAPI (C variable), 1202 NPY_UNICODE (C variable), 1216
npy_nextafter (C function), 1285 NPY_UNSAFE_CASTING (C variable), 1259
NPY_NO_CASTING (C variable), 1259 NPY_USE_GETITEM (C variable), 1202
NPY_NOTYPE (C variable), 1217 NPY_USE_SETITEM (C variable), 1202
NPY_NSCALARKINDS (C variable), 1259 NPY_USERDEF (C variable), 1217
NPY_NSORTS (C variable), 1258 NPY_USHORT (C variable), 1215
NPY_NTYPES (C variable), 1217 NPY_VERSION (C variable), 1257
NPY_NUM_FLOATTYPE (C variable), 1257 NPY_VOID (C variable), 1216
NPY_NZERO (C variable), 1284 NPY_WRAP (C variable), 1240, 1259
NPY_OBJECT (C variable), 1216 NpyAuxData (C type), 1245
NPY_OBJECT_DTYPE_FLAGS (C variable), 1202 NpyAuxData_CloneFunc (C type), 1246
NPY_ORDER (C type), 1259 NpyAuxData_FreeFunc (C type), 1246
NPY_OUT_ARRAY (C variable), 1224 NpyIter (C type), 1263
NPY_PI (C variable), 1285 NpyIter_AdvancedNew (C function), 1268
NPY_PI_2 (C variable), 1285 NpyIter_Copy (C function), 1268
NPY_PI_4 (C variable), 1285 NpyIter_CreateCompatibleStrides (C function), 1273
NPY_PRIORITY (C variable), 1257 NpyIter_Deallocate (C function), 1269
NPY_PZERO (C variable), 1284 NpyIter_EnableExternalLoop (C function), 1269
NPY_RAISE (C variable), 1240, 1259 NpyIter_GetAxisStrideArray (C function), 1272
NPY_SAFE_CASTING (C variable), 1259 NpyIter_GetBufferSize (C function), 1272
NPY_SAME_KIND_CASTING (C variable), 1259 NpyIter_GetDataPtrArray (C function), 1275
NPY_SCALAR_PRIORITY (C variable), 1257 NpyIter_GetDescrArray (C function), 1272
NPY_SCALARKIND (C type), 1258 NpyIter_GetFirstMaskNAOp (C function), 1272
npy_set_floatstatus_divbyzero (C function), 1285 NpyIter_GetGetMultiIndex (C function), 1275
npy_set_floatstatus_invalid (C function), 1286 NpyIter_GetIndexPtr (C function), 1275
npy_set_floatstatus_overflow (C function), 1285 NpyIter_GetInitialDataPtrArray (C function), 1275
npy_set_floatstatus_underflow (C function), 1286 NpyIter_GetInnerFixedStrideArray (C function), 1275
NPY_SHORT (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_GetInnerLoopSizePtr (C function), 1275
npy_signbit (C function), 1284 NpyIter_GetInnerStrideArray (C function), 1275
NPY_SIZEOF_DOUBLE (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetIterIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_SIZEOF_FLOAT (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetIterIndexRange (C function), 1271
NPY_SIZEOF_INT (C variable), 1213 NpyIter_GetIterNext (C function), 1273
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG (C variable), 1213 NpyIter_GetIterSize (C function), 1271
NPY_SIZEOF_LONG_DOUBLE (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetIterView (C function), 1272
NPY_SIZEOF_LONGLONG (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetMaskNAIndexArray (C function), 1272
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_INTPTR_T (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetMultiIndexFunc (C type), 1263
NPY_SIZEOF_PY_LONG_LONG (C variable), 1214 NpyIter_GetNDim (C function), 1272
NPY_SIZEOF_SHORT (C variable), 1213 NpyIter_GetNOp (C function), 1272
NPY_SORTKIND (C type), 1258 NpyIter_GetOperandArray (C function), 1272
npy_spacing (C function), 1285 NpyIter_GetReadFlags (C function), 1273
NPY_STRING (C variable), 1216 NpyIter_GetShape (C function), 1272
NPY_SUBTYPE_PRIORITY (C variable), 1257 NpyIter_GetWriteFlags (C function), 1273
NPY_SUCCEED (C variable), 1257 NpyIter_GotoIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_TIMEDELTA (C variable), 1216 NpyIter_GotoIterIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_TRUE (C variable), 1257 NpyIter_GotoMultiIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_UBYTE (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_HasDelayedBufAlloc (C function), 1271
NPY_UINT (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_HasExternalLoop (C function), 1271
NPY_UINT16 (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_HasIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_UINT32 (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_HasMultiIndex (C function), 1271
NPY_UINT64 (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_IsBuffered (C function), 1271
NPY_UINT8 (C variable), 1215 NpyIter_IsFirstVisit (C function), 1273
NPY_UINTP (C variable), 1216 NpyIter_IsGrowInner (C function), 1272
1350 Index
NpyIter_IterNextFunc (C type), 1263 piecewise() (in module numpy), 577

