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Design of Pre-stressed Concrete Girder Bridge
Thesis · May 2012

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3459.0240
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Nouman Amjad Raja

Technical University of Denmark
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In the Name of ALLAH,
The Most Beneficent,
The Most Merciful.
DEDICATION
With our sincere devotion and reverence, we dedicate this project to our
Parents and our Teachers and those who sacrificed their lives during the freedom
struggle for Pakistan.
ABSTRACT
During project work considerable efforts have been endured upon analysis and design of
prestressed concrete girder bridge. In this project work the prestressed concrete girder bridge,
already constructed near Islamabad on motorway, is selected for analysis and design work with
slight variation in data. Standard AASHTO HL-93 traffic loading is followed for the analysis of
bridge prestressed concrete girder as it is widely used for the design of prestressed concrete
girder bridges. Detailed analysis and design of prestressed concrete girder is presented in this
thesis in an organized way. The reinforced concrete deck slab has been designed by employing
imperial design method. It is expected that this design work will give a true picture of design
process the beginners and practicing engineers.
M.Nouman Amjad
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praise to Almighty ALLAH, who gave us the opportunity to enhance my

vision and ability to complete this thesis. I owe HIM thanks for the heartwarming
cooperation, advice and assistance that we received from one and all.
I am greatly indebted to our "Project advisers" Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad Siddiqi
and Prof.Dr.Afzal Javed ” for providing me the most valuable guidance and
advice. Their encouragement was the main source of strength that
stimulatedme to complete the thesis in the extremely limited time available to
me.
I wish to express our thanks to Engr. Umair Saleem and Engr Hisham
Jahangir Lecturers, Civil Engineering Department, UET Lahore for their support
during the project work.
In the end I must acknowledge with gratitude the uncomplaining patience,

wholehearted support and unfailing encouragement that I received from my
parents, friends during the course of my "project".
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BASICS 1
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES 2
1.2.1 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 2
1.2.2 BASED ON SPAN LENGTH 2
1.2.3 BASED ON STRUCTURAL FORMS 3
1.2.3.1 SLAB BRIDGES 3
1.2.3.2 PRE-STRESSED PRE-CAST GIRDER BRIDGES 3
1.2.3.3 TRUSS BRIDGES 4
1.2.3.4 RIGID FRAME BRIDGES 5
1.2.3.5 ARCH BRIDGES 5
1.2.3.6 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES 6
1.2.3.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGES 6
1.2.3.8 BOX GIRDER BRIDGES 7
1.2.4 BASED ON SPAN TYPE 8
1.2.5 BASED ON LOAD PATH 8
1.2.6 BASED ON USAGE 8
1.2.7 BASED ON POSITION 8
1.2.7.1 BASCULE BRIDGE 9
1.2.7.2 LIFT BRIDGE 9
1.2.7.3 SWING BRIDGE 9
1.3 PARTS OF BRIDGE 9
1.3.1 SUPER STRUCTURE 9
1.3.2 SUB STRUCTURE 9
1.3.3 ABUTMENTS 9
1.3.4 APPROACH ROAD 10
1.3.5 BRIDGE DECK 10
1.3.6 STRINGERS 10
1.3.7 FLOOR BEAMS 10
1.3.8 WEARING SURFACE 11
1.3.9 DIAPHRAGM 11
1.3.10 PIERS 11
1.3.11 EXPANSION JOINTS 11
1.3.12 BRIDGE BEARINGS 11
2. DESIGN LOADING FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 13

2.1 TRAFFIC LOADINGS 13
2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS
2.2.1 FOOT PRINT 13
2.2.3 TANDEM 13
2.2.4 DESIGN LANE 13
2.3 AASHTO STANDARDS (3.6.1.2) 14
2.3.1 DESIGN TRUCK 14
2.3.2 DESIGN TANDEM 15
2.3.3 DESIGN LANE LOAD 16
2.4 PEDESTRIAN LOADS (3.6.1.6) 17
3. PRESTRESSING TECHNIQUE 18
3.1 PRESTRESSING 18
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSING 19
3.3 EFFECTS OF PRESTRESSING 19
3.4 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING 19
3.4.1 PRE-TENSIONING 20
3.4.2 POST-TENSIONING 20
3.4.2.1 BASIC OPERATION OF POST-TENSIONING 20
3.5 LOADING STAGES OF PRE-STRESSED (POST TENSIONING) CONCRETE MEMBER 21
3.6 PRESTRESSING STEEL 22
3.7 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES 22
3.7.1 ACI MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES (ACI 18.5.1) 22
3.7.2 AASHTO MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES
(AASHTO 5.9.3) 22
3.8 CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION 23
3.9 PRESTRESSED FLEXURAL MEMBERS 24
3.9.1 CLASS U MEMBERS 24
3.9.2 CLASS T MEMBERS 24
3.9.1 CLASS C MEMBERS 24
3.10 ACI PERMISSIBLE CONCRETE STRESSES 24
3.10.1 ACI LIMITING STRESS VALUES FOR CLASS U MEMBERS 25
3.11 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIOR OF PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED
CONCRETES 25
3.12 TENDON PROFILE 25
3.13 FLEXURAL STRESSES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LOADING 26
3.13.1 STAGE 1-A: ONLY Pi IS ACTING 26
3.13.2 STAGE 1-B: Pi AND SELF WEIGHT 26
3.13.3 STAGE 2: Pe AND SELF WEIGHT 27
3.13.4 STAGE 3: Pe, SELF WEIGHT AND SERVICE LOAD 28
3.14 LOSS OF PRESTRESS 28
3.14.1 INSTANTANEOUS LOSSES 29
3.14.1.1 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION 29
3.14.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO ANCHORAGE SLIP 31
3.14.1.3 LOSSES DUE TO ELASTIC SHORTENING 31
3.14.2 TIME DEPENDENT LOSSES 32
3.14.2.1 LOSSES DUE TO CREEP OF CONCRETE 32
3.14.2.2 LOSSES DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE 33
3.14.2.3 LOSSES DUE TO RELAXATION OF STEEL 33
4. DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTURE 34

4.1 DESIGN OF BRIDGE DECK 34
4.1.1 EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK (AASHTO 9.7.2) 34
4.1.1.1 CONDITIONS FOR EMPIRICAL SLAB DESIGN 35
4.1.1.2 EMPIRICAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT 36
4.1.2 STRIP METHOD DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK (AASHTO 9.7.3) 36
4.1.2.1 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIP 36
4.1.2.2 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT EXTERIOR STRIPS 37
4.1.2.3 MAIN STEEL 37
4.1.2.4 DISTRIBUTION STEEL 37
4.1.3 DETAILED DESIGN 38
4.2 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF GIRDER 38
4.2.1 CONDITIONS FOR APPROXIMATE METHOD TO BE APPLICABLE 38
4.2.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FACTOR FOR INTERIOR GIRDER 39
4.2.2.1 ONE DESIGN LANE LOADED 39
4.2.2.2 TWO OR MORE DESIGN LANES LOADED 39
4.2.3 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FACTOR FOR EXTERIOR GIRDER 39
4.2.3.1 ONE DESIGN LANE LOADED 39
4.2.3.2 TWO OR MORE DESIGN LANES LOADED 39
4.2.4 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS OF GIRDERS 40
4.2.5 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS OF GIIDERS 41
4.2.5.1 TRUCK LOADING 41
4.2.5.2 TANDEM LOADING 42
3.3 DESIGN OF GIRDER 42
5. DESIGN OF BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTUR 44

5.1 DESIGN OF DECK 44
5.1.1 DATA 44
5.1.2 REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED BY EMPIRICAL METHOD 45
5.2 ANALYSIS OF GIRDER 47
5.2.1 ANALYSIS OF INTERIOR GIRDER 47
5.2.1.1 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR MOMENT 47
5.2.1.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR SHEAR 47
5.2.1.3 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS 48
5.2.1.4 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS 48
5.2.1.5 DESIGN SERVICE LOADS 52
5.2.2 ANALYSIS OF EXTERIOR GIRDER 52
5.2.2.1 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR MOMENT 52
5.2.2.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR SHEAR 54
5.2.2.3 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS 54
5.2.2.4 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS 56
5.2.2.5 DESIGN FORCES SERVICE LOADS 60
5.3 DESIGN OF GIRDER 60
5.3.1 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE 60
5.3.1.1 DESIGN DATA 60
5.3.1.2 SELECTION OF SECTION 61
5.3.1.3 SELECTION OF TENDONS 65
5.3.1.4 CHECK FOR THE STRESSES AT THE TOP & BOTTOM FIBERS 67
5.3.2 TENDON PROFILE 69
5.3.2.1 CALCULATIONS FOR ANGLES OF TENDON PROFILES 70
5.3.3 DESIGN FOR SHEAR 72
5.3.3.1 DESIGN DATA 72
5.3.3.2 SHEAR DESIGN FOR VARIOUS GIRDER PORTIONS 73
5.4 CALCULATION OF PRESTRESS LOSSES 79
5.4.1 INSTANTANEOUS LOSSES 79
5.4.1.1 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION 79
5.4.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO ANCHORAGE SLIP 80
5.4.1.3 LOSSES DUE TO ELASTIC SHORTENING 80
5.4.2 TIME DEPENDENT LOSSES 82
5.4.2.1 LOSSES DUE TO CREEP OF CONCRETE 82
5.4.2.2 LOSSES DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE 83
5.4.2.3 LOSSES DUE TO RELAXATION OF STEEL 83
5.5 CALCULATION OF DEFLECTIONS 85
5.5.1 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO LIVE LOAD AND IMPACT 85
5.5.1.1 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO LANE LOADING 85
5.5.1.2 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO TRUCK LOADING 86
5.5.1.3 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO TANDEM LOADING 88
5.5.2 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO DEAD LOADS 90
5.5.2.1 STAGE 1-A: ONLY Pi IS ACTING 90
5.5.2.2 STAGE 1-B: Pi AND SELF WEIGHT 91
5.5.2.3 STAGE 2: Pe AND SELF WEIGHT 92
5.5.2.4 STAGE 3: Pe, SELF WEIGHT AND SERVICE DEAD LOAD 92
5.6 STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS 93
6. CONCLUSIONS 95
REFERENCES 96
STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BASICS
“A structure that spans an opening or gap, 6 m or larger, such as: a water way (river, canal
etc), a valley, another roadway or railway lines is called a bridge. Further the term bridge is
used for the structures built to continue traffic load, pedestrian traffic or utility lines across a
gap in a road way.” (Ref. AASHTO 1.2)
The extent of a country’s development can be easily gauged by its communication

system. Pakistan, which is a developing country, has a communication system that basically
comprises of following components:
 Communication by air
 Communication by waterways
 Communication by land
Communication by means of air travel is expensive and few people can afford this mean
of transportation. Also Pakistan cannot afford to have aviation facilities all over the country.
Communication by waterways, although cheaper, is limited in extent. This type of

communication system is mainly used for the transportation of goods and in cases where time is
not an important factor.
Keeping in mind Pakistan’s Geographical location, every nook and corner of our country
cannot be reached by waterways alone. This brings us to the third option of traveling on land.
Communication on land comprises essentially of 2 components:
 Communication by Highways
 Communication by Railways
Communication by highways is a very important and accessible mean of communication.

