Finite Element Analysis

7
Two-Dimensional Finite
Element Analysis
7.1 inTroDuCTion
One-dimensional finite element analysis of various engineering problems was discussed in the
previous chapter. It was discussed in the introductory chapter that even though most engineering
problems are three-dimensional in nature, a two-dimensional analysis can give sufficiently accurate
and satisfactory results in many occasions. Since three-dimensional analysis is generally cumber-
some and time consuming, majority of engineers and scientists prefer two-dimensional analysis
to the maximum extent possible. Two-dimensional finite element analysis of various engineering
problems is discussed in this chapter. Several practical engineering problems can be defined con-
ceptually in two-dimensions and can be represented in terms of two-dimensional governing equa-
tions. Generally, two-dimensional FEM analysis and discretization can render good results when
the primary unknown quantities vary mainly on two directions while keeping constant in the third
direction.
Application of finite element analysis to two-dimensional problems will be discussed in this chapter.
In particular, the following formulations will be considered.
(i) Triangular element for two-dimensional fluid flow analysis
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(ii) Triangular element for two-dimensional stress analysis

(iii) Triangular element for axi-symmetric analysis
(iv) Quadrilateral element for two-dimensional stress analysis
(v) Iso-parametric element for two-dimensional stress analysis
(vi) Application of method of weighted residual for various partial differential equations
Because the scalar functionals (strain energy) are easy to define, especially for two- and three-dimen-
sional analyses, they will be applied to the fluid flow and stress analysis initially. Further, method of
weighted residual is used for the solution of various partial differential equations.
7.2 Two-DimEnSional Flow THrouGH PorouS

mEDia (SEEPaGE Flow)
Formulation presented in this section is focused on the two-dimensional fluid flow analysis. However,
the same formulation is applicable straightforwardly to two-dimensional torsion and two-dimensional
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M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 189 12/14/10 11:25:22 AM

190 | Finite Element Methods
Table 7.1 Analogy Between Two-Dimensional Seepage, Heat Flow and Torsional Analyses
Term 2-D seepage 2-D heat flow 2-D torsion
f (X, Y) Potential head/velocity Temperature Torsional movement
potential/stream
function
kx, ky Coefficients of permeability Coefficients of thermal Torsional rigidities in
in the X and Y directions, conductivity in the X and Y the X and Y directions,
respectively directions, respectively respectively
Q Applied fluid flux per Applied heat flux per Applied torque per unit
unit area unit area area
steady state heat flow (in the absence of convection). At steady state, the governing differential equa-
tion for these problems can be written as
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
kx + ky +Q =0 (7.1)
∂X 2
∂Y 2
The primary unknown field f is function of (X,Y). The f and other terms appearing in Eq. (7.1) are
explained in Table 7.1 in the context of two-dimensional seepage, heat flow and torsional analyses.
Eq. (7.1) can be solved by modelling the problem with two-dimensional finite elements. The two-
dimensional elements are thin plate-like (plane) elements such that two co-ordinates define a position
on the element surface.
The f appearing in Eq. (7.1) is given approximately by
p
φ( X ,Y ) = h + (7.2)
w
for two-dimensional seepage analysis, where h indicates elevation (or fluid head), p represents pore
pressure and w is the specific weight of the fluid (water). The velocity head term v2/(2g) has been
customarily omitted from the above equation.
The two-dimensional steady state seepage problems can be categorized into (i) unconfined seepage
problem and (ii) confined seepage problem.
Unconfined seepage problem
Seepage through an earthen dam can be classified as unconfined seepage.

Unconfined seepage is distinguished from the confined seepage by the presence of a free or phre-
atic surface. At the phreatic surface, the potential f equals the fluid head h measured from a datum.
Moreover, there cannot be flow in the direction normal to the free surface. (Also, note that flow cannot
occur through an impervious bed. In other words, for the example shown in Figure 7.1, ∂f/∂Y = 0 at
the impervious bed.) Mathematically, these two conditions can be written at free surface as
f = h (Dirichlet condition)
∂φ
= 0 (Neumann condition),
∂n
where n indicates normal to the free surface. Both the conditions mentioned above need to be satisfied
simultaneously. The mixed boundary condition problem introduces non-linearity in the system and an
iterative approach is required to solve the problem. Such a case is discussed later in the chapter.
Confined seepage problem
In the case of a confined seepage, the flow occurs in the absence of a free surface, through a satu-
rated media subjected to prescribed boundary conditions (usually f). The confined steady-state
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 190 12/14/10 11:25:23 AM

Two-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis | 191
Free or phreatic surface
Impervious bed
Figure 7.1 Unconfined seepage through a dam
seepage requires a linear analysis for solution. An example of confined seepage flow is shown in
Figure. 7.2.
The porous, saturated media in Figure 7.2 can be modelled by employing a variety of two-dimensional
elements. A typical constant strain triangular (CST) element used in discretization is shown in the
figure. The finite element formulation for CST element is elaborated below.
7.2.1 Step-by-step Formulation for the CST Element for Two-Dimensional

Confined Seepage Analysis
In the formulation presented below, steps outlined in Chapter 3 are followed.
Step 1: Discretize and select element type

A typical ith CST element from the discretized media is shown in Figure 7.3.
Y
Impervious structure
h1
h2
Porous foundation
X
CST Element
Impervious bed
Figure
Finite Element Method with Applications in Engineering, Pearson India,7.2 Confined
2011. ProQuest seepage flow
Ebook Central,
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 191 12/14/10 11:25:30 AM

3
i
X
Figure 7.3 CST element
The CST element has 3-nodes. Choose any apex as node 1, number the remaining 2-nodes in the
counter-clockwise direction, starting from node 1. At each node, there is one primary unknown fluid
potential f. Thus, the nodal DOF (degree of freedom) for the CST element for seepage analysis are
f1, f2 and f3 at nodes 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Let the nodal co-ordinates in the X –Y plane be defined
as (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2) and (X3, Y3).
Step 2: Select approximation function

