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CORPUZ CJ
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5. Casual – comparative or “ex post facto” Hypothesis (“wise guess”) null hypothesis; alternative
method (to investigate possible cause-and- hypothesis (operational hypothesis)
effect relationships by observing some existing
consequences and looking back through the Sources of information
data for plausible causal factor). 1. Related literature (books, magazine)
6. Experimental method (to investigate cause- 2. Related reading (legal documents, memos)
and-effect relationship between two or more 3. related studies (journals, thesis, and
treatment conditions and comparing the results dissertation)
to a control groups not receiving the treatment; 4. Key informants
“what will happen?”) 5. Artifacts
6. Other materials evidences
Types of criminological research
Writing the research report
1. Action research (to develop new skills or new
approaches and to solve problems with direct APA format makes use of parentitical citation
application to the workplace or other applied (old format use Latin citations-ibid; op. cit; or
setting) loccit and endnotes or footnotes)
3. Explanation (why “is x the case?” or “is x the Sampling refers to the method of choosing subjects in a
relationship?”) particularly study.
Nominal (observations are collected or Likert scale is a summative rating scale used to
categorized or sorted based on defined ascertain opinion or attitudes; each item contains a
properties; each category is distinct, mutually range or scaled response on a particular question
exclusive, and exhaustive. stemming from “strongly-agree” to “strongly disagree”
Ex. Gender, religious affiliation, college major,
hair color, birth place, nationality, tribe) Types of questionnaire
Ordinal (scores or observations are ranked in 1. Structured wording and order of questions are
order without distance between individuals. uniform for all respondents.
Ex. Age group when ranked, socio-economic- 2. Unstructured wording and order of questions
status, level of conflict can vary for different subjects; usually used for
Interval (with equal intervals between numbers qualitative studies like FGDs, case studies, etc.
where there is no absolute absence of the
attribute because zero is assigned and Types of questions
represents an arbitrary point.
Closed-ended - respondents selects one or more of the
Ex. Temperature, iq score
specific categories provided by the researcher.
Ratio (this is in contrast to interval where there
exist an absolute absence of the attribute or Example:
rational zero.
Ex. Age, height, weight, length of time Do you practice family planning?
__yes __no
VARIABLES
Dependent variable
Independent variable
Intervening variable
Categorizing variables
Independent
Is presumed cause
In experimental research, is that which you
manipulated before you took it
Dependent
Is presumed effect
Intervening variables
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Sampling techniques 6. Multistage sampling
3. Stratified sampling
5. Strip sampling
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Glossary of Research-Related Terms Dependent variable – a wimpy (unimportant) variable,
the variable that is a presumed effect. Also referred to
Average - an ambiguous term generally suggesting as the criterion variable, the effect, the outcome. Or the
typical or normal – a central tendency. The mean, posttest.
median, and mode are example of mathematical Descriptive statistics – a data analysis technique
averages. enabling the researcher to meaningfully describe many
Applied research – a research conducted for the scores with a small number of numerical indices.
purpose of applying, or testing, theory and evaluating Discrete variable – a variable whose attributes are
its usefulness in solving problem. separate from one another, or discontinuous, as in the
Basic research – a research conducted for the purpose
case of gender and religious affiliation.
of theory development or refinement. Evaluation research – a research undertaken for the
Case study - the in-depth examination of a single purpose of determining the impact of some social
instance of some special phenomenon, such as a intervention, such as a program aimed at solving aq
juvenile gang. social problem.
Causal-comparative research – a research that Historical research – the systematic collection and
attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order
differences in the behavior or status of groups of to describe causes, effects, or trends of those events
individuals. which may help o explain present events and anticipate
Chi square – a non-parametric test of significance future events.
appropriate when the data are in the form of frequency Hypothesis – a specified testable expectation about
counts. empirical reality that follows from a more general
Cohort study – a study in which some specific
proposition.
subpopulation (cohort) is studied over time, although Independent variable – the variable that is presumed
data may be collected from different members in each to cause.
set of observations. Informant – someone well versed in the social
Concept mapping – the graphical display of concepts phenomenon that you wish to study and who is willing
and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of to tell you what he or she knows about it.
theory. Interview – a data-gathering technique in which a
Confidentiality – an act of concealing the identity of a person asks questions of another.
person’s response. Longitudinal study – a study designed involving the
Conflict theory – a theoretical perspective that collection of data at different points in time.
emphasizes the role of power and coercion in producing Mean – the arithmetic average of a set of scores.
social order. Median – that point in the distribution on and below
Contact theory – the theory that prejudice will be 50% the scores.
reduced through social interaction with those of Meta-analysis - a statistical approach to summarizing
different ethnicity but equal status. the results of many studies which have investigated
Content analysis – the study of recorded human basically the same problem.
communications, such as books and laws. Non –parametric test – a test of significance
Correlational research – a research that involves appropriate when the data represent as ordinal or
collecting data in order to determine whether and to nominal scale, when the parametric assumption has
what degree, a relationship exist between two or more been greatly violated or when the natures of the
quantifiable variables. distribution is not known.
Criminology – the study of crime from scientific Null-hypothesis – a statement of no
perspective. relationship/difference between variables.
Criminological research – a special branch of sociology.
Paradigm – those refer to a framework for observation
It deals on the analysis of crimes and criminal behavior and understanding. It is like putting a shape into
that scientific basis in order to the phenomena. something that we see.
Cross-case analysis – an analysis that involves an Parameter – numerical index describing ten behavior of
examination of more than one case, either a variable- population.
oriented or case-oriented analysis. Parametric test – a test of significant appropriate when
Cross-sectional study – a study based on observation the data represent an interval or ration scale of
representing a single point in time. measurement and other assumptions have been met.
Data – these are systematic information that Participatory action research – an approach to social
criminologists us to investigate research question.
research in which the people being studied are given
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control over the purpose and procedures of the
research.
Pilot study – a small study conducted prior to the
conducting of the actual study.
Population – the group to which the researcher would
like the results of the study to be generalized.
Primary source – a firsthand information such as the
testimony if an eyewitness, an original document, a
relic, or a description of study written by a person who
conducted.
Quantitative analysis – the numerical representation
and manipulations for the purpose of the purpose of
describing and explaining he phenomena that those
observations reflect.
Qualitative analysis – the non-numerical examination
and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of
discovering underlying meanings and patters of
relationships
Reliability – the quality of measurement method that
suggest the dame data would have been collected each
time in repeated observations of the same
phenomenon.
Research – a systematic, controlled, empirical, and
critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about
the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
Sample – a number of individuals selected from a
population for the study. Preferably in such a way that
they represent the larger group from which they were
selected.
Scientific method – the steps o n a research process,
including observation, hypothesis testing, analysis of
data, and generalization.
Split-half – a type of reliability that is based on the
internal consistency of a test and is estimated by
dividing a test into two equivalent halves and
correlating the scores on the two halves.
Statistics – a numerical index describing the behavior of
a sample or samples.
Theory – a systematic explanation for the observations
that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Triangulation – the use of multiple methods, data
collection techniques/strategies, and/or data sources in
order to get a more complete picture and to cross-
check information.
Units of analysis – the what or whom being studied. In
criminological research, the most typical units of
analysis are individual people.
Validity – a term describing a measure that accurately
reflects the concept it is intended to measure.
Variable - A concept that cam assume any one of a
range of values, e.g. aptitude, gender.
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