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Module I: Nature and Scope of Research Methodology
Research is a careful investigation or enquiry, especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Research methodology is the process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business
decisions. The methodology may include publication research, interviews, surveys and other research techniques,
and could include both present and historical information.
An experiment is a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions.
A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or
an interview.
Concept is anything that is socially acceptable of object and phenomenon.
Construct is ide in one’s mind.
Variable is any object or attribute to which values can be designed.
Proposition is jist of my understanding.
Model is a representation of a system in order to have better understanding.
Types of Research
1. Exploratory Research
Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to
offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a
problem that has not been clearly defined yet.
Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended to provide
conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem.
Exploratory research design does not aim to provide the final and conclusive answers to the research questions, but
merely explores the research topic with varying levels of depth
Advantages of Exploratory Research
Flexibility and adaptability to change
Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
Exploratory studies can potentially save time and other resources by determining at the earlier stages the types
of research that are worth pursuing
Disadvantages of Exploratory Research
Exploratory studies generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is subject to
bias
These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately represent the
target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized to a wider population.
Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.
2. Conclusive Research
Conclusive research design, as the name implies, is applied to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching
conclusions or decision‐making. In this type of studies research objectives and data requirements need to be clearly
defined. Findings of conclusive studies usually have specific uses. Conclusive research design provides a way to verify
and quantify findings of exploratory studies.
Conclusive research design usually involves the application of quantitative methods of data collection and data
analysis. Moreover, conclusive studies tend to be deductive in nature and research objectives in these types of
studies are achieved via testing hypotheses.
Conclusive research design can be divided into two categories:
1. Causal Research (Explanatory research)
Causal research, also known as explanatory research is conducted in order to identify the extent and nature of
cause‐and‐effect relationships. Causal research can be conducted in order to assess impacts of specific changes on
existing norms, various processes etc.
2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research can be explained as a statement of affairs as they are at present with the researcher having no
control over variable.
Descriptive studies may be characterised as simply the attempt to determine, describe or identify what is, while
analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be.
In its essence, descriptive studies are used to describe various aspects of the phenomenon. In its popular format,
descriptive research is used to describe characteristics and/or behaviour of sample population.
An important characteristic of descriptive research relates to the fact that while descriptive research can employ a
number of variables, only one variable is required to conduct a descriptive study. Three main purposes of descriptive
studies can be explained as describing, explaining and validating research findings.
Difference between Exploratory and Conclusive Research:
Exploratory research Conclusive research
Have a formal and definitive
methodology that needs to be followed
Methodology Are flexible and investigative in methodology and tested
Most conclusive researches are carried
Hypotheses Do not involve testing of hypotheses out to test the formulated hypotheses
Findings might be topic specific and might not have Findings are significant as they have a
Findings much relevance outside of researcher’s domain theoretical or applied implication
Research Process
A typical research process comprises the following stages:
1. To define the problem statement
Researchers are employed by a company for a problem:
‐ Analysing past records of the company
‐ Taking expert opinion if required
‐ Conducting small qualitative study
‐Understanding environmental context of the problem
‐Defining problem
Problem Definition involves stating the Management Decision Problem and identifying the Marketing Research
Problem
Management Decision Problem (MDP) Marketing Research Problem (MRP)
1. Asks what the decision maker needs to do 1. Asks what information is needed and how it should
be obtained
2. Action Oriented 2. Information Oriented
3. Focuses on symptoms 3. Focuses on underlying causes
4. Questions of change in research 4. Researcher does a marketing research on MDP
questions
5. For decision maker 5. For researcher maker
6. Alternative the management takes 6. Researching and understanding current consumer
perception
Ex. Decision regarding price change Ex. Studing price elasticity of demand
2. Approach to solve problems
We have to have a theoretical framework about the variables i.e. problem statement.
Then choose a model: Verbal, Graphical, Mathematical.
Formulate research questions: broad topics in which we are going to frame questionnaire.
Specification of information is needed
‐ What type of information is required to solve a problem?
‐ What is the source of information?
‐ Whether we require primary or secondary resources?
3. Research Design
The blueprint or framework for carrying out the research.
There are 2 types of Research design:
1. Exploratory: Only to gain understanding about the problem.
2. Conclusive: Applied to generate findings that are practically useful in reaching conclusions. There is always
hypothesis testing done to prove data is correct or not.
Descriptive(Survey): Describing the phenomenon under study.
Casual(Experiment): Trying to prove a cause and effect relationship.
Conclusive
Conduct Hypothesis
Collect data research
survey Testing
design
4. Data collection.
Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages
associated with several alternative data collection methods. It is done with the help of fieldwork.
5. Filtering Data for analysis.
Data is filtered and only relevant data is kept. It is done for the ease of data analysis.
6. Data analysis.
Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. Data analysis methods
vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between qualitative and quantitative studies.
7. Reaching conclusions.
Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. Conclusions also need to
cover research limitations and suggestions for future research.
Research Approach
Research approach can be divided into three types:
1. Deductive Research Approach
If you have formulated a set of hypotheses that need to be confirmed or rejected during the research process you
would be following a deductive approach. In deductive approach, the effects are assessed by developing hypotheses
that are tested during the research process.
Deductive approach follows the following path:
2. Inductive Research Approach
Alternatively, inductive approach does not involve formulation of hypotheses. It starts with research questions and
aims and objectives that need to be achieved during the research process.
Inductive studies follow the route below:
Deduction Induction
In a deductive inference, In an inductive inference,
when the premises are known premises are used
Logic true, the conclusion must also be true to generate untested conclusions
Data collection is used to
Data collection is used to explore a phenomenon,
evaluate propositions or identify themes and
Use of data hypotheses related to an existing theory patterns and create a conceptual framework
Deduction Induction
Objectivity Subjectivity
Type of reasoning Causation Meaning
Pre‐specified Open‐ended
Type of question Outcome‐oriented Process‐oriented
Numerical estimation Narrative description
Type of analysis Statistical inference Constant comparison
Research Problem Identification and Formulation
It refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretically or practical
situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Identification of a Research Problem
Identification is a sense of consciousness and awareness about social phenomena.
