Professional Documents
Culture Documents
for Engineers
Some figures used in this lecture are adopted from:
• Chemistry ‐ the Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 7th Edn., Silberberg
and Amateis, McGraw‐Hill Education, 2015. (denoted as R1)
• Chemistry3, Andrew Burrows, John Holman, Andrew Parsons, Gwen Pilling,
Gareth Price, Oxford University Press, Second Edition, 2013. (denoted as R2) A/P Chin Wee Shong
Department of Chemistry
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
Email: chmcws@nus.edu.sg
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Part (IV) Chemical Kinetics
1) Reaction rate and its determination
a) Expressions for reaction rate
b) The rate law and determination of its
components 2) Theories of chemical kinetics
c) The effect of temperature a) Collision theory
b) Transition state theory
3) Reaction mechanism
a) Overall and elementary reactions 4) Catalysis
b) The rate determining step a) Homogeneous catalysis
c) The steady‐state approximation b) Heterogeneous catalysis
c) Enzyme
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Part (IV) Chemical Kinetics
1) Reaction rate and its determination
a) Expressions for reaction rate
b) The rate law and determination of its components
c) The effect of temperature
Learning outcome of part (1):
• Understand the various components expressed in a rate law
• Can identify the order of reaction from an elementary reaction
• Perform simple calculation of the components of a rate law (rate
constant, order of reaction, etc.) given some reaction information
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Rate of reactions
• The relative changes in concentrations of reactants or
products per unit time can be defined as the rate of reaction
E.g. H2 reacts explosively
Rate varies as reaction proceeds with F2, but extremely
slowly with N2 to give HF
• For a general reaction a A + b B → c C + d D, we define and NH3 respectively
the instantaneous rate of reaction:
1 d A 1 d B 1 d C 1 d D
Rate ‐ ‐
a dt b dt c dt d dt
• Obtained by taking the gradient of a line
tangent to the curve at that particular point t
• Or getting the gradient from a derivative of a
polynomial fit to the curve
Unit for rate : mol L‐1 s‐1
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Three types of reaction rates
Initial rate is the gradient A Ao
of a line tangent to the Average rate
curve at t = 0 t to
Average rate is
the total change
[C2H4]o or [O3]o in concentration
divided by the
time interval
Only meaningful
in the linear
Instantaneous rate is the
rate of change of the regime or over a
concentration at a short time
particular t interval
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers (R1: Figure 16.5).
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Worked example
• Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) gas decomposes according to the reaction
2N2O5 4NO2 + O2
At 328K, the rate of reaction under certain conditions is 0.75 x 10‐4 mol L‐1 s‐1.
d [N 2 O 5 ] d [NO 2 ] d [O 2 ] ?
What are the values of , ,
dt dt dt
1 d [N2O5 ] 1 d [NO2 ] d [O2 ]
v ‐
2 dt 4 dt dt
d [N2O5 ] d [O2 ]
‐ 2v ‐ 1.5 10 - 4 mol L‐1s‐1 v 0.75 10 - 4 mol L‐1s‐1
dt dt
d [NO2 ]
4v 3.0 10 - 4 mol L‐1s‐1
dt
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Methods for monitoring the rate of reaction
• Traditional methods: sampling at various times to
determine the concentration of the reactant/product
• Reaction progress kinetic analysis: in situ and
continuous collection of experimental data of a
response that can be related to concentration or rate
of reaction
Spectrometric monitoring of a reaction
• Measure the change in absorbance of the Temperature‐controlled cuvette
solution and correlate this to concentration holder in a spectrophotometer
using Beer‐Lambert’s Law http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cuvette_holder.jpg
Other methods:
Constant flux calorimeter
• Conductometric measurements
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coflux1.png
• Manometric methods
• Gas or Liquid chromatography
• Titration
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The empirical rate law
E.g. The rate law for a reaction
a A + b B → c C + d D was reported as: Rate = k [A][B]2
We said the reaction is first order
• In general, rate [some of the reactants], in A, second order in B and third
we can express rates of reaction empirically: order overall.