It has the nearest approach to man. To maintain the continuity of a road its discontinuities must
Chapter 1 Introduction
be made continuous and this is done by the use of flyovers. Without the use of bridges and
flyovers no highway system is complete.
Communication by Railways is a very important means of communication in Pakistan. It

is cheap, safe, easily accessible and speedy means of transport. While laying railways we come
across several obstructions which may be in the shape of deep gorges, rivers, ravines, which are
again to be overcome by bridges.
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

Bridges are classified based on following characteristics.
i. Material of Construction
ii. Span Length
iii. Structural Forms
iv. Span Type
v. Load Paths
vi. Usage
vii. Position
1.2.1 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
Following are the main types of bridges according to the material of construction.
i. Steel Bridges
ii. Reinforced Concrete Bridges
iii. Pre-Stressed Concrete Bridges
iv. Timber Bridges
v. Advanced Composite Materials
1.2.2 BASED ON SPAN LENGTH
i. Short Span Bridges (Span ranging from 6 - 38m)

ii. Medium Span Bridges (Span ranging from 38 - 125m)
iii. Large Span Bridges (Span more than 125 m)
[2]
1.2.3 BASED ON STRUCTURAL FORMS
i. Simple Slab Bridges

ii. Pre-Stressed Pre-Cast Girder Bridges
iii. Truss Bridges
iv. Rigid Frame Bridges
v. Arch Bridges
vi. Cable Stayed Bridges
vii. Suspension Bridges
viii. Box Girder Bridges
1.2.3.1 SLAB BRIDGES
This is the simplest type of bridge where the deck slab serves as a main load
carrying member. The slab is supported directly on embankment or substructure Fig.1.1. This
type of construction is considered suitable for culverts and small bridges up to span of about 8m.
Although the thickness of slab is considerable (≈ 600 mm), the construction of this type of bridge
works out to be economical because of simple arrangement and less expensive formwork.
Fig.1.1 Donning Bridge with Slab as Main

Member, USA
1.2.3.2 PRE-STRESSED PRE-CAST GIRDER BRIDGES
Where the erection of temporary form-work is prohibited and working periods are
limited, pre-cast concrete can be used with advantage. The piers and abutments are constructed
first and pre-cast concrete beams (or in some cases pre-cast concrete arch ribs) which are
[3]
generally I-beams are erected upon these. These I-beams are lifted with the help of heavy cranes
as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig.1.2 Lifting of Prestressed Precast Girder

During the Construction of a Precast Prestressed
Girder Bridge, USA
1.2.3.3 TRUSS BRIDGES
Truss is a simple skeletal structure. According to Design theory, each member of

the truss is subjected to either compression or tension forces. Trusses are made up of a large of
small, mostly straight beams that can support heavy weights and large span distances. As far as
designing, fabrication and erection of trusses are concerned it is quite a simple process in modern
era. A truss bridge is shown in Fig. 1.3.
Fig.1.3 Pont de Quebec Bridge, USA
[4]
1.2.3.4 RIGID FRAME BRIDGES
This type of bridge consists of number of parallel longitudinal girders (or solid
slabs) which are rigidly connected to the supporting columns or piers as shown in Fig 1.4. The
decking and the supporting substructure are normally cast together monolithically. Generally this
type of bridge is not found economical for spans less than 10 m, up to 20 m span it can be used.
Fig.1.4 Maruyamaoohashi Bridge with Rigid

Frame, Japan
1.2.3.5 ARCH BRIDGES
For this type of bridges abutment should be strong enough to resist the thrust of
the bridge arch. This type of construction offers advantage of large head rooms for navigation
and is considered to be an aesthetically pleasing Bridge form. For very large spans the use of
girder bridges becomes uneconomical and arch bridges can be economically used. This bridge
can be economically used up to span of about 200 m. a typical truss bridge is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig.1.5 New River Gorge Bridge West Virginia,

USA (Arch Bridge)
[5]
1.2.3.6 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES
This type of bridge is considered suitable for spans varying from 200 m to 600 m.
The main components of the bridge are:
 Towers
 A number of high tensile steel cables
 Deck made out of concrete or steel spanning across the stiffened girders.
In this type of bridge the deck is supported by a number of cable (provided in two parallel
planes) connected to the towers as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. The aim of using multiple cables is to
provide support to deck at closer intervals thereby resulting in closer spacing of deck girders and
hence achieving reduced depth of the decking. The cables can be arranged to meet in the form of
bunch at tower or they may meet tower at different levels.
Since the cables supporting the deck are provided above the deck, this type of bridge
needs no intermediate piers to support the deck. Thus this bridge provides obstruction free large
spans and high clearance permitting navigation of large ships. The height of tower is the most
important consideration. The ratio of height of tower to central span is generally taken as 0.2.
The towers may be constructed of steel or concrete.
Fig.1.6 Sun Shine Sky Way Bridge Florida,

USA
1.2.3.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGES
This type of bridge is considered to be most suitable for spans varying between
400 to 1200 m. The main components of a suspension bridge are:
[6]
 Towers
 High tensile steel flexible cable
 Anchorage
 Suspenders made up of high tensile steel wires and
 Deck of concrete or steel spanning across the stiffened girders.
In these types of bridges the cable are supported on towers and each cable is anchored to
anchorage blocks at both ends. The deck is attached to steel suspenders which transfer the load
from the deck to the cable supported on towers, when the bridge is completed; the cables acquire
more or less parabolic shape as shown in Fig. 1.7.
Fig.1.7 Golden Gate Bridge Sanfransisco

California
1.2.3.8 BOX GIRDER BRIDGES
This type of bridge constructed for long spans where the use of ordinary
prestressed concrete girders results in an excessive depth and the area of the main reinforcement
becomes so large that it can become difficult to accommodate the bars in the main girder.
Depending upon the width of carriage way and the loading condition, the bridge can have a
single box girder or two or more box girders.
This type of bridge consists of a top slab that is normally wider than the box girder. The
box girder consists of vertical webs and bottom slab usually as broad as the out to out width of
the girder web as shown in Fig. 1.8.
[7]
Fig.1.8 Namihaya Bridge (with Box Girders as

main member), USA
1.2.4 BASED ON SPAN TYPE
With respect to span type bridges may be classified as:
i. Simple Span Bridges

ii. Continuous Span Bridges
1.2.5 BASED ON LOAD PATH
Bridges, according to this classification system, may be of following types:
i. One Dimensional System

ii. Two Dimensional System
1.2.6 BASED ON USAGE
These are the bridges which are constructed for airport runways, pipe lines and
conveyors.
1.2.7 BASED ON POSITION
Moveable bridges are used for roads where the bridge level is not sufficiently higher than
the water level to allow navigation through the water course. There are three types of moveable
bridges.
i. Bascule Bridge
[8]
ii. Lift Bridge
iii. Swing bridge
1.2.7.1 BASCULE BRIDGE
In this type of bridge, the entire or half span opens upwards by rotaing at the end
support. These are used for shorter spans but provide maximum vertical clearance for the water
course.
1.2.7.2 LIFT BRIDGE
This type of bridge moves as a whole in vertical direction over towers at both
ends. This type of bridge is used for larger spans but relatively lesser clearance over water
surface.
1.2.7.3 SWING BRIDGE
A swing bridge rotates in a horizontal plane about a centre pivot or turn table
provided over a central pier constructed within the waterway.
1.3 PARTS OF BRIDGE

1.3.1 SUPER STRUCTURE
This is the portion of bridge above the bridge bearings. In an ordinary reinforced concrete
bridge this includes the slab, beams, and guardrails etc.
1.3.2 SUB STRUCTURE
This is the part of the bridge which includes the bridge bearings and all components
below the bearings and is used to support the super structure. Sub structure includes piers,
abutments, piles and pile caps etc.
1.3.3 ABUTMENTS
This is the bridge support provided at the ends of the bridge where the opening starts.
The abutment simultaneously acts as a retaining wall to retain material at end of the gap. It
typically consists of breast wall, wing wall and footing as shown in Fig. 1.9.
[9]
Bridge seat
Breast wall Footing
Wing wall
Fig. 1.9 Components of Bridge Abutment
1.3.4 APPROACH ROAD
A road constructed at two ends of the bridge for smooth flow of traffic between bridge
and road to protect the bridge structure from accidental damages. A section of approach road is
shown in Fig. 1.10.
1.3.5 BRIDGE DECK
Bridge floor which supports vehicular traffic including slab, beams, guard rails and
wearing surface.
1.3.6 STRINGERS
The longitudinal beams directly supporting the bridge deck slab are called stringers.
Their orientation is parallel to traffic. If transverse floor beams are provided, the stringers rest on
them.
1.3.7 FLOOR BEAMS
These are the transverse beams which support stringers and transfer load to side trusses,
plate girders, stiffening girders or suspended cables.
[10]
1.3.8 WEARING SURFACE
It is a layer of concrete or asphaltic material provided over decks to protect the structural
integrity of deck from wear and tear caused by traffic.
1.3.9 DIAPHRAGM
It is a short beam used between adjacent parallel stringers to provide them lateral stability
and to distribute loads among them.
1.3.10 PIERS
Intermediate supports provided to bridges between the abutments are called piers. These
may consist of one or more columns supporting a continuous bridge or two simple spans of a
multi span bridge.
1.3.11 EXPANSION JOINTS
Expansion joints consist of smaller angle sections which are anchored in concrete at the
two ends and a water-tight, compressible material is inserted in the gap as shown in Fig. 1.10.
However, this type of joint has considerable maintenance problem due to intrusion of material in
to the joint and level difference created at the joints due to passing loads.
1.3.12 BRIDGE BEARINGS
The bridge bearings must be designed to allow length changes due to temperature
variation. Usually one end is made hinged while the other end slides. For span greater than 15 m,
provisions must be made at the bearings to allow rotation due to vertical bending of the girders.
For span less than 15 m, expansion support may be provided only by steel plates sliding against
one another. For larger span, rotations and sliding may be provided by sophisticated arrangement
of piers, rollers, rockers and curved bearing plates.
Recently for applicable spans, elastomeric pads or poly tetra fluoro ethylene (TFE)
bearings are used to provide horizontal and rotational movements. Elastomeric pads consist of
lamination of elastomers casted together with bonded steel plates in between. Horizontal
movement is provided by shearing of the pad and vertical movement is provided by differential
compressing of the elastomers.
[11]
TFE surface is made to slide against a stainless steel surface and the assembly reduces the
friction against sliding. The rotation is provided by simultaneous presence of elastomeric pads,
curved surfaces, or hinges.
Steel angles Joint filler

Bridge deck
Stringer
Approach road
Back wall
Bridge bearings
Breast wall
Fig. 1.10 Various Components of a Bridge.
[12]
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN LOADING FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2.1 TRAFFIC LOADINGS
The traffic loadings considered in this project work are given in the following sections.
Before discussing the traffic loadings for highway bridges, there are some basic definitions
which are necessary to highlight in context with the traffic loadings.
2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS

2.2.1 FOOT PRINT
It is the specified wheel contact area over the roadway.
2.2.2 FORCE EFFECT
It is a deformation, stress or stress resultant caused by the applied loads, imposed

deformations or volumetric changes.
2.2.3 TANDEM
Two closely spaced and interconnected axles together called a tandem.
2.2.4 DESIGN LANE
The design lane has a width equal to the lesser of 3600 mm or width of the traffic lane.
Roadway width from 6000 to 7200 mm has two design lanes each equal to one-half the roadway
width. The number of design lanes is taken as the integer part of the result when the clear
roadway width in mm between the curb is divided by 3600 mm.
The load shall occupy a width of 3000 mm transversely within a design lane and all
design lanes must be loaded simultaneously by a truck or tandem and the lane loads (without any
gap for the truck except when such gap increases the force effect).
If the lanes are more than one, reduction factor of table 2.1 is applied on the live load
force effect called Multiple Presence Factor denoted by m.
Chapter 2 Design Loading for Highway Bridges
Table 2.1 Multiple Presence Factor
Number of Loaded Multiple Presence