• Researcher Knowledge
• Keen observation
• Careful Investigation
• Cause and effect relationships
Formulation of the Research Problem
Steps involved in defining a problem are:
• Statement of the problem in a general way
• Understanding the nature of the problem
• Surveying the available literature
• Developing the idea through discussion
• Rephrasing the research problem into working proposition
Research Design
Research design is a broad framework that states the total pattern of conducting research project. It specifies
objectives, data collection and analysis methods, time, costs, responsibility, probable outcomes, and actions.
The research design is similar to broad plan or model that states how the entire research project would be
conducted.
Types of Research Designs
1. Exploratory Research Design:
This design is followed to discover ideas and insights to generate possible explanations. It helps in exploring the
problem or situation. It is, particularly, emphasized to break a broad vague problem statement into smaller pieces or
sub‐problem statements that help forming specific hypothesis.
The hypothesis is an abstract statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Naturally, in initial state of the study, we lack sufficient understanding about problem to formulate a specific
hypothesis. Similarly, we have several competitive explanations of marketing phenomenon. Exploratory research
design is used to establish priorities among those competitive explanations.
The exploratory research design is used to increase familiarity of the analyst with problem under investigation. This
is particularly true when researcher is new in area, or when problem is of different type.
This design is followed to realize following purposes:
1. Clarifying concepts and defining problem
2. Formulating problem for more precise investigation
3. Increasing researcher’s familiarity with problem
4. Developing hypotheses
5. Establishing priorities for further investigation
Exploratory research design is characterized by flexibility to gain insights and develop hypotheses. It does not follow
a planned questionnaire or sampling. It is based on literature survey, experimental survey, and analysis of selected
cases. Unstructured interviews are used to offer respondents a great deal of freedom. No research project is purely
and solely based on this design. It is used as complementary to descriptive design and causal design.
2. Descriptive Research Design:
Descriptive research design is typically concerned with describing problem and its solution. It is more specific and
purposive study. Before rigorous attempts are made for descriptive study, the well‐defined problem must be on
hand. Descriptive study rests on one or more hypotheses.
Descriptive research requires clear specification of who, why, what, when, where, and how of the research.
Descriptive design is directed to answer these problems.
3. Experimental Research Design:
Experimental research design deals with determining cause and effect relationship. It is typically in form of
experiment.
In experimental research design, attempt is made to measure impact of manipulation on independent variables (like
price, products, advertising and selling efforts or marketing strategies in general) on dependent variables (like sales
volume, profits, and brand image and brand loyalty).
It has more practical value in resolving marketing problems. We can set and test hypotheses by conducting
experiments.
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
Module II: Research Methods and Data Collection Technique
Research modelling: Types, and Stages
Data collection
Data collection is a process of collecting information from all the relevant sources to find answers to the research
problem, test the hypothesis and evaluate the outcomes. Data collection methods can be divided into two
categories: secondary methods of data collection and primary methods of data collection.
Types of Data
1. Primary Data Collection Methods
Primary data collection methods can be divided into two groups: quantitative and qualitative.
1.1 Quantitative data collection methods are based in mathematical calculations in various formats. Methods of
quantitative data collection and analysis include questionnaires with closed‐ended questions, methods of
correlation and regression, mean, mode and median and others.
Quantitative methods are cheaper to apply and they can be applied within shorter duration of time compared to
qualitative methods. Moreover, due to a high level of standardisation of quantitative methods, it is easy to make
comparisons of findings.
1.2 Qualitative research methods, on the contrary, do not involve numbers or mathematical calculations.
Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions, colours and other elements that
are non‐quantifiable.
Qualitative studies aim to ensure greater level of depth of understanding and qualitative data collection
methods include interviews, questionnaires with open‐ended questions, focus groups, observation, game or
role‐playing, case studies etc.
Your choice between quantitative or qualitative methods of data collection depends on the area of your research
and the nature of research aims and objectives.
2. Secondary Data Collection Methods
Secondary data is a type of data that has already been published in books, newspapers, magazines, journals, online
portals etc.
There is an abundance of data available in these sources about your research area in business studies, almost
regardless of the nature of the research area. Therefore, application of appropriate set of criteria to select secondary
data to be used in the study plays an important role in terms of increasing the levels of research validity and
reliability.
These criteria include, but not limited to date of publication, credential of the author, reliability of the source, quality
of discussions, depth of analyses, the extent of contribution of the text to the development of the research area etc.
Data Collection Methods
1. Qualitative Research‐
Qualitative Research is generally undertaken to develop an initial understanding of the problem. It is non statistical
in nature. It uses an inductive method, that is, data relevant to some topics are collected and grouped into
appropriate meaningful categories. The explanations are emerged from the data itself. It is used in exploratory
research design and descriptive research also. Qualitative data comes into a variety of forms like interview
transcripts; documents, diaries and notes made while observing.
1. Direct Collection Method
When the data is collected directly, it makes use of disguised method. Purpose of data collection is not known.
1.1 Focus Group
Focus groups are also known as group interviews or group discussions. They are used to understand the attitude or
behaviour of the audience.
Objectives of Focus Group
To gather primary information for research project;
To help developing questionnaires in terms of survey research;
To understand reason behind a particular phenomenon:
To see how people interpret certain phenomenon;
To test primarily ideas or plan
Steps involved in conducting Focus group
1. Define the problem
2. Select a sample
3. Determine the number of groups necessary(minimum number should be two)
4. Prepare the study mechanics. Arrange the respondents place where the focus group is to be assembled.
5. Select moderators and brief them.
6. Prepare the focus group material.
7. Conduct the session.
8. Analyze the data and prepare summary report.
Advantages of Focus Group
1. It is used to collect primary information and therefore it can conduct a pilot study also.
2. Relative cost is not much.
3. It can be conducted quickly.
4. It has flexibility.
5. Moderator can detect the opinion and certificates of those who cannot speak well by facial expression and other
non verbal behaviour.