Rate k A B
n m
depends on T Overall order of the reaction = m + n
Reaction orders must be determined from experimental data
and cannot be deduced from the balanced overall equation
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Second order reactions
• Consider reactions with only We integrate the rate laws in order
one reactant: A P only to predict [A] at a certain time t
d A
Rate - k A
2
dt
Integrated rate law:
d A
- kdt
A 2
A d A t
kdt
A0 A2 t0
(R1: Figure 16.8 & 10).
1 1
kt
[A]t [A]0 Plot 1/[A]t vs t gives a straight line
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
Units of k : L mol‐1 s‐1
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
First order reactions
• For A P only
d A
Rate kA
dt
Integrated rate law:
Ad A t
kdt
A0 A t0
Units of k : s‐1
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Zero order reactions
d A kdt
A t
• As [A] decreases with time, eventually the
Plot [A]t against t gives a straight line
reaction reverts to first order kinetics
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers Units of k : mol L‐1 s‐1
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Graphical determination of reaction order
• E.g. the decomposition of N2O5
• Tabulate [N2O5], ln [N2O5], and 1/ [N2O5], and
construct three different plots
• Since the plot of ln [N2O5] vs time gives a
straight line, the reaction is first order
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers (R1: Figure 16.11)
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The initial rate method
• Measure the initial rates of reaction with respect to the reactants
• Perform several sets of experiments by keeping the concentration of one
reactant constant while changing the other and vice versa
Say Rate = k[O2]m[NO]n
Comparing experiment 1 and 2,
E.g. O2(g) + 2NO(g) → 2NO2(g)
Rate 2 [O ]
m
Initial Reactant Initial Rate
2 2 Concentrations (molL‐1) (molL‐1s‐1)
Rate1 [O 2 ]1 Experiment [O2 ] [NO]
Comparing experiment 1 and 3, 1 1.10x10‐2 1.30x10‐2 3.21x10‐3
n
Rate 3 [ NO 2 ]3 2 2.20x10‐2 1.30x10‐2 6.40x10‐3
Rate1 [ NO 2 1
] 3 1.10x10‐2 2.60x10‐2 12.8x10‐3
Thus m & n can be found, and Rate = k[O2][NO]2 4 3.30x10‐2 1.30x10‐2 9.60x10‐3
5 1.10x10‐2 3.90x10‐2 28.8x10‐3
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The isolation method
• We can also determine reaction orders by “isolating” one particular
reactant, with all the other reagents in excess:
Say Rate = k[A]m[B]n
• If B is in large excess, [B]n = constant throughout a large part of the reaction
The reaction becomes pseudo m‐th order with respect to the isolated reactant A
• By measuring the initial rates o at varying [A]o, a linear plot of
log 0 log k ' m logA 0 will give the order m as the gradient
• Repeat this treatment to obtain n What are the limitations or
disadvantages of this method?
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Worked example
• The initial rate of a reaction depend on concentration of a substance J is obtained
below when the other reactants in a reaction is in large excess:
Experiment [J ]0 Initial Rate o
(10 molL‐1)
‐3 (10‐7molL‐1s‐1)
1 5 3.6
2 8.2 9.6
3 17 41
4 30 130
Determine the order of the reaction with respect to J and calculate the rate constant.
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Solution
Plot log vo against log[J]o
-5.0
log(vo /molL-1s-1)
Experiment log [J ]0 log o
-5.5
(mol L‐1) (mol L‐1s‐1)
1 ‐2.30 ‐6.44 -6.0
2 ‐2.09 ‐6.02
-6.5
3 ‐1.77 ‐5.39
-2.4 -2.2 -2.0 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4
4 ‐1.52 ‐4.89
log [J]0
Gradient was determined from the plot as n = 2, i.e. the order of reaction
with respect to J is 2
The vertical intercept = log k’ = ‐1.8429
Rate constant k’ = 1.4 x 10‐2 Lmol‐1s‐1
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Half‐life
• The half‐life (t1/2) for a reaction
is the time taken for the
concentration of a reactant to
drop to half its initial value
• For a first‐order reaction, t1/2 is
a constant that is independent
of its concentration:
d A
A2 t2
1
A A kdt
t1
A2
2
A1
1
(R1: Figure 16.12).
