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JNTU – KAKINADA
UNIT – I
SIMPLE STRESSES & STRAINS :
Elasticity and plasticity – Types of stresses & strains–Hooke’s law –
Stress – strain diagram for mild steel – Working stress – Factor of safety
– Lateral strain, Poisson’s ratio & Volumetric strain – Bars of varying
section – Composite bars – Temperature stresses- Complex Stresses -
Stresses on an inclined plane under different uniaxial and biaxial stress
conditions - Principal planes and principal stresses - Mohr’s circle -
Relation between elastic constants, Strain energy – Resilience – Gradual,
sudden, impact and shock loadings.
UNIT – II
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT :
Definition of beam – Types of beams – Concept of shear force and
bending moment – S.F and B.M diagrams for cantilever, simply supported
and overhanging beams subjected to point loads, U.D.L, uniformly varying
loads and combination of these loads – Point of contra flexure – Relation
between S.F, B.M and rate of loading at a section of a beam.
UNIT – III
FLEXURAL STRESSES :
Theory of simple bending – Assumptions – Derivation of bending
equation: M/ I = f/y = E/R, Neutral axis – Determination of bending
stresses – Section modulus of rectangular and circular sections (Solid and
Hollow), I,T, Angle and Channel sections – Design of simple beam sections.
SHEAR STRESSES:
Derivation of formula – Shear stress distribution across various
beams sections like rectangular, circular, triangular, I, T, angle sections.
UNIT – IV
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS :
Bending into a circular arc – Slope, deflection and radius of curvature
– Differential equation for the elastic line of a beam – Double integration
and Macaulay’s methods – Determination of slope and deflection for
cantilever and simply supported beams subjected to point loads, U.D.L,
,uniformly varying load. Mohr’s theorems – Moment area method –
Application to simple cases including overhanging beams, Statically
Indeterminate Beams and solution methods.
UNIT – V
THIN CYLINDERS:
Thin seamless cylindrical shells – Derivation of formula for
longitudinal and circumferential stresses – Hoop, longitudinal and
Volumetric strains – Changes in diameter and volume of thin cylinders –
Riveted boiler shells – Thin spherical shells.
THICK CYLINDERS:
Lame’s equation – Cylinders subjected to inside & outside pressures
–Compound cylinders.
UNIT –VI
TORSION:
Introduction - Derivation - Torsion of Circular shafts - Pure Shear -
Transmission of power by circular shafts, Shafts in series, Shafts in
parallel.
COLUMNS:
Buckling and Stability, Columns with Pinned ends, Columns with
other support Conditions, Limitations of Euler’s Formula, Rankine’s
Formula.
CONTENTS
Chapter - 1
Stress, Strain and Deformation of Solids
1.1 Introduction to Strength of Materials ................................ 1.1

1.2 Rigid and Deformable Bodies............................................ 1.1
1.3 Strength................................................................................. 1.2
1.4 Unit of Stress....................................................................... 1.3
1.5 Strain ..................................................................................... 1.4
1.6 Types of Stress .................................................................... 1.5
1.7 Normal Stress: Axially Loaded Bar .................................. 1.5
1.8 Tensile Stress and Tensile Strain....................................... 1.6
1.9 Compressive Stress and Compressive Strain .................... 1.7
1.10 Shear Stress and Shear Strain ............................................ 1.8
1.11 Bearing Stress (Crushing Stress) in Connections............. 1.10
1.12 Stress-strain Behaviour of Materials.................................. 1.10
1.12.1 Stress Strain Curves (Tension)............................... 1.11
1.12.2 Stress - Strain Curve for Ductile Materials......... 1.11
1.12.3 Stress Strain Curves for Brittle Materials ............ 1.14
1.13 Stress Strain Curves (Compression) .................................. 1.14
1.14 Hooke’s Law........................................................................ 1.15
1.14.1 Factor of Safety ....................................................... 1.15
1.15 Deformation of A Body Due to Force Acting on it ...... 1.16
1.16 Stiffness ................................................................................ 1.17
1.16.1 Stability ..................................................................... 1.18
Solved Problems 1.20
1.17 Deformation of A Bar Under Axial Load........................ 1.32
1.17.1 Deformation in Simple Bar Subjected to Axial Load 1.34
1.18 Deformation for A Bar of Varying Section ..................... 1.35
1.19 Deformation of A Body Due to Self Weight ................. 1.50
1.20 Principle of Superposition.................................................. 1.53
1.21 Stress in Bars of Uniformly Tapering Cross Section..... 1.60
1.22 Deformation of Uniformly Tapering Rectangular Bar.... 1.63
1.23 Deformation in Compound or Composite Bars............... 1.66
1.24 Bar of Uniform Strength.................................................... 1.84
1.25 Thermal Stresses ................................................................. 1.86
1.25.1 Thermal Stresses in Simple Bars .......................... 1.86
1.25.2 Thermal Stresses in Composite Bars .................... 1.91
1.25.3 Thermal Stress in Taper Bar - Circular Section 1.96
1.25.4 Thermal Stress in Varying Section Bar ............... 1.98
1.26 Elastic Constants ................................................................. 1.105
1.26.1 Modulus of Elasticity.............................................. 1.105
1.26.2 Rigidity Modulus (or) Shear Modulus.................. 1.105
1.26.3 Bulk Modulus 1.105
1.26.4 Linear Strain and Lateral Strain .......................... 1.105
1.27 Poisson’s Ratio.................................................................... 1.106
1.28 Volumetric Strain ................................................................ 1.108
1.28.1 Rectangular Body Subjected to Axial Loading.... 1.109
1.29 Rectangular Bar Subjected to 3 Mutually Perpendicular Forces1.112
1.30 Cylindrical Rod Subjected to Axial Load ....................... 1.113
1.31 Bulk Modulus...................................................................... 1.115
1.32 Relationship Between Elastic Constants........................... 1.115
1.32.1 Relation Between Bulk Modulus and Young’s
Modulus.................................................................... 1.115
1.32.2 Shear Stress and Strain ......................................... 1.117
1.32.3 Shear Modulus Or Modulus of Rigidity............... 1.117
1.32.4 Relation Between Modulus of Elasticity and
Modulus of Rigidity ............................................................ 1.118
Solved Problems ................................................................ 1.119-1.125
Chapter – 2
Beams - Loads and Stresses