Disadvantages of Focus Group
1. It is inappropriate for gathering quantitative data.
2. Self appointed group leader may impose his /her opinion on other members. Moderators can restrict people.
3. t depends heavily on skills of moderator.
4. Respondents in the focus group may or may not represent the population from which they are drawn.
5. Recording equipments are likely to restrict respondents. Location of recording equipment is very important.
1.2 Depth Interview
They are direct one to one personal interviews. A detailed background is provided by the respondents and elaborate
data concerning the respondents opinions, values, motivation, expression, feeling etc are obtained.
Even their non‐verbal expressions are observed.
They take long time, therefore lengthy observations are involved.
These are conducted to customize individual responses. The questions will depend on what kind of answers are
given.
Techniques under Depth Interview
1. Laddering: When we move from product characteristics to user characteristics.
2. Hidden Issue Questioning: The interviewer questions about the respondents fantasies or personal life.
3. Symbolic analysis: The interviewer attempts to find out what something symbolizes to the participant, by asking
about the object's opposite.
Advantages of Depth Interview
Lot of detail is provided.
Information obtained is comparatively more accurate.
Personal or intimate topic can also be discussed since the personal rapport is established between the
respondent and the interviewer
Disadvantages of Depth Interview
It is difficult to generalize since the interviewers are non‐standardized
Since the success depends on the interviewer, there are chances of bias.
Data analysis takes a lot of time.
1.3 Case Study
Individual cases are taken and a detailed study of each case is done.
Advantages of Case Study
Accurate data is provided
There is detailed analysis
Disadvantages of Case Study
It is difficult to generalize.
It consumes lot of time.
Confidential and sensitive information may not be given.
Interviewer bias is there.
2. Indirect Collection Method
When the data is collected indirectly.
2.1 Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigation which have been developed by the
psychologists and use projection of respondents for inferring about underline motives, urges or intentions which
cannot be secure through direct questioning as the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure
out himself.
Types of Projective Techniques
1. Word Association Test
An individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first thing that comes to mind. The association can
take the shape of a picture or a word. There can be many interpretations of the same thing. A list of words is given
and you don’t know in which word they are most interested. The interviewer records the responses which reveal the
inner feeling of the respondents. The frequency with which any word is given a response and the amount of time
that elapses before the response is given are important for the researcher. For eg: Out of 50 respondents 20 people
associate the word “ Fair” with “Complexion”.
2. Completion Test
In this the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story. The completion will reflect their
attitude and state of mind.
3. Construction Test
This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and you are asked to write a story about it. The
initial structure is limited and not detailed like the completion test. For eg: 2 cartoons are given and a dialogue is to
written.
4. Expression Techniques
In this the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.
Disadvantages of Projective Techniques
Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.
Interpreters bias can be there.
It is a costly method.
The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire population.
2. Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research quantifies the data and generalizes the results from the sample to the population.
1. Survey Method
2. Observation Method
1. Survey
Survey method can be explained as “questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their responses”
Survey method pursues two main purposes:
1. Describing certain aspects or characteristics of population and/or
2. Testing hypotheses about nature of relationships within a population.
Types of Survey Method
Survey method Description
1. Mail survey A written survey that is self‐administered
A survey conducted by telephone in which the questions are read to the
2. Telephone survey respondents
3. Personal interview A face‐to‐face interview of the respondent
4. Electronic Survey An E‐Survey is the survey done on the internet.
Advantages of Survey Method
Surveys can be conducted faster and cheaper compared to other methods of primary data collection such as
observation and experiments
Primary data gathered through surveys are relatively easy to analyse
Disadvantages of Survey Method
In some cases, unwillingness or inability of respondents to provide information
Human bias of respondents, i.e. respondents providing inaccurate information
Differences in understanding: it is difficult to formulate questions in such a way that it will mean exactly same
thing to each respondent
2. Observation
Recording of behaviour of people, object or event in a systematic manner to obtain information about phenomenon
of interest.
Types of Observation
1. Structured vs Unstructured Observation
In structured or systematic observation, data collection is conducted using specific variables and according to a pre‐
defined schedule. Researcher designs the methods by which observations will be measured and what is to be
measured.
2. Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an open and free manner in a sense that there would
be no pre‐determined variables or objectives. Researcher records entire phenomenon.
3. Disguised Observation
When the respondents are not aware that they are being observed.
4. Undisguised Observation
When respondents are aware that they are being recorded.
5. Natural Observation
Observing a phenomenon as it takes place in its natural setting.
6. Contrived Observation
Observing a phenomenon in its artificial setting.
7. Personal Observation
An observation research strategy in which human records the phenomenon.
8. Mechanical Observation
An observation research in which mechanical devices record the phenomenon as it occurs.
Advantages of Observation Method
direct access to research phenomena
high levels of flexibility in terms of application
generating a permanent record of phenomena to be referred to later
Disadvantages of Observation Method
longer time requirements
high levels of observer bias
impact of observer on primary data, in a way that presence of observer may influence the behaviour of sample
group elements.
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering information
from respondents
Questionnaires can be classified as both, quantitative and qualitative method depending on the nature of questions.
Types of Questionnaires
1. Computer questionnaire. Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by mail. The
advantages of the computer questionnaires include their inexpensive price, time‐efficiency, and respondents do
not feel pressured, therefore can answer when they have time, giving more accurate answers. However, the
main shortcoming of the mail questionnaires is that sometimes respondents do not bother answering them and
they can just ignore the questionnaire.
2. Telephone questionnaire. Researcher may choose to call potential respondents with the aim of getting them to
answer the questionnaire. The advantage of the telephone questionnaire is that, it can be completed during the
short amount of time. The main disadvantage of the phone questionnaire is that it is expensive most of the time.
Moreover, most people do not feel comfortable to answer many questions asked through the phone and it is
difficult to get sample group to answer questionnaire over the phone.
3. In‐house survey. This type of questionnaire involves the researcher visiting respondents in their houses or
workplaces. The advantage of in‐house survey is that more focus towards the questions can be gained from
respondents. However, in‐house surveys also have a range of disadvantages which include being time
consuming, more expensive and respondents may not wish to have the researcher in their houses or workplaces
for various reasons.