Unknown continuous field f can be expressed in terms of nodal quantities fi, i = 1, 2, 3. Hence, three
terms can be chosen uniquely to form an approximation function. In many two-dimensional situa-
tions, Pascal’s triangle is used as the basis in choosing an approximation function of the form
φ ( X , Y ) = ∑ ∑ dij X iY j (7.3)
i j
Here, dij represents a constant term. Pascal’s triangle is shown in Figure 7.4.
By selecting the first three terms from the Pascal’s triangle, the approximation function can be
constructed as
ϕ ( X , Y ) = d00 + d10 X + d01Y , (7.4)
where d00, d10 and d01 are unknown constants. Letting
d00 = d0 ; d10 = d1 ; d01 = d2 (7.5)
for convenience, Eq. (7.4) can be written as

φ ( X , Y ) = d0 + d1 X + d2Y (7.6)
Application of the above equation at nodes 1, 2 and 3 results in
φ1 = d0 + d1 X 1 + d2Y1
φ2 = d0 + d1 X 2 + d2Y2
(7.7)
φ3 = d0 + d1 X 3 + d2Y3
1
X Y
X2 XY Y2
X3 X 2Y XY 2 Y3
Figure 7.4 Pascal’s triangle
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 192 12/14/10 11:25:34 AM

Alternatively, in the matrix form,

[P] {d} = {qe}, where
1 X 1 Y1 
 
[ P ] = 1 X 2 Y3  ; (7.8)
1 X 3 Y3 

{d}T = [ d0 d1 d2 ] and
{qe }T = [φ1 φ2 φ3 ] (7.9)

Then,
{d} = [ P ]−1{qe }
 c1 c2 c3 
(7.10)
1  
= b b2 b3  {qe },
P  1
 a1 a2 a3 
where |P| is the determinant of [P] and
a1 = X 3 − X 2 , b1 = Y2 − Y3
a2 = X 1 − X 3 , b2 = Y3 − Y1
a3 = X 2 − X 1 , b3 = Y1 − Y2
(7.11)
c1 = X 2Y3 − Y2 X 3
c2 = X 3Y1 − Y3 X 1
c3 = X 1Y2 − Y1 X 2
The [P] can be obtained to be

|P| = c1 + c2 + c3. (7.12)
To further simplify the expression for |P|, consider Figure 7.5.
4 5 6 X
Figure 7.5 Area calculation for a CST element

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 193 12/14/10 11:25:37 AM

From Figure 7.5,

Area (A) of the element = area of trapezoid 2 – 3 – 4 – 6
− area of trapezoid 1 – 3 – 4 – 5
− area of trapezoid 2 – 1 – 5 – 6
 Y + Y3  Y +Y  Y +Y 
= (X2 − X3)  2  − ( X1 − X 3 )  1 3  − ( X 2 − X1 )  2 1 
 2   2   2 
1
= ( c + c + c3 ) (7.13)
2 1 2
Thus,
|P| = 2A (7.14)
Similarly, it can be proved that
P = a1b3 − a3b1 = a2 b1 − a1b2 = a3b2 − a2 b3 (7.15)
It can be seen from Eqs. (7.10) and (7.14) that
1
d0 = [φ c + φ2 c2 + φ3 c3 ]
2A 1 1
1
d1 = [φ b + φ2 b2 + φ3b3 ] (7.16)
2A 1 1
1
d =
2
[φ a + φ2 a2 + φ3 a3 ]
2A 1 1
By substituting the above equations into Eq. (7.6) and by collecting the coefficients of f1, f2 and f3,
the following equation can be derived.
φ ( x, y ) = N1φ1 + N 2φ2 + N 3φ3 = [ N ] {qe } (7.17)
Here,
1
N1 = ( c + b X + a1Y )
2A 1 1
1
N2 = ( c + b2 X + a2Y )
2A 2
1
N3 = ( c + b X + a3Y )
2A 3 3
[N] = [N1 N2 N3] (7.18)
The N1, N2 and N3 are called the shape functions for the CST and [N] denotes the shape-function ma-
trix (Ni are also called local area co-ordinates).
Properties of shape functions
It can be easily verified that
1. Ni = 1 at the ith node and Ni = 0 at the other 2-nodes (i = 1, 2, 3).
2. ∑Ni
i
= 1 (7.19)
Variations of Ni, i = 1, 2, 3, over an element are shown in Figure 7.6.
By referring to the second property of shape functions, it can be noted that at any point (X,Y),
N1 ( X , Y ) + N 2 ( X , Y ) + N 3 ( X , Y ) = 1 (7.20)
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 194 12/14/10 11:25:42 AM

N1 = 0
3 N2 = 0
N2 = 0
1 1 N2 = 1
N1 = 1 N1 = 0
2 2
N3 = 1
N3 = 0
1
2
N3 = 0
Figure 7.6 Shape functions for a CST element
Alternatively, from the divided areas A1, A2 and A3 in Figure 7.7(a), it can be proved that
A
N1 = 1 , where A = A1 + A2 + A3 (7.21)
A
In many finite element books, Ni are designated as local, area or triangular co-ordinates. The triangu-
lar co-ordinate system (N1, N2, N3) is defined such that the nodal co-ordinates of nodes 1, 2 and 3 are
respectively (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), as shown in Figure 7.7(b).
Step 3. Define constitutive law and gradients.