2.1 Introduction........................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Types of Beams................................................................... 2.1
2.3 Supports and Support Reactions ........................................ 2.4
2.4 Types of Supports and Their Reactions ........................... 2.5
2.5 Static Equilibrium Equations .............................................. 2.8
2.6 Determinate and Indeterminate Beams .............................. 2.9
2.7 Types of Loading in Beams............................................... 2.9
2.8 Shear Force in Beams (S.F)............................................... 2.12
2.9 Sign Convention for Shear Force in Beam...................... 2.13
2.10 Couple or Moment .............................................................. 2.14
2.11 Bending Moment in Beams .............................................. 2.14
2.12 Sign Convention for Bending Moment in Beams ........... 2.15
2.13 Shear Force (S.F) and Bending Moment (B.M) Diagrams 2.16
2.12 Relation between Shear Force and Bending moment ..... 2.17
2.13 Method of Drawing Shear Force and Bending Moment
Diagrams............................................................................... 2.18
2.14 Points to be Remembered for Drawing S.F.D and B.M.D 2.19
2.15 SFD and BMD for Cantilever Beam ................................ 2.20
2.16 SFD and BMD for Simply Supported Beams ................. 2.24
2.17 SFD and BMD for Overhanging Beam............................ 2.31
Solved Problems on Cantilever beams ............................ 2.36-2.47
Solved Problems on SSB ................................................... 2.48-2.87
Solved Problems on Overhanging Beam ......................... 2.88-2.135
2.18 Stresses in Beams - Theory of Simple Bending ............. 2.136
2.19 Simple Bending or Pure Bending...................................... 2.136
2.20 Assumption in Theory of Simple Bending....................... 2.136
2.21 Section Modulus or Modulus of Section.......................... 2.140
2.22 Flexural Strength of a Section ........................................... 2.141
Solved Problems.................................................................. 2.141-2.159
2.23 Beam of Uniform Strength ................................................ 2.159
2.24 Composite Section Beams (or) Flitched Beams.............. 2.161
2.25 Shear Stresses in Beams .................................................... 2.164
2.26 Shear Stress Distribution for a Rectangular Section ...... 2.165
2.27 Shear Stress Distribution over I - Section....................... 2.167
2.28 Shear Stress Distribution over T  Section ...................... 2.174
2.29 Shear Str ess Distr ibution over Cir cular Section .............. 2.176
2.30 Shear Str ess Distr ibution over Tr iangular Section .......... 2.179
2.31 Shear Flow .......................................................................... 2.188
Solved Problems.................................................................. 2.189-2.204
Chapter 3
Torsion
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Pure Torsion ........................................................................ 3.1
3.2.1 Assumptions Made in Theory of Pure Torsion ..... 3.1
3.3 Shear Stress - (Resistance Concept) ................................. 3.2
3.4 Shear Strain - (Deformation Concept).............................. 3.2
3.5 Analysis of Torsion of Circular Bars-derivation of
Torsional Equations ............................................................ 3.2
3.5.1 Theory of Torsion ..................................................... 3.2
3.6 Bar of Solid Section .......................................................... 3.4
3.7 Polar Modulus Zp............................................................. 3.6
3.8 Bars of Hollow Circular Section-strength Equation for
Hollow Circular Shaft ........................................................ 3.6
3.9 Torsional Rigidity and Stiffness of the Shaft ................. 3.8
3.10 Power Transmitted by the Shaft ....................................... 3.8
3.11 Important Formula .............................................................. 3.9
3.12 Solved Problems ................................................................. 3.11
3.13 Problems on Replacing a Solid Shaft by a Hollow Shaft 3.39
3.13 Stepped Shafts (or) Shafts in Series ................................. 3.53
3.13.1 Shafts Fixed at one end.......................................... 3.53
3.13.2 Shafts Fixed at both the ends ................................ 3.54
3.14 Compound Circular Shafts.................................................. 3.56
3.14.1 Shafts in Series ........................................................ 3.56
3.14.2 Shafts in Parallel..................................................... 3.57
3.15 Shaft Subjected to Number of Torques ............................ 3.58
3.16 Problems based on special conditons of shaft 3.63
3.17 SPRINGS ............................................................................. 3.84
3.17.1. Introduction ............................................................. 3.84
3.17.2 Types of Springs ...................................................... 3.84
3.17.2.1 Bending Spring...................................................... 3.84
3.17.2.2 Torsion Spring ...................................................... 3.84
3.17.3 Different Forms of Springs..................................... 3.85
3.18 Helical Spring ...................................................................... 3.85
3.18.1 Closely Coiled Helical Springs .............................. 3.85
3.18.2 Open Coiled Helical Springs ................................. 3.85
3.19 Compression Springs (or) Open Coiled Spring ............... 3.85
3.20 Tension Springs (or) Closely Coiled Helical Spring....... 3.85
3.21 Comparison Between Closely Coiled and Open Coiled
Helical Springs..................................................................... 3.86
3.22 Closely Coiled Helical Spring Subjected to an Axial Load 3.86
3.23 Shear Stress .................................................................... 3.87
3.24 Deflection,  ...................................................................... 3.87
3.25 Stiffness of the Spring: k................................................. 3.88
3.26 Strain Energy Stored U.................................................... 3.88
3.28 Close Coiled Helical Spring Subjected to Axial
Twisting Couple................................................................... 3.89
3.29 Maximum Bending Stress, b .........................................
3.89
3.30 Spring Under Impact Load................................................. 3.90
3.31 Springs in Series................................................................. 3.91
3.32 Springs in Parallel .............................................................. 3.91
3.33 Open - Coiled Helical Spring ........................................... 3.92
3.34 Spring Index C................................................................. 3.94
3.35 Angular Rotation in Open Coil Helical Spring .............. 3.94
3.36 Open - Coil Spring Subjected to Axial Twisting Couple Mo 3.94
3.37 Axial Deflection .................................................................. 3.95