4. Mail Questionnaire. These sorts of questionnaires involve the researcher to send the questionnaire list to
respondents through post, often attaching pre‐paid envelope. Mail questionnaires have an advantage of
providing more accurate answer, because respondents can answer the questionnaire in their spare time. The
disadvantages associated with mail questionnaires include them being expensive, time consuming and
sometimes they end up in the bin put by respondents.
Types of questions in Questionannaire
1. Open question questionnaires. Open questions differ from other types of questions used in questionnaires in a
way that open questions may produce unexpected results, which can make the research more original and
valuable. However, it is difficult to analyze the results of the findings when the data is obtained through the
questionnaire with open questions.
2. Multiple choice questions. Respondents are offered a set of answers they have to choose from. The downsize of
questionnaire with multiple choice questions is that, if there are too many answers to choose from, it makes the
questionnaire, confusing and boring, and discourages the respondent to answer the questionnaire.
3. Dichotomous Questions. This type of questions gives two options to respondents – yes or no, to choose from. It
is the easiest form of questionnaire for the respondent in terms of responding it.
4. Scaling Questions. Also referred to as ranking questions, they present an option for respondents to rank the
available answers to the questions on the scale of given range of values (for example from 1 to 10).
Questionnaire Design Process
1. State the information required‐ This will depend upon the nature of the problem, the purpose of the study and
hypothesis framed. The target audience must be concentrated on.
2. State the kind of interviewing technique‐ interviewing method can be telephone, mails, personal interview or
electronic interview. Telephonic interview can be computer assisted. Personal interview can be conducted at
respondent’s place or at mall or shopping place. Mail interview can take the form of mail panel. Electronic
interview takes place either through electronic mails or through the internet.
3. Decide the content of questions‐ There are two deciding factors for this‐
Is the question significant? ‐ Observe contribution of each question. Does the question contribute for the
objective of the study?
Is there a need for several questions or a single question? ‐ Several questions are asked in the following
cases:
‐ When there is a need for cross‐checking
‐ When the answers are ambiguous
‐ When people are hesitant to give correct information.
4. Decide on the structure of the question‐ Questions can be of two types:
1. Structured questions‐ These specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. These can be
classified into multiple choice questions (having various response categories), dichotomous questions
(having only 2 response categories such as “Yes” or “No”) and scales (discussed already).
2. Unstructured questions‐ These are also known as open‐ended question. No alternatives are suggested and
the respondents are free to answer these questions in any way they like.
5. Determine the question language/phrasing‐ If the questions are poorly worded, then either the respondents
will refuse to answer the question or they may give incorrect answers. Thus, the words of the question should be
carefully chosen. Ordinary and unambiguous words should be used. Avoid implicit assumptions, generalizations
and implicit alternatives. Avoid biased questions. Define the issue in terms of who the questionnaire is being
addressed to, what information is required, when is the information required, why the question is being asked,
etc.
6. Properly arrange the questions‐ To determine the order of the question, take decisions on aspects like opening
questions (simple, interesting questions should be used as opening questions to gain co‐operation and
confidence of respondents), type of information (Basic information relates to the research issue, classification
information relates to social and demographic characteristics, and identification information relates to personal
information such as name, address, contact number of respondents), difficult questions (complex, embarrassing,
dull and sensitive questions could be difficult), effect on subsequent questions, logical sequence, etc.
7. Recognize the form and layout of the questionnaire‐ This is very essential for self‐administered questionnaire.
The questions should be numbered and pre‐coded. The layout should be such that it appears to be neat and
orderly, and not clattered.
8. Pre‐test the questionnaire‐ The questionnaire should be pre‐tested on a small number of respondents to
identify the likely problems and to eliminate them. Each and every dimension of the questionnaire should be
pre‐tested. The sample respondents should be similar to the target respondents of the survey.
9. Finalize the questionnaire‐ Check the final draft questionnaire. Ask yourself how much will the information
obtained from each question contribute to the study. Make sure that irrelevant questions are not asked. Obtain
feedback of the respondents on the questionnaire.
How to overcome the respondents’ inability and unwillingness to answer
Inability
The respondents may be unable to answer the questions because of following reasons‐
The respondent may not be fully informed
The respondent may not remember
He may be unable to express or articulate
Unwillingness
The respondent may be unwilling to answer due to‐
There may be sensitive information which may cause embarrassment or harm the respondent’s image.
The respondent may not be familiar with the genuine purpose
The question may appear to be irrelevant to the respondent
The respondent will not be willing to reveal traits like aggressiveness (For instance ‐ if he is asked “Do you hit
your wife, sister”, etc.)
Solution
To overcome the respondent’s unwillingness to answer:
1. Place the sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire
2. Preface the question with a statement
3. Use the third person
4. Categorize the responses rather than asking a specific response figure (For example ‐ Group for income levels 0‐
25000, 25000‐50000, 50000 and above)
Attitude Measurement Scales
The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively.
Attitude is a resultant of number of external and internal factors.
Types of Measurement
Depending upon the attitude to be measured, appropriate scales are designed
Four types of scales are generally used for Research:
1. Nominal
These scales are just numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales. Instances of Nominal Scale are ‐ credit
card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used when relationship
between two variables is to be studied.
In a Nominal Scale numbers are no more than labels and are used specifically to identify different categories of
responses.
Example:
What is your gender?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
2. Ordinal
It is more powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The ranking of
certain product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is obtained through the scale.
Example:
Rank the following attributes (1 ‐ 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
Company Name
Functions
Price
Comfort
Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of quality as Grade A, Grade B,
Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
3. Interval
Here in the distance between the various categories are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also
termed as Rating Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal intervals.
Example:
A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities?
Company Name Less Known 1 2 3 4 5 Well Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Overall Satisfaction Very Dis‐Satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Very Satisfied
4. Ratio
A Ratio scale’s value can be computed and it has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally
appearing intervals.
Example:
Scales for measuring physical quantities like ‐ length, weight, etc.
