Methods For Accelerating Consolidation Settlements

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Methods for Accelerating

Consolidation Settlements
Methods for accelerating consolidation settlements
In instances when it appears that too much

consolidation settlement is likely to occur due to
construction of structures, it may be desirable to
apply some surcharge loading before construction.
This technique is called as ‘Preloading’ or

‘Precompression’ and has been used in many
construction projects.
Preloading
 Placement of a surcharge fill on top of the soil that
requires consolidation
 Once sufficient consolidation has taken place, the
fill can be removed and construction takes place
 Surcharge fills are typically 3 – 8 m height and
generally produces settlement of 0.3 – 1 m.
 Most effective in clay soil
Preloading
Load
σs ?
 To determine the intensity
tpreloading or tsurcharge ?
magnitude of surcharge
pressure required to
ensure that the total
anticipated settlement σf + σs
under permanent load σf
will be completed in a Time
given length of time.
 To determine the length
of time required to Permanent
Settlement
achieve a given amount load only

of settlement under a Sc(f)
given surcharge load. Sc(f + s)
Permanent load + Surcharge
Preloading
 Let us consider the case where a given construction
will require a permanent uniform loading of intensity σf .
 Total primary consolidation settlement due to
permanent loading is estimated to be equal to Sc(f) .
 In order to eliminate the expected settlement due to
primary consolidation, a total load intensity σ = σf + σs
will have to be applied.
 This additional load intensity σs will accelerate rate of
settlement; when a total settlement of S c(f) has been
reached, the surcharge can be removed.
Preloading
Variation of degree of
consolidation
• The degree of consolidation Uz
will vary with depth and will
be minimum at mid-plane, i.e.,
at z = H.
 If the average degree of
consolidation Uav is used as the
criterion for surcharge load
removal, then after removal of the
surcharge, the clay close to the
mid-plane will continue to settle,
and the clay close to the pervious
layer(s) will tend to swell. ⇒This will result in net consolidation settlement.
Preloading
According to Johnson (1970), it is preferable to use the
mid-plane degree of consolidation Uz = H
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Preloading
 So the time for

surcharge load
removal, t, is
Preloading
 The values of U f+s for several Uf+s

Note: Uf+s = Uz
combinations of σf /σ′ 0 and σs /σf
at mid-depth
are given by Uf+s vs. σs/σf
σf /σ′0
σs/σf
Example:
During the construction of a highway bridge, it is
expected that the average permanent load on the clay
layer will increase by about 115 kPa; The average σ′ at
the mid-depth of the clay layer is 210 kPa.
Given Ht = 6 m; Double drainage; C c = 0.28; e 0 = 0.9; C v

= 0.36 m2/month; The clay is NC.
a) Determine the total consolidation settlement of the

bridge without precompression
b) Determine the surcharge intensity σs needed to
eliminate the entire primary consolidation settlement
by precompression within 9 months.
Solution
b) Tv= ts cv / (Hdr ) = 9 (0.36)/ (6/2)2= 0.36

2
For Tv = 0.36 using U f+s vs Tv plot, we get Uf+s = 47%

For σf /σ′0 = 115/210 = 0.548 and Uf+s = 47%, σ s /σ f = 1.8
⇒σ s= 1.8 x 115 = 207 kPa;
Total fill intensity = 207 + 115 = 322 kPa
⇒ Total fill height during preloading period
= 322/20 = 16m (Stability issues? Base failure?)
Advantages of preloading
Disadvantages
of preloading
Radial consolidation through vertical drains
 In order to accelerate the process of consolidation settlement
for the construction of some structures, the useful technique
of building vertical drains (Sand/Wick/PV) can be used.
 Thick layers of clay sediments take a long time for
completion of consolidation
 By inserting vertical drains at fairly close spacings induce

much shorter horizontal paths and in turn they enable faster
dissipation of excess PWP and accelerated consolidation
settlements.
Vertical drains
• Vertical drains are installed under a surcharge load to
accelerate the drainage of impervious soils and thus
speed up consolidation
• These drains provide a shorter path for the water to

flow through to get away from the soil
• Time to drain clay layers can be reduced from years

to a couple of months
Preloading along with vertical drains
Load intensity
o Vertical drains accelerate settlements;
but do not reduce final settlements.
f + s f
Time
Settlement
Permanent load only
Sc(f)
Sc(f + s)
Permanent load +Surcharge + Vertical drains
Different layouts of vertical drains
s/3
s
re
re
Ss
s
s s
s2 = re2  3  s 
2
re2 = 6
4   3 
re = 0.564 s; de = 1.13 s
re = 0.525s; de = 1.05s
Radial and Vertical consolidation
Governing differential
equation for both vertical
and radial consolidation
z
u = excess PWP
r = radial distance measured from
centre of the drain well
Cr = Coefficient of Consolidation in
r radial direction
Radial consolidation
 In order to accelerate the process of consolidation
settlement for the construction of some structures, the
useful technique of building vertical drains can be used
 When a surcharge is applied at ground surface, the