Gradient of Unknown Field
Let ex and ey be the gradients (slopes) of f in the X and Y directions, respectively. Then,
∂φ ∂φ
εx = , εy = (7.22)
∂X ∂Y
(0,1,0)
2
N1 = 0 2
3 A1 3
A2 A3 (0,0,1) N3 = 0
N2 = 0 1
1
(1,0,0)
(a) (b)
Figure 7.7 (a) Another interpretation of shape functions and (b) Triangular co-ordinate system
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 195 12/14/10 11:25:45 AM

From Eqs. (7.6) and (7.22), it can be easily seen that

ex = d1, ey = d2 (7.23)
Thus, the gradients (strains) are constant over the element and, hence, a 3-node triangular element is
referred to as constant strain triangle (CST) element.
By substituting Eq. (7.17) into Eq. (7.22), it can be shown that
ε x 
{ε} =   = [ B ]{qe }, (7.24)
ε y 
1  b1 b2 b3 
where [�
B] =   (7.25)
2�×3
2 A  a1 a2 a3 
constaznt maztrix
Constitutive Relations (Darcy’s Law)

Noting that flow takes places from a higher fluid potential to a lower one, the velocities vx, vy of the
seepage flow in the X and Y directions are given, respectively, by
∂φ
vx = − k x = −σ x or σ x = k x ε x (7.26)
∂x
∂φ
vy = −k y = −σ y or σ y = k y ε y (7.27)
∂y
Therefore,
σ x   k x ε x   k x 0  ε x 
{σ } =   =  =    = [ D ]{ε} (7.28)
σ y  k y ε y   0 k y  ε y 
or
{σ} = [D] [B]{qe}, (7.29)
where
kx 0 
D] = 
[�  (7.30)
2×2  0 ky 
Step 4: Derive element equations
As mentioned earlier, energy method is applied to derive element equations. Application of the energy
method requires a scalar functional πp to be defined. The πp for seepage analysis is given by
1
π p = ∫ {σ }T {ε}dV − {qe }T { f e } (7.31)
2v
 f1 
 
{ f e } =  f 2  = nodal fluid flux vectoor (7.32)
f 
 3
Assuming unit thickness in the Z-direction, Eq. (7.31) can be written, in view of Eqs. (7.25) and
(7.29), as
1
π p = ∫ {qe }T [ B]T [ D ][ B]{qe }dV − {qe }T { f e }
2V
1
= {qe }T [ K e ]{qe } − {qe }T { f e } , (7.33)
2
where
[ K e ] = ∫ [ B]T [ D ][ B]dA = element permeability matriix (7.34)
A
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 196 12/14/10 11:25:49 AM

Minimization of πp results in the element equations

[ K e ]{qe } = { f e } (7.35)
Note that [B] and [D] are constant matrices. Therefore, Eq. (7.34) can be written as
[ K e ] = [ B ]T [ D ] [ B ]∫ dA = A [ B ]T [ D ] [ B ]
A
 b1 a1 
1   kx 0  1  b1 b2 b3 
=A b a2   
2A  2 0 k y  2 A  a1 a2

a3 
 b3 a3  
 k x b12 + k y a12 k x b1b2 + k y a1a2 k x b1b3 + k y a1a3 
1  
=  k x b22 + k y a22 k x b2 b3 + k y a2 a3  (7.36)
4A  
k x b32 + k y a32 
 Sym.
Steps 5, 6 and 7: Assemble element equations and apply boundary conditions,
solve for primary unknowns, calculate secondary unknowns
Assembling element equations given by Eq. (7.35) for the whole system, equation
[K] {q} = {F} (7.37)
can be derived, where [K], {q} and {F} represent the assembled permeability matrix, the potential
head vector and the externally applied fluid flux vector, respectively.
After applying geometric boundary conditions (specified potential heads corresponding to Dirichlet
conditions) Eq. (7.37) can be solved for the unknown {q}. The secondary quantities can be obtained
by equations developed previously. For example, flow velocity components can be computed from
Eqs. (7.26) and (7.27).
Illustrative examples dealing with confined seepage are discussed later in this chapter.
7.3 Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis

Two-dimensional finite elements can be used for two-dimensional stress analysis problems. A sum-
mary of pertinent equations from the theory of elasticity is presented below in order to better under-
stand finite element formulation for two-dimensional stress analysis.
7.3.1 Review of Theory of Elasticity

Three-Dimensional Elastic Body (Crandall et al., 1978)
Consider an elastic body in space. Any particle within the elastic body may experience displacements
U, V, W in the X, Y, Z directions, respectively. For such displacement components, under the assump-
tion of iso-tropic, elastic material properties, following expressions are well established.
1. Equations relating strains to displacements
Normal strains:
∂U ∂V ∂W
εx = ; ε y = ; εz = (7.38)
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 197 12/14/10 11:25:52 AM

Shear strains:
∂U ∂V ∂V ∂W ∂W ∂U
γ xy =
+ ; γ yz = + ; γ zx = + (7.39)
∂Y ∂X ∂Z ∂Y ∂X ∂Z
2. Stress-strain equations
Normal strains:
1 1
ε x = (σ x − vσ y − vσ z ) ; ε y = ( −νσ x + σ y − νσ z )
E E
1
ε z = ( −νσ x − νσ y + σ z ) (7.40)
E
Shear strains:
τ xy τ yz τ E
γ xy = ; γ yz = ; γ zx = zx ; G = (7.41)
G G G 2(1 + v )
3. Generalized Hooke’s law
{σ }6 ×1 = [ D ]6 ×6 {ε}6 ×1
{σ }T = [σ x σy σz τ xy τ yz τ zx ]
1 − v v v 0 0 0 
 
 1− v v 0 0 0 
 1− v 0 0 0 
 
 1 − 2v
[ D] =
E 0 0 

(1 + v ) (1 − 2 v )  2 
1 − 2v 
 Symmetric 0 
 2 
 1 − 2v 
 
 2 
{ε}T = [ε x εy εz γ xy γ yz γ zx ] (7.42)
7.3.2 Application of Three-Dimensional Equations

for Two-Dimensional Analysis
In reality, a physical system has two-dimensional domain. However, wherever possible, engineer-
ing approximations are introduced on the basis of physics of the problem to reduce the dimension
of a problem at hand. For example, in the previous chapter, one-dimensional analysis was present-
ed for a truss, beam and a frame member under the assumption of slender body (i.e., small cross
sectional dimensions compared to member length). Similarly, in many three-dimensional situations
(even when all three dimensions are comparable), the domain of the problem can be considered to
be a two-dimensional one. Three common situations are: (i) plane stress, (ii) plane strain and (iii)
axi-symmetric solids. Typical examples of plane stress, plane strain and axi-symmetric situations are
shown in Figure 7.8. These three analyses procedures are elaborated next.
7.3.2.1 Plane Stress Situation