3.38 Maximum Shear Stress in Spring Section Including Wahl’s
Factor ................................................................................... 3.96
3.39 Stresses in Spring Wire [Without Wahl’s Factor] .......... 3.98
3.40 Stresses in Helical Coil Spring Under Torsional Load.. 3.99
3.41 Design of Helical Coil Springs ....................................... 3.100
Solved Problems.................................................................. 3.101-3.143
3.42 Leaf Springs ...................................................................... 3.144
3.42.1 Expression for bending stress, deflection,
Strain energy in a Semi- Elliptical Leaf Spring ............. 3.145
3.43 Quarter Elliptical Leaf Spring ........................................... 3.155
Solved Problems ................................................................ 3.156-3.158
Chapter – 4
Beam Deflection
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 4.1

4.2 Definition of Deflection ..................................................... 4.1
4.2.1 Importance of deflection........................................... 4.1
4.3 Elastic Curve of Neutral Axis of the Beam Under
Normal Loads 4.2
4.4 Evaluation of Beam Deflection and Slope ...................... 4.2
4.4.1 Flexural rigidity ........................................................ 4.4
4.4.2 Stiffness of beam ....................................................... 4.4
4.5 Double Integration Method ................................................ 4.5
4.5.1 Simply supported beam with a concentrated load at
the mid span. ....................................................................... 4.6
4.5.1.1 Standard Formula for maximum slope and
deflection ............................................................................. 4.9
4.5.2 Simply supported beam carrying a UDL (Uniformly
Distributed Load)................................................................. 4.13
4.6 Macaulay’s Method ............................................................. 4.18
4.6.1 Problems on SSB - Point load ................................ 4.18
4.6.2 Problems on SSB - Uniformly Distributed Load
(UDL).................................................................................... 4.41
4.6.3 Problems on SSB - Uniformly Varying Load (UVL) 4.55
4.6.4 Problems on Cantilever............................................. 4.57
4.6.5 Problems on overhanging beam............................... 4.68
4.7 Moment Area Method ....................................................... 4.77
4.7.1 First moment - area theorem (or) Mohr’s I
theorem ................................................................................. 4.77
Second moment - area theorem (or) Mohr’s II theorem 4.78
4.7.2 Use of cantilever moment diagrams in moment area
method................................................................................... 4.78
4.7.3 Second moment - area theorem (or) Mohr’s II
theorem ................................................................................. 4.80
M
4.7.4 diagram by parts .................................................
EI 4.82
Areas and centroids of various shapes............................. 4.83
4.8 Problems on Moment area method ............................ 4.84
4.9 Conjugate Beam Method .................................................... 4.110
Conjugate beam theorem I (Mohr’s theorem I) ............. 4.110
Conjugate beam theorem II (Mohr’s theorem II)............ 4.110
4.9.1 Simply supported beam with point load W acting
at Centre............................................................................... 4.119
4.9.2. Simply supported Beam with UDL ......................... 4.121
Solved Problems................................................................... 4.121-4.125
Chapter 5
Strain Energy and Energy Principles
5.1 Strain Energy....................................................................... 5.1

Some Important Definitions ............................................... 5.1
5.1.1 Strain Energy Density
 ............................................. 5.3
5.1.2 Unit Strain Energy U ............................................... 5.5
5.1.3 Strain Energy in Uniaxial Loading ........................ 5.5
5.1.4 Expression for strain energy stored in a body when
load is applied gradually................................................... 5.6
5.1.5 Expression for strain energy stored in a body when
the load is applied suddenly ............................................. 5.7
5.1.6 Expression for strain energy stored in body for
impact loading..................................................................... 5.9
5.1.7 Strain energy stored in varying section bar.......... 5.10
5.1.8 Impact by shock ........................................................ 5.10
Solved Problems.................................................................. 5.10
5.2 Strain Energy in Pure Shearing ........................................ 5.33
5.2.1 Expression for strain energy stored in a body due
to shear stress ................................................................... 5.33
5.3 Torsional Strain Energy ..................................................... 5.35
5.3.1 Torsional strain energy in a solid circular shaft . 5.35
5.3.2 Torsional strain energy in a hollow circular shaft 5.36
5.4 Strain Energy due to Bending .......................................... 5.43
5.4.1 General formula for the strain energy of a beam
due to bending under gradually applied loads............... 5.43
5.4.2 Strain energy of a SSB with a concentrated load
at the mid-span ................................................................... 5.43
5.4.3 Strain energy of a SSB with uniformly distributed
load ..................................................................................... 5.44
5.4.4 Strain energy of a cantilever with a concentrated
load at the free end ......................................................... 5.45
5.4.5 Strain energy of a cantilever with UDL .............. 5.45
5.4.6 Bending Under Impact Loads .................................. 5.53
5.4.7 Deflection due to shear using strain energy method 5.55
I. Cantilever carrying a concentrated point load W at
the free end .......................................................................... 5.56
II. Cantilever carrying an UDL......................................... 5.57
III. SSB carrying a central point load W ........................ 5.57
IV. SSB carrying with load - not at the centre .............. 5.58
V. SSB Carrying UDL ........................................................ 5.59
5.5 Castigliano’s Theorem......................................................... 5.60
Castigliano’s theorem - Salient Points ............................. 5.62
(i) Deflection due to axial load: ....................................... 5.62
(ii) Deflection due to bending: .......................................... 5.62
(iii) Deflection due to torsion ............................................ 5.63
(iv) Deflection due to shear ............................................... 5.63
(v) Deflection due to horizontal shear.............................. 5.63
(vi) Rotation due to bending.............................................. 5.63
(vii) Rotation due to torsion .............................................. 5.63
5.6 Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem.......................................... 5.79
Chapter - 6
Principal Stresses and Theories of Failures
Introduction .......................................................................... 6.1