pore water pressure in the clay will increase, and there
will be drainage in the vertical and horizontal
directions
 The horizontal drainage is induced by the vertical

drains. Hence the process of dissipation of excess
pore water pressure created by the loading (and
hence the settlement) is accelerated.
Radial consolidation (Smear effect)
 A smear zone in a sand/PV drain is created by the
remolding of clay during the drilling operation for
building it. This remolding of the clay results in a
decrease of the coefficient of permeability in the
horizontal direction.
 The smear zone, which is reported to have a hydraulic
conductivity lower than that of undisturbed soil away
from the PVD installation zone, impedes the horizontal
consolidation of soft clays.
Radial consolidation (Smear effect)
So the smear zone alters typically initial hydraulic
conductivity of clays. The reduction of the rate of
consolidation in the radial direction at the smear zone is
defined as the smear effect.
The smear effect, which is expected to be dictated by a

number of factors such as:
(i) the sensitivity of soil,

(ii) installation process, and
(iii) the size and shape of the mandrel, are not fully
comprehended, particularly the extent of the smear
zone and its hydraulic conductivity.
Radial consolidation (Smear and Transition zones)
The disturbed zone around the (After Basu and Prezzi, 2007)
PVD consists of basically two
zones: the smear zone and the
transition zone.
The smear zone is the
completely remoulded zone of
soil immediately adjacent to
the drain.
kho = k in
The transition zone is the zone undisturbed zone
in which there is a gradual khs = k in smear zone
transition of soil properties,
with the degree of disturbance
decreasing with increasing
distance from the drain. Hexagonal unit cell with
rectangular disturbed zone
 The theories for free-strain and equal-strain
consolidation are presented herewith by assuming that
drainage takes place only in the radial direction, i.e.,
no dissipation of excess pore water pressure in the
vertical direction.
Free-strain consolidation with no smear
For triangular spacing of the sand drains, the zone of influence
of each drain is hexagonal in plan. This hexagon can be
approximated as an equivalent circle of diameter de.
re = radius of the equivalent circle = de/2; rw = radius of the sand drain well;
rs = radial distance from the center-line of the drain well to the farthest point
of the smear zone. For no-smear case, rw = rs.
The basic differential equation for radial drainage, this
equation can be written as:
Where,
For solution, the following boundary conditions are

adopted:
The solution for excess pore water pressure at any time t and
radial distance r is given by:
The average pore water pressure uav throughout the soil
mass may now be obtained as:
 The average degree of consolidation Ur can be determined as

Variation of Ur with the time factor Tr
n = re /rw
Equal-strain consolidation with no smear
The excess pore water pressure at any time t and radial
distance r is given by:
The average degree of consolidation due to radial

drainage is:
 For re / rw > 5 the free-strain and equal-strain solutions give

approximately the same results for the average degree of consolidation.
Effect of smear zone on radial consolidation
 Barron also extended the analysis of equal-strain
consolidation by sand drains to account for the smear
zone.
 The analysis is based on the assumption that the clay in

the smear zone will have one boundary with zero excess
pore water pressure and the other boundary with an
excess pore water pressure that will be time dependent.
Using the above assumption, we obtain:
Where ks = Coefficient of permeability in the smeared zone
= Smearing Ratio Note: S = 1  No smear
Where n = re/rw
The average degree of consolidation is given by:

Radial and Vertical consolidation
 In reality, the drainage for the dissipation of excess

pore water pressure takes place in both directions
simultaneously.
For such a case, Carrillo has proposed:
U = average degree of consolidation for simultaneous

vertical and radial drainage
Uv = average degree of consolidation calculated on the
assumption that only vertical drainage exists
Ur = average degree of consolidation calculated on the
assumption that only radial drainage exists
Design of preloading with sand drains (or PV drains)
 To determine the Load intensity
surcharge intensity s t2
that needs to be
applied at the ground
surface and length of
f + s f
time that it has to be Time
maintained.
Settlement
Permanent load only
Sc(f)
Sc(f + s)
Permanent load +Surcharge + Vertical drains
Average degree of consolidation both in vertical

and radial directions:
We need to determine Uv,r

First Ur:
n = de/(2rw) = de/dw
de = 1.13 s (square grid)
= 1.05 s (triangular grid)
Equivalent diameter of drain in PV drain
The conventional theory of consolidation with vertical drains
assumes that the vertical drains are circular in cross-section.
Therefore, a band-shaped drain needs to be converted to an
equivalent circular diameter, which implies that the equivalent
diameter of a circular drain has the same theoretical radial
drainage capacity as the band-shaped drain.
Hansbo (1981) Rixner et al. 1986
In the case of PVDs, dw can be assumed as a f (drain