ln2
t1/ 2
k For first order reactions, t½ remains the same
throughout low to high concentrations
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Half‐life of other reaction order
• For a second‐order reaction, t1/2 is inversely proportional to its initial
concentration:
1
t1/ 2 (Second order process; rate = k[A]2)
k[A]0
• When the concentration is low, t½ become very long
• Practically, this means that some environmentally harmful substances that
decay by second order kinetics will persist in the environment for long
periods of time
• For a zero‐order reaction, t1/2 is directly proportional to its initial
concentration: [A]0
t1/ 2 (Zero order process; rate = k)
2k
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The effect of temperature
• An increased temperature can significantly increase the
rate of many reactions
• The relationship between T and rate constant k is given
by the Arrhenius equation:
Ea
‐
kAe RT
Ea 1
ln k ln A - (R1: Figure 16.14).
R T
‒ k = the rate constant at T
‒ Ea = the activation energy
‒ R = the universal gas constant
‒ T = the temperature in Kelvin Ea is the threshold energy for reaction to occur:
‒ A = the frequency factor Large Ea => k depends strongly on T
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
Zero Ea => k is independent of T
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Worked example
The rate of the second‐order decomposition of acetaldehyde was measured over the
temperature range 700‐1000K, and the rate constants are reported as below. Determine
Ea and A for this reaction.
160
E
- a
k Ae RT 120
k (L mol s )
-1
-1
80
• Noted that k increases exponentially as T
increases 40
0
700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers Temperature (K)
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Solution
• We tabulate a table of ln k and 1/T and plot ln k versus 1/T
1/T (103 K) 1.43 1.37 1.32 1.27 1.23 1.19 1.10 1.00
ln k (Lmol‐1s‐1) ‐4.51 ‐3.35 ‐2.25 ‐1.07 ‐0.24 0.77 3.00 4.98
Ea 1
ln k ln A - 6
R T
4
ln k (L mol s )
-1
Gradient = ‐22.65 x103 and intercept = 27.7 R2=0.998
-1
2
Ea = (8.3145 J K‐1mol‐1 )x(22.65 x103 K) 0
= 188.3kJ mol‐1 -2
A = e27.7 L mol‐1s‐1 = 1.07x1012 L mol‐1s‐1 -4
Learning outcome of part (2):
• Describe the difference between collision theory and transition
state theory
• Appreciate qualitatively at molecular level the concept of the rate
of a reaction
How frequent
do they collide? Does the collision result in
sufficient energy for reaction?
Rate of reaction = number of collisions per unit time
probability of a collision with sufficient energy
Number of collisions per unit time number of
particles present (i.e. concentration)
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Effective collisions
• For a collision to be effective, it must have sufficient energy and the appropriate relative
orientation between the reacting particles
Frequency factor or Arrhenius pre‐exponential factor NO(g) + NO3(g) → 2NO2(g)
A = pZ
Orientation probability factor (p) Collision frequency (Z)
• the fraction of molecules that • determined by
collide in a certain orientation collision cross‐
and resulting in a reaction section of the
particle and T
The value p is related to the structural
complexity of the reactants and is
specific for each reaction
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
(R1: Figure 16.18).
Temperature dependence
• When T increases, kinetic energy of the
particles increases. The reactant particles
move faster leading to more frequent
Ea
collisions. This factor is reflected in the Arrhenius ‐
frequency factor A equation kAe RT
• Moreover, the fraction of collisions
between particles with energy > Ea also
increases:
Ea
Fraction (f) e RT
Boltzmann distribution law According to Collision Theory, as T increases, these
two factors combined to give more effective
collisions and higher rate of reaction
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The effect of temperature
Boltzmann distribution of energy
Ea (kJ/mol) f (at T = 298 K)
50 1.70x10‐9
75 7.03x10‐14
100 2.90x10‐18
larger f
T f (at Ea = 50 kJ/mol)
25°C (298 K) 1.70x10‐9
(R1: Figure 16.16).