Types of Scales
Scaling is a technique used for measuring qualitative responses of respondents such as those related to their
feelings, perception, likes, dislikes, interests and preferences.
1. Non Comparative Scales
1. Likert Scale
It was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a degree of agreement and disagreement
with each of a series of statement.
Each scale item has 5 response categories ranging from strongly agree and strongly disagree.
5 4 3 2 1
Strongly agree Agree Indifferent Disagree Strongly disagree
2. Semantic Differential
This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.
Bi‐polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7.
1 7
Unpleasant 2 3 4 5 6 Pleasant
Submissive Dominant
3. Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:
Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
Each item has ten response categories.
Each item has an even number of categories.
The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
This is a unipolar rating scale.
We can select any number from +5, for words we think are very accurate, to ‐5,for words we think are very
inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
‐1
‐2
‐3
‐4
‐5
2. Comparative Scales
1. Rank order Scale
A Rank Order scale gives the respondent a set of items and asks them to put the items in some form of order.
The measure of 'order' can include such as preference, importance, liking, effectiveness and so on.
2. Paired Comparison Scale
The Paired Comparison Scaling is a comparative scaling technique wherein the respondent is shown two objects at
the same time and is asked to select one according to the defined criterion. The resulting data are ordinal in nature.
The paired comparison method is effective when the number of objects is limited because it requires the direct
comparison.
3. Constant Sum Scale
In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as points, the sum of all the points is
100. The questionnaire is discarded if the point do not total up to 100 or exceed 100 points.
Sampling Plan
A sampling plan is a term that provide an outline on the basis of which research is conducted. It tells which category
is to be surveyed, what should be the sample size and how the respondents should be chosen out of the population.
This sampling unit is a representative of the total population, though it might be a fraction of the total population.
Sampling Design
1. Define the target population
More commonly known as the Sample unit, it comprises of the type of customers / people that you want to contact
for your market research study. To determine the sample population, first you need to decide what the ideal
customer for the firm looks like.
You cannot interview 100% of your customers. Hence the Sample population will be a small population which will be
extrapolated later on. So this step is important and you need to choose your customers with care. They should be a
strong representative of the type of business you want to become.
2. Form a sampling frame
A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population. It’s a complete list of everyone or everything you want
to study. The difference between a population and a sampling frame is that the population is general and the frame
is specific.
3. Select a Sampling Technique
The selection of sampling technique depends upon the availability of sampling frame and the target population.
4. Select Sample Size
Sample size determination
5. Execute the sampling process.
Types of Sampling Techniques
The method which is adopted to collect the sample obviously has large implications on the conclusions drawn from
that sample. Mentioned below are the techniques which can be used for sampling populations as well as processes.
Probability Sampling
Sampling techniques can be divided into two categories: probability and non‐probability. In probability sampling,
each population member has a known, non‐zero chance of participating in the study. Randomization or chance is the
core of probability sampling technique.
Probability sampling comprises the following sampling techniques:
1. Simple Random Sampling
In simple random sampling each member of population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample. It has
been stated that “the logic behind simple random sampling is that it removes bias from the selection procedure and
should result in representative samples.
2. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a probability sampling method and a form of random sampling in which the population is
divided into two or more groups (strata) according to one or more common attributes.
Stratified random sampling intends to guarantee that the sample represents specific sub‐groups or strata.
Accordingly, application of stratified sampling method involves dividing population into different subgroups (strata)
and selecting subjects from each strata in a proportionate manner.
Stratified sampling can be divided into the following two groups:
In proportionate stratified random sampling technique involves determining sample size in each stratum in a
proportionate manner to the entire population.
In disproportionate stratified random sampling, on the contrary, numbers of subjects recruited from each
stratum does not have to be proportionate to the total size of the population.
3. Systematic Sampling
In systematic sampling every Nth member of population is selected to be included in the study. It is a probability
sampling method. It has been stated that “with systematic sampling, every Kth item is selected to produce a sample
of size n from a population size of N”.
We divide population into groups then any of the 2 techniques can be used:
1. Proportionate Sample Technique
The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of the stratum when
viewed against the entire population. This means that the each stratum has the same sampling fraction.
2. Disproportionate Sampling Technique
With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have different sampling fractions.
4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a technique in which clusters of participants that represent the population are identified and
included in the sample. Cluster sampling involves identification of cluster of participants representing the population
and their inclusion in the sample group. This is a popular method in conducting marketing researches.
The main aim of cluster sampling can be specified as cost reduction and increasing the levels of efficiency of
sampling.
Non‐ Probability Sampling
In non‐probability sampling (also known as non‐random sampling) not all members of the population has a chance of
participating in the study. This is contrary to probability sampling, where each member of the population has a
known, non‐zero chance of being selected to participate in the study.
Non Probability sampling comprises the following sampling techniques:
1. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a type of sampling where the first available primary data source will be used for the
research without additional requirements.
This sampling method involves getting participants wherever you can find them and typically wherever is
convenient.
2. Judgemental Sampling
Judgemental sampling is a type of sampling which is done based on researcher’s own judgement.
3. Quota sampling
It can be defined as a sampling method of gathering representative data from a group. Application of quota sampling
ensures that sample group represents certain characteristics of the population chosen by the researcher.
Quota sampling can be divided into two groups:
Controlled quota sampling involves introduction of certain restrictions in order to limit researcher’s choice of
samples.
Uncontrolled quota sampling, on the other hand, resembles convenience sampling method in a way that
researcher is free to choose sample group members according to his/her will.
4. Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling (also known as chain‐referral sampling) is a sampling method used when characteristics to be
possessed by samples are rare and difficult to find. Snowball sampling method is based on referrals from initial
subjects to generate additional subjects.
Sampling and Non‐Sampling Error
Sampling error is an error which occurs when the sample selected does not contain the true characteristics,
qualities or figures of the whole population.
Non‐sampling error is an error that arises from human error, such as error in problem identification, method or
procedure used, etc.
There are two types of non‐sampling error:
1. Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by respondents, or their answer is
misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It consists of researcher error, respondent error and interviewer error
which are further classified as under.