NpyIter_MultiNew (C function), 1264 pinv() (in module numpy.linalg), 681
NpyIter_New (C function), 1263 place() (in module numpy), 603
NpyIter_RemoveMultiIndex (C function), 1269 pmt() (in module numpy), 565
NpyIter_RequiresBuffering (C function), 1271 poisson() (in module numpy.random), 1027
NpyIter_Reset (C function), 1269 poisson() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1077
NpyIter_ResetBasePointers (C function), 1270 poly() (in module numpy), 980
NpyIter_ResetToIterIndexRange (C function), 1269 poly1d (class in numpy), 977
NpyIter_Type (C type), 1263 poly2cheb() (in module numpy.polynomial.chebyshev),
ntypes (numpy.ufunc attribute), 370 866
num (numpy.dtype attribute), 74 poly2herm() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite), 945
numpy (module), 1 poly2herme() (in module numpy.polynomial.hermite_e),
numpy.distutils (module), 1185 972
numpy.distutils.exec_command (module), 1195 poly2lag() (in module numpy.polynomial.laguerre), 919
numpy.distutils.misc_util (module), 1185 poly2leg() (in module numpy.polynomial.legendre), 892
numpy.doc.internals (module), 1298 polyadd() (in module numpy), 988
numpy.dual (module), 532 polyadd() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
numpy.fft (module), 538 836
numpy.lib.scimath (module), 533 PolyBase (class in numpy.polynomial.polyutils), 973
numpy.polynomial.polyutils (module), 972 polycompanion() (in module
NumpyVersion (class in numpy.lib), 805 numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 839
polyder() (in module numpy), 985
O polyder() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
obj2sctype() (in module numpy), 522 833
offset, 37 polydiv() (in module numpy), 989
ogrid (in module numpy), 414 polydiv() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 837
ones (in module numpy.ma), 269 polydomain (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
ones() (in module numpy), 386 839
ones() (in module numpy.matlib), 798 PolyDomainError, 973
ones_like() (in module numpy), 387 PolyError, 973
open() (numpy.DataSource method), 639 polyfit() (in module numpy), 983
operation, 42, 254 polyfit() (in module numpy.ma), 336
operator, 42, 254 polyfit() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 829
outer() (in module numpy), 645 polyfromroots() (in module
outer() (in module numpy.ma), 332 numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 827
outer() (numpy.ufunc method), 377 polygrid2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
outerproduct() (in module numpy.ma), 333 825
polygrid3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
P 826
packbits() (in module numpy), 467 polyint() (in module numpy), 987
pad() (in module numpy), 806 polyint() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 834
pareto() (in module numpy.random), 1026 polyline() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
pareto() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1075 840
partition() (in module numpy), 1114 polymul() (in module numpy), 989
partition() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 475 polymul() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
partition() (numpy.matrix method), 118 837
partition() (numpy.ndarray method), 24 polymulx() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
partition() (numpy.recarray method), 173 837
paths() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration method), Polynomial (class in numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 815
1193 polyone (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 839
percentile() (in module numpy), 1130 polypow() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
permutation() (in module numpy.random), 999 838
permutation() (numpy.random.RandomState method), polyroots() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial),
1076 826
Index 1351
polysub() (in module numpy), 990 put() (numpy.ndarray method), 26

polysub() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), put() (numpy.recarray method), 175
836 put() (numpy.record method), 191
polytrim() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), putmask() (in module numpy), 605
839 pv() (in module numpy), 563
polyval() (in module numpy), 980 PY_ARRAY_UNIQUE_SYMBOL (C macro), 1253
polyval() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 822 PY_UFUNC_UNIQUE_SYMBOL (C variable), 1281
polyval2d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), PyArray_All (C function), 1243
824 PyArray_Any (C function), 1243
polyval3d() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), PyArray_Arange (C function), 1223
824 PyArray_ArangeObj (C function), 1223
polyvalfromroots() (in module PyArray_ArgMax (C function), 1241
numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 828 PyArray_ArgMin (C function), 1241
polyvander() (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), PyArray_ArgPartition (C function), 1241
831 PyArray_ArgSort (C function), 1240
polyvander2d() (in module PyArray_ArrayDescr.base (C member), 1203
numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 832 PyArray_ArrayDescr.shape (C member), 1203
polyvander3d() (in module PyArray_ArrayType (C function), 1232
numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 832 PyArray_ArrFuncs (C type), 1203
polyx (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 839 PyArray_ArrFuncs.argmax (C member), 1204
polyzero (in module numpy.polynomial.polynomial), 839 PyArray_ArrFuncs.argmin (C member), 1206
positive (in module numpy), 766 PyArray_ArrFuncs.argsort (C member), 1205
power (in module numpy), 768 PyArray_ArrFuncs.cancastscalarkindto (C member),
power() (in module numpy.ma), 319 1205
power() (in module numpy.random), 1029 PyArray_ArrFuncs.cancastto (C member), 1206
power() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1078 PyArray_ArrFuncs.cast (C member), 1204
ppmt() (in module numpy), 566 PyArray_ArrFuncs.castdict (C member), 1205
pprint() (numpy.record method), 191 PyArray_ArrFuncs.compare (C member), 1204
prod (in module numpy.ma), 320 PyArray_ArrFuncs.copyswap (C member), 1204
prod() (in module numpy), 731 PyArray_ArrFuncs.copyswapn (C member), 1204
prod() (numpy.generic method), 58 PyArray_ArrFuncs.dotfunc (C member), 1205
prod() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 250 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fastclip (C member), 1206
prod() (numpy.matrix method), 119 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fastputmask (C member), 1206
prod() (numpy.ndarray method), 25 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fasttake (C member), 1206
prod() (numpy.recarray method), 174 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fill (C member), 1205
prod() (numpy.record method), 191 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fillwithscalar (C member), 1205
product() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 250 PyArray_ArrFuncs.fromstr (C member), 1205
promote_types() (in module numpy), 519 PyArray_ArrFuncs.getitem (C member), 1204
protocol PyArray_ArrFuncs.nonzero (C member), 1205
array, 347 PyArray_ArrFuncs.scalarkind (C member), 1205
ptp() (in module numpy), 1129 PyArray_ArrFuncs.scanfunc (C member), 1205
ptp() (in module numpy.ma), 325 PyArray_ArrFuncs.setitem (C member), 1204
ptp() (numpy.generic method), 58 PyArray_ArrFuncs.sort (C member), 1205
ptp() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 251 PyArray_AsCArray (C function), 1243
ptp() (numpy.matrix method), 119 PyArray_AxisConverter (C function), 1252
ptp() (numpy.ndarray method), 26 PyArray_BASE (C function), 1220
ptp() (numpy.recarray method), 174 PyArray_BoolConverter (C function), 1252
ptp() (numpy.record method), 191 PyArray_Broadcast (C function), 1247
put() (in module numpy), 604 PyArray_BroadcastToShape (C function), 1246
put() (numpy.chararray method), 148 PyArray_BufferConverter (C function), 1252
put() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 498 PyArray_ByteorderConverter (C function), 1252
put() (numpy.generic method), 59 PyArray_BYTES (C function), 1220
put() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 243 PyArray_Byteswap (C function), 1238
put() (numpy.matrix method), 120 PyArray_CanCastArrayTo (C function), 1231
1352 Index
PyArray_CanCastSafely (C function), 1231 PyArray_Descr.fields (C member), 1203

