PAGADIAN CAPITOL COLLEGE 2015
Criminological Research & Statistics
By: Dean John Dexter G. Sarcena, MSCrim
Meaning and nature of research
1. The word research is composed of two
syllables, re and search. Dictionary define the
former syllable as a prefix meaning again, anew
or over again, and the latter as a verb meaning
to examine closely and carefully.
2. There are two basic complementary research
approaches – quantitative and qualitative.
3. There are two main goals of social
(criminological) research-pure (to develop
theory and expand knowledge base) and
applied (to develop solutions for problems and
relevant application for criminological practice).
4. There are three possible reasons for
conducting criminological research a.
exploration (conducted when there is little prior
knowledge); description (yield to additional
information only when there is a little prior
knowledge has been obtained) and; explanation
(when substantial knowledge is available, it
attempts to explain the facts already gathered).
5. research is simply a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation or refined
technique of thinking, employing specialized
tools, instruments, and procedures in order to
obtain a more adequate solution of a problem
than would possible under ordinary means.
6. Research process starts with a. identifying
the problem, b. formulation of hypothesis, c.
collects data or facts, d. analyzes the critically,
and e. reaches decision based on actual
evidence.
7. Research involves original work (literature,
studies, and readings) instead of a mere
exercise of opinion.
8. Research involves from genuine desire to
know (probe) rather than a desire to prove
something.
Ethical consideration of research
1. Veracity/ accurate analysis and reporting
(obligation to tell the truth, not to lie or deceive
others).
2. Privacy (obligation to maintain the state or
condition of limited access to person).
3. Anonymity and confidentiality (obligation to
divulge information discovered without the
permission of the subject).
4. Fidelity (obligation to remain faithful to one’s
commitments, which includes keeping promises
and maintaining confidentiality)
5. informed consent (seeking permission to the
person/guardian).
6. No harm (obligation not to inflict
harm/endanger either physical or psychological
or socially).
7. Voluntary participation
8. Avoiding deception (reveal real purpose of
the research).
Research methods
Method of criminological research
1. Descriptive method (to describe
systematically a situation or area of interest
factually and accurately)
2. Historical method (to reconstruct the past
objectively and accurately, often in relation to
the tenability of a hypothesis)
3. Case and field method (to study intensively
the background, current status, and
environmental interactions of a given social
unit)
4. correlation method (to investigate the extent
to which variations in one factor correlate with
variations in one or more other factors based
on correlation coefficient)
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5. Casual – comparative or “ex post facto”
method (to investigate possible cause-and-
effect relationships by observing some existing
consequences and looking back through the
data for plausible causal factor).
6. Experimental method (to investigate cause-
and-effect relationship between two or more
treatment conditions and comparing the results
to a control groups not receiving the treatment;
“what will happen?”)
Types of criminological research
1. Action research (to develop new skills or new
approaches and to solve problems with direct
application to the workplace or other applied
setting)
Hypothesis (“wise guess”) null hypothesis; alternative
hypothesis (operational hypothesis)
Sources of information
1. Related literature (books, magazine)
2. Related reading (legal documents, memos)
3. related studies (journals, thesis, and
dissertation)
4. Key informants
5. Artifacts
6. Other materials evidences
Writing the research report
APA format makes use of parentitical citation
(old format use Latin citations-ibid; op. cit; or
loccit and endnotes or footnotes)

Parts of a research paper (thesis)