Researcher Error
‐ Surrogate Error
‐ Sampling Error
‐ Measurement Error
‐ Data Analysis Error
‐ Population Definition Error
Respondent Error
‐ Inability Error
‐ Unwillingness Error
Interviewer Error
‐ Questioning Error
‐ Recording Erro
‐ Respondent Selection Error
‐ Cheating Error
2. Non‐Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a part of the sample does not respond.
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
SAMPLING ERROR NON‐SAMPLING ERROR
COMPARISON
The purpose of data editing
Clarify responses
With editing the data the researcher makes sure that all responses are now very clear to understand. Bringing clarity
is important otherwise the researcher can draw wrong inferences from the data. Sometimes the respondents make
some spelling and grammatical mistakes the editor needs to correct them. The respondents might not be able to
express their opinion in proper wording. The editor can rephrase the response, but he needs to be very careful in
doing so. Any bias can be introduced by taking the wrong meanings of the respondents point of view.
Make omissions
The editor may also need to make some omissions in the responses. By chance or by some mistake some responses
are left incomplete, the editor has to see what has been an oversight by the respondent.
It depends on the target population how well you get the questionnaires filled. An educated respondent will fill the
questionnaire in a better manner than a person who is not very educated. It also depends on how much interested
the respondent is in filling the questionnaire. Sometimes the respondents are very reluctant to fill it out. In case, you
think that your respondents are not very much interested, you should take an interview rather than submitting a
questionnaire. In the questionnaire, the respondents will leave blank spaces and you might get “noreponse”. On the
other hand, in an interview you can better assess what they want to tell and what they are trying to hide.
Avoid biased editing
The editor has a great responsibility to edit the surveyed data or other form of responses. The editor needs to be
very objective and should not try to hide or remove any information. He should not add anything in the responses
without any sound reason. He should have to be confident in making any changes or corrections in the data. In short,
he should make least changes and only logical changes. He should not add anything that shows his opinion on the
issue.
Make judgements
Sometimes the respondents leave something incomplete, to complete the sentence or a phrase the editor has to
make a judgement. He should have to have good judgement to do so. He should do it so well that his personal bias
do not involve in the responses.
Check handwriting
Handwriting issues needs also be resolved by the editor. Some people write very fast and in this way they write so
that comprehension of the text becomes difficult. In electronically sent questionnaires this problem never arises.
Logical adjustments
Logical adjustments must be made or otherwise the data will become faulty. There might be need for some logical
corrections, for example, a respondent gives these three answers to the three questions that have been asked form
him;
#1: What is your age?
Ans: 16 years
#2: What is your academic qualification?
Ans: Bachelors
#3: What academic qualifications you want to achieve in the future?
Ans: Bachelors in fine arts
Looking at the answers he has provided, he could not be 16 years of age and done with bachelors degree. By looking
at other answers he has provided you can guess his age. If he is 16 years of age then he could not be done with
bachelors and you can guess in which class he will be. In case, it is possible to contact with the respondent you can
ask him about these answers. You can make logical changes in these answers because it is clearly evident that 16‐
year boy or girl could not be in bachelors. He might got confused between the two questions and give wrong
response. Such corrections are pretty easy to make but there can be some other responses that are tricky and clearly
wrong. The editor must have knowledge how to correct the answers and what to do in such situation.
Recontact the respondent
If some information is least comprehendible and no logical meaning can be taken, interviewees can be re‐contacted
to know what they meant by that. In case, the data in the questionnaire is not correct and the editor cannot take any
meaning from it. The editor should ask the respondents, recontact with them and get their help.
Electronic editing
In recent years, most of the researchers prefer to submit electronic questionnaires wherever it is possible.
Electronically sent questionnaires are easy to edit, because in the electronic questionnaire you can set some
parameters. The computer can edit the questionnaire itself and the job of the editor becomes easy. You can avoid
inconsistencies in the electronic questionnaire. The logical errors can be completely avoided. No response answers
are few in electronic questionnaires.
The qualities of the data editor
The data editor should have three qualities; he should have to be Intelligent, objective and experienced in editing
the data. He should know that how important is the handling of data to the researcher. He should try to avoid the
slightest chances of bias, which means that he should also be honest with his work. His data editing will play a major
role on the final inferences that the researcher will draw from the data.
Tabulation of Data and Types of Tabulation
Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of the statistical data in columns or rows. It involves the orderly and
systematic presentation of numerical data in a form designed to explain the problem under consideration.
Tabulation helps in drawing the inference from the statistical figures.
Tabulation prepares the ground for analysis and interpretation. Therefore a suitable method must be decided
carefully taking into account the scope and objects of the investigation, because it is very important part of the
statistical methods.
Types of Tabulation
In general, the tabulation is classified in two parts, that is a simple tabulation, and a complex tabulation.
Simple tabulation, gives information regarding one or more independent questions. Complex tabulation gives
information regarding two mutually dependent questions.
ONE‐WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION
(Millions)
Karachi 10.875968
Hyderabad 14.186954
Sukkur 12.994401
This table gives us information regarding one characteristic information about the population in different divisions of
Sindh.
All questions that can be answered in ONE WAY TABLE are independent of each other. It is therefore an example of a
simple tabulation, since the information obtained in it is regarding one independent question, that is the number of
persons in various divisions of Sindh in millions.
Two‐Way Table
These types of table give information regarding two mutually dependent questions. For example, question is, how
many millions of the persons are in the Divisions; the One‐Way Table will give the answer. But if we want to know
that in the population number, who are in the majority, male, or female. The Two‐Way Tables will answer the
question by giving the column for female and male. Thus the table showing the real picture of divisions sex wise is as
under:
TWO‐WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION (Millions)
Male Female Total
Karachi
Hyderabad
Sukkur
Three‐Way Table
Three‐Way Table gives information regarding three mutually dependent and inter‐related questions.