PyArray_CanCastTo (C function), 1231 PyArray_Descr.flags (C member), 1202
PyArray_CanCastTypeTo (C function), 1231 PyArray_Descr.kind (C member), 1202
PyArray_CanCoerceScalar (C function), 1250 PyArray_Descr.subarray (C member), 1203
PyArray_Cast (C function), 1231 PyArray_Descr.type (C member), 1202
PyArray_CastingConverter (C function), 1252 PyArray_Descr.type_num (C member), 1202
PyArray_CastScalarToCtype (C function), 1249 PyArray_Descr.typeobj (C member), 1201
PyArray_CastTo (C function), 1231 Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter (C function), 1251
PyArray_CastToType (C function), 1231 Pyarray_DescrAlignConverter2 (C function), 1251
PyArray_CEQ (C function), 1258 PyArray_DescrCheck (C function), 1250
PyArray_CGE (C function), 1258 PyArray_DescrConverter (C function), 1251
PyArray_CGT (C function), 1258 PyArray_DescrConverter2 (C function), 1251
PyArray_Check (C function), 1228 PyArray_DescrFromObject (C function), 1250
PyArray_CheckAnyScalar (C function), 1229 PyArray_DescrFromScalar (C function), 1251
PyArray_CheckAxis (C function), 1228 PyArray_DescrFromType (C function), 1251
PyArray_CheckExact (C function), 1228 PyArray_DescrNew (C function), 1250
PyArray_CheckFromAny (C function), 1226 PyArray_DescrNewByteorder (C function), 1250
PyArray_CheckScalar (C function), 1228 PyArray_DescrNewFromType (C function), 1250
PyArray_CheckStrides (C function), 1245 PyArray_Diagonal (C function), 1241
PyArray_CHKFLAGS (C function), 1236 PyArray_DIM (C function), 1220
PyArray_Choose (C function), 1240 PyArray_DIMS (C function), 1219
PyArray_Chunk (C type), 1211 PyArray_Dims (C type), 1211
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.base (C member), 1211 PyArray_Dims.PyArray_Dims.len (C member), 1211
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.flags (C member), 1212 PyArray_Dims.PyArray_Dims.ptr (C member), 1211
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.len (C member), 1211 PyArray_DiscardWritebackIfCopy (C function), 1258
PyArray_Chunk.PyArray_Chunk.ptr (C member), 1211 PyArray_DTYPE (C function), 1220
PyArray_CLE (C function), 1258 PyArray_Dump (C function), 1238
PyArray_CLEARFLAGS (C function), 1220 PyArray_Dumps (C function), 1238
PyArray_Clip (C function), 1242 PyArray_EinsteinSum (C function), 1244
PyArray_ClipmodeConverter (C function), 1252 PyArray_EMPTY (C function), 1223
PyArray_CLT (C function), 1258 PyArray_Empty (C function), 1223
PyArray_CNE (C function), 1258 PyArray_ENABLEFLAGS (C function), 1220
PyArray_CompareLists (C function), 1245 PyArray_EnsureArray (C function), 1226
PyArray_Compress (C function), 1241 PyArray_EquivArrTypes (C function), 1230
PyArray_Concatenate (C function), 1243 PyArray_EquivByteorders (C function), 1231
PyArray_Conjugate (C function), 1242 PyArray_EquivTypenums (C function), 1230
PyArray_ContiguousFromAny (C function), 1226 PyArray_EquivTypes (C function), 1230
PyArray_ConvertClipmodeSequence (C function), 1252 PyArray_FieldNames (C function), 1251
PyArray_Converter (C function), 1251 PyArray_FillObjectArray (C function), 1234
PyArray_ConvertToCommonType (C function), 1232 PyArray_FILLWBYTE (C function), 1222
PyArray_CopyAndTranspose (C function), 1244 PyArray_FillWithScalar (C function), 1238
PyArray_CopyInto (C function), 1227 PyArray_FLAGS (C function), 1220
PyArray_Correlate (C function), 1244 PyArray_Flatten (C function), 1239
PyArray_Correlate2 (C function), 1244 PyArray_Free (C function), 1243
PyArray_CountNonzero (C function), 1241 PyArray_free (C function), 1255
PyArray_CumProd (C function), 1242 PyArray_FROM_O (C function), 1227
PyArray_CumSum (C function), 1242 PyArray_FROM_OF (C function), 1227
PyArray_DATA (C function), 1219 PyArray_FROM_OT (C function), 1227
PyArray_DESCR (C function), 1220 PyArray_FROM_OTF (C function), 1228
PyArray_Descr (C type), 1201 PyArray_FROMANY (C function), 1228
PyArray_Descr.alignment (C member), 1203 PyArray_FromAny (C function), 1223
PyArray_Descr.byteorder (C member), 1202 PyArray_FromArray (C function), 1226
PyArray_Descr.elsize (C member), 1203 PyArray_FromArrayAttr (C function), 1226
PyArray_Descr.f (C member), 1203 PyArray_FromBuffer (C function), 1227
Index 1353
PyArray_FromFile (C function), 1227 PyArray_IsPythonScalar (C function), 1228