Lanes Factor
m
1 1.20
2 1.00
3 0.65
>3 0.65
2.3 AASHTO STANDARDS (AASHTO 3.6.1.2)
AASHTO Highway Loading (HL-93) considered for analysis of bridge super structures consists
of following three types of loads.
i. HL-93 Truck Loading

ii. Tandem loading
iii. Lane loading
2.3.1 DESIGN TRUCK
A standard truck consists of front axle of 35 kN, rear axle of 145 kN at 4.3 m spacing
from the front axle and trailer axle of 145 kN having a variable spacing of 4.3 to 9 m from the
truck rear axle (the spacing producing the maximum force effect must be used). The axle loads
and transverse clearances are shown in the Fig 2.1. Dynamic load allowance of 33% is to be
applied on these loads. The design truck and tandem shall be placed transversely at 300 mm from
the face of curb or railing for the design of bridge overhang and 600 mm from the edge of design
lane for the design of all other components.
14
4.3m 4.3 to 9m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
(a) Longitudinal View of HL-93 Design Truck Showing Axle Loads.
0.6 m in general
1.8 m 0.3 m for deck overhang
Loaded Lane 3.0 m
(b) Back View of Truck Showing Transverse Clearances.
Fig. 2.1 AASHTO Standard Truck Loading.
2.3.2 DESIGN TANDEM
The design tandem consists of a pair of 110 kN axles at a longitudinal spacing of 1200
mm with the transverse c/c spacing of the wheels being 1800 mm as shown in Fig 2.2. Dynamic
load allowance of 33% is to be applied on these loads. For negative moment and reaction at the
interior supports, pair of tandem may be considered at a spacing of 8 to 12 m.
15
1.2m
110 kN 110 kN
(a) Longitudinal View of HL-93 Design Tandem.
0.6 m in general
1.8 m 0.3 m for deck overhang
Loaded Lane 3.0 m
(b) Back View of Tandem Showing Transverse Clearances.
Fig. 2.2 AASHTO Standard Tandem Loading.
2.3.3 DESIGN LANE LOAD
The design lane load is 9.3 kN/m along the length and having the width of 3000 mm as
shown in Fig 2.3, the load intensity becomes 3100 N/m2. Dynamic load allowance is not to be
applied on lane loading.
16
9.3 kN/m
Fig. 2.3 AASHTO Standard Design Lane Loading.
2.4 PEDESTRIAN LOADS (AASHTO 3.6.1.6)
A pedestrian load of 3600 N/m2 is used on all sidewalks simultaneously with the
vehicular design live load. Separate bridges for pedestrian and bicycle traffic should be designed
for a live load of 4100 N/m2. The dynamic load allowance is not considered for these loads.
17
CHAPTER 3
PRE-STRESSING TECHNIQUE
3.1 PRE-STRESSING
Pre stressing of a member means introduction of permanent stresses in a member, before

the application of design loads, of a calculated magnitude and desired distribution such that these
stresses neutralize or balance the stresses due to external loading up to a desired level. It is a
method in which stress distribution in a member can counteract the effect of external loading to a
desire degree.
Economically viable and easily constructed, these two are the most important criterions
in the construction of modern structures and this is achieved by the use of high strength materials
and the adaptation of advance designing methods. This results in reduction of cross-sectional
dimensions and consequent weight savings. Such developments are particularly important in the
field of reinforced concrete where the dead load represents a substantial part of total load.
Significant savings can be achieved by using high-strength concrete and steel in

conjunction with prevailing design methods in Pakistan which permits an accurate appraisal of
member strength however, there are limitations on this development mainly due to interrelated
problems of cracking and deflections.
Reinforced concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression. In order to maximize

utilization of its material properties, an internally or externally compressive force P is induced on
the structural element through the use of stressed high-strength pre-stressing wires or tendons
prior to loading. As a result, the concrete section is generally stressed only in compression under
service and sometimes overloads conditions. Such a system of construction is termed as pre-
stressed concrete.
The pre-stressing force that satisfies the particular conditions of geometry and loading of
a given element is determined from the principles of mechanics and stress--strain relationship.
Sometimes simplification is necessary, as when a pre-stressed beam is assumed to be
homogeneous and elastic.
18
Chapter 3 Prestressing Technique
3.2 ADVANTAGES OF PRE-STRESSING
i. Pre-stressing applies a pre-compression to the member which eliminates unwanted tensile

stresses.
ii. Cracking due to service load can be reduced.
iii. Deflections can be controlled and kept within range.
iv. Deflection and crack control achieved through pre-stressing permit the engineer to make
use of economical high strength steels in the form of strands, wires or bars in conjunction
with concrete of much higher strengths.
v. Stress resulting in pre-stressing effects in overall improvement in performance of
structural concrete.
vi. Spans can be extended far beyond the limiting range for ordinary reinforced concrete
leading to not only much longer spans than previously thought but also permitting
innovative new structural forms to be employed.
vii. Pre-stressing of concrete reduces the self-weight of the structure and due to which longer
span members can be constructed making the structures economical.
3.3 EFFECTS OF PRE-STRESSING

i. Concrete is weak in tension and with the help of pre-stressing this weakness can be
overcome.
ii. As a mean for introducing equivalent load on the concrete member so that the effect of the
applied loads are counteracted to the desired degree.
iii. Pre-stressing can also control crack propagation.
iv. A special variation of reinforced concrete in which pre-strained high strength steel is used
usually in conjunction with high strength concrete.
3.4 METHODS OF PRE-STRESSING
There are two methods of pre-stressing:
i. Pre-tensioning
ii. Post-tensioning
[19]
3.4.1 PRE-TENSIONING
Pre-tensioning is used in factories for the manufacturing of pre-cast structural units and
usually not used for large span girders.
The term pre-tensioned means that the tendons are tensioned to their full load before
the concrete is placed. They are held under tension by anchors beyond the ends of the pre-
stressed concrete member. After the concrete has been placed and allowed to cure to sufficient
strength, the load in the tendons is transferred from the external anchors into the newly poured
member, thus pre-stressing it. In the United States the standard tendons for pre-tensioned work
are seven-wire uncoated stress-relieved pre-stressed concrete strands.
3.4.2 POST-TENSIONING
Post-tensioning is used on large scale for the production of large span bridge girders in the
factories as well as in the field.
The term post-tensioned means that the tendons are tensioned after the concrete has
been placed and allowed to cure. Frequently the tendon is placed inside a flexible metal hose,
the entire assembly is placed in the form, and concrete is poured around it. After the concrete
has cured, the tendon is tensioned and held under load by anchor fittings at its ends. Bond
between the tendon and the concrete member is achieved by pumping the metal hose full of
grout.
3.4.2.1 BASIC OPERATION OF POST-TENSIONING
Post-tensioning is defined as "A method of pre-stressing reinforced concrete in

which the reinforcement is tensioned after the concrete has hardened."
Basically, the complete operation has six steps:
i. The tendon is assembled in a flexible metal hose, and anchor fittings are attached to the
ends of the tendon.
ii. The tendon assembly is placed in the form and tied in place in the same manner as the
reinforcing bars.
iii. Concrete is poured and allowed to cure to the strength specified for tensioning.
iv. Hydraulic jacks elongate tendons, and the anchor fitting is adjusted to hold the load in
[20]
the tendons.
v. The space around the tendon is pumped full of cement grout under pressure.
vi. Anchor fittings are covered with a protective coating.
In some cases a hole is cored in the concrete and the tendon is threaded through the
hole just before it is to be tensioned. Holes can be covered by casting in a rubber tube of the
desired shape and then withdrawing it after the concrete has set. Holes can also be co vered by
casting in a flexible metal hose. The hose becomes a permanent part of the structure. Since the
hose is not stiff enough to maintain its position while the concrete is placed, one or more steel
bars are placed inside the hose and are withdrawn after the concrete has set.
In large hollow structures such as hollow-box bridges, the tendons are threaded through the
hollow spaces and tensioned against anchor plates cast in the end block of the structure.
Galvanized strands are used in these structures, and grouting is not required.
3.5 LOADING STAGES OF PRE-STRESSED (POST TENSIONING) CONCRETE

MEMBER
i. The jacking pre-stress force Pj is applied; then, at transfer, the force is transmitted from
the pre-stressing strands to the concrete.
ii. The full self-weight WD acts on the member together with the initial pre-stressing force,
provided that the member is simply supported, that is, there is no intermediate support.
iii. The full superimposed dead load W SD including topping for composite section is
applied to the member.
iv. Most of the short-term losses in the pre-stressing force occur initially, leading to a
reduced pre-stressing force P j to Pi.
v. The member is subjected to full service load, with long-term losses due to creep,
shrinkage, and steel strand relaxation taking place leading to a net pre-stressing force
P e.
vi. Overloading of the member occurs under certain conditions up to the limit state at
failure.
[21]
3.6 PRE-STRESSING STEEL

For prestressing, high strength steel is used because the ordinary steels, such as grade 300
steel, are ineffective in providing effective prestressing. The prestressing steel may be in the
form of smaller diameter wires, relatively larger diameter alloy steel bars or in the form of
strands.
Strand
The term strand is used for a group of wires helically wounded. Usually a 7-wire strand is
used for the prestressing purposes as shown in Fig. 3.1
Fig. 3.1 7-wire Strand
Tendon
The term tendon is used for one group of reinforcement consisting of a single wire, a
strand or a group of strands used together.
3.7 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES
3.7.1 ACI MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES (ACI 18.5.1)
Following are the ACI maximum prestressing steel stresses:
a) Stress due to Jacking Force should not exceed a stress smaller of 0.80 fpu and 0.94
fpy.
b) Stress Immediately After Prestress Transfer should not exceed a stress smaller of
0.74 fpu and 0.82 fpy
c) Stress at Anchorage Devices and Couplers, for post tensioning system, immediately
after anchorage should not exceed 0.70 fpu
3.7.2 AASHTO MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE PRESTRESSING STEEL STRESSES

(AASHTO 5.9.3)
The AASHTO stress limits for the prestressing tendons are given in the table 3.1.
[22]
Table 3.1 AASHTO Maximum Permissible Prestressing Steel Stresses.

Tendon Type
Stress Low Deformed

Loading Stages Relieved Strand Relaxation High Strength
and Plain High Strand Bars
Strength Bars
At Jacking (fpj):
i) Pre-tensioning 0.72 fpu 0.78 fpu -

ii) Post-tensioning 0.76 fpu 0.80 fpu 0.75 fpu
After Transfer (fpt):
i) Pre-tensioning 0.70 fpu 0.74 fpu -

ii) Post-tensioning, general 0.70 fpu 0.70 fpu 0.66 fpu
iii) Post-tensioning at 0.70 fpu 0.74 fpu 0.66 fpu
anchorages
At Service Limit State (fpe):
i) After losses 0.80 fpy 0.80 fpy 0.80 fpy
3.8 CONCRETE FOR PRESTRESSED CONSTRUCTION
High strength concrete, having fc′ ≥ 35 MPa, is usually used for prestressed members for
quick and efficient construction with lesser loss of prestressing force due to elastic shortening,
creep and shrinkage. The advantages of high strength concrete in prestressed construction are as
follow:
i. With larger compressive strength of concrete, its modulus of elasticity is increased

reducing the elastic shortening due to prestress force. Further, long term deflection due to
creep and shrinkage are also reduced. Hence, by the use of high strength concrete, the
prestress losses are significantly reduced increasing the efficiency of such construction.
ii. The concrete gives high early strength and hence the prestress may be applied to the
concrete earlier. The speed of construction is increased when the high strength concrete is
used.
[23]
iii. High strength concrete has much better concrete strength. This makes it easy to transfer
the prestress force at the anchorages, which may require lesser contact area of the
anchorage fittings.
iv. The bond between steel and concrete is improved when high strength concrete is used.
3.9 PRESTRESSED FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Prestressed stressed flexural members are classified into three classes depending upon
their behavior.
3.9.1 CLASS U MEMBERS
Class U members behave as un-cracked and computed extreme fiber tensile stress at
service loads (ft) is lesser than or equal to √ . Prestressed two-way slab systems are also
considered in this category.
3.9.2 CLASS T MEMBERS
These are transition members between cracked and un-cracked cases and computed
extreme fiber tensile stress at service loads (ft) is greater than √ and lesser than or equal
to √ . For this class, the stresses at service loads are allowed to be computed using the un-
cracked section as for class U. deflections are calculated by behavior curve for cracked section.
3.9.3 CLASS C MEMBERS
These are cracked members whose behavior at service loads must be studied using
cracked sections. For these members, the computed extreme fiber tensile stress at service loads
(ft) is greater than √ . Deflections are to be calculated by using behavior curve for cracked
section.
3.10 ACI PERMISSIBLE CONCRETE STRESSES