For example, from one‐way table, we get information about population, and from two‐way table, we get
information about the number of male and female available in various divisions. Now we can extend the same table
to a three way table, by putting a question, “How many male and female are literate?” Thus the collected statistical
data will show the following, three mutually dependent and inter‐related questions:
1. Population in various division.
2. Their sex‐wise distribution.
3. Their position of literacy.
THREE‐WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION (Millions)
Male Female Total
Literate Illiterate Total Literate Illiterate Total Literate Illiterate Total
Karachi
Hyderabad
Sukkur
This table gives information concerning the literacy of both male and female in various divisions of Sindh. From the
table we can explain the sex which has more education in relation to division, and also, we can say whether literacy
is low in rural areas than in urban areas.
Higher Order Tables
Higher order tables are those which provide information about a large number of inter related questions. Higher
order tables may be of four‐way, five‐way, six‐way etc. Such kind of tables are called manifold tables.
Data Validation
Data validation is the process of comparing data with a set of rules to find out if data is reasonable.
There are many types of data validation such as:
‐Format check: Checks data is in the right format, e.g. date in the format dd/mm/yyyy
‐Presence check: Checks that data has been entered into a field
‐Range check: Checks that a value falls within the specified range, e.g. IB grades can only range between 0 and 7.
‐Type check: Ensures the correct data type has been entered, e.g. age should be a number.
Data Verification
Data verification is the process of checking that the data entered exactly matches the original source to find out if
data is accurate.
Data verification methods include:
‐Double entry ‐ entering data twice
‐Proofreading data ‐ someone checks the data entered against the original document
‐Echo ‐ system repeats the data being entered
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
Module IV: Field Project and Report Writing
Research Report
A research report is a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the
purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a
research project to others.
Significance of Report Writing
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written.
Even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and the most striking
findings are of little value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
Different Steps in Writing Report
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter:
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to
develop a subject:
Logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and
another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple
possible to the most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing
or making something usually follow the chronological order.
2. Preparation of the final outline:
It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long written works are
constructed. They are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in
the report.”
3. Preparation of the rough draft:
This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost
importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will
write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced
by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the
problem concerned.
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft:
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the
report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the
material, as it is presented, reaches the audience and they are able to understand it as the researcher has meant
them to. In addition he should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography:
Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally
appended to the research report, is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It
should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and
the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
6. Writing the final draft:
This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to
be most effective in communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be
an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a problem and must add to the
knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
Types of Research Report
Two types of reports:
1. Technical Report
Suitable for a target audience of researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in the
technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details etc.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in operational
terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling studies
we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
Data: Discussion of data collected their sources, characteristics and limitations. If secondary data are used, their
suitability to the problem at hand is fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected
should be fully described.
Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main
body of the report usually extending over several chapters.
Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results be
explained.
Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical
derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
2. Popular Report
Suitable for a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is non‐technical in nature.
A general outline of a popular report:
The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and
on the implications of these findings.
Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in
this section of the report.
Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along with the specific
objectives of the project under study.
Methods employed: A brief and non‐technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a
short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.
Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are presented in
clear and non‐technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like
ones.
Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the form of
appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.
Report Preparation and Presentation Process
Research Report Contents
No universally accepted standard format or style for research writing. Different researchers may prepare their
reports differently.
The research report format mainly consists of three main sections:
1. Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of
‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that
the decision‐maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
Title page: several pages of preliminary material are presented prior to the body of research report which
consists:
‐ Title of the study
‐ Name of the institution to which the report is being submitted
‐ Name of the candidate
‐ Date of submission
Preface: The preface usually includes a brief statement and scope of the report. A preface should include thanks
for those who gave researcher the guidance for study but if the researcher has little to say than he should used
“Acknowledgment” instead of “Preface”.
Table of contents: The table of contents includes the major divisions of the report
‐ The introduction
‐ The chapter with their sub‐sections
‐ The bibliography
‐ The appendix
‐ The preface or acknowledgement
‐ List of figures and list of tables are also entered in the table of contents.
2. Body of the report
1. Introduction
1.1 Statement of the problem
1.2 Analysis of previous research
1.3 Relation of present problem to theoretical position of the previous research
1.4 Significance of the problem
1.5 Limitations of the study
1.6 Assumptions under hypothesis
1.7 Statement of hypothesis
1.8 Definition of important terms
The introduction of the report should be simple, complete and concise. In introduction the researcher defines,
analyses and states the nature of the problem. He also reviews the related studies so as to lay the foundation for
research. The review of the result of the previous researcher brings out the area of agreement and disagreement
and shows how present studies arose from the previous investigation. It includes significance of the problem and
need for conducting the investigation. After reviewing the background of the problem, its scope and delimitations,
the researcher present the hypothesis and the assumptions on which the hypothesis are based. He then defines the
terms used in the study that have the special meaning and significance for the investigation.
2. Design of the study
2.1 Procedures employed
2.2 Sources of data
2.3 Data gathering instruments
2.4 Sampling and methods of data gathering
This section explains the design of the study in detail. It includes detailed description about the type of data needed
for study and tools and devices need for their collection. A researcher may present definition of the population, the
size of the samples, the method of sampling, when and where what type of data was collected. The design and
methods of conducting the experiments giving full details about the assumptions. The type of data analyses made,
the statistical methods employed and how data will be organized and presented for analysis and interpretation.
3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data
3.1 Text
3.2 Tables
3.3 Figures
This section is the heart of the report. The data analysis and interpretation may be either presented in separate
chapters or may be in one chapter. The tables and figures should be listed in such a way that they are self‐
explanatory. Tables which are lengthy should be placed in appendix. The text should not repeat all the information
given in the tables. The formulae and statistical procedure used should be clearly specified and explained in detail.
Statistical analysis may be presented in the form of ratios, proportions, percentages, variances, SD etc. Any weakness
in the research design, tools, techniques that have come to the light during conduct of study should be discussed
frankly along with the manner they have affected the findings of the study.
4. Summary and conclusions
4.1 Brief restatement of problem and procedures
4.2 Principal findings and conclusions with their practical implications
4.3 Suggestions for further research
This section includes a brief re‐statement of the problem, a description of the procedures used and discussion of
findings and conclusions of the study. The summary and conclusion section is the most widely used part of the
report as it reviews all the information that has been presented in its previous sections.