2. Survey (descriptive) research (to know of
interest “what is”; typically employs A. preliminary pages
questionnaires and interviews to determine 1. cover page
attitudes, opinion, preferences, and perception 2. approval sheet
of interest to the researcher) 3. abstract
4. table of contents
a) close-ended questionnaire (pre 5. list of tables
categorized by the researcher’s words)
b) open-ended questionnaire (in Chapter 1 - introduction
respondent’s words) a) background of the study
b) conceptual framework
3. Observational research (collecting direct c) the problem and hyphothesis
information about human behavior) Chapter 2 - methods and procedures
a) research design
4. Historical research (investigating documents b) population
and other sources that contains facts that c) data-gathering procedures
existed in the past; “what was”) d) data gathering tools (includes the description of
the research instruments, validity and reliability
5. Evaluation research (to study processes and of the instruments)
procedure for the improvement of a system). e) statistical tools
Chapter 3 - interpretation and analysis of findings
Types of criminological research according to purpose a) presentation of data
b) analysis and interpretation
1. Exploration (to develop an initial, rough c) drawing implications out of the research
understanding of a phenomenon) findings
d) d corroboration from related sources of
Methods: literature reviews, interviews, information
case studies, key informants Chapter 4 - conclusions and recommendations

2. Description (precise measurement and

B. appendices (references, forms/tools. Curriculum vitae)
reporting of the characteristics of the
population or phenomenon)

Methods: census, surveys, qualitative

studies Statistics

3. Explanation (why “is x the case?” or “is x the Sampling refers to the method of choosing subjects in a
relationship?”) particularly study.

Methods: experimental There are two basic approaches to sampling: probability

(systematic; randomized and non probability sampling)
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a) Probability sampling (simple random, stratified
random, cluster, systematic-intervals)
b) Non probability (convenience, quota, purposive
or judgmental, snow-ball)
Levels of measurement (a process that employs rules
to assign numbers to phenomenon)
 Nominal (observations are collected or
categorized or sorted based on defined
properties; each category is distinct, mutually
exclusive, and exhaustive.
Ex. Gender, religious affiliation, college major,
hair color, birth place, nationality, tribe)
 Ordinal (scores or observations are ranked in
order without distance between individuals.
Ex. Age group when ranked, socio-economic-
status, level of conflict
 Interval (with equal intervals between numbers
where there is no absolute absence of the
attribute because zero is assigned and
represents an arbitrary point.
Ex. Temperature, iq score
 Ratio (this is in contrast to interval where there
exist an absolute absence of the attribute or
rational zero.
Ex. Age, height, weight, length of time
Common statistical tools
 For sample size, slovin’s; partern’s formula
 For reliability test, split-half method; spearman-
brown prophesy. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha
 For the test of validity; standardized tool; pass
through the panel of experts; used in other
studies
Sources of measurement errors
 Environmental factors
 Research factors
 Instrumentation factors
 Subject factors
Two categories of quantitative data analysis
 Descriptive statistics. These statistical methods
which summarize, organize, and describe data,
providing an organized visual presentation of
the data collected.
Ex. Measures of central tendencies (mean,
median, mode) and measures of variability
(range, interquartile range, variance, semi-
quartile range, and standard deviation)
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 Inferential statistics. These are statistical
techniques used to estimate or predict a
population parameter from a sample statistic.
An understanding of the normal curve is essential
statistics and includes an understanding of symmetry,
skewdness, and standard scores.
Likert scale is a summative rating scale used to
ascertain opinion or attitudes; each item contains a
range or scaled response on a particular question
stemming from “strongly-agree” to “strongly disagree”
Types of questionnaire
1. Structured wording and order of questions are
uniform for all respondents.
2. Unstructured wording and order of questions
can vary for different subjects; usually used for
qualitative studies like FGDs, case studies, etc.
Types of questions
Closed-ended - respondents selects one or more of the
specific categories provided by the researcher.
Example:
Do you practice family planning?
__yes __no
If yes, what methods did you use?
__condom __ligation
__injectables __pills
__IUD __natural
__others, specify________
Advantages of close ended questions
1. The answers are standard, and can be
compared from person to person.
2. The answers are much easier to code
3. Irrelevant responses are avoided
Disadvantages of close-ended questions
a) The respondent who does not know the
answer or has no opinion may try to
guess the appropriate answer or even
to answer randomly. (for self
administered questionnaire)
b) The respondent may feel frustrated
because the appropriate category for
his/her answer either is not provided at
all or is not provided insufficient detail.
(for self-administered questionnaire)
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Open-ended - response categories are not specified;  Is used to internal and label unobtrusive
the respondents are free to answer as they please. psychological process that account for the
behavior
Example:
 They are useful, powerful and even
We would like to get your opinion regarding the indispensable
effectiveness of the project in your barangay.  Understanding how it operates will help
accurately interpret data
1. What do you think are the strengths of the
project? Why did you say so? Respondents of the study
2. How do you think can the project still be
 A section on the research proposal discusses in
improved to meet its objective?
detail the characteristics of the respondents in
Advantages of open-ended questions the study.
 It also includes description of the populations,
a) These can be used when all the possible answer geographical and economic locations, as well
categories are not known. the rationale for including them in the study.
b) These allow the respondent to answer
adequately
c) They can be used when there are too many
potential answer categories to list on the
questionnaire.
d) They allow more opportunity for creativity and
self-expression by the respondent.