6.1 Analysis of Plane Stresses.................................................. 6.1
6.1.1 Stress on an inclined plane...................................... 6.1
Normal stress ....................................................................... 6.2
Tangential stress .................................................................. 6.2
Shear stress 6.3
Solved Problems 6.3
6.1.2 Biaxial state of stress - Member subjected to
biaxial stress ....................................................................... 6.6
Solved Problems 6.9
6.1.3 A member subjected to a simple shear stress........ 6.15
6.1.4 Member subjected to a simple shear and a biaxial
stress ................................................................................... 6.16
6.1.5 A member subjected to direct stress in one plane
and a simple shear stress.................................................. 6.35
6.2 Mohr’s Circle for Biaxial Stresses ................................... 6.40
6.2.1 A body subjected to a biaxial perpendicular
unequal and like principal stresses. ................................. 6.40
Guide lines for construction of the Mohr’s circle.......... 6.41
6.3 Solved Problems on Mohr’s Circle ................................ 6.42
6.2.2 A body subjected to a biaxial perpendicular
unequal and unlike principal stress.................................. 6.46
Solved Problems.................................................................. 6.47
6.2.3 A body subjected to a Biaxial perpendicular
unequal, like stresses with an simple shear stress. ........ 6.49
6.4 Combined Bending and Torsion ....................................... 6.53
6.4.1 Solved Problems on Combined Bending and
Torsion: .............................................................................. 6.55
6.5 Principal Strains .................................................................. 6.59
6.6 Strain Energy in Bending and Torsion ............................ 6.59
6.6.1 Solved Problems........................................................ 6.60
6.7 Equivalent of Bending Moment Me and
Equivalent Torque Te ..................................................... 6.65
6.7.1 Solved Problems ...................................................... 6.65
6.8 Theories of Failure ........................................................... 6.67
(i) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Rankine theory 6.67
(ii) Maximum principal strain theory (or) St. Venant’s
theory ................................................................................... 6.70
(iii) Maximum shear stress theory (or) Guests theory
(or) Tresca’s theory............................................................ 6.75
(iv) Maximum strain energy theory (or) Haigh’s theory 6.84
(v) Maximum shear strain energy theory (or) Distortion
energy theory........................................................................ 6.88
6.9 Solved Problems .................................................................. 6.89-6118
Chapter - 7
Cylinders and Spheres

7.1 Thin Cylindrical and Spherical Shells - Stresses............. 7.1
7.1.1 Hoop Stress ................................................................ 7.2
7.1.2 Longitudinal Stress .................................................... 7.3
7.1.3 Spherical Shells.......................................................... 7.5
7.2 Deformation in Thin Cylinder .......................................... 7.7
7.3 Deformation in Spherical Shells ........................................ 7.9
7.4 Solved Problems on Thin Cylinder and Spherical Shells 7.11
7.5 Thin Pipe Bounded by Wire.............................................. 7.21
7.6 Cylinderical Shell With Hemispherical Ends ................... 7.32
7.7 Thick Cylinders.................................................................... 7.35
7.7.1 Lame’s Theorem......................................................... 7.35
7.7.2 Lame’s Equations - Derivation ................................ 7.36
7.7.3 Special Conditions ..................................................... 7.39
7.7.4 Longitudinal and Shear Stresses .............................. 7.42
7.7.8 Solved Problems on thick cylinders with Lame’s
theorem ................................................................................. 7.43
7.7.9 Design of Thick Cylinders ........................................ 7.64
7.8 Compound Cylinders ........................................................... 7.70
7.8.1 Difference of Radii for Shrinkage ........................... 7.73
7.8.2 Solved Problems on compound cylinder ................. 7.75-7.86
2 Marks Question and Answers
University Solved Problems
Chapter - 8
Columns
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................. 8.1
8.1.1 Slenderness ratio of a column................................. 8.2
8.1.2. Short columns ........................................................... 8.2
8.1.3 Long columns ............................................................ 8.2
8.1.4 Buckling load, Crippling or Critical load ............. 8.2
8.1.5 Equivalent length....................................................... 8.3
8.1.6 Buckling factor .......................................................... 8.3
8.1.7 Safe load .................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Euler Equation............................................................................. 8.3
8.2.1 Assumptions made in Euler’s equation................... 8.3
8.2.2 Sign Conventions....................................................... 8.4
8.3 End Conditions............................................................................ 8.4
8.3.1 Derivation of Euler’s equation ................................ 8.5
8.4 Slenderness Ratio ........................................................................ 8.13
8.5 Equivalent Length (or) Effective Length Le of a Column. 8.14
8.5.1 One end fixed and one end free column ............... 8.15
8.5.2 One end fixed and one end hinged column .......... 8.15
8.5.3 Two fixed ends column............................................. 8.15
8.6 Limitations of Euler’s Formula ................................................. 8.17
8.7 Rankine’s Formula...................................................................... 8.33
8.8 Eccentrically Loaded Columns .................................................. 8.44
8.8.1 Rankine-Gordon formula .......................................... 8.44
8.9 Middle Third Rule...................................................................... 8.55
Stress, Strain and Deformation of Solids 1.1
Chapter - 1
STRESS, STRAIN AND DEFORMATION

OF SOLIDS
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Materials are very important for every application in all engineering
disciplines and before they can be used for any application, their behaviour
under the loads or forces under which the materials are to work must be
known. Strength of materials (Mechanics of materials) deals with this
behaviour of solid materials by studying the distribution of internal forces,
the stability and deformation of the materials under the applied loads or
forces. In design of machine members and structures, in addition to strength,
stiffness and stability of materials, one has to consider factors like
manufacturing, cost, life, utility, market demands etc., but most important role
is played by the factors like strength, stiffness and stability which are covered
by the subject of strength of materials.
Materials which we come across are generally classified as:
(A) Rigid bodies
(B) Deformable bodies
1.2 RIGID AND DEFORMABLE BODIES

Deformation is the change in the shape and, or size of the body under
application of a force or a load. Deformable bodies are those which undergo
deformation when subjected to external loading. Deformable bodies are further
classified into Plastic and Elastic bodies.
An Elastic Material or body is one which undergoes deformation when
subjected to an external loading such that the deformation disappears on the
removal of the load.
A Plastic material is one which undergoes a continuous deformation during
the period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does
not regain its original dimensions on the removal of the loading.
Rigid body or material is one which does not undergo any deformation when
subjected to an external loading.
1.2 Strength of Materials www.airwalkpublications.com
In practice, no material is A B
absolutely elastic nor plastic nor rigid.
These properties are attributed when
the deformations are within certain BAR
A B
limits.
C
Deformation can be understood

by a simple example, consider a bar C ·
F
which is fixed at one end and is
loaded by a force (F) as shown in Fig 1.1 F
Fig.1.1 After the load is applied on

the bar, there is change in the length of the bar as shown. The difference in
the original and final length is CC which is equal to .  is called deflection.
This change in length of bar is one form of deformation.
1.3 STRENGTH
Strength: Strength is the internal resistance offered by the body against the
deformation caused due to the application of an external load system.
A material when subjected to an external load system undergoes a

deformation. Against this deformation, the material will offer a resistance
which tends to prevent the deformation. This resistance is offered by the
material as long as the member is forced to remain in the deformed condition.
This resistance is offered by the virtue of its strength of material.
(i) X
A B
F C D F
X
(ii) A
F C
R (R e sistan c e)
B
R D F
(iii) A
B
F C R R D F
Fig 1.2
Consider a rod AB subjected to an external load F at the ends as

shown in Fig.1.2(i). In order to keep the body in equilibrium, the body part
C and D offers Reactions at section X  X. In other words, we may say that
section X  X offers resistance R against possible separation
The intensity of resistance offered is due to the strength of the body
or material. The force of resistance per unit area offered by a body against
the deformation is called stress. It is denoted by symbol ‘’
R