The allowable stresses in the concrete, given by ACI, are different at various stages of
loading and for different categories of flexural members.
[24]
3.10.1 ACI LIMITING STRESS VALUES FOR CLASS U MEMBERS
At Transfer Stage
Compressive Stresses at Bottom: fci = - 0.6 fci′

Tensile Stresses at Top: fti = ¼ √
At service Load stage
Compressive Stresses at Top: fcs = -0.6 fc′

Tensile Stresses at Bottom: fts = x√
3.11 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BEHAVIOR OF PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED

CONCRETES
The external bending moment in a beam is resisted by a couple formed by internal tensile
force in steel and compressive force in concrete. In ordinary reinforced concrete beam, the
increase in the lever arm by the increase of loading is lesser and the resistive moment basically
increases by increase in steel tensile force and compression in concrete. The situation is reversed
in case of prestressed concrete beam where the forces in the steel and concrete remain nearly
constant and the resisting moment increases by the increase in the lever arm.
After the development of tensile stresses in concrete due to increase of load on

prestressed beam, its behavior is almost similar to ordinary reinforced concrete.
3.12 TENDON PROFILE

Positive moment requires prestressing force below the section centroid; negative moment
requires it above the centroid and required eccentricity of prestressing increases with the increase
of applied bending moment.
Curved tendon profiles approximately following the shape of bending moment diagram
are better and easy to be placed in case of post tensioning. However, in case of pretensioning
especially for large prestressing loads having a number of members to be cast together, straight
tendons are easy to be placed. The tendon profile may be Straight, Parabolic, Draped or Harped
[25]
(a) Straight Tendon (b) Parabolic Tendon
(c) Draped Tendon (d) Harped Tendon
Fig. 3.2 Various Tendon Profiles.
3.13 FLEXURAL STRESSES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LOADING
3.13.1 STAGE 1-A: ONLY Pi IS ACTING
At this stage the initial pre-stress force acting at an eccentricity ‘e’ produces a uniform
compression due to Pi and the moment Pi x e produces tension at the top and compression at the
bottom as shown in Fig. 3.3. The net result may be smaller tension at the top and larger
compression at the bottom.
fc ft
Pi Pi
fc fc fc
Fig. 3.3 Flexural Stresses at Stage 1-A
f1 = Stress at top =
f2 = Stress at Bottom =
3.13.2 STAGE 1-B: Pi AND SELF WEIGHT
The self weight causes tension at bottom and compression at the top and the net result
may be smaller compression at the top and larger compression at the bottom as shown in Fig.
3.4.
[26]
Wo
fc ft fc
Pi Pi
fc fc ft
fc
Fig. 3.4 Flexural Stresses at Stage 1-B

fc
3.13.3 STAGE 2: Pe AND SELF WEIGHT
At this stage, the initial pre stress force changes into effective pre stress force. The shapes
of stress diagrams are same as that of stage 1-B as shown in Fig. 3.5, but the ordinates are
changed due to replacement of Pi by Pe.
Wo
fc ft fc
Pe Pe
fc fc ft
fc
Fig. 3.5 Flexural Stresses at Stage 2

fc
[27]
3.13.4 STAGE 3: Pe, SELF WEIGHT AND SERVICE LOAD
The service load moments further modify the stress diagrams as shown in Fig. 3.6.
WD+L
fc ft fc
Pe Pe
fc fc ft
fc fc
ft ft
Fig. 3.6 Flexural Stresses at Stage 2
( )
( )
3.14 LOSS OF PRESTRESS
Jacking Force (Pj)
It is the largest force that will act on the steel tendon to pull it to required stress level. The
jacking operation may be thought of a performance test of the tendon.
Initial Prestress Force (Pi)
It is the force in the steel tendon after transfer and is equal to jacking force reduced due
to instantaneous shortening of the concrete.
Effective Prestress Force (Pe)
It is the amount of prestress after instantaneous and time dependent losses.
[28]
Effectiveness Ratio (R)
It is the ratio of effective prestress to the initial prestress. Usually a conservative value of
R = 0.85 may be used in place of detailed actual calculations.
It is a well-established fact that the initial pre-stressing force applied to the concrete
elements experiences a progressive process of reduction over a span of approximately 5 years.
Consequently, it is important to determine the level of pre-stressing force at each loading stage,
from the stage of transfer of pre-stressing force to the concrete, to the various stages of pre-
stressing available at service load, up to the ultimate. Essentially the reduction in the pre-
stressing force can be grouped into two categories:
i) Instantaneous Losses
ii) Time Dependent Losses
3.14.1 INSTANTANEOUS LOSSES
These losses take place immediately after the application of jacking force. These losses
include the following:
i. Losses due to friction

ii. Losses due to anchorage set
iii. Losses due to elastic shortening
3.14.1.1 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION
For post tensioned members, the tendons are usually anchored at one end and
stretched with the jacks at the other end. As the steel slides through the duct, frictional resistance
is developed, with the result that the tension at the anchored end is than the tension at the jack.
Losses due to friction are usually separated into two parts for convenience namely
curvature friction and wobble friction. The first is due to intentional curvature in the tendon
profile as specified and the second due to un-intentional variation of tendon form its intended
profile. It is apparent that even a straight tendon duct will have some un-intentional
misalignment so the wobble friction should always be considered in post-tensioned works.
Usually the curvature friction is also considered.
[29]
The frictional losses in post tension construction can be determined using

equation (3.1).
Δffr = fp ( Kl + μα ) (3.1)
where,
fp = stress at jacking end
l = span of girder
K = wobble coefficient
μ = curvature coefficient
α = total angular change of tendon profile in radians from jacking end to
any point x.
= (radians)
The values of wobble coefficient (K) and curvature coefficient (μ) are given in the
table 3.2 and table 3.3 by ACI and AASHTO respectively.
Table 3.2 ACI Fiction Coefficients for Post Tensioning Tendons.
Wobble Curvature
Type of Tendon
Coefficient K Coefficient μ
(1/mm) (1/rad)
Grouted tendons in metal

sheathing: 3.20 x 10-6 to 4.90 x 10-6 0.15 – 0.25
Wires 0.30 x 10-6 to 1.90 x 10-6 0.08 – 0.30
High-strength bars 1.60 x 10-6 to 6.50 x 10-6 0.15 – 0.25
7-wire strands
Unbounded tendons:
Mastic coated
Wires 3.20 x 10-6 to 6.50 x 10-6 0.05 – 0.15
7-wire strands 3.20 x 10-6 to 6.50 x 10-6 0.05 – 0.15
Pregreased
Wires 0.90 x 10-6 to 6.50 x 10-6 0.05 – 0.15
7-wire strands 0.90 x 10-6 to 6.50 x 10-6 0.05 – 0.15
[30]
Table 3.3 AASHTO Fiction Coefficients for Post Tensioning Tendons.
Wobble Curvature
Type of Tendons and
Coefficient K Coefficient μ
Sheathing
(1/mm) (1/rad)
7-wire strand in rigid and

0.66 x 10-6 0.05 – 0.25
galvanized ducts
Pregreased wires and 7- 0.98 x 10-6 to 6.60 x 10-

6 0.23
wire strand
Mastic-coated wires and 7- 3.30 x 10-6 to 6.60 x 10-

6 0.25
wire stands
Rigid steel pipe deviators

0.66 x 10-6 0.30
with lubrication
3.14.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO ANCHORAGE SLIP
In post tension construction, when the jacking force is released, the steel tension
is transferred to the concrete by special anchorages. Invariably, there is a small amount of slip at
the anchorages upon transfer, as the wedges seat themselves into the tendons, or as the anchorage
hardware deforms. The usual value of anchorage set may be 10 mm with a minimum value of 1.3
mm. These losses can be determined using the equation (3.2).
Δfanc = (3.2)
Where,
Δl = amount of slip
l = tendon length
EP = modulus of elasticity of strands
3.14.1.3 LOSSES DUE TO ELASTIC SHORTENING
When the prestress force is transferred to a member, there will be elastic

shortening of concrete as it is compressed. For the post-tensioned members, if all the steel is
[31]
tensioned at once, there will be no loss due to elastic shortening. However, for the practical
purposes where multiple tendons are used , with tendons tensioned in sequence, there will
be losses. These losses can be satisfactorily determined by employing equation (3.3).
Δfel = 50 % of elastic shortening in pre-tensioned beams (3.3)
= 0.5 x np fcs
Where,
np =
fcs = compressive stress at the level of steel centroid when eccentric prestress
force plus self weight are acting in pretensioned beam.
3.14.2 TIME DEPENDENT LOSSES
These are the losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressing
steel. These losses occur after the concrete has gained its specified cylindrical compressive stress
(fc′).
3.14.2.1 LOSSES DUE TO CREEP OF CONCRETE
These losses occur due to the application of a sustained compression load on the
concrete causing it to first deform elastically and then continue to strain over an extended period
of time. These losses can be calculated through equation (3.4).
Δfcp = Cu np fcs (3.4)
Where,
np =
plus self weight are acting.
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient (ranges from 1.6 to 3.2 corresponding to fc′).
[32]
3.14.2.2 LOSSES DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
Drying shrinkage of concrete permits a reduction of strain in the prestressing steel

equal to the shrinkage strain of the concrete. The resulting steel stress loss is an important
component of the total prestress loss for all types of prestressed concrete members.
The ultimate concrete strains resulting from drying shrinkage may fall in the
range from about 500 x 10-6 to 1000 x 10-6. The value ultimate shrinkage strain for moist cured
concrete can be taken equal to 800 x 10-6 in the absence of specific data, and for steam-cured a
value of 730 x 10-6 can be used. These losses can be estimated by eqution (3.5).
Δfsh = Ep εsh (3.5)
εsh = amount of shrinkage strain occurring during the period under consideration
3.14.2.3 LOSSES DUE TO RELAXATION OF STEEL
The amount of relaxation depends on the intensity of prestressing steel stress as

well as time. These relaxation losses can be calculated by using equation (3.6).
Δfrel = fpi ( )( ) (3.6)
Here,
tn = time in hours at the end of interval (usually 5 years)
[33]
CHAPTER 4
DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTURE
The analysis of bridge superstructure is of prime importance and many factors are to be
identified for this purpose. The deck slab is continuous over pre-stressed girders, which are
supported by transom beams and the transom beams are supported on abutments and piers.
Hence various components are to be analyzed one by one starting from slab, girder, transom
beam and piers.
Analysis is done using AASHTO LRFD SPECIFICATIONS by manual technique. The

specifications followed for LRFD analysis in this study are “AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications 2005 3rd Edition”, in SI units.
4.1 DESIGN OF BRIDGE DECK

