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Computer Memory

In psychology, memory is an organism's ability to store, retain, and recall information and
experiences. Therefore, human memory can be classified in to two types:

Short term memory


Long term memory

Short-term memory (STM) (or "primary" or "active memory") is the capacity of human brain
for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state, for a
short period of time. If we compare this short term memory with that of computers memory
than it is analogous to RAM (Random Access Memory). Beside this there is another type of
memory which is also found in human beings this is known as Long-term memory (LTM).
Long term memory can last as little as a few days or as long as decades. This Long term
memory is analogous to computer hard drive or CD ROM (Read Only Memory).

Computer Memory

Computer memory is defined as one or more sets of chips that store data or program
instructions, either temporarily or permanently. It is a vital processing component in any
computer system.

Hierarchy of Storage

Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory) is the only one directly accessible
to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as
required. Primary storage, also known as main storage or memory, is the main area in a
computer in which data is stored for quick access by the computer's processor. On today's
smaller computers, especially personal computers and workstations, the term random access
memory - or just memory - is used instead of primary or main storage. This type of storage is
the fastest type of memory in a computer and is used to store data while it's being used. For
example, when we open a program data is moved from the secondary storage into the primary
storage.

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The Secondary Storage is known as peripheral storage, and is used to stores information of
the computer that is not in current use. The secondary storage is typically slower and is of
higher capacity than primary storage. The secondary storage is almost non-volatile.
Secondary storage, or auxiliary storage, is memory external to the main body of the computer
(CPU) where programs and data can be stored for future use. When the computer is ready to
use these programs, the data is read into primary storage. Secondary storage media extends
the storage capabilities of the computer system. In fact, secondary storage is required for two
reasons. First, the working memory of the CPU is limited in size and cannot always hold the
amount of data required. Second, data and programs in secondary memory do not disappear
when the power is turned off. Secondary storage is nonvolatile memory. Thus information is
lost only when we erase it. Magnetic disks are the most common type of secondary storage.
They may be either floppy disks or hard disks (hard drives).

Tertiary Storage or tertiary memory provides a third level of storage. Typically it involves
a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and dismount removable mass storage media
into a storage device according to the system's demands; this data is often copied to
secondary storage before use. It is primarily used for archival of rarely accessed information
since it is much slower than secondary storage (e.g. 5–60 seconds vs. 1-10 milliseconds).
This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without human
operators. Typical examples include tape libraries and optical jukeboxes.

Features of Computer memory


Computer memory and storage devices can be classified on the basis of various silent
features. Some of them are discussed

Sequential Access
In case of sequential access storage and retrieval of data items is in sequential manner. One
can not recall data directly from any where or randomly. Examples of sequential access are,
Magnetic tapes, Video cassette, and Audio cassette etc.

Random Access
In random access, each memory location has a unique address. Using the address each
location can be directly accessed. The main memory of computer is based in this mode.
Examples of random access are, Optical Disk, RAM etc.

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Indexed Sequential Access
This is direct access method where information is stored on circular track and each track has
a different read/write head. This works in a semi random mode, as tracks can be accessed
sequentially. Magnetic Disks are classical examples of this type.

Storage Capacity
The main purpose of memory is storage. Hence the most important characteristic of any
memory is storage capacity. The smallest unit of memory is a binary digit or BIT and can
hold single state of 0 or 1. The other units are larger units of byte are for example Kilobytes,
Megabytes, Gigabytes, Terabytes etc.

Types of Media
Memory can be classified into different categories based on types of media or the technology
used in manufacturing them
Magnetic storage media- data is stored on magnetic sensitive materials. Examples are
magnetic tapes and disks.
Optical Storage Media-data is stored and read using a laser beam e.g CD ROM, DVD
ROM.
The other type is electronic or semiconductor based.

Cache Memory

Pronounced "cash." A cache is used to speed up data transfer and may be either temporary or
permanent. Memory and disk caches are in every computer to speed up instruction execution
and data retrieval and updating. These temporary caches serve as staging areas, and their
contents are constantly changing. Browser caches and Internet caches store copies of Web
pages retrieved by the user for some period of time in order to speed up retrieval the next
time the same page is requested .
A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the
average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of
the data from the most frequently used main memory locations.
When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks
whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or
writes to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory.
Most modern desktop and server CPUs have at least three independent caches: i) an
instruction cache to speed up executable instruction fetch, ii) a data cache to speed up data
fetch and store, and iii) a translation look aside buffer used to speed up virtual-to-physical
address translation for both executable instructions and data.

L1 and L2 cache

A level 1 (L1) cache is a memory bank built into the CPU chip. A level 2 cache (L2) is a
secondary staging area that feeds the L1 cache. Increasing the size of the L2 cache may speed
up some applications but have no effect on others. L1 is usually built into the CPU chip.

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In Nutshell- Cache means Memory

L1 cache means Level-1 Cache


L2 Cache means Level-2 Cache
L1 Cache is built inside the microprocessor chip.
L2 cache is NORMALLY, kept outside the microprocessor chip.
L1 cache is faster than L2 cache because it is very much near the processor.
L1 cache is called as Primary Cache
L2 cache is called as Secondary Cache.
L1 cache will be smaller in capacity than L2 cache.

Real Life Case-Chapatti and Halwa

Gunjan, Do you know how to make Chappati? "


"Yes, Dad."
"Do you know how to make Halwa? "
"No, Dad!"
"Why you don't know that?"

"Chapatti making is very important and I have to do it frequently. So I am keeping those


procedures in my Brain itself. Halwa is not made frequently. The procedure is available in the
cook book which is kept in the almirah."

"Good. The computer also keeps the important and frequently used things in its L1 cache and
the other things in L2 cache. Fetching information directly from the brain is faster than
fetching from the book-shelf. Brain capacity is less; book-shelf capacity is large (because it
can be expanded). Brain is primary and book-shelf is secondary. Brain is Level-1 Cache,
whereas Book-shelf is Level-2 cache. So we must always remember BRAIN AND BOOK-
SHELF when they are talking L1 cache and L2 Cache.

Memory Buffer
A buffer is an area of memory used for temporary storage of data when a program or
hardware device needs an uninterrupted flow of information. Buffers are typically created in
Random Access Memory (RAM) rather than on the hard disk, as fetching data from RAM is
faster than retrieving it from the platter technology used in conventional hard drives. Some
hardware devices come with their own on-board RAM or buffer, as in the case of printers.

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Example of buffers: An example of buffer use is in streaming online multimedia content.
Without use of a buffer, one would either have to wait for the entire file to load to the local
machine before play, or endure playback with breaks and jumps created by millisecond (or
longer) delays in the data stream.
Here’s how it works: Files, data, music and video are all transported across the Internet in
small, discreet data packets. These packets arrive independently and have to be recombined
and reordered to recreate the original data stream without interruption. If a data packet is
missing, video playback will “jump” to the next packet in line. To avoid this, a few seconds
worth of the stream is stored in the buffer, then as playback begins, the buffer stays just ahead
of the display, “paving the way” for smooth sailing.
Word processors, spreadsheet programs and nearly all productivity packages use buffers to
keep track of changes within a document or project so that reversion (the "undo" command)
is possible. A buffer is also responsible for saving temporary copies of material in progress so
that in the case of a crash or power outage, the document can be retrieved even when it was
not officially saved.

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