It is that state of stress in which the normal stress and the shear stresses directed perpendicular to the
plane X-Y (in which loads are applied) are assumed to be zero. This approximation can be applied
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 198 12/14/10 11:25:57 AM

Thin Plate with a hole

(Plane stress approximation) Gravity dam
(Plane strain approximation)
q
r
Pressure vessel
(Axi-symmetric approximation)
Figure 7.8 Typical examples of plane stress, plane strain and axi-symmetric situation
when two dimensions of a physical system are larger than the third one (say, thickness). A typical
example of plane stress situation is a thin plate with a hole subjected to in-plane tensile loading. Note
that if the loads act normal to the plate, plate bending theory (e.g. Bathe, 2001) is required in the
analysis.
For the plane stress condition, it is assumed that
σ z = τ zx = τ yz = 0 (7.43)
Hence, it can be seen from Eq. (7.42) that

γ zx = γ yz = 0, but ε z ≠ 0 (7.44)
and
{σ } = [ D ]{ε}, (7.45)
where {σ} and {e} are
{σ }T = [σ x σy τ xy ] {ε}T = [ε x εy γ xy ] (7.46)
and
1 v 0 

E v 1 0 
[ D] = 2   (7.47)
1− v  1− v 
0 0
 2 
 
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 199 12/14/10 11:26:00 AM

7.3.2.2 Plane Strain Situation

It is a state of strain in which the strain normal to the X-Y plane (the plane in which loads are applied),
i.e., ez, and the shear strains γxz and γyz are assumed to be zero. The plane strain approximation can be
applied when the third dimension (say length) is much larger than the dimensions of the cross section,
and the loading is uniform over the length. A typical example where the plane strain approximation
may be adequate is a gravity dam.
For plane strain case, following strains are assumed to be zero.
ε z = γ xz = γ yz = 0 (7.48)
In view of Eq. (7.42), it can be seen from the above equation that
τ xz = τ yz = 0 but σ z ≠ 0 and
1 − v v 0  
σ    εx
 x  E  v 1− v 0   
σ y  =   εy  (7.49)
  (1 + v ) (1 − 2 v )  0 0
1 − 2v   
τ xy   τ
2   xy 
 
or,
{σ } = [ D ] {ε} , (7.50)
where
σ  ε 
 x   x 
{σ } = σ y  , {ε} =  ε y  (7.51)
   
τ xy  γ xy 
1 − v v 0 

E  v 1− v 0 
[ D] =   . (7.52)
(1 + v ) (1 − 2 v )  1 − 2v 
0 0
 2 
 
7.3.2.3 Axi-symmetric Situation

As the name ‘axi-symmetric’ suggests when the geometry, boundary conditions, material properties
and loading are identical with respect to axis of symmetry (i.e., independent of angle θ), the three-
dimensional problem can be reduced to an analogous two-dimensional problem. Typical examples,
where the axi-symmetric analysis may be sufficient, are pressure vessels, pistons, rotors, water tanks
and circular column foundations. General loading will be considered later in Chapter 8 .
By using cylindrical co-ordinate system (r, θ, Z) and denoting the displacement components in radial,
tangential and vertical directions as U, V and W (see Figure 7.9), it can be shown for axi-symmetric
case that
∂U U ∂W ∂U ∂W
V = 0; ε r = ; εθ = ; ε z = ; γ r θ = γ θ z = 0 ; γ r z = + (7.53)
∂r r ∂Z ∂Z ∂r
Here, er, eθ and ez are the components of strain in the radial, tangential and vertical directions,
respectively.
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 200 12/14/10 11:26:04 AM

W r,U
V
q
X
Figure 7.9 Axi-symmetric analysis
From Eqs. (7.53) and (7.42), it can be easily shown that

{σ} = [D] {e}, where
{σ }T = [σ r σθ σz τ rz]
{ε}T = [ε r εθ εz γ rz]
1 − v v v 0 
 
 v 1− v v 0 
E
[ D ]4 × 4 =  v v 1− v 0  (7.54)
(1 + v ) (1 − 2 v )  
 0 1 − 2v 
0 0
 2 
7.3.3 CST Element for Plane Stress and Plane Strain Analyses
Steps outlined in Chapter 3 are followed in the finite element formulation.

A typical ith CST element used to discretize a two-dimensional domain is shown in Figure 7.10.
A typical CST element has 3-nodes. Unknown continuous field consists of displacement compo-
nents U and V in the X and Y direction, respectively.

By following the formulation of CST element for seepage analysis, it can be shown that
U ( X , Y ) = N1U1 + N 2U 2 + N 3U 3

V ( X , Y ) = N1V1 + N 2V2 + N 3V3 (7.55)
V3
Y
3 U3
V2
V1 i
U2
2
1 U1
X
Figure 7.10 Typical CST element for plane stress/strain analysis
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 201 12/14/10 11:26:07 AM

where N1, N2, N3 are shape functions for the CST element and U1, U2, U3, V1, V2, V3 are nodal displace-
ment components. Therefore,
U1 
 
 V1 
U ( X , Y )   N1 0 N 2 0 N 3 0  U 2 
  = {U } =    (7.56)
V ( X , Y )   0 N1 0 N 2 0 N 3   V2 
U 3 
 
or  V3 
{U } = [ N ]{qe } (7.57)
Here,
N 0 N2 0 N3 0 
N]=  1
[� 
2 ×6 0 N1 0 N 2 0 N 3 

{qe }T = [U1 V1 U 2 V2 U 3 V3 ] (7.58)
Step 3: Define Strain-displacement relations and constitutive law

Strain–Displacement (Gradients) Relations
∂U ∂N1 ∂N 2 ∂N 3 1
εx = = U + U + U = (b U + b U + b3U 3 )
∂X ∂X 1 ∂X 2 ∂X 3 2 A 1 1 2 2
∂V ∂N1 ∂N 2 ∂N 3 1
εy = = V + V + V = ( a V + a2V2 + a3V3 ) (7.59)
∂Y ∂Y 1 ∂Y 2 ∂Y 3 2 A 1 1
∂U ∂V 1
γ xy = + = ( a U + a2U 2 + a3U 3 + b1V1 + b2V2 + b3V3 )
∂Y ∂X 2 A 1 1
Therefore,
U1 
 