The reinforced concrete deck slab is provided which is continuously supported by pre-
stressed girders and over hanged on both sides.
Following are the various methods used for the design of bridge deck.
i. Empirical Design Method

ii. Strip Method
iii. Detailed Design
4.1.1 EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK (AASHTO 9.7.2)
This design method is only applicable for concrete deck slabs supported by longitudinal
beams. The concept of design is based on internal arching developed by a complex internal in-
plane or membrane forces. These membrane forces are developed due to confinement provided
by the surrounding concrete, lateral stiffness of beams and by other components like continuous
medians and curbs, etc. The slab internally acts like small dome around the wheel footprint and
the failure occurs by over straining around a perimeter as a punching shear. The flexural moment
developed is very less compared with the traditionally believed values that may be resisted by
some minimum specified amount of isotropic reinforcement. This reinforcement is also required
Chapter 4 Design Methodology for Bridge Super-Structure
to develop adequate arching action. Tests indicate that even this design approach- provides a
factor of 8.0.
Additional longitudinal reinforcement may be required over a negative region formed by

a transverse beam (like a floor beam). The longitudinal bars of the isotropic reinforcement may
be counted in resisting the negative moment and only the difference be provided. This
reinforcement needs not to be provided in the transverse direction. The-overhanging part of the
deck should be designed separately as outlined in AASHTO 9.7.2.2.
4.1.1.1 CONDITIONS FOR EMPIRICAL SLAB DESIGN
The design depth of the deck slab should not include the wearing surface. The
following conditions must be satisfied to use this method:
i) The supporting beams are of steel or concrete, made composite with the deck.
ii) The design depth of the slab should not be less than effective length divided by 18 but
should not be more than effective length divided by 6. For monolithic slabs, effective
length is the face to-face distance of the beams or walls. For slabs supported on steel or
concrete girders, the effective length is taken as the distance between the flange tips plus
the flange overhang from the web and not any fillet.
iii) The depth should be uniform except any local thickening.
iv) The effective length as defined above should not exceed 4100 mm and the slab depth
should not be less than 175 mm. The core depth of the slab must not be lesser than 100
mm. The core depth of the slab is defined as the distance from the top edge of the top most
bars to the bottom edge of the bottom most bars.
v) The specified 28-day strength of the deck concrete is not less than 28.0 MPa.
vi) Overhang should be provided outside the centerline of the exterior girder i-e at least five
times the depth of slab or three timess depth of slab with vertical barrier.
vii) Minimum of Two shear connectors shall be placed at a spacing of 600 mm c/c between the
steel girders and the deck slab. For concrete girders, stirrups extending into the slab satisfy
this requirement.
[35]
4.1.1.2 EMPIRICAL REINFORCEMENT REQUIREMENT
i) Isotropic bottom layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.570 mm2/mm width
of slab.
ii) Isotropic top layer steel should have a minimum area of 0.380 mm2/mm width of
slab.
iii) The outermost layer of steel along the depth of the slab is to be placed in the
direction of the effective length.
iv) Maximum spacing of steel should be 450 mm.
v) Minimum yield strength of steel is to be 400 MPa (Grade 400 steel).
4.1.2 STRIP METHOD DESIGN OF CONCRETE DECK (AASHTO 9.7.3)
This traditional method of deck slab design is only applicable if the steel is provided at
top and bottom of the deck slab throughout in the two directions.
In this method deck is divided into strips perpendicular to the supporting components.
Hence the span length of the strips is along the spacing of supporting components. The
maximum positive moment in the end panel and the maximum negative moment at the first
interior support are used for the design of all positive and negative regions respectively
4.1.2.1 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIP
For reinforced concrete decks, width of primary strip in mm for overhang is

determined as:
1140 + X
Where X = distance from load to point of support in mm.
For reinforced concrete decks, either parallel or perpendicular to the traffic, the width of primary
strip in mm is determined as:
For positive moment: 660 + 0.55 S
For negative moment: 1220 + 0.25 S
Where S = spacing of supporting components in mm.
[36]
4.1.2.2 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT EXTERIOR STRIPS
Equivalent Strips at Longitudinal Edges
When the primary span of the deck is parallel to the traffic the effective width of
strip, with or without edge beam, is equal to smaller of the following three:
1. The distance between the edge of the deck and inside face of the barrier plus 300 mm
plus half of the full strip.
2. The full strip width.
3. 1800 mm.
Equivalent Strips at Transverse Edges
The effective width of strip, with or without edge beam, is equal to smaller of the
following two:
1. The distance between the transverse edge of the deck and the center line of the barring
plus half of the full strip.
2. The full strip width.
4.1.2.3 MAIN STEEL
The main steel is determined by analyzing the equivalent interior and exterior slab
strips by determining the force effects in the slab strips per unit width of the strips.
4.1.2.4 DISTRIBUTION STEEL
The secondary reinforcement perpendicular to the span (effective length) should

be provided having the following minimum percentage of steel with respect to the main steel:
For Primary Reinforcement Parallel to the Traffic
⁄
√
For Primary Reinforcement Perpendicular to the Traffic
⁄
√
[37]
Where S = effective length or span of the slab
4.1.3 DETAILED DESIGN
In detailed analysis and design the strips are not defined and full 3-D analysis is done
for actual dimensions of slab by placing the highest axle on the slab in the position that is
giving the maximum shear and moment. Results obtained are multiplied by "" and 1.75 to
get the vales of shear and moment for LRFD.
4.2 APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF GIRDER

4.2.1 CONDITIONS FOR APPROXIMATE METHOD TO BE APPLICABLE
i. Spacing of beams denoted by “S” should be between 1.1 and 4.9 m.
ii. Thickness of deck slab denoted by “ts” should be between 110 and 300 mm.
iii. Length of beam should be between 6.0 and 73.0 m.
iv. Number of longitudinal beams in the cross-section, Nb, should be greater than or equal
to 4.
v. The deck cross-section should be one of the standard types given in the AASHTO
specification. The width of deck should be constant.
vi. Multiple presence factors is not to be applied when using the given expressions.
However, it is always to be considered if the lever rule is used to the find the force
effects.
vii. If beam spacing exceeds 4.9 m, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the
loaded lanes based on the lever rule.
viii. Beams should be parallel and should have approximately the same stiffness.
ix. The roadway part of the overhang, dc, does not exceed 910 mm.
x. The curvature in plan is less than the specified AASHTO limits.
xi. The given expressions are only applicable to concrete deck on steel or concrete beams.
[38]
4.2.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FACTORS FOR INTERIOR GIRDER
4.2.2.1 ONE DESIGN LANE LOADED
For Moment
g = 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
For Shear
g = 1.2 x * +
4.2.2.2 TWO OR MORE DESIGN LANES LOADED
For Moment
g = 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
For Shear
g = 0.65 x * ( ) +
4.2.3 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FACTORS FOR EXTERIOR GIRDER
4.2.3.1 ONE DESIGN LANE LOADED
For Moment
Using lever rule
For Shear
Using lever rule
4.2.3.2 TWO OR MORE DESIGN LANES LOADED
For Moment
g = e x gint
Where e = 0.77 + ≥1
[39]
For Shear
g = e x gint
Where e = 0.6 + ≥1
4.2.4 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS OF GIRDERS
The dead load is transferred from slab and wearing surface to girders in addition to
the self-weight of girders. The superimposed load is different for interior and exterior girders.
The interior girder takes load from both sides whereas the load coming over the exterior
girder is calculated by applying the lever rule. The Fig 4.1 and Fig. 4.2 illustrate various dead
loads acting on interior and exterior girders respectively.
Dead Load due to
Wearing surface
Dead Load due

to Deck Slab
Fig. 4.1 Dead Loads on Interior Girder

Force due to
Barrier Weight
Force due to Weight of

Footpath
Force due to Slab
Weight
0.20 m
0.22 m C
1.25 m 2.5 m
Fig. 4.2 Dead Loads on Exterior Girder
[40]
4.2.5 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS OF GIRDERS
Live load analysis for interior and exterior girder is similar and is done using HL-93
AASHTO Live Loading. The procedure is explained with the help of diagrams below.
4.2.5.1 TRUCK LOADING
Maximum Moment
The maximum bending moment due to series of rolling loads on a simply

supported girder will occur under the wheel load nearer to the resultant of the load system, when
the center of gravity of girder equally divides the distance between the resultant and this wheel
load nearer to the resultant. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.3.
0.73 m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
4.3 m 2.84 m
R = 325 kN m
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
Fig. 4.3 Placement of Axle Loads on

Girder for Maximum Moment.
Maximum Shear
For maximum shear force, place the loads as shown in Fig. 4.4.
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 4.4 Placement of Axle Loads on
Girder for Maximum Shear.
[41]
4.2.5.2 TANDEM LOADING
Maximum Moment
For maximum moment, place the loads as shown in Fig. 4.5.
0.3 m
110 kN 110 kN
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
Fig. 4.5 Placement of Tandem Loads on

Maximum Shear
Shear force is maximized by placing the tandem loads as shown in Fig. 4.6.
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 4.6 Placement of Tandem Loads on

3.3 DESIGN OF GIRDER
Design of prestress concrete girder means the determination of dimensions of the cross
section and location of the prestress force such that the stresses before and after the application
of service loads remain within the ACI specified stress limits. The materials behave elastically
[42]
for such loads and hence straight line relationship between stresses and strains may be
considered. There are three different methods of design as under:
Selection of Trial Section

A trial section is selected out from standard shapes given by AASHTO. Prestress force
and eccentricity from the centroid of force is determined for the expected critical conditions of
loading. The resulting configuration is then checked at all the loading stages.
Stress Control Method
Choosing the cross sectional dimensions and selecting the pre stressing force and its
eccentricity from section centroid by satisfying the code limits.
Load Balancing Method
A sufficient trial section is assumed in the start. The pre stress force and tendon profiles
re-selected to provide negative forces and moments to balance the expected service loads.
[43]
CHAPTER 5
DESIGN OF BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTURE
5.1 DESIGN OF DECK

5.1.1 DATA
Span of Bridge = 35000 mm
Total Width = 17500 mm
Clear Roadway Width = 15000 mm
fc` = 28 MPa
fy = 420 MPa
1,250 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 2,500 mm 1,250
Fig. 5.1 Placement of Girders.
Arrangement of Girders
Consider seven girders placed at c/c spacing S as shown in Fig. 5.1. Taking the
overhang on both sides from the center line of the exterior girder as 50 % of S,
the c/c spacing S is determined as follow:
Chapter 5 Design of Bridge Super-Structure
Depth of Slab
h (Minimum NHA requirement)
Adding 15 mm of wearing surface and rounding it to higher side,
Concrete cover for
 Deck surface subjected to wear = 60mm
 Bottom of cast-in-place slab = 25mm
5.1.2 REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED BY EMPIRICAL METHOD
1. Effective Span of Slab, Se = 2,500 – assumed bf of selected section(10 % 0f S)
= 2,250 mm
2. ( ) (O.K)
h
3. Core Depth = 235 – 60 – 25 = 150 mm 100 mm (O.K)
4. Slab Depth = 220 mm 175 mm (O.K)
5. Overhang = 1250 mm v.s 3h = (O.K)
6. fc` = 28 MPa 28 MPa (O.K)
7. Slab is connected with girder through stirrups. (O.K)
[45]
Bottom Layer Steel
0.50 mm2 / mm width of Slab
20 % increased =
= 0.684 mm2 / mm
# 15 @ 250 mm c/c
Top Layer Steel
Top Layer Steel =
= 0.456 mm2 / mm
# 10 @ 200 mm c/c
[46]
5.2 ANALYSIS OF GIRDER

5.2.1 ANALYSIS OF INTERIOR GIRDER
No of design lanes =
Multiple Presence factor = m = 0.65
5.2.1.1 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR MOMENT
One Design Lane Loaded
g = 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 1.2 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.51 → Governs
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded
g = 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.65 x [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ]
= 0.4
5.2.1.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR SHEAR
g = 1.2 x * ( )+
= 0.827 → Governs
g = 0.65 x * ( ) ( ) +
[47]
= 0.65 x * ( ) ( ) +
= 0.55
5.2.1.3 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS
DC
Slab Thickness = 220 mm
Deck slab = 0.220 x 2.5 x 23.5 = 12.93 kN/m
MDC =
= 1980 kN-m
VDC =
= 226.30 kN
DW
75mm asphalt paving = 0.075 x 2.5 x 22
= 4.125 kN/m
MDW =
= 631.64 kN-m
VDW =
= 72.19 kN
5.2.1.4 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS
Lane Load
Lane Load = 9.3 kN/m
[48]
ML =
= 1424 kN-m
VL =
= 162.75 kN
Truck Loading
Maximum Moment

supported girder will occur under the wheel load nearer to the resultant of the
load system, when the center of gravity of girder equally divides the distance
between the resultant and this wheel load nearer to the resultant. This is
illustrated in Fig. 5.2.
0.73 m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
4.3 m 2.84 m
R = 325 kN
17.5 m m
17.5 m
RA
Fig. 5.2 Placement of Axle Loads on Interior

( )
RA =
= 155.72 kN
Ma = 155.72 x (17.5 – 0.73) – 35 x 4.3
= 2460.92 kN-m
[49]
Maximum Shear
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 5.3 Placement of Axle Loads on Interior