35°C (308 K) 3.29x10‐9 Smaller Ea or Higher T
45°C (318 K) 6.12x10‐9
larger f larger k increased rate
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Transition state theory
• This Theory proposes that an activated complex is
formed during a reaction Activated complex
• The complex is at the point of maximum potential energy
(i.e. a transition state) along the reaction coordinates
Rate of reaction = concentration of activated complex
frequency the complex falls apart into the products Ea
Products
Boltzmann distribution law: E
a Reactants
Fraction of molecules activated e RT
Every step in a reaction goes through its own transition state
and can either form a product or revert back to reactants What is Ea for the
reverse reaction?
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Transition state structures
• Typically these
structures are
unstable species with
partial bonds
• We can suggest the
structures from
reaction mechanism
consideration, and
subject the structure
to MO calculation
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers (R1: Figure 16.21).
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Thermodynamic considerations
• The activated complex is at equilibrium with the reactants
A + B C products
[C ] K [A] [B]
• The rate of reaction depends on the second step:
The orientation probability factor is incorporated into the
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers entropy term
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Potential energy surface or hypersurface
• A potential energy surface gives the energy of a The minimum energy path
system as a function of its geometry (i.e. the
positions of all atoms in a molecule)
• Stationary points (points with a zero gradient):
• Energy minima correspond to physically
stable or quasi‐stable chemical species such
as reactants, products, intermediates
• Transition states are saddle points (minima in
all dimensions but maxima in the dimension
of the reaction pathways)
• Reaction pathway is the lowest energy pathway
connecting a chemical reactant to its product
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Part (IV) Chemical Kinetics
3) Reaction mechanism
a) Overall and elementary reactions
b) The rate determining step
c) The steady‐state approximation
Learning outcome of part (3):
• Refer to the difference between various forms of overall reaction
• Appreciate the importance of a rate determining step
• Suggest method to determine the rate of reaction
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Reaction Mechanisms
• A reaction mechanism describes the step by
step sequence of elementary reactions by
which a reaction occurs
• Chemists propose a reaction mechanism to
explain how a particular reaction might occur
and then test the mechanism
A B
ka
I
kb
P
Each elementary
step has its own Any substance that are
transition state, rate products in an early step,
constant and Ea but a reactant in a later step
are called intermediates (R1: Figure 16.22B).
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Molecularity and rate laws for elementary reactions
• Molecularity is the number of colliding particles that are involved in a single
elementary reaction
• In general, reaction steps with more than three molecules do not occur
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Example
• The following elementary steps are proposed for a reaction mechanism:
i. NO2Cl(g) → NO2(g) + Cl(g)
ii. NO2Cl(g) + Cl(g) → NO2(g) + Cl2(g)
Step(i) is unimolecular and step(ii) is bimolecular
Rate1 = k1[NO2Cl] We can do so as these are
elementary steps!
Rate2 = k2[NO2Cl][Cl]
The overall balanced equation is:
(i) NO2Cl(g) → NO2(g) + Cl(g)
(ii) NO2Cl(g) + Cl(g) → NO2(g) + Cl2(g)
2NO2Cl(g) → 2NO2(g) + Cl2(g)
What is the overall
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
rate law then?