V
ε   b 0 b2 0 b3 0   1 
 x  1  1   
 U
{ε} =  ε y  =  0 a1 0 a2 0 a3   2  (7.60)
  2 A  a b a b a b   V2 
γ xy   1 1 2 2 3 3
U 3 
 
 V3 
Moreover,
{�ε} = [� qe }
B] {� (7.61)
,
3×1 3× 6 6 ×1
where
 b1 0 b2 0 b3 0
1  
[ B] = 0 a1 0 a2 0 a3  = constant matrix (7.62)
2A 
 a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 
Note that {e} is a constant vector. Therefore, strains are constant.
Constitutive Relations
{σ } = [ D ]{ε}, (7.63)
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 202 12/14/10 11:26:12 AM

where [D] is given by Eq. (7.47) for plane stress conditions and by Eq. (7.52) for plane strain condi-
tions. By substituting Eq. (7.61) into Eq. (7.63),
{σ } = [ D ][ B]{qe } (7.64)
can be obtained.
By employing energy method, the element equations can be derived easily. The potential energy πp is
defined for two-dimensional analysis as
1  
π p = ∫ {σ }T {ε}dV −  ∫ {U }T { X }dV + {qe }T { f ee } + ∫ {U }T {T }dS  (7.65)
2v v v 
Here, {X}, { fee } and {T} represent body force (per unit volume) vector, the element nodal force vector
and the surface traction (per unit surface area) vector, respectively. In view of Eqs. (7.61) and (7.64),
Eq. (7.65) can be written as
1
π p = {qe }T [ K e ]{qe } − {qe }T {F e } , (7.66)
2
where
K e ] = ∫ [�
[� B]T [�
D ] [�B ] dV (7.67)
6 ×6 V 6×3 3× 3 3× 6
{F } = ∫ {N } { X }dV + {P} + ∫ [ N ]T {T }dS

e T
(7.68)
V V
and {P} represents the element nodal force vector.
Minimization of πp results in the element equations
[ K e ]{qe } = {F e } (7.69)
Element Stiffness Matrix

Since [B] and [D] are constant matrices, for an element with constant thickness t, Eq. (7.67) becomes
[ K e ] = [ B]T [ D ][ B ] t A (7.70)
Assume t = 1 for plane strain analysis.
Body Forces
The equivalent nodal loads due to body forces are given by

{ f b } = ∫ [ N ]T { X }dV , (7.71)
V
where
X 
{X } =  b  (7.72)
 Yb 
and Xb and Yb are the body forces (weight densities) in the X and Y directions, respectively.
Hence,
 N1 0   N1 X b 
   
 0 N1   N1Yb 
N 0  Xb   N 2 X b 
{ fb } = ∫  2    t dA = ∫   t dA (7.73)
A
0 N 2   Yb  A
N 2Yb 
�
N 0  2 ×1 N3 X b 
 3   
 0 N 3   N 3Yb 
��
×2
Finite Element Method with Applications in Engineering, Pearson India,62011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 203 12/14/10 11:26:16 AM

Consider
∫N
A
1
X b t dA (7.74)
Note that
1
N1 ( X , Y ) = ( c + b X + a1Y ) (7.75)
2A 1 1
By definition, co-ordinates of the centroid are
Thus, it can be observed that X =

∫ X dA ; Y=
∫ Y dA (7.76)
A A
1
N1 ( X , Y ) =
3
1
∫N X 1 b
t dA = t X b ∫
A
2
( c + b X + a1Y )dA
A 1 1
1
= t Xb ( c A + b1 X A + a1 Y A)
2A 1
1
= tA X b ( c + b X + a1 Y ) (7.77)
2A 1 1
1
= tA X b N1 ( X , Y ) = t A X b
3
At
= Xb
3
Similarly, by integrating other terms in Eq. (7.73),
Xb 
 
 Yb 
 X  tA (7.78)
{ fb } =  b 
 Yb  3
Xb 
 
 Yb 
The above equation indicates that each node shares 1/3 of total body force.
Element Surface Forces
The equivalent nodal loads due to surface forces are given by
{ f s } = ∫ [ N ]T {T }dS (7.79)
Steps 5, 6 and 7: Assemble element equations and apply boundary conditions,
solve for primary unknowns, calculate secondary unknowns
Assembling the contributions from all elements of discretized domain, equation
[K] {q} = {F} (7.80)
can be derived, where [K], {q} and {F} represent the assembled stiffness matrix, the nodal displace-
ment vector and the externally applied, equivalent nodal load vector, respectively.
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 204 12/14/10 11:26:19 AM

After applying geometric boundary conditions (specified displacement components), Eq. (7.80)
can be solved for the unknown {q}. The secondary quantities can be obtained by equations developed
previously. For example, the principal stresses can be computed from
2 2
σx +σy σx −σy  σx +σy σx −σy 
+ τ xy2 ; σ 2 = −   + τ xy
2
σ1 = +  
2  2  2  2 
2τ xy
tan 2θ p = , (7.81)
σx −σy
where σx, σy, τxy and be calculated from Eq. (7.64) (θp in the above equation indicates principal angle).
Illustrative Example
Two-dimensional model of an anchor plate of a communication tower’s guy cable is shown in the
illustrative figure. The anchor consists of a triangular steel plate, which is subjected to force of 20 kN,
as shown in the figure. Analyse the anchor plate. Thickness of the plate is 8 mm. Consider E = 200 GPa
and υ = 0.3.
P
h
Fixed edge
b = h = 10 cm
90° t = 8 mm
b
45°
Solution:
Consider reference axes X and Y as shown in the figure. Further for illustration, consider one
CST element to model entire plate, with nodes as shown in the figure.
Then, X1 = 10 cm, Y1 = 0
X2 = 0, Y2 = 5 cm
X3 = 0, Y3 = −5 cm
From Eq. (7.11),
a1 = X3 − X2 = 0; b1 = Y2 − Y3 = 10
a2 = X1 − X3 = 10; b2 = Y3 − Y1 = −5
a3 = X2 − X1 = −10; b3 = Y1 − Y2 = −5
1
A= × 10 × 10 = 50 cm 2 ; t = 0.8 cm
2
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 205 12/14/10 11:26:22 AM