PyArray_FromInterface (C function), 1226 PyArray_IsScalar (C function), 1228
PyArray_FromObject (C function), 1226 PyArray_ISSIGNED (C function), 1229
PyArray_FromScalar (C function), 1249 PyArray_ISSTRING (C function), 1229
PyArray_FromString (C function), 1227 PyArray_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1229
PyArray_FromStructInterface (C function), 1226 PyArray_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1230
PyArray_GetArrayParamsFromObject (C function), 1225 PyArray_ISWRITEABLE (C function), 1237
PyArray_GetCastFunc (C function), 1231 PyArray_IsZeroDim (C function), 1228
PyArray_GETCONTIGUOUS (C function), 1227 PyArray_Item_INCREF (C function), 1234
PyArray_GetEndianness (C function), 1214 PyArray_Item_XDECREF (C function), 1234
PyArray_GetField (C function), 1237 PyArray_ITEMSIZE (C function), 1220
PyArray_GETITEM (C function), 1220 PyArray_ITER_DATA (C function), 1247
PyArray_GetNDArrayCFeatureVersion (C function), PyArray_ITER_GOTO (C function), 1247
1254 PyArray_ITER_GOTO1D (C function), 1247
PyArray_GetNDArrayCVersion (C function), 1254 PyArray_ITER_NEXT (C function), 1247
PyArray_GetNumericOps (C function), 1255 PyArray_ITER_NOTDONE (C function), 1247
PyArray_GetPriority (C function), 1257 PyArray_ITER_RESET (C function), 1247
PyArray_GetPtr (C function), 1221 PyArray_IterAllButAxis (C function), 1246
PyArray_GETPTR1 (C function), 1221 PyArray_IterNew (C function), 1246
PyArray_GETPTR2 (C function), 1221 PyArray_LexSort (C function), 1240
PyArray_GETPTR3 (C function), 1221 PyArray_malloc (C function), 1255
PyArray_GETPTR4 (C function), 1221 PyArray_MatrixProduct (C function), 1243
PyArray_HasArrayInterface (C function), 1228 PyArray_MatrixProduct2 (C function), 1243
PyArray_HasArrayInterfaceType (C function), 1228 PyArray_MAX (C function), 1258
PyArray_HASFIELDS (C function), 1230 PyArray_Max (C function), 1241
PyArray_INCREF (C function), 1233 PyArray_Mean (C function), 1242
PyArray_InitArrFuncs (C function), 1233 PyArray_MIN (C function), 1258
PyArray_InnerProduct (C function), 1243 PyArray_Min (C function), 1241
PyArray_IntpConverter (C function), 1252 PyArray_MinScalarType (C function), 1232
PyArray_IntpFromSequence (C function), 1253 PyArray_MoveInto (C function), 1227
PyArray_IS_C_CONTIGUOUS (C function), 1236 PyArray_MultiIter_DATA (C function), 1247
PyArray_IS_F_CONTIGUOUS (C function), 1236 PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISALIGNED (C function), 1237 PyArray_MultiIter_GOTO1D (C function), 1247
PyArray_IsAnyScalar (C function), 1228 PyArray_MultiIter_NEXT (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISBEHAVED (C function), 1237 PyArray_MultiIter_NEXTi (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISBEHAVED_RO (C function), 1237 PyArray_MultiIter_NOTDONE (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISBOOL (C function), 1230 PyArray_MultiIter_RESET (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISBYTESWAPPED (C function), 1230 PyArray_MultiIterNew (C function), 1247
PyArray_ISCARRAY (C function), 1237 PyArray_MultiplyIntList (C function), 1245
PyArray_ISCARRAY_RO (C function), 1237 PyArray_MultiplyList (C function), 1245
PyArray_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1229 PyArray_NBYTES (C function), 1221
PyArray_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1230 PyArray_NDIM (C function), 1219
PyArray_ISFARRAY (C function), 1237 PyArray_NeighborhoodIterNew (C function), 1248
PyArray_ISFARRAY_RO (C function), 1237 PyArray_New (C function), 1222
PyArray_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1230 PyArray_NewCopy (C function), 1238
PyArray_ISFLOAT (C function), 1229 PyArray_NewFromDescr (C function), 1221
PyArray_ISFORTRAN (C function), 1236 PyArray_NewLikeArray (C function), 1222
PyArray_ISINTEGER (C function), 1229 PyArray_Newshape (C function), 1238
PyArray_ISNOTSWAPPED (C function), 1230 PyArray_Nonzero (C function), 1241
PyArray_ISNUMBER (C function), 1229 PyArray_ObjectType (C function), 1232
PyArray_ISOBJECT (C function), 1230 PyArray_One (C function), 1233
PyArray_ISONESEGMENT (C function), 1237 PyArray_OrderConverter (C function), 1252
PyArray_ISPYTHON (C function), 1230 PyArray_OutputConverter (C function), 1251
PyArray_IsPythonNumber (C function), 1228 PyArray_Partition (C function), 1241
1354 Index
PyArray_Prod (C function), 1242 PyArray_Transpose (C function), 1239

PyArray_PromoteTypes (C function), 1232 PyArray_TYPE (C function), 1220
PyArray_Ptp (C function), 1242 PyArray_Type (C variable), 1200
PyArray_PutMask (C function), 1240 PyArray_TypeObjectFromType (C function), 1250
PyArray_PutTo (C function), 1239 PyArray_TypestrConvert (C function), 1253
PyArray_PyIntAsInt (C function), 1253 PyArray_UpdateFlags (C function), 1237
PyArray_PyIntAsIntp (C function), 1253 PyArray_ValidType (C function), 1233
PyArray_Ravel (C function), 1239 PyArray_View (C function), 1238
PyArray_realloc (C function), 1255 PyArray_Where (C function), 1244
PyArray_REFCOUNT (C function), 1258 PyArray_XDECREF (C function), 1234
PyArray_RegisterCanCast (C function), 1233 PyArray_XDECREF_ERR (C function), 1258
PyArray_RegisterCastFunc (C function), 1233 PyArray_Zero (C function), 1233
PyArray_RegisterDataType (C function), 1233 PyArray_ZEROS (C function), 1223
PyArray_RemoveSmallest (C function), 1248 PyArray_Zeros (C function), 1222
PyArray_Repeat (C function), 1240 PyArrayDescr_Type (C variable), 1201
PyArray_Reshape (C function), 1238 PyArrayFlags_Type (C variable), 1210
PyArray_Resize (C function), 1239 PyArrayInterface (C type), 1212
PyArray_ResolveWritebackIfCopy (C function), 1255 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.data (C member),
PyArray_ResultType (C function), 1232 1213
PyArray_Return (C function), 1249 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.descr (C member),
PyArray_Round (C function), 1242 1213
PyArray_SAMESHAPE (C function), 1258 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.flags (C member),
PyArray_Scalar (C function), 1249 1212
PyArray_ScalarAsCtype (C function), 1249 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.itemsize (C member),
PyArray_ScalarKind (C function), 1250 1212
PyArray_SearchsideConverter (C function), 1252 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.nd (C member), 1212
PyArray_SearchSorted (C function), 1240 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.shape (C member),
PyArray_SetBaseObject (C function), 1223 1212
PyArray_SetField (C function), 1237 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.strides (C member),
PyArray_SETITEM (C function), 1220 1212
PyArray_SetNumericOps (C function), 1254 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.two (C member),
PyArray_SetStringFunction (C function), 1255 1212
PyArray_SetUpdateIfCopyBase (C function), 1234 PyArrayInterface.PyArrayInterface.typekind (C mem-
PyArray_SetWritebackIfCopyBase (C function), 1234 ber), 1212
PyArray_SHAPE (C function), 1219 PyArrayIter_Check (C function), 1247
PyArray_SimpleNew (C function), 1222 PyArrayIter_Type (C variable), 1208
PyArray_SimpleNewFromData (C function), 1222 PyArrayIterObject (C type), 1208
PyArray_SimpleNewFromDescr (C function), 1222 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.ao (C member),
PyArray_SIZE (C function), 1221 1209
PyArray_Size (C function), 1221 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.backstrides (C
PyArray_Sort (C function), 1240 member), 1209
PyArray_SortkindConverter (C function), 1252 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.contiguous (C
PyArray_Squeeze (C function), 1239 member), 1209
PyArray_Std (C function), 1242 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.coordinates (C
PyArray_STRIDE (C function), 1220 member), 1209
PyArray_STRIDES (C function), 1220 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.dataptr (C mem-
PyArray_Sum (C function), 1242 ber), 1209
PyArray_SwapAxes (C function), 1239 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.dims_m1 (C mem-
PyArray_TakeFrom (C function), 1239 ber), 1209
PyArray_ToFile (C function), 1238 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.factors (C mem-
PyArray_ToList (C function), 1238 ber), 1209
PyArray_ToScalar (C function), 1249 PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.index (C member),
PyArray_ToString (C function), 1238 1209
PyArray_Trace (C function), 1242
Index 1355
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.nd_m1 (C mem- PyDimMem_NEW (C function), 1255