A
or
P

A
Load N
Stress 
Area mm2
Load in N, area in mm2, unit of stress N/mm2

The external force acting on the body is called load. The load is
applied on the body by which stress is induced in the material of the body.
A loaded member remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the
member against the deformation and the applied load are in equilibrium.
When the member is incapable of offering the necessary resistance against
the external forces, the deformation will continue leading to the failure of
the member.
If the resistance offered by the section against the deformation is
assumed to be uniform across the section, then the intensity of resistance per
unit area of the section is called the intensity of stress or Unit stress.
1.4 UNIT OF STRESS

The unit of stress is N/m2, which is known as pascal. 1 N/m2  1 Pa.
For engineering materials, this is a small value. For larger values, we use
kPa.
Kilo pascal (kPa)  103 Pa
Mega pascal (MPa)  106 Pa

Giga pascal (GPa)  109 Pa

For Engineering materials, the cross section, we use is in only
millimeters ie N/mm2
1 MPa  1  106 Pa  106 N/m2 or 1 MN/m2
106 N N

10 mm 10 mm mm2
3 3
 1 MPa  1 N/mm2
1 GPa  109 Pa  109 N/m2 or 1 GN/m2
 1000  106 N/m2

 1000 MPa
 1000 N/mm2
1 GPa  1000 N/mm2  1 kN/mm2
R F
Intensity of stress    in N/m2
A A
where R: Reaction in Newton
F: Force in Newton
A: Area of cross section in m2
1.5 STRAIN
Due to the application of load, the length
of the member changes from l to l  dl. The ratio
of change in the length to the original length of
the member is called strain.
change in length dl
Strain e  
original length l
d
Fig 1.3
1.6 TYPES OF STRESS

Basically classified into 2 types
ST RESS
Norm al Stress Tan gential Stress
Ten sile Com pressive Sh ear Pu nchin g

Stress Stress Stress shear Stress
Fig. 1.3
1.7 NORMAL STRESS: AXIALLY LOADED BAR

Stress which is normal to the cross section of the member (e.g stress
due to elongation of a bar) is called Normal stress.
Consider a bar of cross sectional area A, subjected to an axial load
P.
To determine stress, a free body diagram is prepared either for left or
right part of the bar, divided by the cutting plane as shown in Fig. 1.4(b).
At any section the force vector P passes through the centroid of the bar. The
reaction on the left end is equilibrated at section a  a by a uniformly
distributed normal stress . The sum of these stresses multiplied by their
a C utting p lan e a
P P P P
a a
B ar a xis C entro id
(a) (b)
dA = P a
A a
P    
 dy
dz
a dx dx (f)
(c)  P  P
A (d) A
(e)
Fig . 1.4 S uc ces sive step s in d eterm ining
the larg est norm al stress in an ax ially load ed b ar.
respective areas generate a stress resultant that is statically equivalent to the

force P Fig. 1.4(c). A thin slice of the bar with equal uniformly distributed
normal stresses of opposite sense on the two parallel sections is shown in
Fig. 1.4(d). The uniaxial state of stress may be represented on an infinitesimal
cube Fig. 1.4(e). However simplified diagram shown in Fig. 1.4(f) is
commonly used.
Normal stress is defined as ratio of force applied to the cross section of
area of the bar.
Force P
Normal stress    in N/m2
Area A
In the integral form, the load applied is given by Load P    dA

A
A material is capable of offering the following types of stresses.

1. Tensile stress
2. Compressive stress
3. Shear stress.
1.8 TENSILE STRESS AND TENSILE STRAIN

Tensile stress is defined as the
d
resistance offered by the section of a
X
member/body against an increase in P P
length. For example consider the stress
offered by the section XX of a rod as X
shown in Fig. 1.5. X
P P
The intensity of tensile stress is R R
given by Fig . 1.5 X
Tensile stress
Force P R
   
Area A A
When the rod is subjected to tensile load, there is an increase in the
length of rod and the corresponding strain is called the tensile strain.
The ratio of change of dimensions of the body to the original
dimension is known as “strain”. It has no unit.
STRAIN
Tensile com pressive Lateral Longitudinal Volumetric Shear

strain strain strain strain strain strain
Fig. 1.5 (a)
Tensile strain: Ratio of change in length to original length is known as

tensile strain Fig. 1.5 (b)
P P
L dL
Fig 1 .5 (b)
Increase in length dL
Tensile strain e  
Original length L
1.9 COMPRESSIVE STRESS AND COMPRESSIVE STRAIN

Compressive stress is the resistance
offered by the section of member or
body against a decrease in length due
to applied pushing load. For example
consider a bar subjected to pushing
axial load as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Intensity of compressive stress is
given by compressive stress
P R
  
A A
Due to the external loading, Fig 1.6
the length of the member decreases
by dl. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is called
compressive strain
Decrease in length dl
Compressive strain e  
original length l
1.10 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