Disadvantages of open-ended questions

a) These may lead to the collection of worthless

and irrelevant information.
b) Coding is often very difficult.
c) Open-ended questions require a higher
educational level than do close-ended questions
d) Open-ended questions require much more of
the respondent’s time and effort.

VARIABLES

Variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are

assigned.

 Dependent variable
 Independent variable
 Intervening variable

Categorizing variables

Independent

 Is presumed cause
 In experimental research, is that which you
manipulated before you took it

Dependent

 Is presumed effect

Intervening variables

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Sampling techniques 6. Multistage sampling

 A sample reflects the characteristics of the A. Commonly used when no detailed

population or actual listing of individuals
 A basic concept in sampling is that what is B. Sampling is dine in stages
called randomness which simply means the act C. The population elements are
of sampling is not purposive. grouped following a hierarchy of
 Randomization seeks to insure that every individuals.
individual in the population has an equal chance
Non-probability sampling
of being included in the sample.
1. Judgment sampling
Four factors n selecting size and population
A. Selecting representative sample
1. homogeneity according to your subjective
2. size of the population judgment.
3. cost B. Appropriate to make when you
4. precision have made a judgment about an
individual’s potential as source of
General types of sampling information
2. Quota sampling
Probability sampling
A. A variation of judgment sampling
1. Random sampling B. A defined quota must be filled,
predetermined by certain extent of
A. Selecting the individuals out of N characteristics of the population so
such that individuals have equal that the quota sample will be
chances of being selected. representative of the population.
B. Techniques suitable for 3. Accidental sampling
homogeneous population. A. Simple technique whoever happens
2. Systematic random sampling to be there at the time of data
collection.
A. Sample is selected through simple B. Done on spot surveys.
random process.
B. Succeeding samples are chosen in a
pre-established intervals

3. Stratified sampling

A. Divide samples in homogeneous

groups called strata.
B. Draw sample from simple random
sampling.

4. Simple cluster sampling

A. A one stage sampling technique

where the population is grouped by
cluster elements.

5. Strip sampling

A. Divide the area into simple narrow

B. Select number of strips at random
either by complete randomization
or with some degree of
stratification.
C. Consider only part of the strips as
one narrow unit.