ber), 1209 PyDimMem_RENEW (C function), 1255
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.size (C member), Python Enhancement Proposals
1209 PEP 3118, 347
PyArrayIterObject.PyArrayIterObject.strides (C mem- PyTypeNum_ISBOOL (C function), 1230
ber), 1209 PyTypeNum_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1229
PyArrayMapIter_Type (C variable), 1213 PyTypeNum_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1230
PyArrayMultiIter_Type (C variable), 1209 PyTypeNum_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1230
PyArrayMultiIterObject (C type), 1209 PyTypeNum_ISFLOAT (C function), 1229
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.dimensionsPyTypeNum_ISINTEGER (C function), 1229
(C member), 1210 PyTypeNum_ISNUMBER (C function), 1229
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.index PyTypeNum_ISOBJECT (C function), 1230
(C member), 1210 PyTypeNum_ISPYTHON (C function), 1229
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.iters (C PyTypeNum_ISSIGNED (C function), 1229
member), 1210 PyTypeNum_ISSTRING (C function), 1229
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.nd (C PyTypeNum_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1229
member), 1210 PyTypeNum_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1230
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.numiter PyUFunc_checkfperr (C function), 1279
(C member), 1210 PyUFunc_clearfperr (C function), 1279
PyArrayMultiIterObject.PyArrayMultiIterObject.size (C PyUFunc_D_D (C function), 1279
member), 1210 PyUFunc_d_d (C function), 1279
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Next (C function), 1249 PyUFunc_DD_D (C function), 1280
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Reset (C function), 1249 PyUFunc_dd_d (C function), 1280
PyArrayNeighborhoodIter_Type (C variable), 1210 PyUFunc_e_e (C function), 1279
PyArrayNeighborhoodIterObject (C type), 1210 PyUFunc_e_e_As_d_d (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject (C type), 1200 PyUFunc_e_e_As_f_f (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject.base (C member), 1201 PyUFunc_ee_e (C function), 1280
PyArrayObject.data (C member), 1200 PyUFunc_ee_e_As_dd_d (C function), 1280
PyArrayObject.descr (C member), 1201 PyUFunc_ee_e_As_ff_f (C function), 1280
PyArrayObject.dimensions (C member), 1200 PyUFunc_F_F (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject.flags (C member), 1201 PyUFunc_f_f (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject.nd (C member), 1200 PyUFunc_F_F_As_D_D (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject.strides (C member), 1200 PyUFunc_f_f_As_d_d (C function), 1279
PyArrayObject.weakreflist (C member), 1201 PyUFunc_FF_F (C function), 1280
PyDataMem_FREE (C function), 1255 PyUFunc_ff_f (C function), 1280
PyDataMem_NEW (C function), 1255 PyUFunc_FF_F_As_DD_D (C function), 1280
PyDataMem_RENEW (C function), 1255 PyUFunc_ff_f_As_dd_d (C function), 1280
PyDataType_FLAGCHK (C function), 1202 PyUFunc_FromFuncAndData (C function), 1277
PyDataType_HASFIELDS (C function), 1230 PyUFunc_FromFuncAndDataAndSignature (C function),
PyDataType_ISBOOL (C function), 1230 1278
PyDataType_ISCOMPLEX (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_G_G (C function), 1279
PyDataType_ISEXTENDED (C function), 1230 PyUFunc_g_g (C function), 1279
PyDataType_ISFLEXIBLE (C function), 1230 PyUFunc_GenericFunction (C function), 1279
PyDataType_ISFLOAT (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_GetPyValues (C function), 1279
PyDataType_ISINTEGER (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_GG_G (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISNUMBER (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_gg_g (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISOBJECT (C function), 1230 PyUFunc_Loop1d (C type), 1213
PyDataType_ISPYTHON (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_O_O (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISSIGNED (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_O_O_method (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISSTRING (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_On_Om (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISUNSIGNED (C function), 1229 PyUFunc_OO_O (C function), 1280
PyDataType_ISUSERDEF (C function), 1230 PyUFunc_OO_O_method (C function), 1280
PyDataType_REFCHK (C function), 1202 PyUFunc_PyFuncData (C type), 1280
PyDimMem_FREE (C function), 1255 PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForDescr (C function), 1278
1356 Index
PyUFunc_RegisterLoopForType (C function), 1278 ravel() (in module numpy), 422