Considering the state of plane stress, the elasticity matrix [D] is obtained from Eq. (7.47) as
 1 0.3 0 
 
200 × 106 0.3 1 0 
[ D] = 4  
10 × (1 − 0.32 )  1 − 0.3 
0 0
 2 
 
 1 0.3 0 
  2
= 21, 978.022 0.3 1 0  ( kN/cm )
 0 0 0.35 
Further, Eq. (7.69) can be written in partitioned form as
 k 11 k 12 k 13   Q1   F1 
   �   �  ,
 k 21 k 22 k 23  Q2  =  F�2 
 k 31 k 32 k 33  Q �   
 3   F�3 
�
where
t  D11b j bi + D33 a j ai D12 a j bi + D33 b j ai 
k ij =
4 A  D12 b j ai + D33 a j bi D11a j ai + D33 b j bi i , j =1,2 ,3
Q = U i  ; i = 1, 2, 3
i  
�  Vi 
F 
Fi =  Xi  ; i = 1, 2, 3
�  FYi 
Due to homogeneous boundary conditions at nodes 2 and 3,
0 
Q2=Q3=  
~ ~ 0 
20 
Further, ~F1 =  0  kN
 
Thus, only k 11 is required for computation of Q 1 .
~ a , the following equation is obtained.

By substituting values of t , A, D11 , D12 , D33 , b1 and 1
 21, 978.02 × 10 × 10 0 
0.8   U1  20 
4 × 50   V  =  0 

 0 21, 978.022 × 0.35 × 10 × 10   1  
U1  2.275 × 10−3 
Thus,  =   cm
 V1   0 
By making use of Eq. (7.64),
σ xx   5 
   
σ yy  = 1.5  kN/cm 2
σ   0 
 xy   
Since only one CST element is used to model the entire plate, the stress field is constant
throughout the plate.
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 206 12/14/10 11:26:27 AM

W3
Z
3 U3
W2
W1 i
U2
2
1 U1
r
Figure 7.11 Typical triangular element to analyse axi-symmetric solids
7.3.4 Triangular Element for Axi-symmetric Analysis

Step-by-step formulation of a triangular element is presented below.

A typical 3-node, triangular element from the discretized domain of an axi-symmetric solid is shown
in Figure 7.11. An axi-symmetric solid is modelled by rotating such elements through 360°.
At each node, there are two DOF corresponding to the displacements in the radial and vertical
directions. Thus,
{q e }T = [U1 W1 U 2 W2 U 3 W3 ] (7.82)

It can be shown that
U ( r , Z ) = N1U1 + N 2U 2 + N 3U 3
W ( r , Z ) = N1W1 + N 2W2 + N 3W3 , (7.83)
where shape functions N1, N2 and N3 are given by
1
Ni =  c + bi r + ai Z  , i = 1, 2, 3 (7.84)
2A  i
Alternatively,
U1 
 
W1 
U ( r , Z )   N1 0 N 2 0 N 3 0  U 2 
  = {U } =    (7.85)
W ( r , Z )  0 N1 0 N 2 0 N 3  W2 
U 3 
 
W3 
or
{U} = [ N ]{q e } (7.86)
Here,
 N1 0 N 2 0 N 3 0  (7.87)
N] = 
[� 
2×6  0 N1 0 N 2 0 N 3 
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 207 12/14/10 11:26:31 AM

Step 3: Define Strain-displacement relations and constitutive law

Strain-Displacement (Gradients) Relations
It can be shown from Eqs. (7.53) and (7.86) that
 εr 
 
ε 
{ε} =  θ  = [ B]{qe } (7.88)
 εz 
γ rz 
i.e.,
ε} = [�
{� qe } ,
B] {� (7.89)
4 ×1 4 ×6 6 ×1
where
 b1 0 b2 0 b3 0
 
c aZ c2 aZ c3 aZ
1  1 + b1 + 1 0 + b2 + 2 0 + b1 + 3 0
[ B] = r r r r r r  (7.90)
2A 
0 a1 0 a2 0 a3 
 
 a1 b1 a2 b2 a3 b3 
Note that the strain vector is no longer constant. Also, [B] involves singular terms when r = 0.
Constitutive Relations
{σ } = [ D ]{ε}, (7.91)
where [D] is given by Eq. (7.54). By substituting Eq. (7.89) into Eq. (7.91),
{σ } = [ D ][ B]{qe } (7.92)
can be obtained.

By minimizing the potential energy, element equations can be derived as
[ K e ]{qe } = {F e } (7.93)
Here,
[K e ] = ∫∫∫ [ B] [ D][ B]dV
T
θ −2π
=∫ ∫ ∫ [ B] [ D] [ B] r dr dθ dz
T
(7.94)
θ =0 r z
= 2π ∫ ∫ [ B] [ D ] [ B] r dr dz
T
r z
and
{F e } = {�P} + 2π ∫ ∫ [ N ]T { X }r dr dz + 2π ∫ [ N ]T {T }r dz (7.95)
nodal loads
��
r z
�� z� ��
equivalent nodal body forces equivalent nodal traction forces
Integrations appearing in Eqs. (7.94) and (7.95) can be evaluated by several ways.
1. Integrate all the terms explicitly. However, the explicit evaluation may be tedious and compli-
cated due to (1/r) terms in the integrands.
2. Use numerical integration. Usually, a Gauss-quadrature procedure is employed for numerical
integration. Refer to Appendix D for details.
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 208 12/14/10 11:26:34 AM