geometry & configuration)
After Hansbo (1979)
a = Width of a band-shaped drain cross-section

b = Thickness of a band-shaped drain cross-section
The above equation was found to be generally valid when
the portion of the perimeter area of the band-shaped drain
(not obstructed by the drain core) exceeds approximately
10 – 20% of total perimeter.  For most PV drains, this
condition is easily met.
Now, average degree of consolidation due to vertical

direction only,
For t, determine Tv using Tv = t cv/(Hdr2)

And then determine Uv using Tv = /4 (Uv/100)2 for U ≤ 60%
Tv = 1.781 -0.933 log(100-U%) for U > 60%
Degree of consolidation both in vertical and radial

drainage is given by:
Preloading with Vertical drains
 The values of Uv,r for several Uv,r
combinations of f /0 and s /f Note: Uf+s = Uv,r
are given by Uv,r vs s/f
f/0
s/f
Problem
This is in continuation of design problem solved with

preloading only (time = 9 months)
Assume rw = 0.1 m; de = 3 m; cv = ch = cv,r = 0.36m2/year (No smear)
From the given data, average degree of consolidation in the
vertical direction Uv = 67% for Tv = 0.36
n = de/(2rw) = 3 /(2x0.1) = 15 Using the following, we get
Ur = 77%
Degree of consolidation both in vertical and radial
drainage is given by:
U = 92.4%
With f/0 = 115/210 = 0.548 and U = 92.4%
s/f = 0.125
Hence s = 0.125 x 115 = 14 kPa (very nominal

preloading is required with sand drains; In contrast, only
preloading requires a surcharge of 207 kPa.
Problem
An oil tank is to be sited on a soft alluvial deposit of clay.
Below the soft clay is a thick layer of stiff clay. It was decided
that a circular embankment with sand drains inserted into the
clay would be constructed to pre-consolidate the soil. The
height of the embankment is 6 m and the saturated unit
weight of the soil comprising embankment is 18 kN/m3 .
The following data are available: Thickness of clay = 7 m; m v
= 0.2 m2/MN; c v = 3.5 m2/year; c h = 6.2 m2 /year; d w =
diameter of sand drain = 0.3 m; The desired degree of
consolidation is 90% in 6 months.
Determine the spacing of a square grid of the sand drains
such that when the tank is constructed the maximum primary
consolidation settlement should not exceed 20 mm.
Solution:
 c = mvH (∆σ)
= 0.2 x10-3 x 7 x (18 x6)
= 151.2 x 10-3 m = 151.2 mm
By substituting U = Uv,r = 90% and Uv= 19%; U r

can be calculated using:
Ur = 88% n = de /(2rw) = de/dw = re /rw

Solution
n = re /rw
Try n = 5
Tr = 34.4/5 2
= 1.376
Ur = 100% > 88%
Try n = 10 s = re/(0.56) = n rw/(0.56) re = 0.564 s
n = re /rw
Tr = 34.4/10 2 = 10 (0.3/2)/(0.56)
= 0.3444 = 2.67 m
Ur = 85% < 88% ⇒ Adopt 300 mm dia. Vertical drain
Hence OK. at 2.7 m c/c
Problem
A road embankment is constructed on top of a 9.2m

thick layer of clay, sandwiched between silty sand at
the top, and dense sand at the bottom. The required
degree of consolidation before the embankment
construction is 90%, within 9 months.
For this purpose, sand drains of 450mm diameter, need

to be installed in a square arrangement. Estimate the
spacing of the drain. From laboratory tests, assume
that ch = 0.288 m 2/month and cv = 0.187 m 2 /month
Typical details of PVD
 Rectangular c/s consisting of a
synthetic geotextile jacket
surrounding a plastic core and
are made with non-woven
PET/PP geotextiles.
Functions of drain jacket:
• Prevents closure of internal drain
flow under lateral soil pressure
To form a surface which allows natural soil filter to develop to
•
inhibit movement of soil particles into the drain.
Functions of drain core:
• To support the filter fabric
• To provide longitudinal flow paths along the drain length
• To provide resistance to longitudinal stretching as well as
buckling of drain
PVD installation procedure steps
Drain with and without smear zone
Time required for radial consolidation for PV drains
(Modified by Hansbo, 1981)
Hansbo (1981) modified by including disturbance
effect and drain resistance factor t = time required to
achieve Uh
F(n) = n2/(n 2-1) ln n – (3n 2 -1)/4n 2 ⇒ For n >20; 1/n2≈ 0