Consider a bar AB subjected to transverse forces as shown in Fig.
1.7(a).
Fig 1.7
Two forces are passing at section C as shown in Fig. 1.7(b). Internal

force must exist in the plane of the section and their resultant is equal to
P. These elementary forces are called shear forces with magnitude P.
Dividing the shear force by Area of cross section we get shear stress 
When a body subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are
acting tangentially on any cross-sectional plane of a body, tending to slide
one part of the body over the other part, then the body is said to be in a
state of shear. It is denoted by ‘’.
total tangential force

crosssectional area of resisting section
P
Shear stress   in N/m2
A
Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins and rivets used to
connect various structural members and machine components. Consider two
plates A and B connected by rivets as shown in Fig. 1.8.
shear force F P
The shear stress    
shear Area A A
Fig 1.8
Consider a block of height l, length L and width unity Fig.1.9.
P dl P dl
A B A’ B B’
A
dx dx
x x
Fig 1.9
Shear force or Resistance R P

Shear Stress    
Shear Area Ll Ll
Consider the block subjected to shear force P on its top and bottom
faces. When the block does not fail in shear, the shear deformation is shown
in Fig. 1.9. The block has deformed from the position ABCD to A B CD
through an angle .
BCB  ADA   
Let the horizontal displacement of the upper face of the block be dl.
Then the ratio of transverse displacement to the distance from the lower face
is called shear strain.
Transverse displacement dl
Shear strain   
Distance from lower face l
At the section XX
dx
The strain 
x
dl dx
Since  is very small,   tan     shear strain
l x
The Angular deformation  in radians measures the shear strain.
1.11 BEARING STRESS (CRUSHING STRESS) IN CONNECTIONS

Bolts, pins and rivets create
stresses in the members they connect,
along the bearing surface, or surface of t C
contact. P
For example consider again two A d F
plates A and B connected by the rivet F ·
CD which we have discussed in Fig A

previous section. The rivet exerts on D
plate a force P equal and opposite to
the force F exerted by the plate on the t
rivet.
The force P represents the A d
resultant of elementary forces Fig 1.10 Fig B
distributed on the inside surface of the
half cylinder of diameter d and of length t equal to the thickness of plate.
The average nominal bearing stress is obtained by dividing load P by the
area of rectangle representing projection.
P P
Bearing stress b  
A td
1.12 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

Stress
Young’s modulus 
Strain
Normal stress

Linear strain
 The value of Young’s modulus is determined from stress-strain
graph of material. Some materials are equally strong in compression
and tension (metals and alloys). Such materials are usually tested
in tension. The test results usually pertain to a circular bar of
uniform cross-section. The load on the test specimen is increased
gradually from zero, in suitable increments till the specimen fails
(breaks). The elongation of the specimen is measured over a
specific length known as “gauge length” (usually 50 to 200 mm)
at each load step. The stresses and the corresponding strains are
computed for the load and corresponding elongation readings.
 Materials such as concrete, stones and bricks that are stronger in

compression than in tension are tested in compression. Stress-strain
values are plotted in the form of a graph and the value of Young’s
modulus is determined from the slope of the curve for any stress
value.
 In the case of materials with linear stress-strain behaviour, young’s
modulus is constant upto elastic limit. For materials with non-linear
stress-strain relationship, the average value of slope is adopted for
young’s modulus or the value is defined at a specified stress or
strain value.
 Thus, the stress-strain diagram gives many important properties of
material like Young’s modulus.
1.12.1 STRESS STRAIN CURVES (TENSION)

When a bar or specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing axial
tensile load, the stresses and strain can be found out for number of loading
conditions and a curve is plotted upto the point at which the specimen fails,
giving what is known as stress strain curve.
1.12.2 STRESS - STRAIN CURVE FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS

A material is said to be ductile in nature, if it elongates appreciably
before fracture occurs. (Eg) Mild steel.
When a specimen of a mild steel is loaded gradually in tension, the
stress is proportional to the strain in the initial stage and remains so upto a
point, known as limit of proportionality as shown in Fig. 1.11. The stress
strain diagram gives many important properties of materials.
Point P : Limit of proportionality

E : Elastic limit
Y : Upper yield point
L : Lower yield point
U : Ultimate point
B : Breaking point
Near the proportionality limit, we have a point called Elastic limit (E)
at which if the load is removed, the specimen will return to its original
dimensions. Beyond the elastic limit, the material enters into plastic range
and removal of load does not return the specimen to its original dimensions,
 A - actu al
R upture
stre ng th
U -U ltim ate stre n gth

*
*
Y - Upp e r Yie ld p oint
* * L - L ow e r Yield p oint
B - B rea kin g
(R u pture
*
* E - E lastic L im it
stre ngth)
*
S TR E S S
P -P rop ortio na lity Lim it
O 
S T R AIN
Fig 1.11 Stress - Strain
thus subjecting itself to a permanent deformation. On applying further load

the specimen curve reaches upper yield point (Y) and corresponding stress
is called upper yield stress. Beyond point Y, the load decreases with
increase in strain upto point (L) called lower yield point and corresponding
stress is called lower yield stress. After lower yield point (L), the stress
starts increasing and reached maximum value at the point (U) called ultimate
point and the corresponding stress is called ultimate tensile stress. After the
ultimate point, the stress again starts decreasing, while the strain goes on
increasing until the material fractures at point B called Breaking Point and
the corresponding stress is called breaking stress. In the curve, all the stresses
are calculated based on original cross section.
Rupture Strength or Breaking Strength

 The co-ordinate of point B in the stress-strain diagram represents
the stress at failure and is known as “Rupture strength or
Breaking strength”.
 In a stress-strain diagram, note that this strength is lower than the
ultimate strength. This is because we find the breaking strength by
dividing the breaking load by original area of specimen. As noted
earlier, while tensioning the specimen, its length increases but the
diameter decreases.
 For the ductile materials, as they yield, decrease in the diameter is
also more and more. The diameter of the specimen is considerably
reduced and we find rupture strength with respect to the final
(reduced) diameter, it will be much more than the ultimate strength.
We may call this as “Actual Rupture Strength” as indicated as
point A in Fig 1.11.
Due to larger yielding in the material, a phenomenon called “Necking”
occurs which is responsible for reducing the diameter of specimen. The
formation of necking shown in Fig 1.11(a) is more predominant in ductile
materials and at failure, a perfect cup and cone is formed. With lowering
ductility and increasing brittleness, the cup and cone failure slowly disappear
and brittle failure with rough texture takes places.
Stresses and strain based on original dimensions are called as
Engineering or Nominal or Conventional stresses or strains. Stresses and
strains based on actual dimensions are called True or Natural Stress and
Strains.
Ductility of a material is measured by the percentage elongation of the
specimen (or) percentage reduction in cross sectional area of the specimen
when failure occurs.
ll
% increase in length   100
l
AA
% Reduction in Area   100
A
1.12.3 STRESS STRAIN CURVES FOR BRITTLE MATERIALS
“Brittleness” is defined as the property of material that will fail suddenly
without undergoing noticeable deformations.
For brittle materials and for
the materials with low ductility
like higher grades of steel, no U ltim ate
B re ak in g or
definite yield is observed. stre ng th
u ltim a te P o in t
Materials which show very
S tress
small elongation before they
fracture are called brittle L im it of P ro po rtio na lity
materials (Eg.) Cast Iron,
concrete, high carbon steel etc.
For Brittle materials, the Fig 1.12 S train
stress strain curve is as shown in
Fig 1.12.
The ultimate tensile stress is defined as the ratio of ultimate load to
the original area of cross section and is taken as basis for determining the
design stress for Brittle materials because there is no definite yield point.
1.13 STRESS STRAIN CURVES (COMPRESSION)