PyUFunc_ReplaceLoopBySignature (C function), 1278 ravel() (numpy.chararray method), 148
PyUFunc_Type (C variable), 1206 ravel() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 498
PyUFuncLoopObject (C type), 1213 ravel() (numpy.generic method), 59
PyUFuncObject (C type), 1206 ravel() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 234
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.data (C member), 1207 ravel() (numpy.matrix method), 120
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.doc (C member), 1208 ravel() (numpy.ndarray method), 26
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.identity (C member), ravel() (numpy.recarray method), 175
1207 ravel() (numpy.record method), 192
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.iter_flags (C member), ravel_multi_index() (in module numpy), 588
1208 rayleigh() (in module numpy.random), 1031
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.name (C member), rayleigh() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1086
1207 real (numpy.generic attribute), 51
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nargs (C member), 1207 real (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 226
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nin (C member), 1207 real (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.nout (C member), 1207 real() (in module numpy), 779
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.ntypes (C member), real_if_close() (in module numpy), 794
1207 recarray (class in numpy), 160
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.obj (C member), 1208 reciprocal (in module numpy), 765
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.op_flags (C member), record (class in numpy), 185
1208 record() (numpy.testing.suppress_warnings method),
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.ptr (C member), 1208 1175
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.types (C member), 1208 recordmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 218, 281
PyUFuncObject.PyUFuncObject.userloops (C member), red_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
1208 reduce
PyUFuncReduceObject (C type), 1213 ufunc methods, 1297
reduce() (numpy.ufunc method), 372
Q reduceat
qr() (in module numpy.linalg), 659 ufunc methods, 1297
reduceat() (numpy.ufunc method), 375
R remainder (in module numpy), 776
r_ (in module numpy), 582 remove_axis() (numpy.nditer method), 612
rad2deg (in module numpy), 719 remove_multi_index() (numpy.nditer method), 612
radians (in module numpy), 717 repeat() (in module numpy), 449
rand() (in module numpy.matlib), 801 repeat() (numpy.chararray method), 149
rand() (in module numpy.random), 991 repeat() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
rand() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1080 498
randint() (in module numpy.random), 992 repeat() (numpy.generic method), 59
randint() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1082 repeat() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 243
randn() (in module numpy.matlib), 801 repeat() (numpy.matrix method), 120
randn() (in module numpy.random), 992 repeat() (numpy.ndarray method), 26
randn() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1083 repeat() (numpy.recarray method), 175
random() (in module numpy.random), 995 repeat() (numpy.record method), 192
random_integers() (in module numpy.random), 993 replace() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 475
random_integers() (numpy.random.RandomState replace() (numpy.chararray method), 149
method), 1084 replace() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
random_sample() (in module numpy.random), 994 498
random_sample() (numpy.random.RandomState repmat() (in module numpy.matlib), 800
method), 1085 require() (in module numpy), 434
RandomState (class in numpy.random), 1046 reset() (numpy.broadcast method), 198
ranf() (in module numpy.random), 996 reset() (numpy.nditer method), 612
RankWarning, 973, 991 reshape() (in module numpy), 420
rate() (in module numpy), 570 reshape() (in module numpy.ma), 282
ravel (in module numpy.ma), 281 reshape() (numpy.chararray method), 149
Index 1357
reshape() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), round() (numpy.matrix method), 122

498 round() (numpy.ndarray method), 28
reshape() (numpy.generic method), 59 round() (numpy.recarray method), 177
reshape() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 234 round() (numpy.record method), 192
reshape() (numpy.matrix method), 120 round_() (in module numpy), 727
reshape() (numpy.ndarray method), 26 row-major, 37
reshape() (numpy.recarray method), 175 row_stack (in module numpy.ma), 292
reshape() (numpy.record method), 192 rpartition() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 476
resize() (in module numpy), 453 rsplit() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 476
resize() (in module numpy.ma), 282 rsplit() (numpy.chararray method), 151
resize() (numpy.chararray method), 149 rsplit() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 500
resize() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 499 rstrip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 477
resize() (numpy.generic method), 59 rstrip() (numpy.chararray method), 151
resize() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 235 rstrip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 501
resize() (numpy.matrix method), 121 run_module_suite() (in module numpy.testing), 1172
resize() (numpy.ndarray method), 26 rundocs() (in module numpy.testing), 1173
resize() (numpy.recarray method), 175
resize() (numpy.record method), 192 S
result_type() (in module numpy), 521 s_ (in module numpy), 584
rfft() (in module numpy.fft), 549 sample() (in module numpy.random), 997
rfft2() (in module numpy.fft), 551 save() (in module numpy), 617
rfftfreq() (in module numpy.fft), 558 savetxt() (in module numpy), 621
rfftn() (in module numpy.fft), 552 savez() (in module numpy), 618
rfind() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 486 savez_compressed() (in module numpy), 619
rfind() (numpy.chararray method), 151 scalar
rfind() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 500 dtype, 63
right_shift (in module numpy), 466 sctype2char() (in module numpy), 531
rindex() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 487 searchsorted() (in module numpy), 1121
rindex() (numpy.chararray method), 151 searchsorted() (numpy.chararray method), 151
rindex() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), searchsorted() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray
500 method), 501
rint (in module numpy), 727 searchsorted() (numpy.generic method), 59
rjust() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 476 searchsorted() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 244
rjust() (numpy.chararray method), 151 searchsorted() (numpy.matrix method), 122
rjust() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 500 searchsorted() (numpy.ndarray method), 28
roll() (in module numpy), 458 searchsorted() (numpy.recarray method), 177
rollaxis() (in module numpy), 424 searchsorted() (numpy.record method), 192
roots() (in module numpy), 982 seed() (in module numpy.random), 1102
roots() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev seed() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1087
method), 847 select() (in module numpy), 602
roots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), set_fill_value() (in module numpy.ma), 311
926 set_fill_value() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 262
roots() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), set_printoptions() (in module numpy), 633
952 set_state() (in module numpy.random), 1103
roots() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), set_state() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1087
899 set_string_function() (in module numpy), 636
roots() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), set_verbosity() (in module numpy.distutils.log), 1195
873 setastest() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1171
roots() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial setbufsize() (in module numpy), 362
method), 822 setdiff1d() (in module numpy), 1107
rot90() (in module numpy), 459 seterr() (in module numpy), 363
round() (in module numpy.ma), 340 seterrcall() (in module numpy), 364
round() (numpy.generic method), 59 seterrobj() (in module numpy), 536
round() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 251 setfield() (numpy.chararray method), 151
1358 Index
setfield() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), sort() (numpy.recarray method), 179