3. Reference Section
1. Bibliography
2. Appendix
3. Index
The reference section includes bibliography and appendix. – The bibliography is the record of those sources and
materials that have been used for the study. If the number is large the researcher may divide the bibliography into
various sections, one for book, one for periodical and journals etc. – An appendix follows the bibliography. All the
relevant supporting material that is important but not essential to understanding of report are presented in
appendix.
Oral Presentation: Presenting research report
At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy
recommendations are indicated by project results. The merit of this approach lies in the fact that it provides an
opportunity for give‐and‐take decisions which generally lead to a better understanding of the findings and their
implications. But the main demerit of this sort of presentation is the lack of any permanent record concerning the
research details and it may be just possible that the findings may fade away from people’s memory even before an
action is taken.
In order to overcome this difficulty, a written report may be circulated before the oral presentation and referred to
frequently during the discussion.
Oral presentation is effective when supplemented by various visual devices. Use of slides, wall charts and
blackboards is quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in reducing the boredom, if any. Distributing a board
outline, with a few important tables and charts concerning the research results, makes the listeners attentive who
have a ready outline on which to focus their thinking.
Following points should be kept in mind while preparing for Oral Presentation:
Oral Presentation should be carefully prepared keeping the audience in mind.
A good presentation does not mean a lengthy presentation.
Carefully selected visual aids such as graphs, tables, charts, maps etc. help presentation.
However, too many visual aids, particularly statistical tables, could often be boring and may not serve any
purpose.
During oral presentation, people may seek clarification.
The speaker must be patient and should not show signs of anger or frustration. He or she should be natural,
establish eye contact
Report Writing: Common Problems
Writing a report is something that many people have to do while in high school and college. It is not the easiest
assignment being handed out, and oftentimes it causes students a great deal of headache and hardship. What is it
that students find so difficult about writing a report? There are actually several things, and we are here to share a
few of those with you.
1. Forgetting the Topic
It is important to stay on topic when creating a report, but oftentimes students find this a difficult task and lose track
when they are writing. You must be able to convince the reader of your argument, which means that you need to
stay focused. Read and re‐read your report to ensure that you’ve not went off topic.
2. Formatting
If your instructor has not provided specific details concerning the formatting that should be used you are free to
choose the style that you want. But many students make the mistake of choosing something cool or stylish when the
tried and true should be used. Stick to Times New Roman, and always use 12 point font.
3. Not Understanding your Assignment
Many students are unclear of what their report should detail, so the project often fails. Rather than take this chance,
ensure that you ask plenty of questions so you know just where your attention should be focused.
4. Forgetting to Proofread
No matter how amazing of a paper that has been created, if it is filled with errors and misspellings it is not going to
impress anyone. To avoid this simply proofread your document before submission to your professor. This extra step
takes minutes of time and ensures that you have a paper ready to read.
5. Rushing
Your professor will allot plenty of time for you to complete the research paper. Make sure that you take advantage
of that time rather than wait till the last minute and try to rush. A paper that has been rushed is obvious to spot and
will result in a grade less than what you hope for.
6. Forgetting to Cite Sources
At the end of your paper should be a listing of the sources used to compile the information inside of your report.
Always use credible resources, and use the proper citation formatting. Without this list of citations your report is not
effective.
Fieldwork Process
1. Selection of Field Workers
The researcher should:
Develop job specifications for the project, taking into account the mode of data collection.
Decide what characteristics the field workers should have.
Recruit appropriate individuals.
General Qualifications of Field Workers
1. Healthy: Field workers must have the stamina required to do the job.
2. Outgoing: The interviewers should be able to establish rapport with the respondents.
3. Communicative: Effective speaking and listening skills are a great asset.
4. Pleasant appearance: If the field worker's physical appearance is unpleasant or unusual, the data collected may
be biased.
5. Educated: Interviewers must have good reading and writing skills.
6. Experienced: Experienced interviewers are likely to do a better job.
2. Training of Field Workers
Making the Initial Contact – Interviewers should be trained to make opening remarks that will convince potential
respondents that their participation is important.
Asking the Questions
‐ Be thoroughly familiar with the questionnaire.
‐ Ask the questions in the order in which they appear in the questionnaire.
‐ Use the exact wording given in the questionnaire.
‐ Read each question slowly.
‐ Repeat questions that are not understood.
‐ Ask every applicable question.
‐ Follow instructions, skip patterns, probe carefully.
Probing
Some commonly used probing techniques are:
‐ Repeating the question.
‐ Repeating the respondent's reply.
‐ Using a pause or silent probe.
‐ Boosting or reassuring the respondent.
‐ Eliciting clarification.
‐ Using objective/neutral questions or comments.
Recording the Answers
Guidelines for recording answers to unstructured questions:
‐ Record responses during the interview.
‐ Use the respondent's own words.
‐ Do not summarize or paraphrase the respondent's answers.
‐ Include everything that pertains to the question objectives.
‐ Include all probes and comments.
‐ Repeat the response as it is written down.
Terminating the Interview – The respondent should be left with a positive feeling about the interview.
3. Supervision of Field Workers
Supervision of field workers means making sure that they are following the procedures and techniques in which they
were trained. Supervision involves quality control and editing, sampling control, control of cheating, and central
office control.
4. Validation of Fieldwork
The supervisors call 10 ‐ 25% of the respondents to inquire whether the field workers actually conducted the
interviews.
The supervisors ask about the length and quality of the interview, reaction to the interviewer, and basic
demographic data.
The demographic information is cross‐checked against the information reported by the interviewers on the
questionnaires.
5. Evaluation of Field Workers
Cost and Time: The interviewers can be compared in terms of the total cost (salary and expenses) per completed
interview.
Response Rates: It is important to monitor response rates on a timely basis so that corrective action can be
taken if these rates are too low.
Quality of Interviewing: To evaluate interviewers on the quality of interviewing, the supervisor must directly
observe the interviewing process.
Quality of Data: The completed questionnaires of each interviewer should be evaluated for the quality of data.