For ductile materials, stress strain curves in compression are identical
to those in tension at least upto the yield point for all practical purposes.
Brittle materials have compression stress strain curves of the same form
as the tension test but the stresses at various points are generally considerably
different.
1.14 HOOKE’S LAW

Hooke’s Law states that within the Elastic limit the stress (compressive or
tensile) is proportional to the strain
Mathematically, Hooke’s Law is
Stress  Strain
Stress
 Constant of proportionality.
Strain
Under normal (i.e., direct) stresses and strains, constant of proportionality is

called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus E
Normal stress 
Youngs Modulus E  
Linear nominal strain e
Under the shearing stresses and strain, the constant of proportionality
is called Modulus of rigidity and is denoted by G or C or N
Shearing stress 
Rigidity Modulus G  
Shearing strain 
1.14.1 FACTOR OF SAFETY

Factor of safety is defined the ratio of ultimate stress to the permissible
stress (working stress)
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety 
Permissible stress
Factor of safety depends on so many factors like the type of material,
its degree of reliability, workmanship, manufacturing method, nature of
loading, environmental conditions etc. and is “always greater than one”.
The following values are commonly taken in practice.
Table 1
S.No Materials Factor of safety

1. Concrete 3
2. Steel 1.85
3. Timber 4 to 6
1.15 DEFORMATION OF A BODY DUE TO FORCE ACTING ON IT

Consider a body or rod BC of length L and uniform cross section of
Area A subjected to an axial load P
If the resultant axial stress induced is given by
P
Tensile stress  
A
Within elastic limit, one may apply the Hooke’s law (stress)   E  e
where E  Young’s modulus
B
e  Strain L

Strain e 
E
C
l 
P/A P
e or e  Fig 1.13
E AE P

Also we know that strain e  . Substituting this in above equation.
L
[  change in length L]
 P
e 
L AE
PL
 or L 
AE
PL
 Deflection  or L 
AE
L  Original Length
   L  Change in length
[ is also denoted as L (or) l.]

If the body is made up of different sections having Pi, Li, Ai and Ei as
internal force, length, Area of cross section and modulus of elasticity
respectively, then
PiLi
Deflection   
AiEi
If we consider a rod of variable cross section, then the strain ‘e’

depends upon the position and is defined as e  d/dx
Pdx
 d  e  dx 
AE
By integrating over the entire length
L
P  dx
Total deformation    AE
0
1.16 STIFFNESS
Consider a bar BC of constant
cross-section area A and of length L
B C
shown in the Fig. 1.14(a).
(a)
Let force ‘P’ is applied at the L
free end. The deformed bar is shown in
Fig. 1.14 (b). Conceptually, it is often a P
(b)
convenient to think of such elastic B a C’
system as spring as shown in Fig. 1.14
(c)
P
PL
The total deformation is   (c)
AE
L
The deflection of rod is directly 
proportional to the applied force and Fig 1.1 4

length and is inversely proportional to
A and E.
AE 
from the above equation we get P   
 L 
P AE
and also we get 
 L
This equation is related to the familiar definition of the spring constant
or stiffness k.
P AE
k  in N/m
 L
 Stiffness k is defined as the ratio of force per unit deflection   1.
For an axially loaded ith bar or bar segment of length Li, the stiffness
AiEi
is given by ki 
Li
The reciprocal of stiffness k is defined as flexibility
1 
i.e. f   in m/N
k P
For a particular case of ith bar of constant cross section

Li
fi 
AiEi
The concept of structural stiffness and flexibility are widely used in

structural analysis.
1.16.1 STABILITY
Any structural or machine member loaded in compression is called a
column or strut or pillar. Generally columns are classified as short columns,
long columns and intermediate columns.
The classification among the columns has been done on the basis of
their behaviour in compression. The ability of a short column to take loads
depends upon its cross sectional area and strength of material of column. As
the length of column increases, the load carrying capacity depends upon cross
sectional area, strength of material, length of column, geometry of section
P (a ) P
o
M .S 4 5 C .I
(i) Fa ilure (ii) F ailu re

P b y g e ne ral d ue to P
yie ld in g she ar
(a ) S h ort colum ns
In elastic E lastic
b ucklin g b ucklin g
(b ) (c )
(b ) In te rm ed ia te colu m n Fig 1.15 (c) L on g co lu m n
(radius of gyration), Young’s modulus E. A long or intermediate column

fails in compression by buckling sideways whereas a short column does not
buckle sideways as shown in Fig. 1.15. Therefore a short column can take
more load than long or intermediate column for same cross section and same
material.
A column remains straight upto a certain load called the critical load
beyond which a slight increase in load causes the column to buckle to a
great extent and fail.
A column under a load less than critical load is in stable equilibrium.
At critical load, the column is in neutral condition. Beyond the critical load,
the equilibrium is unstable.
Slenderness ratio is one of the important characteristics of the column on
which the load carrying capacity of columns depends. It is defined as the
ratio of unsupported length of column to the least radius of gyration.
l
Slenderness ratio 
k
where l  Length of column
k  Radius of gyration
Significance of percentage of Elongation & Reduction in Area
Let Lo  Gauge length or initial length of the specimen
L  Length at fracture
L  Lo
then Percentage Elongation   100
Lo
Let Ao  Original area of crosssection
A  Area at neck when fracture occurs