( ) ( )
Va = 145 x 1 +
= 382 kN
Tandem Loading
Maximum Moment

0.3 m
110 kN 110 kN
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
Fig. 5.4 Placement of Tandem Loads on Interior

[50]
( )
RA =
= 108.11 kN
Ma = 108.11 x (17.5 – 0.3)
= 1860 kN-m
Maximum Shear
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 5.5 Placement of Tandem Loads on Interior

( )
Vt = 110 x 1 +
= 216.22 kN
Therefore, Design Truck Loading Governs
MLL = 2460.92 kN-m
VLL = 382 kN
Now,
MLL+IM = g x (1.33 x MLL + ML)
= 0.51 x (1.33 x 2460.92 + 1424)
[51]
= 2395.50 kN-m
VLL+IM = g x (1.33 x VLL + VL)
= 0.827 x (1.33 x 382 + 162.75)
= 554.75 kN
5.2.1.5 DESIGN SERVICE LOADS
MD = MDC + MDW
= 1980 + 631.64
= 2612 kN-m
VD = VDC + VDW
= 226.30 + 72.19
= 298.50 kN
ML = 2395.5 kN-m
VL = 554.75 kN
5.2.2 ANALYSIS OF EXTERIOR GIRDER
No of design lanes =
Multiple Presence factor = m = 0.65
5.2.2.1 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR MOMENT
Lateral distribution for the exterior girder with one design lane loaded can be
performed using lever rule as shown in Fig. 5.6.
[52]
0.6 m 1.8 m 0.1 m
CC C
1.25 m 2.5 m
Fig. 5.6 Loading to Obtain Distribution Factor

for Moment in Exterior Girder
R x 2.5 = x 1.9 + x 0.1
R = 0.4
g = 1.2 x 0.4
= 0.48 → Governs
g = e x gint
e = 0.77 + ≥1
Distance from centre of exterior girder to the edge of curb
= 0 (C/L of exterior girder coincides with the edge of curb)
e=1
g = e x gint
= 1 x 0.51
g = 0.51 → Governs
[53]
5.2.2.2 LATERAL DISTRIBUTION FOR SHEAR
g = same as determined for moment = 0.48
g = e x gint
e = 0.77 + ≥1
de 0
e=1
g = e x gint
= 1 x 0.827
g = 0.827 → Governs
5.2.2.3 DEAD LOAD ANALYSIS
The dead loads that are coming on the exterior girder due to slab, footpath and barrier
can be determined using lever rule as shown in Fig. 5.7.
DC
Load from Deck Slab
R x 2.5 = 0.220 x 3.75 x 2400 x x
R = 14.57 kN
Load from Footpath
R x 2.5 = 0.9 x 0.2 x 2400 x x
R = 5.6 kN
[54]
Force due to
barrier Weight
Force due to Weight

of Footpath
Force due to
Slab Weight
0.20 m
0.22 m C
1.25 m 2.5 m
Fig. 5.7 Dead Loads on Exterior Girder
Load from Barrier
R x 2.5 = 4.65 x (3.75 – )
R = 6.65 kN
WDC = 26.82 kN/m
MDC =
= 4110 kN-m
VDC =
= 469.40 kN
DW
75mm asphalt paving = 0.075 x x 22
= 2.1 kN/m
[55]
MDW =
= 321.56 kN-m
VDW =
= 36.75 kN
5.2.2.4 LIVE LOAD ANALYSIS
Lane Load
Lane Load = 9.3 kN/m
ML =
= 1424 kN-m
VL =
= 162.75 kN
Side Walks
Pedestrian Load = 3.6 kN/m2
WPL = 3.6 x 0.9 = 3.24 kN/m
MPL =
= 496.13 kN-m
VPL =
= 56.7 kN
[56]
Truck Loading
Maximum Moment

supported girder will occur under the wheel load nearer to the resultant of the
load system, when the center of gravity of girder equally divides the distance
between the resultant and this wheel load nearer to the resultant. This is
illustrated in Fig. 5.8.
0.73 m
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
4.3 m 2.84 m
R = 325 kN
17.5 m m
17.5 m
RA
Fig. 5.8 Placement of Axle Loads on Exterior

( )
RA =
= 155.72 kN
Ma = 155.72 x (17.5 – 0.73) – 35 x 4.3
= 2460.92 kN-m
Maximum Shear
( ) ( )
Va = 145 x 1 +
= 382 kN
[57]
145 kN 145 kN 35 kN
4.3 m 4.3 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 5.9 Placement of Axle Loads on Exterior

Tandem Loading
Maximum Moment

0.3 m
110 kN 110 kN
0.6 m
R = 220 kN
17.5 m 17.5 m
RA
Fig. 5.10 Placement of Tandem Loads on Exterior

( )
RA =
= 108.11 kN
Ma = 108.11 x (17.5 – 0.3)
= 1860 kN-m
[58]
Maximum Shear
110 kN 110 kN
1.2 m
L = 35 m
Fig. 5.11 Placement of Tandem Loads on Exterior

( )
Vt = 110 x 1 +
= 216.22 kN
Therefore, Design Truck Loading Governs
MLL = 2460.92 kN-m
VLL = 382 kN
Now,
MLL+IM = g x (1.33 x MLL + ML) + MPL
= 0.51 x (1.33 x 2460.92 + 1424) + 496.13
= 2892 kN-m
VLL+IM = g x (1.33 x VLL + VL) + VPL
= 0.827 x (1.33 x 382 + 162.75) + 56.7
= 612 kN
[59]
5.2.2.5 DESIGN SERVICE LOADS
MD = MDC + MDW
= 4110 + 321.56
= 4432 KN-m
VD = VDC + VDW
= 469.40 + 36.75
= 506.20 KN-m
ML = 2892 KN-m
VL = 612 KN
5.3 DESIGN OF GIRDER

As the design forces for Exterior Girder are more critical therefore, the design will be
carried out for exterior girder and same will be provided as interior girder.
5.3.1 DESIGN FOR FLEXURE
5.3.1.1 DESIGN DATA
Span of girder = L = 35 m
MD = 4432 KN-m
ML = 2892 KN-m
fc′= 35 MPa
fci′ = 28 MPa
fpu = 1860 MPa
fpy = 1676 MPa
[60]
R = 0.85 (Assuming 15 % time dependent losses)
Approximate Depth of Girder
h ≈ 0.045 x L
= 0.045 x 35000
h = 2600 mm
Approximate Self Weight of Girder
wg = 0.006 h2 to 0.007 h2 (N/m)
= 47.32 kN/m
Mg =
= 7245.88 kN-m
ACI Limiting Stress Values (ACI 18.4)
For Class U Members
fci = - 0.6 fci’ = - 0.6 x 28 = - 16.8 MPa
fti = ¼ √ fci’ = ¼ √28 = 1.32 MPa
fcs = -0.6 fc’ = -0.6 x 35 = -21 MPa
fts = x √ fc’ = x √ 35 = 3.70 MPa
5.3.1.2 SELECTION OF SECTION
The pre-stressed concrete girder section is selected based on the on the following:
 The modulii of elasticity (at top & bottom) of the section are greater than or equal
to S1 & S2 (calculated below).
[61]
 The section should satisfy the ACI stress limits at various stages of loading.
Based on the above mentioned conditions, a section of pre-stressed concrete

girder is selected as shown in Fig. 5.12.
( )
S1 =
( )
= x 106
= 380114 x 103 mm3
( )
S2 =
( )
= x 106
= 465918 x 103 mm3
Effective Width of Slab Portion
Some portion of deck slab acts together with the girder to resist the applied
loading, calculate as follow:
be = xb
√
= x 1000
√
√
= x 1000
√
= 1118 mm
[62]
1000 mm
250 mm
160 mm
1620 mm 250 mm
220 mm
350 mm
800 mm
Fig. 5.12 Selected Girder Section.
Sectional Properties
At Transfer Stage
To determine sectional properties, we will ignore the sloping portions to get the
section as shown in Fig. 5.13.
1000 mm
250 mm
2000 mm 250 mm
350 mm
800 mm
Fig. 5.13 Girder Section with Ignored Sloping Portions.
[63]
Area of Section
Area of the section is calculated by considering the actual girder section.
A = 1000 x 250 + 800 x 350 + 1620 x 250 + 2 x x 160 x 375 + 2 x x 220 x 275
= 1055500 mm2
= 1.0555 m2
Actual Self Weight of Girder
wg = 1.0555
= 24.80 kN/m
Mg =
= 3798 kN-m < Mg,assumed (OK)
The other sectional properties are calculated by considering the simplied section
Location of Centroid
y =
c1 = y = 1296.36 mm
c2 = 2600 – 1296.36 = 1303.64 mm
Moment of Inertia
I=* +
* + * +
= 87200000 x 104 mm4
[64]
S1 = mm3
S2 = mm3
5.3.1.3 SELECTION OF TENDONS
Uniform Concrete Centroidal Stress
It is the uniform stress in the concrete section if initial prestress force is applied at
the centroid of the section. It is determined as:
fcci = fti – (fti – fci )
= 1.32 – ( )
= -7.714 MPa
Initial Prestress Force
It is the prestress force at transfer stage after the instantaneous losses.
Pi = Ac x fcci
= 8142 kN
Stress in the Prestressing Steel at Failure
fPS is lesser of
i. 0.74 x fpu = 0.74 x 1860 = 1376.4 MPa

ii. 0.82 x fpy = 0.82 x 1676 = 1375 MPa
Therefore,
fPS = 1375 MPa
[65]
Area of Prestressing Steel
Aps = x 1000
= x 1000
= 5921.45 mm2
Let we use 7-wire strand of Grade 1860 MPa having:
 Diameter of strand = 15.24 mm

 Area strand = Ast = 140 mm2
No. of Strands
N=
= 42
Therefore,
Provide 3 Tendons of 14 Strands Each
Approximate Eccentricity of Tendons
em = (fti – fcci) x +
= (1.32 + 7.714) x +
= 1213 mm
Let the maximum eccentricity of tendons at mid section is:
e = 745 mm (To satisfy the ACI stress limits)
[66]
5.3.1.4 CHECK FOR THE STRESSES AT THE TOP & BOTTOM FIBERS
At Transfer Stage
= 1.30 < 1.32 MPa (OK)
f2 = Stress at bottom =
= -16.73 < -16.8 MPa (OK)
At Service Load Stage
At this stage, some portion of slab acts together with the girder to resist
the applied service loads as shown in Fig. 5.14.
1118 mm
220 mm
250 mm 1000 mm
2000 mm 250 mm
350 mm
800 mm
Fig. 5.14 Girder Section with Some Portion of Slab.
[67]
Area of Section
Area of the section is calculated by considering the actual girder section along
with effective slab portion.
Ac = 1118 x 220 + 1000 x 250 + 800 x 350 + 1620 x 250 + 2 x x 160 x 375
+ 2 x x 220 x 275
= 1301460 mm2
= 1.30146 m2
Actual Self Weight
= 1.30146
wg = 30.58 kN/m
Mg =
= 4683 kN-m
Location of Centroid
y=
c1 = 1245.26 mm
c2 = 1574.74 mm
Moment of Inertia
I= * +
* +
* + * +
[68]
= 127000000 x 104 mm4
Check for the Stresses
Pe = R x Pi = 0.85 x 8142 = 6920.7 kN
( )
= -12.04 < -21 MPa (OK)
( )
f2 = Stress at bottom =
= 3.21 MPa < 3.70 MPa (OK)
5.3.2 TENDON PROFILE
The path of the prestressing tendon along the length of the prestressed member is called
tendon profile and it is decided based on the shape of bending moment diagram.
To find out the ordinates of the parabolic tendons following equation of the parabola
is used.
y = a(x - h) 2 + k
where (h, k) represents the vertex of the parabola and a controls the shape and vertical
direction. The values of the ordinates of the parabolic tendon profile, both in y and z
direction are calculated at various values of x taking the midspan of the girder as origin as
shown in Fig. 5.15. The calculations are shown in table 5.1
[69]
CL of PC Girder
1296 mm
Centroid of girder
280 mm Θ1 Cable 3
280 mm Θ2 Cable 2
Θ3
Cable 1
744 mm
559 mm
x
17500 mm 14000 mm 10500 mm 7000 mm 3500 mm 0 (origin)
Fig. 5.15 Tendon Profiles
Table 5.1 Calculations for Tendon Profiles.