3. Integrations can be obtained approximately by evaluating integrands at the centroid of an

element. This approach is reasonable when ‘small’ elements are employed in discretization.
At the centroid,
1
r = r = (r1 + r2 + r3 )
3
1
Z = Z = ( Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 ) (7.96)
3
e
and thus, say, [K ] can be approximated as
[ K e ] ≈ 2π A[ B]T [ D][ B] r , (7.97)
where [ B] is evaluated at the centroid.
Steps 5, 6 and 7: Follow steps outlined for plane stress/plane strain analyses by using CST element
Axi-symmetric formulations with both axi-symmetric as well as non-axi-symmetric forces have been
further elaborated later.
7.3.5 Some Remarks on Triangular Elements

In order to improve accuracy of results, mesh can be refined by reducing the size of 3-node, triangular
elements. This approach is often known as h-version of finite element analysis. Alternatively, in the
p-version, instead of refining the mesh, higher order elements (where strains can vary linearly, para-
bolically, cubically, etc.) can be used to improve accuracy. Higher order elements are presumed to
closely model the strain and stress distribution in a continuum.
Triangular elements having 6- and 10-nodes are shown in Figure 7.12. Since the strains vary
linearly and quadratically for 6- and 10-node elements, they are, respectively, referred to as linear
strain triangle (LST) and quadratic strain triangle (QST) elements.
7.3.6 Four-Node Rectangular Element for Plane Problems

In this section, a step-by-step, finite element formulation of a 4-node rectangular element is presented.

A rectangular element shown in Figure 7.13 can be used to discretize a domain having a regular
geometric shape. However, in practice, quadrilateral elements are used more extensively. Note that a
rectangular shape is a degenerated quadrilateral.
3 3
7
8
5
6 6
9
10
2 2
4 5
4
1 1
Figure 7.12 Higher order triangular elements
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 209 12/14/10 11:26:37 AM

Y, V
V3
V4
U4 4 3 U3
h
V1 X, U
V2
i h
1 2
U1
U2
L L
Figure 7.13 Typical, 4-node, rectangular element
A typical 4-node, rectangular element from the discretized domain is shown in Figure 7.13.
The element DOF vector for this element is given by
{q e }T = [U1 V1 U 2 V2 U 3 V3 U 4 V4 ] (7.98)

Since there are 4-nodes (and, hence, four unknowns per global direction), one can select only four
terms from the Pascal’s triangle (Figure 7.14).
Assume U ( X , Y ) = a1 + a2 X + a3Y + a4 XY
V ( X , Y ) = b1 + b2 X + b3Y + b4 XY (7.99)
By eliminating ai’s and bi’s, it can be shown that
U ( X , Y ) = N1U1 + N 2U 2 + N 3U 3 + N 4U 4
V ( X , Y ) = N1V1 + N 2V2 + N 3V3 + N 4V4 , (7.100)
where
( L − X )( h − Y ) ( L + X )( h − Y )
N1 = , N2 =
4 Lh 4 Lh
( L + X )(h + Y ) ( L − X )(h + Y )
N3 = , N4 = (7.101)
4 Lh 4 Lh
X Y
X2 XY Y2
X3 X 2Y XY 2 Y3
Figure 7.14 Criterion for selecting approximation function
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 210 12/14/10 11:26:41 AM

The displacement vector {U (X, Y)} can be written as

U1 
 
 V1 
U 2 
 
U ( X , Y )   N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0   V2 
{U } =  =    (7.102)
V ( X , Y )   0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 4  U 3 
 V3 
 
U 4 
V 
 4
In other words,
{U } = [ N ]{qe }, (7.103)
where
N 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 0 
[N ] =  1  (7.104)
0 N1 0 N2 0 N3 0 N4 
Step 3: Define strain–displacement relations and constitutive law

Strain-Displacement Relation
It can be easily shown that
∂U ∂N1 ∂N ∂N ∂N
εx = = U1 + 2 U 2 + 3 U 3 + 4 U 4
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
∂V ∂N1 ∂N ∂N ∂N
εy = = V1 + 2 V2 + 3 V3 + 4 V4
∂Y ∂Y ∂Y ∂Y ∂Y
∂U ∂V ∂N1 ∂N ∂N ∂N
γ xy = + = U1 + 1 V1 + 2 U 2 + 2 V2
∂Y ∂X ∂Y ∂X ∂Y ∂X
(7.105)
∂N 3 ∂N 3 ∂N 4 ∂N 4
+ U3 + V + U4 + V
∂Y ∂X 3 ∂Y ∂X 4
Let
∂N i ∂N i
= N i,x and = N i, y (7.106)
∂X ∂Y
Then,
ε 
 x 
{ε} =  ε y  = [� qe } ,
B] {� (7.107)
  3×8 8×1
γ xy 
where
 N1, x 0 N 2, x 0 N 3, x 0 N 4, x 0 
 
[�B] =  0 N1, y 0 N 2, y 0 N 3, y 0 N 4, y 
3× 8  
 N1, y N1, x N 2, y N 2, x N 3, y N 3, x N 4, y N 4, x 
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 211 12/14/10 11:26:44 AM


 −( h − Y ) 0 (h − Y ) 0 (h + Y ) 0 −( h + Y ) 0 
1   (7.108)
= 0 − ( L − X ) 0 − ( L + X ) 0 ( L + X ) 0 ( L − X )
4 Lh  
 −( L − X ) −( h − Y ) −( L + X ) ( h − Y ) ( L + X ) ( h + Y ) ( L − X ) − ( h + Y ) 
Note that, unlike in the CST formulation, the strains are not constant.
Constitutive Relation
As shown earlier,
{σ } = [ D ] {ε} = [ D ] [ B] {qe }, (7.109)
where 3 × 3 elasticity matrix [D] is given by Eq. (7.47) for plane stress condition and Eq. (7.52) for
plane strain conditions.
Step 4. Derive element equations.