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Glossary of Research-Related Terms
Average - an ambiguous term generally suggesting
typical or normal – a central tendency. The mean,
median, and mode are example of mathematical
averages.
Applied research – a research conducted for the
purpose of applying, or testing, theory and evaluating
its usefulness in solving problem.
Basic research – a research conducted for the purpose
of theory development or refinement.
Case study - the in-depth examination of a single
instance of some special phenomenon, such as a
juvenile gang.
Causal-comparative research – a research that
attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing
differences in the behavior or status of groups of
individuals.
Chi square – a non-parametric test of significance
appropriate when the data are in the form of frequency
counts.
Cohort study – a study in which some specific
subpopulation (cohort) is studied over time, although
data may be collected from different members in each
set of observations.
Concept mapping – the graphical display of concepts
and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of
theory.
Confidentiality – an act of concealing the identity of a
person’s response.
Conflict theory – a theoretical perspective that
emphasizes the role of power and coercion in producing
social order.
Contact theory – the theory that prejudice will be
reduced through social interaction with those of
different ethnicity but equal status.
Content analysis – the study of recorded human
communications, such as books and laws.
Correlational research – a research that involves
collecting data in order to determine whether and to
what degree, a relationship exist between two or more
quantifiable variables.
Criminology – the study of crime from scientific
perspective.
Criminological research – a special branch of sociology.
It deals on the analysis of crimes and criminal behavior
that scientific basis in order to the phenomena.
Cross-case analysis – an analysis that involves an
examination of more than one case, either a variable-
oriented or case-oriented analysis.
Cross-sectional study – a study based on observation
representing a single point in time.
Data – these are systematic information that
criminologists us to investigate research question.
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Dependent variable – a wimpy (unimportant) variable,
the variable that is a presumed effect. Also referred to
as the criterion variable, the effect, the outcome. Or the
posttest.
Descriptive statistics – a data analysis technique
enabling the researcher to meaningfully describe many
scores with a small number of numerical indices.
Discrete variable – a variable whose attributes are
separate from one another, or discontinuous, as in the
case of gender and religious affiliation.
Evaluation research – a research undertaken for the
purpose of determining the impact of some social
intervention, such as a program aimed at solving aq
social problem.
Historical research – the systematic collection and
evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order
to describe causes, effects, or trends of those events
which may help o explain present events and anticipate
future events.
Hypothesis – a specified testable expectation about
empirical reality that follows from a more general
proposition.
Independent variable – the variable that is presumed
to cause.
Informant – someone well versed in the social
phenomenon that you wish to study and who is willing
to tell you what he or she knows about it.
Interview – a data-gathering technique in which a
person asks questions of another.
Longitudinal study – a study designed involving the
collection of data at different points in time.
Mean – the arithmetic average of a set of scores.
Median – that point in the distribution on and below
50% the scores.
Meta-analysis - a statistical approach to summarizing
the results of many studies which have investigated
basically the same problem.
Non –parametric test – a test of significance
appropriate when the data represent as ordinal or
nominal scale, when the parametric assumption has
been greatly violated or when the natures of the
distribution is not known.
Null-hypothesis – a statement of no
relationship/difference between variables.
Paradigm – those refer to a framework for observation
and understanding. It is like putting a shape into
something that we see.
Parameter – numerical index describing ten behavior of
population.
Parametric test – a test of significant appropriate when
the data represent an interval or ration scale of
measurement and other assumptions have been met.
Participatory action research – an approach to social
research in which the people being studied are given
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control over the purpose and procedures of the
research.
Pilot study – a small study conducted prior to the
conducting of the actual study.
Population – the group to which the researcher would
like the results of the study to be generalized.
Primary source – a firsthand information such as the
testimony if an eyewitness, an original document, a
relic, or a description of study written by a person who
conducted.
Quantitative analysis – the numerical representation
and manipulations for the purpose of the purpose of
describing and explaining he phenomena that those
observations reflect.
Qualitative analysis – the non-numerical examination
and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of
discovering underlying meanings and patters of
relationships
Reliability – the quality of measurement method that
suggest the dame data would have been collected each
time in repeated observations of the same
phenomenon.
Research – a systematic, controlled, empirical, and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about
the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Sample – a number of individuals selected from a
population for the study. Preferably in such a way that
they represent the larger group from which they were
selected.
Scientific method – the steps o n a research process,
including observation, hypothesis testing, analysis of
data, and generalization.
Split-half – a type of reliability that is based on the
internal consistency of a test and is estimated by
dividing a test into two equivalent halves and
correlating the scores on the two halves.
Statistics – a numerical index describing the behavior of
a sample or samples.
Theory – a systematic explanation for the observations
that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Triangulation – the use of multiple methods, data
collection techniques/strategies, and/or data sources in
order to get a more complete picture and to cross-
check information.
Units of analysis – the what or whom being studied. In
criminological research, the most typical units of
analysis are individual people.
Validity – a term describing a measure that accurately
reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
Variable - A concept that cam assume any one of a
range of values, e.g. aptitude, gender.

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