and n2/(n 2-1) = 1
= ln (n) – 3/4
Fs= Factor for soil disturbance = [(kh/ks )-1] ln (ds/dw )
Fr= Factor for drain resistance = πz (L-z) (kh /qw )
Z = Distance below the top surface of the compressible soil layer;
L = Effective Drain length (H for 1 way drainage; H/2 for 2 way drainage;
H = thickness of clay)
Problem
PVDs were installed in a compressible clay layer of 10

m thickness in a square pattern with a spacing of 2 m.
The PVD used is 100 mm wide and 4 mm thick. The
coefficients of consolidation clay in the vertical and
horizontal directions is 2 m2 /year and 3 m2 /year. The
boundary below the clay was impervious. Calculate
the degree of consolidation achieved in one year
time.
Solution
de= 1.128S = 1.128 x 2 = 2.256 m = 2256 mm
dw = 2(a+b)/π = 2(100+4)/3.1415 = 66 mm
F(n) = ln(n) – 0.75 = ln (2256/66) -0.75 = 2.78
Tr= Time factor due to radial drainage = t c h /de2 = 1 x 3/(2.256)2

= 0.589
Degree of consolidation due to radial drainage: 1 – e [-8*0.589/2.78] = 82%
Time factor due to vertical drainage Tv = 2 x1/102= 0.02
Degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage: Uv = 16%

Uv,r = 85%
Problem
In the previous problem, assume that smearing ratio is
3 and the coefficient of consolidation of smeared soil
is 1.5 m2/year. Calculate the degree of consolidation
achieved in one years time.
Solution:
Degree of consolidation due to radial drainage: 1 – e [-8*0.589/3.88]

= 70%
Uv,r = 70%
Comparing the answers, it can be seen that the degree of
consolidation Uv,r has reduced due to smear effect.
Vacuum consolidation:
Schematic illustration of PWP distributions with depth under both combined

surcharge and vacuum load

Methods For Accelerating Consolidation Settlements

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Methods For Accelerating Consolidation Settlements

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ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS

Methods for Accelerating

In instances when it appears that too much

This technique is called as ‘Preloading’ or

achieve a given amount load only

 So the time for

 The values of U f+s for several Uf+s

Given Ht = 6 m; Double drainage; C c = 0.28; e 0 = 0.9; C v

a) Determine the total consolidation settlement of the

b) Tv= ts cv / (Hdr ) = 9 (0.36)/ (6/2)2= 0.36

For Tv = 0.36 using U f+s vs Tv plot, we get Uf+s = 47%

 By inserting vertical drains at fairly close spacings induce

• These drains provide a shorter path for the water to

• Time to drain clay layers can be reduced from years

Permanent load only

 When a surcharge is applied at ground surface, the

 The horizontal drainage is induced by the vertical

The smear effect, which is expected to be dictated by a

(i) the sensitivity of soil,

For solution, the following boundary conditions are

 The average degree of consolidation Ur can be determined as

The average degree of consolidation due to radial

 For re / rw > 5 the free-strain and equal-strain solutions give

 The analysis is based on the assumption that the clay in

Where ks = Coefficient of permeability in the smeared zone

= Smearing Ratio Note: S = 1  No smear

The average degree of consolidation is given by:

 In reality, the drainage for the dissipation of excess

U = average degree of consolidation for simultaneous

Permanent load only

Average degree of consolidation both in vertical

We need to determine Uv,r

In the case of PVDs, dw can be assumed as a f (drain

After Hansbo (1979)

a = Width of a band-shaped drain cross-section

Now, average degree of consolidation due to vertical

For t, determine Tv using Tv = t cv/(Hdr2)

Degree of consolidation both in vertical and radial

This is in continuation of design problem solved with

Hence s = 0.125 x 115 = 14 kPa (very nominal

By substituting U = Uv,r = 90% and Uv= 19%; U r

Ur = 88% n = de /(2rw) = de/dw = re /rw

A road embankment is constructed on top of a 9.2m

For this purpose, sand drains of 450mm diameter, need

F(n) = n2/(n 2-1) ln n – (3n 2 -1)/4n 2 ⇒ For n >20; 1/n2≈ 0

PVDs were installed in a compressible clay layer of 10

F(n) = ln(n) – 0.75 = ln (2256/66) -0.75 = 2.78

Tr= Time factor due to radial drainage = t c h /de2 = 1 x 3/(2.256)2

Time factor due to vertical drainage Tv = 2 x1/102= 0.02

Degree of consolidation due to vertical drainage: Uv = 16%

Degree of consolidation due to radial drainage: 1 – e [-8*0.589/3.88]

Schematic illustration of PWP distributions with depth under both combined

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