By following the procedure adopted for the CST formulation, in conjunction with energy method, the
element equations are given by
[ K e ] {qe } = {F e } , (7.110)
where
h L
K e ] = ∫ [� (7.111)
B]T [� B] d V = ∫ ∫ [ B] [ D ] [ B] t d x d y
T
[� D ] [�
8 ×8 V 8× 3 3× 3 3× 8 −h −L
{F e } = ∫ [ N ]T { X } d V + {P} + ∫ [ N ]T {T }d S (7.112)
V S
Here, {X} represents the body force vector, {P} indicates the element nodal force vector and {T}
represents the surface traction vector.
Analytical evaluation of integrations in Eqs. (7.111) and (7.112) is tedious. Therefore, numeri-
cal integration is usually employed. The most widely used integration scheme in the FEM is the
Gauss-quadrature. The Gauss-quadrature is defined in a natural (or intrinsic) co-ordinate system.
Therefore, the integrals expressed in the X-Y co-ordinate system need to be transformed to the natu-
ral co-ordinates ξ-η. The numerical integration is discussed later in the context of iso-parametric
formulation.
Step 5, 6 and 7: Follow procedures outlined previously
7.4 ISO-Parametric Formulation
Term ‘iso-parametric’ is derived from the use of the same shape functions (or interpolation func-
tions) to define the element’s geometric shape as those used to define the variation of unknown field
within an element. Iso-parametric element equations are formulated using a ‘natural’ (or ‘intrinsic’)
co-ordinate system defined by the element geometry. The intrinsic co-ordinates normally vary from
−1 to +1, regardless of the element’s dimensions. Thus, use of such a co-ordinate system becomes
very attractive, especially when all the matrices need to be integrated numerically.
The concept of iso-parametric formulation is explained below in the context of a line (bar) ele-
ment and is extended later to a two-dimensional, quadrilateral element.
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 212 12/14/10 11:26:46 AM

7.4.1 Two-Node Iso-Parametric Line Element (Bar Element)

Consider a 2-node bar element of length L as shown in Figure 7.15.
Refer to the finite element formulation presented in the Chapter 6 for a bar element. In this sec-
tion, this formulation is revisited in the context of natural co-ordinate system. For the element shown
in Figure 7.15, the nodal co-ordinates can be written in global, local or intrinsic co-ordinate system.
At node 1: X = X1; x = 0; ξ = −1.
At node 2: X = X2; x = L; ξ = +1.
X global co-ordinate (X1 ≤ X ≤ X2)
x local co-ordinate (0 ≤ x ≤ L)
ξ natural or intrinsic co-ordinate (−1 ≤ ξ ≤ 1)
Co-ordinate Transformation
Global co-ordinate (X) is related to natural co-ordinate (ξ) by
X = a1 + a2 ξ (7.113)
Therefore,
a1 + a2 ( −1) = X 1; a1 + a2 (1) = X 2
X1 + X 2 X − X1
a1 = , a2 = 2
2 2

X + X 2  X 2 − X1 
X = 1 + ξ =
(1 − ξ ) X + (1 + ξ ) X
2  2   2 1
2 2
or
2
X 
X = N1 X 1 + N 2 X 2 = ∑ N i xi = [ N1 N 2 ]  1 , (7.114)
i =1 X2 
where
1− ξ 1+ ξ
, N1 =
N2 = (7.115)
2 2
Variation of shape functions over an element are shown in Figure 7.16.
Approximation Function
1− ξ 1+ ξ
U = a1 + a2ξ =  U + U
 2  1  2  2
2
U1 
= N1U1 + N 2U 2 = ∑ N iU i = [ N1 N 2 ]   = [ N ] {q e } (7.116)
i =1 U 2 
x1
X x
1 2
L/2 L/2
Figure 7.15 Two-node, iso-parametric line element
M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 213 12/14/10 11:26:50 AM

Finite Element Analysis

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Finite Element Analysis

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7

(ii) Triangular element for two-dimensional stress analysis

7.2 Two-DimEnSional Flow THrouGH PorouS

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 189 12/14/10 11:25:22 AM

Seepage through an earthen dam can be classified as unconfined seepage.

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 190 12/14/10 11:25:23 AM

Free or phreatic surface

7.2.1 Step-by-step Formulation for the CST Element for Two-Dimensional

Step 1: Discretize and select element type

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 191 12/14/10 11:25:30 AM

Step 2: Select approximation function

for convenience, Eq. (7.4) can be written as

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 192 12/14/10 11:25:34 AM

Alternatively, in the matrix form,

{qe }T = [φ1 φ2 φ3 ] (7.9)

The [P] can be obtained to be

To further simplify the expression for |P|, consider Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5 Area calculation for a CST element

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 193 12/14/10 11:25:37 AM

From Figure 7.5,

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 194 12/14/10 11:25:42 AM

Figure 7.6 Shape functions for a CST element

Step 3. Define constitutive law and gradients.

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From Eqs. (7.6) and (7.22), it can be easily seen that

Constitutive Relations (Darcy’s Law)

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Minimization of πp results in the element equations

7.3 Two-Dimensional Stress Analysis

7.3.1 Review of Theory of Elasticity

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7.3.2 Application of Three-Dimensional Equations

7.3.2.1 Plane Stress Situation

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Thin Plate with a hole

Hence, it can be seen from Eq. (7.42) that

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 199 12/14/10 11:26:00 AM

7.3.2.2 Plane Strain Situation

τ xz = τ yz = 0 but σ z ≠ 0 and

7.3.2.3 Axi-symmetric Situation

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 200 12/14/10 11:26:04 AM

From Eqs. (7.53) and (7.42), it can be easily shown that

Step 1: Discretize and select element type

Step 2: Select approximation function

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 201 12/14/10 11:26:07 AM

Step 3: Define Strain-displacement relations and constitutive law

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 202 12/14/10 11:26:12 AM

{F } = ∫ {N } { X }dV + {P} + ∫ [ N ]T {T }dS

Element Stiffness Matrix

The equivalent nodal loads due to body forces are given by

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 203 12/14/10 11:26:16 AM

Thus, it can be observed that X =

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 204 12/14/10 11:26:19 AM

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~ a , the following equation is obtained.

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7.3.4 Triangular Element for Axi-symmetric Analysis

Step 1: Discretize and select element type

Step 2: Select approximation function

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Step 3: Define Strain-displacement relations and constitutive law

Step 4: Derive element equations

M07_DESAI2182_01_C07.indd 208 12/14/10 11:26:34 AM