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
The rate‐determining step
• The slowest step in a reaction mechanism is the rate‐determining step
NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g) Overall reaction
Proposed two‐step mechanism:
k1
NO2(g) + NO2(g) → NO3(g) + NO(g) slow step
NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO2(g) + CO2(g) fast step
Rate for the first step = k1[NO2]2
Experimental rate law observed: rate = k[NO2]2
The rate law for the overall reaction is determined by the rate‐determining step
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Worked problem
• A proposed mechanism for the reaction A2 + B P is given as:
A2 2A (fast)
A B P (slow)
Deduce the rate law for the reaction.
k1
Rate1(forward) = k1[A2] Let K
k 1
Rate1(reverse) = k‐1[A]2
At equilibrium, k1 [A2] = k‐1[A]2 [A] = K1/2[A2]1/2
The second step is the rate determining step, hence express [A] in terms of [A2]
1 1 1
Rate2 k 2 [A][B] k 2K [A 2 ] [B] k[A 2 ] [B]
2 2 2
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Steady state approximation
A
ka
I
kb
P Product
Reactant
• Assumption: rate of change of the intermediate
are negligibly small
d I
k a A ‐ k b
I 0
dt
I A
ka Intermediate
kb
d P
kb I kb a A k a A
k
dt kb Steady state approximation is valid
when kb >> ka i.e. I forms slowly
d P and reacts readily so [I] stays low
As [A] [A]0 e -kt k a [A]0 e -kt
dt and its rate of change is small
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Worked problem
• Derive the rate law for the decomposition of ozone in the reaction
2O3(g) 3O2(g) on the basis of the proposed mechanism:
O3
k1
O2 O
k1 ’
O3 O
k2
2O2
d O
Using steady state approximation k1 O3 k '1 O2 O k 2 O3 O 0
dt
k1 O3
O
k '1 O 2 k 2 O3
2 dt k '1 O 2 k 2 O 3
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Part (IV) Chemical Kinetics
4) Catalysis
a) Homogeneous catalysis
b) Heterogeneous catalysis
c) Enzyme
Learning outcome of part (4):
• Articulate the effect of catalysis to the rate of reaction
• Describe the difference between homogeneous and
heterogeneous catalysis
• Appreciate the function of enzyme in biological systems
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Catalyst
• A substance that accelerates a reaction
but itself is not consumed in the
reaction
• It provides an alternative reaction
pathway that has a lower Ea than the
uncatalysted reaction and results in a
higher reaction rate at the same T
• speed up both the forward and the
reverse reactions
• does not affect the equilibrium
constant which is only a function of T
(R1: Figure 16.23).
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Homogenous Catalysis
• The catalyst is in the same phase as
the reaction mixture
• Catalyst is more uniformly dispersed
throughout the reaction mixture,
leading to a maximum number of
collisions
Br –(aq)
E.g. 2 H2O2(aq) 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)
NO(g)
E.g. SO2(g) + ½ O2(g) SO3(g) NaBr is added to a solution of H2O2
(R1: Figure 16.24).
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Homogenous catalysis in the industry
Commercial Process Catalyst Reactants Products
DuPont adiponitrile Ni/PR3complexes hydrogen cyanide Adiponitrile
process and butadiene
Hydroformylation Rh/PR3 complexes Alkene, carbon Aldehyde
monoxide and
hydrogen
Traditional Friedel‐ Lewis Acids/Proton Benzene, acetic Acetophenone
Craft reactions acids anhydride
Dehydration of Concentrated Alcohol Alkene
alcohol sulfuric acid
catalyst
Base catalyst Sodium hydroxide Fats Soap
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Heterogeneous Catalysis
• The catalyst is in different phase as the reaction
mixture, e.g. solid catalyst for liquid or gas phase
reactions
• Chemical reactions at the solid surface can be faster
due to their high surface energy and ability to bind
reactants
• This process called adsorption weakens the chemical
bond in the reactant and thus provide reaction
pathways of much lower activation energy
But high reactivity of the surface can result in
problems due to undesirable side products
(poisons) that bind irreversibly to the catalysts and
drastically reduce the efficiency of the catalyst
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers (R1: Figure 16.25).