Cable 1 Cable 2 Cable 3
x y z x y z x y z
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

0 559 100 0 559 -100 0 559 0
3500 566 96 3500 578 -96 3500 589 0
7000 589 84 7000 633 -84 7000 678 0
10500 626 64 10500 726 -64 10500 827 0
14000 677 36 14000 857 -36 14000 1036 0
17500 744 0 17500 1024 0 17500 1304 0
5.3.2.1 CALCULATIONS FOR ANGLES OF TENDON PROFILES
Angle of cable 1 w.r.t x-axis
y = a(x - h) 2 + k (5.1)
Here,
h=0
[70]
k = 744 – 559 = 185 mm
To calculate a, put x = 17500 & y = 0 in equation (5.1)
a = 185 / 175002 = 6.04 x 10-7
Now differentiating equation (5.1) w.r.t. x
= slope = 2ax
Putting the values of a & x, we get
tan θ3 = slope = 2 x 6.04 x 10-7 x 17500
Therefore,
θ3 = 1º 12’ 39”
k = 1024 – 559 = 465 mm
a = 465 / 175002 = 15.18 x 10-7
= slope = 2ax
tan θ2 = slope = 2 x 15.18 x 10-7 x 17500
Therefore,
Θ2 = 3º 2’ 28”
[71]
k = 1304 – 559 = 745 mm
a = 745 / 175002 = 24.33 x 10-7
= slope = 2ax
tan θ1 = slope = 2 x 24.33 x 10-7 x 17500
Therefore,
Θ1 = 4º 52’ 2”
5.3.3 DESIGN FOR SHEAR
5.3.3.1 DESIGN DATA
fc’ = 35 MPa
fy = 420 MPa
Pi = 8142 kN
Pe = 0.85 x Pi
= 6920.7 kN
bv = web thickness = 250 mm
h = depth of section = 2600 mm
[72]
Factored Shear Force
Vu = η (1.25 VDC + 1.50 VDW + 1.75 VLL)
= 0.95 (1.25 x 469.40 + 1.5 x 36.75 + 1.75 x 612)
= 1628 kN
Effective Depth
It is the distance from extreme compression fibers to the centroid of prestressed

reinforcement.
de = 2600 – 559 = 2041mm
Effective Shear Depth (AASHTO 5.8.2.9)
It is the distance measured perpendicular to the neutral axis, between the resultant
of the tensile and compressive forces due to flexure. It is determined as:
dv is greater of
0.90 de = 0.90 x 2041 = 1836.90 mm
0.72 h = 0.72 x 2600 = 1872
Therefore,
dv = 1872 mm
5.3.3.2 SHEAR DESIGN FOR VARIOUS GIRDER PORTIONS
Shear design is mainly carried out for two potion of the girder as shown in Fig. 5.16.
The corresponding factored shear force values for the design portions are also shown
in the same Fig. 5.16. For the design of first portion maximum shear force is taken
and for the second portion 50 % of the maximum shear force is considered.
[73]
First portion Second portion

Vu
C/L of girder
17.5 m 17.5 m
1628 kN
814 kN
8.75 m 8.75 m
Fig. 5.16 Portions of Girder for Shear Design &

Corresponding Shear Force Diagram.
Design of Shear Reinforcement for First Portion
Nominal Shear Resistance of Concrete Section
Vn = Vc’ + Vs
Vc′= Vc + Vp
Here,
Vc = nominal shear resistance of concrete (kN)
Vp = component of prestressing force in the direction of shear force (kN)
Vc = √ bv dv
= √ x 250 x 1872 / 1000
= 461.50 kN
[74]
Vp = Pe sin θ
As there are three tendons therefore,
Pe for one tendon = 6920.7 / 3
= 2306.9 kN
Vp = 2306.9 x (sin θ1 + sin θ2 + sin θ3)
= 2306.9 (sin 4º 52’ 2” + sin 3º 2’ 28” + sin 1º 12’ 39”)
= 366.87 kN
Therefore,
Vc′ = 461.50 + 366.87
= 828.37 kN
ф Vc′ = 0.75 x 828.37
= 621.28 kN
ф
= 310.64 kN
As,
Vu (1628 kN) > ф Vc′
Therefore, we have to provide maximum shear reinforcement
–ф
Vs = ф
–
Vs =
= 1342.30 kN
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv
[75]
= √ x 250 x 1872 = 922.91 kN
And,
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv = 1845.82 kN
As,
√ ′ bv x dv < Vs < √ ′ bv x dv
Therefore,
Selection & Spacing of Stirrups
Using # 12 SI Double Leg Stirrups
Av = 2 x 150 = 300 mm2
Smax is lesser of
i) = = 1512 mm
ii) = = 468 mm
iii) 300 mm
iv) = 170 mm
Smax = 180 mm
Provide # 12 @ 170 mm c/c Stirrups
Design of Shear Reinforcement for Second Portion
Vu at L/4 = 0.5 x Vu
= 0.5 x 1628
= 814 kN
[76]
Nominal Shear Resistance of Concrete Section
Vn = Vc’ + Vs
Vc′= Vc + Vp
Here,
Vc = nominal shear resistance of concrete (kN)
Vp = component of prestressing force in the direction of shear force (kN)
Vc = √ bv dv
= √ x 250 x 1872 / 1000
= 461.50 kN
Vp = 0.5 x Pe sin θ
Vp = 0.5 x 366.87
= 183.44 kN
Therefore,
Vc′ = 461.50 + 183.44
= 644.94 kN
ф Vc′ = 0.75 x 644.94
= 483.70 kN
ф
= 241.85 kN
As,
Vu (814 kN) > ф Vc′
[77]
Therefore, we have to provide maximum shear reinforcement
–ф
Vs = ф
–
Vs =
= 440.40 kN
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv
= √ x 250 x 1872 = 922.91 kN
And,
(Vs)max = √ ′ bv x dv = 1845.82 kN
As,
Vs < √ ′ bv x dv
Therefore,
Selection & Spacing of Stirrups
Using # 10 SI Double Leg Stirrups
Av = 2 x 100 = 200 mm2
Smax is lesser of
) = = 1008 mm
ii) = = 936 mm
iii) 600 mm
iv) = 390 mm
[78]
Smax = 180 mm
Provide # 10 @ 350 mm c/c Stirrups
5.4 CALCULATION OF PRESTRESS LOSSES
5.4.1 INSTANTANEOUS LOSSES
These losses take place immediately after the application of jacking force.
These losses include the following:
i. Losses due to friction

ii. Losses due to anchorage set
iii. Losses due to elastic shortening
5.4.1.1 LOSSES DUE TO FRICTION
The fictional losses in post tension construction can be determined as follow:
Δffr = fp ( Kl + μα )
Here,
fp = stress at jacking end = 0.76 fpu [ ]
= 0.76 x 1860 = 1413.60 MPa
l = span of girder = 35000 mm
K = wobble coefficient = 1.6 x 10-6 [ ]
μ = curvature coefficient = 0.15
α = total angular change of tendon profile in radians from jacking end to

any point x.
= (radians)
= = 0.17 radians
Therefore,
[79]
Δffr = 1413.60 x (1.6 x 10-6 x 35000 + 0.15 x 0.17)
= 115.20 MPa (frictional losses at far end)
= = 57.60 MPa (frictional losses at mid section)
5.4.1.2 LOSSES DUE TO ANCHORAGE SLIP
These losses can be determined using the following formula:
Δfanc =
Here,
Δl = amount of slip = 6mm
l = tendon length ≈ 35000 mm
EP = modulus of elasticity of strands = 197,000 MPa
Therefore,
Δfanc =
= 33.78 MPa
5.4.1.3 LOSSES DUE TO ELASTIC SHORTENING
For the post-tensioned beams, if all the steel is tensioned at once there
will be no loss due to elastic shortening. However, for the practical
purposes where multiple tendons are used , with tendons tensioned
in sequence, there will be losses. These losses can be satisfactorily
determined as follow:
Δfel = 50 % of elastic shortening in pre-tensioned beams
= 0.5 x np fcs
Here,
np = =
√ ′
[80]
= = 7.92
√
force plus self weight are acting in pretensioned beam.
Pi = 0.9 x Pj = 0.9 x jacking stress x area of tendons
= 0.9 x 1413.6 x (3 x 14 x 140) / 1000
= 7480.77 kN
Therefore,
fcs =
= 8.60 MPa
Therefore,
Δfel = 0.5 x np fcs
= 0.5 x 7.92 x 8.60
= 34.10 MPa
Total instantaneous losses = 57.60 + 33.78 + 34.10 = 125.50 MPa
%age instantaneous prestress losses = x 100 = 8.90 %
Now, the remaining stress in the tendons at midspan after instantaneous losses is:
fpi = 1413.60 – 125.50
= 1288.10 MPa
Therefore,
Pi = fpi x area of tendons
= 1288.10 x (3 x 14 x 140) / 1000
[81]
= 7574 kN < Pi used in design (8142 kN)
5.4.2 TIME DEPENDENT LOSSES
These are the losses due to creep and shrinkage of concrete and
relaxation of steel.
5.4.2.1 LOSSES DUE TO CREEP OF CONCRETE
These losses can be determined as:
Δfcp = Cu np fcs
Here,
np = =
√ ′
= = 7.08
√
plus self weight are acting.
Pe = 0.9 x Pi = 0.9 x 7574
= 6816.60 kN
Therefore,
fcs =
= 5.47 MPa
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient
= 2.65 corresponding to fc´ = 35 MPa
Therefore,
Δfcp = Cu np fcs
[82]
= 2.65 x 7.08 x 5.47
= 102.63 MPa
5.4.2.2 LOSSES DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE
These losses can be estimated as follow:
Δfsh = Ep εsh
εsh = amount of shrinkage strain occurring during the period under consideration
Assumtions to Determine εsh
 Period under consideration or time at the end of interval = tn = 5 years

 Ultimate shrinkage strain for concrete = 800 x 10-6
 44 % of the shrinkage strain takes place before 28 days
εsh = 800 x 10-6 x 0.56 = 448 x 10-6
Therefore,
Δfsh = Ep εsh
= 197000 x 448 x 10-6
= 88.26 MPa
5.4.2.3 LOSSES DUE TO RELAXATION OF STEEL
These losses can be calculated by using the following formula:
Δfrel = fpi ( )( )
Here,
tn = 5 years = 5 x 365 x 24
= 43800 hours
[83]
fpi = 1288.10 MPa
fy = 1676 MPa
Therefore,
Δfrel = fpi ( )( )
= 1288.10 x ( )( )
= 130.63 MPa
Now,
Total time dependent losses = 102.63 + 88.26 + 130.63
= 321.52 MPa
%age of time dependent losses = x 100
= 24.96 % > assumed in design (15 %)
Note: The actual time dependent stresses are coming more than the losses
assumed in the design therefore, the design should be revised but
due to shortage of time it is not revised.
fpe = fpi – time dependent losses
= 1288.10 – 321.52
= 966.58 MPa
Pe = fpe x area of tendons
= 966.58 x 3 x 14 x 140 / 1000
= 5683.50 kN < Pe used in design (6920.7 kN)
[84]
Now,
Total prestress losses (%) = instantaneous losses + time dependent losses
= 8.90 + 24.96 = 33.86 %
5.5 CALCULATION OF DEFLECTIONS
5.5.1 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO LIVE LOAD AND IMPACT
5.5.1.1 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO LANE LOADING
The lane load is 9.3 kN/m. It is present throughout the span of the girder as shown in
Fig. 5.17.
w = 9.3 kN/m
35 m
Fig. 5.17 Design Lane Load.
The deflection due to lane load at midspan can be calculated as follow:
ΔL =
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
= 27.81 x 103 MPa
I = 127000000 x 104 mm4
Therefore,
ΔL =
= 5.15 mm
[85]
5.5.1.2 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO TRUCK LOADING
The deflection caused by axle loads is determined individually for each axle
by placing the axle loads as shown in Fig. 5.18 and then all these deflections
are added up to get the total deflection due to truck loading.
35 kN 145 kN 145 kN
13.2 m 4.3 m 4.3 m 13.2 m
Fig. 5.18 Placement of Axle Loads for Deflection at Midspan.
The formula used to calculate these deflections is:
Δx (x < a) = (L2 – b2 – x2)
Here,
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
= 27.81 x 103 MPa
I = 127000000 x 104 mm4
x = = = 17500 mm
Deflection due to 35 kN Load
a = 21800 mm
b = L – a = 35000 – 21800 = 13200 mm
Therefore,
[86]
Δx1 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 0.81 mm
Deflection due to 1st 145 kN Load
a = 17500 mm
b = L – a = 35000 – 17500 = 17500 mm
Therefore,
Δx2 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 3.67 mm
Deflection due to 2nd 145 kN Load
a = 13200 mm
b = L – a = 35000 – 13200 = 21800 mm
Therefore,
Δx3 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 3.31 mm
Therefore, total deflection due to axle loads is:
Δa = Δx1 + Δx2 + Δx3
= 0.81 + 3.67 + 3.31
= 7.79 mm
[87]
5.5.1.3 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO TANDEM LOADING
The deflections at midspan due to tandem loads can be determined by placing the
Tandem loads as shown in Fig. 5.19.