501 sort() (numpy.record method), 193
setfield() (numpy.generic method), 60 sort_complex() (in module numpy), 1114
setfield() (numpy.matrix method), 122 source() (in module numpy), 580
setfield() (numpy.ndarray method), 28 spacing (in module numpy), 763
setfield() (numpy.recarray method), 177 special methods
setfield() (numpy.record method), 192 getitem, ndarray, 77
setflags() (numpy.chararray method), 152 setitem, ndarray, 77
setflags() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), split() (in module numpy), 443
502 split() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 477
setflags() (numpy.generic method), 60 split() (numpy.chararray method), 154
setflags() (numpy.matrix method), 123 split() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 504
setflags() (numpy.ndarray method), 29 splitlines() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 477
setflags() (numpy.recarray method), 178 splitlines() (numpy.chararray method), 154
setflags() (numpy.record method), 192 splitlines() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
setitem 504
ndarray special methods, 77 sqrt (in module numpy), 783
setxor1d() (in module numpy), 1107 square (in module numpy), 784
shape (numpy.dtype attribute), 67 squeeze() (in module numpy), 431
shape (numpy.generic attribute), 51 squeeze() (in module numpy.ma), 287
shape (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 224 squeeze() (numpy.chararray method), 154
shape (numpy.ndarray attribute), 10 squeeze() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
shape() (in module numpy.ma), 278 504
sharedmask (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 219 squeeze() (numpy.generic method), 60
shares_memory() (in module numpy), 803 squeeze() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 235
shrink_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261 squeeze() (numpy.matrix method), 125
shuffle() (in module numpy.random), 999 squeeze() (numpy.ndarray method), 31
shuffle() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1088 squeeze() (numpy.recarray method), 180
sign (in module numpy), 787 squeeze() (numpy.record method), 193
signature (numpy.ufunc attribute), 371 stack() (in module numpy), 437
signbit (in module numpy), 759 standard_cauchy() (in module numpy.random), 1033
sin (in module numpy), 707 standard_cauchy() (numpy.random.RandomState
sinc() (in module numpy), 758 method), 1088
single-segment, 37 standard_exponential() (in module numpy.random), 1034
sinh (in module numpy), 720 standard_exponential() (numpy.random.RandomState
size (numpy.generic attribute), 51 method), 1089
size (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 225 standard_gamma() (in module numpy.random), 1034
size (numpy.ndarray attribute), 9 standard_gamma() (numpy.random.RandomState
size() (in module numpy.ma), 278 method), 1089
skipif() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1171 standard_normal() (in module numpy.random), 1035
slicing, 76 standard_normal() (numpy.random.RandomState
slogdet() (in module numpy.linalg), 675 method), 1090
slow() (in module numpy.testing.decorators), 1171 standard_t() (in module numpy.random), 1036
soften_mask (in module numpy.ma), 305 standard_t() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1091
soften_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 260 startswith() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 487
solve() (in module numpy.linalg), 677 startswith() (numpy.chararray method), 154
sort() (in module numpy), 1109 startswith() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
sort() (in module numpy.ma), 326 504
sort() (numpy.chararray method), 153 std (in module numpy.ma), 320
sort() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 503 std() (in module numpy), 1138
sort() (numpy.generic method), 60 std() (numpy.generic method), 60
sort() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 244 std() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 251
sort() (numpy.matrix method), 124 std() (numpy.matrix method), 126
sort() (numpy.ndarray method), 30 std() (numpy.ndarray method), 31
Index 1359
std() (numpy.recarray method), 180 tan (in module numpy), 709

std() (numpy.record method), 193 tanh (in module numpy), 722
str (numpy.dtype attribute), 67 tensordot() (in module numpy), 648
stride, 37 tensorinv() (in module numpy.linalg), 682
strides (numpy.generic attribute), 51 tensorsolve() (in module numpy.linalg), 678
strides (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 225 terminal_has_colors() (in module
strides (numpy.ndarray attribute), 11 numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
strip() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 478 Tester (in module numpy.testing), 1172
strip() (numpy.chararray method), 154 tile() (in module numpy), 448
strip() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 504 title() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 479
sub-array title() (numpy.chararray method), 155
dtype, 63, 71 title() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 505
subdtype (numpy.dtype attribute), 67 tobytes() (numpy.generic method), 61
subtract (in module numpy), 769 tobytes() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 232
sum (in module numpy.ma), 320 tobytes() (numpy.matrix method), 127
sum() (in module numpy), 733 tobytes() (numpy.ndarray method), 32
sum() (numpy.generic method), 60 tobytes() (numpy.recarray method), 181
sum() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 251 tobytes() (numpy.record method), 194
sum() (numpy.matrix method), 126 todict() (numpy.distutils.misc_util.Configuration
sum() (numpy.ndarray method), 31 method), 1186
sum() (numpy.recarray method), 180 tofile() (numpy.chararray method), 155
sum() (numpy.record method), 193 tofile() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 505
suppress_warnings (class in numpy.testing), 1173 tofile() (numpy.generic method), 61
svd() (in module numpy.linalg), 661 tofile() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 230
swapaxes (in module numpy.ma), 283 tofile() (numpy.matrix method), 128
swapaxes() (in module numpy), 425 tofile() (numpy.ndarray method), 32
swapaxes() (numpy.chararray method), 155 tofile() (numpy.recarray method), 181
swapaxes() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), tofile() (numpy.record method), 194
504 toflex() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 230
swapaxes() (numpy.generic method), 61 tolist() (numpy.chararray method), 156
swapaxes() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 235 tolist() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 505
swapaxes() (numpy.matrix method), 127 tolist() (numpy.generic method), 61
swapaxes() (numpy.ndarray method), 31 tolist() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 231
swapaxes() (numpy.recarray method), 180 tolist() (numpy.matrix method), 128
swapaxes() (numpy.record method), 193 tolist() (numpy.ndarray method), 33
swapcase() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 478 tolist() (numpy.recarray method), 182
swapcase() (numpy.chararray method), 155 tolist() (numpy.record method), 194
swapcase() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), tomaxint() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1092
504 torecords() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 231
tostring() (numpy.chararray method), 156
T tostring() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method),
T (numpy.generic attribute), 51 506
T (numpy.ma.MaskedArray attribute), 236 tostring() (numpy.generic method), 61
T (numpy.matrix attribute), 99 tostring() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 232
T (numpy.ndarray attribute), 6 tostring() (numpy.matrix method), 128
take() (in module numpy), 596 tostring() (numpy.ndarray method), 33
take() (numpy.chararray method), 155 tostring() (numpy.recarray method), 182
take() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 505 tostring() (numpy.record method), 194
take() (numpy.generic method), 61 trace (in module numpy.ma), 334
take() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 245 trace() (in module numpy), 676
take() (numpy.matrix method), 127 trace() (numpy.generic method), 61
take() (numpy.ndarray method), 32 trace() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 252
take() (numpy.recarray method), 180 trace() (numpy.matrix method), 129
take() (numpy.record method), 193 trace() (numpy.ndarray method), 34
1360 Index
trace() (numpy.recarray method), 183 truncate() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial

trace() (numpy.record method), 194 method), 822
translate() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 479 type (numpy.dtype attribute), 74
translate() (numpy.chararray method), 157 typename() (in module numpy), 530
translate() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), types (numpy.ufunc attribute), 370
506
transpose() (in module numpy), 426 U
transpose() (in module numpy.ma), 283 ufunc, 1294, 1297
transpose() (numpy.chararray method), 157 attributes, 368
transpose() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), C-API, 1277, 1281
506 casting rules, 365
transpose() (numpy.generic method), 61 keyword arguments, 367
transpose() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 235 methods, 372
transpose() (numpy.matrix method), 129 methods accumulate, 1297
transpose() (numpy.ndarray method), 34 methods reduce, 1297
transpose() (numpy.recarray method), 183 methods reduceat, 1297
transpose() (numpy.record method), 194 UFUNC_CHECK_ERROR (C function), 1277
trapz() (in module numpy), 747 UFUNC_CHECK_STATUS (C function), 1277
tri() (in module numpy), 416 uniform() (in module numpy.random), 1038
triangular() (in module numpy.random), 1037 uniform() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1094
triangular() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1093 union1d() (in module numpy), 1108
tril() (in module numpy), 417 unique() (in module numpy), 454
tril_indices() (in module numpy), 592 unpackbits() (in module numpy), 467
tril_indices_from() (in module numpy), 593 unravel_index() (in module numpy), 589
trim() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev unshare_mask() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 261
method), 847 unwrap() (in module numpy), 718
trim() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), 926 upper() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 480
trim() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE method), upper() (numpy.chararray method), 157
953 upper() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 507
trim() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre method), user_array, 195
899
trim() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre method), V
873 vander() (in module numpy), 418
trim() (numpy.polynomial.polynomial.Polynomial vander() (in module numpy.ma), 335
method), 822 var (in module numpy.ma), 321
trim_zeros() (in module numpy), 453 var() (in module numpy), 1139
trimcoef() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils), 974 var() (numpy.generic method), 62
trimseq() (in module numpy.polynomial.polyutils), 974 var() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 252
triu() (in module numpy), 417 var() (numpy.matrix method), 130
triu_indices() (in module numpy), 594 var() (numpy.ndarray method), 35
triu_indices_from() (in module numpy), 595 var() (numpy.recarray method), 184
true_divide (in module numpy), 770 var() (numpy.record method), 194
trunc (in module numpy), 730 vdot() (in module numpy), 643
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.chebyshev.Chebyshev vectorize (class in numpy), 574
method), 848 view, 3
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.hermite.Hermite method), ndarray, 78
926 view() (numpy.chararray method), 158
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.hermite_e.HermiteE view() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 507
method), 953 view() (numpy.generic method), 62
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.laguerre.Laguerre view() (numpy.ma.MaskedArray method), 227
method), 900 view() (numpy.matrix method), 130
truncate() (numpy.polynomial.legendre.Legendre view() (numpy.ndarray method), 35
method), 874 view() (numpy.recarray method), 184
view() (numpy.record method), 194
Index 1361
vonmises() (in module numpy.random), 1040

vonmises() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1096
vsplit() (in module numpy), 447
vstack (in module numpy.ma), 293
vstack() (in module numpy), 440
W
wald() (in module numpy.random), 1041
wald() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1098
weibull() (in module numpy.random), 1043
weibull() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1099
where() (in module numpy), 585
where() (in module numpy.ma), 347
Y
yellow_text() (in module numpy.distutils.misc_util), 1186
Z
zeros (in module numpy.ma), 270
zeros() (in module numpy), 388
zeros() (in module numpy.matlib), 798
zeros_like() (in module numpy), 389
zfill() (in module numpy.core.defchararray), 480
zfill() (numpy.chararray method), 159
zfill() (numpy.core.defchararray.chararray method), 509
zipf() (in module numpy.random), 1044
zipf() (numpy.random.RandomState method), 1100
1362 Index

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NumPy Reference

Written by the NumPy community

April 16, 2018

2 Universal functions (ufunc) 361

4 Packaging (numpy.distutils) 1185

5 NumPy C-API 1199

6 NumPy internals 1291

7 NumPy and SWIG 1301

Python Module Index 1331

1.1 The N-dimensional array (ndarray)

>>> x = np.array([[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]], np.int32)

The array can be indexed using Python container-like syntax:

>>> # The element of x in the *second* row, *third* column, namely, 6.

For example slicing can produce views of the array:

1.1.1 Constructing arrays

ndarray(shape[, dtype, buffer, offset, . . . ]) An array object represents a multidimensional, homoge-

class numpy.ndarray(shape, dtype=float, buffer=None, offset=0, strides=None, order=None)

4 Chapter 1. Array objects

Shape of created array.

array Construct an array.

There are two modes of creating an array using __new__:

>>> np.ndarray(shape=(2,2), dtype=float, order='F')

>>> np.ndarray((2,), buffer=np.array([1,2,3]),

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 5

T Same as self.transpose(), except that self is returned if

6 Chapter 1. Array objects

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 7

flatten Return a copy of the array collapsed into one dimension.

8 Chapter 1. Array objects

>>> x = np.arange(1, 7).reshape(2, 3)

>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])

numpy.real equivalent function

>>> x = np.sqrt([1+0j, 0+1j])

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 9

Equivalent to np.prod(a.shape), i.e., the product of the array’s dimensions.

>>> x = np.zeros((3, 5, 2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x = np.array([1,2,3], dtype=np.float64)

>>> x = np.zeros((3,5,2), dtype=np.complex128)

>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3])

10 Chapter 1. Array objects

numpy.reshape similar function

>>> x = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

offset = sum(np.array(i) * a.strides)

Imagine an array of 32-bit integers (each 4 bytes):

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 11

>>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(2*3*4), (2,3,4))

>>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(5*6*7*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)

12 Chapter 1. Array objects

>>> import ctypes

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 13

The base of an array that owns its memory is None:

Slicing creates a view, whose memory is shared with x:

all([axis, out, keepdims]) Returns True if all elements evaluate to True.

14 Chapter 1. Array objects

Table 1.3 – continued from previous page

1.1. The N-dimensional array (ndarray) 15

Table 1.3 – continued from previous page

ndarray.all(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

numpy.all equivalent function

ndarray.any(axis=None, out=None, keepdims=False)

numpy.any equivalent function

numpy.argmax equivalent function

numpy.argmin equivalent function

>>> # The element of x in the second row, third column, namely, 6.

There are two modes of creating an array using new:

>>> y = np.reshape(np.arange(234), (2,3,4))

>>> x = np.reshape(np.arange(567*8), (5,6,7,8)).transpose(2,3,1,0)