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Heterogeneous catalysis in the industry
Commercial Catalyst Reactants Products
Process
Catalytic Ni, Pd, or Pt Alkene Alkane
hydrogenation
Disproportionation Zeolite ZSM‐5 Toluene p‐xylene
Water–gas shift Fe, Cr2O3 or Cu Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen
reaction water
Sohio process Bismuth Propene, Acrylonitrile
phosphomolybdate ammonia, oxygen CH2=CHC≡N
Haber process Fe, K2O, Al2O3 Hydrogen, Ammonia
Nitrogen
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Heterogeneous Catalysts
• Heterogeneous catalysts are often metal or
metal oxides that are on solid supports
• Common solid supports are alumina, silica,
carbon, clays
• Nanosized or microsized catalyst particles can
be coated on either mesoporous or
macroporous materials depending on the exact
reaction required
• One example: microporous aluminosilicates
(zeolites) with high surface areas due to the
micro pores of the solids The microporous molecular
structure of a zeolite, ZSM‐5
General formula of zeolites: MxAlxSi1‐xO2 • yH2O
(M = metal ion or H+) http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons
/5/58/Zeolite‐ZSM‐5‐3D‐vdW.png
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Selective catalysis in industry
Uncatalysed reaction 2
Sohio process
G2
Reaction 1: yield 80% Catalysed reaction 1
CH2=CHCH3(g) + NH3(g) + 3/2 O2(g)
⇌ CH2=CHC≡N(g) + 3H2O(g)
ΔH° = −519 kJ/mol , K = 1.2 1094
G1
G1o
Reaction 2 : yield 10%
CH2=CHCH3(g) + 9/2 O2(g) ⇌ 3 CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
G2o
ΔH° = −1926.1 kJ/mol, K = 4.5 10338
• Direct oxidation of propene is highly favoured by
thermodynamics but selective catalysis by the
heterogeneous catalyst can reduce Ea significantly and
form acrylonitrile as major product This is a simplified reaction coordinate
The actual mechanism is multistep
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Enzyme
• Enzymes are catalysts that occur naturally in Highly efficient
living organisms, mostly protein molecules • E.g. the rate of hydrolysis of
urea in water (uncatalyzed) is
• Specific 3D structure 3 10‐10 s‐1, but increases to
• Huge stabilization of the transition 3 104 s‐1 in the presence of
state due to the stabilising urease enzyme
intermolecular interactions of the
preorganized polar environment at Highly selective
the enzyme active sites • Each enzyme generally
catalysed only one reaction
The reactant in an enzyme‐ • E.g. Urease catalyzes only
catalyzed reaction is called the hydrolysis of urea, and
a substrate no other enzyme does this
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Mechanism of enzyme‐substrate action
Shape
change
• The active site is still selective towards
• The active site is therefore specific to its certain substrates
substrate
This model is supported by spectroscopy
This model is likely to be not correct for and x‐ray crystallography methods and is
most enzymes likely the process for most enzymes
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers (R1: Figure 16.26).
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Kinetics of enzyme action
• The substrate (S) and Enzyme (E) form an
Initially, [S] is in large excess, [S] >> KM
intermediate ES complex
the rate is at a maximum and the
k1
E+ S ES Fast, reversible reaction is pseudo zero order in S:
k‐1
k2
υmax k 2 [E]0
This is a constant
ES E + P Slow; rate determining
max [S]
• Using steady state approximation and express K M [S]
[ES] in terms of reactants:
1 1 KM 1
k 2 [E]0 [S]
k 2 ES max max [S]
K M [S]
By plotting 1/ against 1/[S], we can
k k2
where KM 1 obtain a straight line
k1
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry
Applications of enzyme catalysis
Enzymes Commercial Description Products
process
Amylases from Syrup making Catalyze breakdown of High‐fructose
malted barley starch to sugar corn syrup
Lignin peroxidase Paper making Catalyze breakdown of Paper
lignin in cell wall of plants
Catalase Rubber making Catalyzes the Foam rubber
from latex decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide to
water and oxygen
Polymerase Polymerase Synthesis of polymers of DNA fragment
chain reaction nucleic acids
General and Physical Chemistry for Engineers
by A/P Chin WS, Chemistry