110 kN 110 kN
17.5 m 1.2 m 16.3 m
Fig. 5.19 Placement of Tandem Loads for Deflection at Midspan.
The formula used to calculate these deflections is:
Δx (x < a) = (L2 – b2 – x2)
Here,
E = 4700 x √ ′ = 4700 x √
= 27.81 x 103 MPa
I = 127000000 x 104 mm4
x = = = 17500 mm
Deflection due to 1st 110 kN Load
a = 17500 mm
b = L – a = 35000 – 17500 = 17500 mm
Therefore,
Δx1 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
[88]
= 2.78 mm
Deflection due to 2nd 110 kN Load
a = 16300 mm
b = L – a = 35000 – 16300 = 18700 mm
Therefore,
Δx2 = (350002 – 2
– 2
)
= 2.76 mm
Therefore, total deflection due to tandem loads is:
Δt = Δx1 + Δx2
= 2.78 + 2.76
= 5.54 mm
As truck loading is more critical w.r.t. mid span deflections. Therefore,
Deflection due to Live Loads
ΔLL = Δa + ΔL
= 7.79 + 5.15
= 12.94 mm
Deflection due to Live Loads plus Impact
ΔLL + IM = 1.33 x 12.94 = 17.21 mm
As the no. of design are more than one ( NL = 4) therefore, the deflection will be
reduced calculated as:
Actual deflection = ΔLL + IM, actual = mg x ΔLL + IM
[89]
Here,
m = multiple presence factor = 0.65 (NL = 4)
g = =
= 0.57
Therefore,
ΔLL + IM, actual = 0.57 x 12.94
= 7.38 mm
5.5.2 DEFLECTIONS DUE TO DEAD LOADS
The deflections due to dead loads are determined at various stages of loading due to
prestress force, self weight, service dead loads.
5.5.2.1 STAGE 1-A: ONLY Pi IS ACTING
The deflection produced due to initial prestress force is short term deflection and can
be found based on the variation of moment along the span, making use of moment
area principles and superposition.
Using second moment-area theorem, deflection due to initial prestress force at

midspan will be calculated as:
Δpi = ( half area of BMD due to initial prestress force ) x Xc
Here,
E = 4700 √ = 4700 x √
= 24.87 x 103 MPa
I = 87200000 x 104 mm4
Half area of BMD = Mc x
Mc = central moment due to initial prestress force

[90]
= Pi x em = 8142 x 745
= 6065.79 x 103 kN-mm
Xc = distance between centroid of half BMD and centre of girder
= x
Therefore,
Δpi = x( 6065.79 x 106 x )x x
= 35.70 mm ( negative sign is for upward deflection)
5.5.2.2 STAGE 1-B: Pi AND SELF WEIGHT
Self weight of the girder causes downwards deflection so the net deflection due to pi
and self weight will be:
Δpi + self wt = Δpi + Δo
Here,
Δo = deflection due to self weight
Δo =
= 22.34 mm
Therefore,
Δpi + self wt = Δpi + Δo
= - 35.70 + 22.34
= - 13.36 mm
[91]
5.5.2.3 STAGE 2: Pe AND SELF WEIGHT
Long term deflections due to prestress occur as that force gradually reduces from
pi to pe. This can be accounted for in an approximate way by assuming that occurs
under a constant prestress force equal to the average of initial and final values.
The net deflection in the girder, when effective prestress and self weight act, can
be calculated as:
Δpe + self wt = - Δpe x Cu + Δo (1 + Cu)
Here,
Δpe = Δpi x
= 35.70 x
= 30.35 mm
Cu = ultimate creep coefficient = 2.65
Therefore,
Δpe + self wt = - 30.35 – x 2.65 + 22.34 x (1 + 2.65)
= -36.33 mm
5.5.2.4 STAGE 3: Pe, SELF WEIGHT AND SERVICE DEAD LOAD
The net deflection in the member at this stage is:
Δpe + self wt + super dead = Δpe + self wt + Δd (1+ Cu)
Here,
Δd = deflection due to super imposed dead load
[92]
Here,
w = wDC + wDW
= 26.82 + 2.1 = 28.92 kN / m
E = 4700 √ = 4700 x √
= 27.81 x 103 MPa
I = 127000000 x 104 mm4
Therefore,
Δo =
= 16 mm
Now,
Δpe + self wt + super dead = Δpe + self wt + Δd (1+ Cu)
= -36.33 + 16 (1 + 2.65)
= 22.07 mm
5.6 STRUCTURAL DRAWINGS

Structural drawings are the most important component of every design of
structure due to the reason that ultimately the drawings have to be followed for the
implementation of design work in the field during the construction of any structure. The
importance of the structural drawings can be well imagined by considering the fact that a
minor mistake during the preparation of drawings, even if the design is correct, can cause
severe damages to the structure.
Following are the important drawings which have been prepared for the project and attached
with the thesis.
1. Plan View of the Bridge showing top view of abutments, diaphragms and girders.
[93]
2. Longitudinal Section of Bridge showing the side view of abutments and piers, span of
girder and position of expansion joints.
3. Cross-section of Bridge viewing the spacing between girders and width of overhang
4. Elevation View of Girder showing the profile of tendons in y direction and details of
transverse reinforcement.
5. Plan View of Girder showing the tendon profile in z direction.
6. Cross-section of Girder at Mid Span showing the cross-sectional dimensions of the

girder, location of tendons and shear reinforcement details.
7. Cross-section of Girder at End Span showing the location of anchorages.
8. Deck Slab Reinforcement Plan showing the reinforcement details for deck slab.
9. Barrier Details showing the typical reinforcement details of barrier and footpath.
[94]
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
This project work has been carried out according to AASHTO (LRFD) specifications
which are very helpful for the analysis and design of Pre-stressed concrete girder
bridges. In this project work, two main components of the prestressed concrete girder
bridge, the deck slab and the prestressed concrete girder, have been designed and the
details of the design work are already shown in the project thesis. The project thesis
also contains a good literature review for different type of bridges. It is also
recommended that all consulting engineering companies working on the pre-stressed
concrete bridge design should agree on single traffic loading (HL-93 or any other) to
be used for the design of highway bridges so that there is uniformity in procedures
adopted for the design of highway bridges throughout the country.
AASHTO HL-93 design traffic loading has been used for the analysis of prestressed
concrete girder bridge because, now a day, it is frequently used loading for the design
of pre-stressed concrete bridges. It is an imaginary type of loading which, to a great
deal, over designs the concrete bridges.
In America, AASHTO is only allowing LRFD Specifications to b used for the design
of concrete bridges since the year 2005. It is better that we also shift to this method of
analysis and design of bridges in order to have effective use of latest standards. This
project will guide the learners and will provide a quick reference to practicing
engineers. The detail drawings are prepared on AUTO-CAD 2007 for better
understanding.
REFERENCES
AASHTO, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification, American Association of State

Highway and Transportation Officials, 3rd Edition (SI Units), USA, 2005.
ACI, ACI 318 Building Code and Commentary, American Concrete Institute, 3rd Edition (FPS
Units), USA, 2005.
Arthur H. Nilson, David Darwin and Charles W. Dolan, Design of Concrete Structures, 13th
Edition, 2005.
Arthur H. Nilson, Design of Prestressed Concrete, 2nd Edition, 1994.
LRFD, LRFD Bridge Design Manual, Texas Department of Transportation, 2nd Edition (FPS
Units), USA, 2007.
Z. A. Siddiqi, M. A. Chaudhry, M. Ashraf, Steel Stuctures, 2nd Edition, Help Civil Engineering
Publisher, Lahore, 2001.
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Design of Pre-stressed Concrete Girder Bridge

Thesis · May 2012

Nouman Amjad Raja

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All praise to Almighty ALLAH, who gave us the opportunity to enhance my

In the end I must acknowledge with gratitude the uncomplaining patience,

2. DESIGN LOADING FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES 13

4. DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTURE 34

5. DESIGN OF BRIDGE SUPER-STRUCTUR 44

The extent of a country’s development can be easily gauged by its communication

Communication by waterways, although cheaper, is limited in extent. This type of

Communication by highways is a very important and accessible mean of communication.

Communication by Railways is a very important means of communication in Pakistan. It

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES

1.2.1 BASED ON MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

1.2.2 BASED ON SPAN LENGTH

i. Short Span Bridges (Span ranging from 6 - 38m)

1.2.3 BASED ON STRUCTURAL FORMS

i. Simple Slab Bridges

1.2.3.1 SLAB BRIDGES

Fig.1.1 Donning Bridge with Slab as Main

1.2.3.2 PRE-STRESSED PRE-CAST GIRDER BRIDGES

Fig.1.2 Lifting of Prestressed Precast Girder

1.2.3.3 TRUSS BRIDGES

Truss is a simple skeletal structure. According to Design theory, each member of

Fig.1.3 Pont de Quebec Bridge, USA

1.2.3.4 RIGID FRAME BRIDGES

Fig.1.4 Maruyamaoohashi Bridge with Rigid

1.2.3.5 ARCH BRIDGES

Fig.1.5 New River Gorge Bridge West Virginia,

1.2.3.6 CABLE STAYED BRIDGES

Fig.1.6 Sun Shine Sky Way Bridge Florida,

1.2.3.7 SUSPENSION BRIDGES

Fig.1.7 Golden Gate Bridge Sanfransisco

1.2.3.8 BOX GIRDER BRIDGES

Fig.1.8 Namihaya Bridge (with Box Girders as

1.2.4 BASED ON SPAN TYPE

With respect to span type bridges may be classified as:

i. Simple Span Bridges

1.2.5 BASED ON LOAD PATH

Bridges, according to this classification system, may be of following types:

i. One Dimensional System

1.2.6 BASED ON USAGE

1.2.7 BASED ON POSITION

ii. Lift Bridge

iii. Swing bridge

1.2.7.1 BASCULE BRIDGE

1.2.7.2 LIFT BRIDGE

1.2.7.3 SWING BRIDGE

1.3 PARTS OF BRIDGE

1.3.2 SUB STRUCTURE

Breast wall Footing

Fig. 1.9 Components of Bridge Abutment

1.3.4 APPROACH ROAD

1.3.5 BRIDGE DECK

1.3.7 FLOOR BEAMS

1.3.8 WEARING SURFACE

1.3.11 EXPANSION JOINTS

1.3.12 BRIDGE BEARINGS

Steel angles Joint filler

Fig. 1.10 Various Components of a Bridge.

DESIGN LOADING FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES

2.1 TRAFFIC LOADINGS