Ao  A
Percentage reduction of area   100
Ao
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem: 1.1: An elastic rod 25 mm is diameter, 200 mm long extends by
0.25 mm under a tensile load of 40 kN. Find the intensity of stress, the strain
and the elastic modulus for the material of the rod.
Solution:
Given: diameter d  25 mm; Length L  200 mm
Load P  40 kN  40  103 N; Elongation L  0.25 mm
d2   252
Area of cross section A    490.87 mm2
4 4
Intensity of stress
3
Load P 40  10
     81.49 N/mm2
Area A 490.87
Elongation L L 0.25

Strain e     0.00125
Length L L 200
 81.49
Elastic modulus E    65192 N/mm2
e 0.00125
E  0.06519 N/m2
Problem 1.2 A rectangular wooden column of length 3 m and size 300 mm
 200 mm carries an axial load of 300 kN. The column is found to be
shortened by 1.5 mm under the load. Find the stress and strain in the column
and state their nature.
Given
L  3m
Size of column  300 mm  200 mm
Load P  300 kN
Shortening of column, L  1.5 mm
Solution
P  300 kN  300  103 N
Area of cross section  A  300  200
A  60000 mm2
3
. . P 300  10
[ . shortens] Compressive stress   
A 60000
  5 N/mm2
L  3 m  3000 mm
L 1.5
Compressive strain in the column ec  
L 3000
ec  0.0005
Results
Stress  5 N/mm2 or 5 MPa comp
Strain  0.005 or 5  10 4 comp
Problem 1.3: Find the maximum and minimum stress produced in the stepped
bar shown in figure due to axially applied compressive load of 12 kN.
Solution:
Given: d1  12 mm ; d2  25 mm
Load  12 kN  12  103 N
d21   122
Area of upper part A1    113.10 mm2
4 4
d22   252
Area of Lower part A2    490.87 mm2
2 4
Maximum stress
Load 12  103
max    106.10 N/mm2
Area A1 113.10
1 2 kN
 12 mm
1
 25 mm
2
Minimum stress
Load 12  103
min    24.45 N/mm2
Ar ea A2 490.87
Problem 1.4 A steel wire of length 10 m and diameter 5 mm is used to

hang a load at its bottom. The stress and strain in the wire are found to be
140 N/mm2 and 0.0007 respectively. Determine the load it carries and the
elongation of wires.
Given
L  10 m  10  1000 mm
d  5 mm
  140 N/mm2
e  0.0007
Required Data
P? L?
Solution
  52
Area of cross section of wire A 
4
A  19.635 mm2
Load
Stress 
Area
P

A
AP
P  19.635  140
P  2.749 kN
W.K.T
L
Strain e 
L
L
0.0007 
L
L  0.0007  10000
L  7 mm
Results
P  2.749 kN
L  7 mm
Problem 1.5 A brass rod of 25 mm diameter and 1.3 m long is subjected
to an axial pull of 4 kN. Find the stress, strain and elongation of the bar.
If young’s modulus E  1  105 N/mm2.
Given
P  4 kN  4000 N
d  25 mm
E  1  105 N/mm2
L  1.3 m  1300 mm
Required data:   ? e1  ? L  ?
Solution
 
Area A   d2   252
4 4
 490.87 mm2
Load P 4000
Stress      8.15 N/mm2
area A 490.87
 8.15
Strain e    82  10 6
E 1  105
Elongation L  e  L
 82  10 6  1300
L  0.106 mm
Results
Stress   8.15 N/mm2
Strain e  82  10 6

Elongation L  0.106 mm
Problem 1.6 A mild steel bar of 15 mm diameter and 400 mm length
elongates 0.2 mm under an axial pull of 10 kN. Determine the young’s
modulus of material.
Given
d  15 mm
L  400 mm
L  0.2 mm, P  10 kN  10  103 N

Required Data: E  ?
Solution
Stress
Young’s Modulus E 
Strain
P
stress  
A

A  152  176.7 mm2
4
10  103

176.7
  56.59 N/mm2
L 0.2
L 400
e  5  10 4
56.59
E
5  10 4
E  1.1318  105 N/mm2
Problem 1.7: A hollow cylinder 1.5 m long has an outside diameter of 45

mm and inside diameter of 25 mm. If the cylinder is carrying a load of 20
kN, find the stress in the cylinder. Also find the deformation of the cylinder.
Take E  100 G Pa [1 Pa  1 N/m2].
Solution:
Given: Length L  1.5 m; Outside diameter D  45 mm
Inside diameter d  25 mm
Load P  20 kN  20  103 N
Modulus of Elasticity E  100 GPa  100  109 N/m2
E  100  103 N/mm2

Area of cross section
 2 
A [D  d2]  [452  252]  1099.5 mm2
4 4
3
Load P 20  10
Stress      18.1 N/mm2
Area A 1099.5
Stress  18.1
Strain e     1.81  10 4
Young’s modulus E 100  103
Change in length L
Original length L
L
 1.81  10 4 
1500
Deformation L  1.81  10 4  1500  0.271 mm.

Problem 1.8: A specimen of a material having original diameter equal to 13
mm and gauge length 50 mm is tested under tension, the final diameter being 9
mm at fracture and gauge length at fracture being 70 mm. During testing, it is
found that yielding occurs at a load of 35 kN (lower yield point) and the maximum
load that the specimen can take is 60 kN (ultimate load). The specimen fractures
or breaks under a load of 30 kN. Find yield strength, ultimate tensile strength,
breaking strength, % elongation, % reduction in area, young’s modulus if load
corresponding to any point on the linear portion of the stress strain curve is 20
kN corresponding to an extension of 0.0315 mm.
Solution:
Original cross section Area
2
d2   13 
A    0.1325  10 3 m2
4 4  1000 
Yield strength Yield point 35  103

 
yield stress Area A 0.1325  10 3
 264  106 N/m2  264 MPa
Ultimate strength Ultimate load 60  103

 
Ultimate stress Original Area A 0.1325  10 3
 452  106 N/m2  452 MPa
Breaking strength Breaking Load 30  103

 
Breaking stress Original Area 0.1325  10 3
 226  106 N/m2  226 MPa

L  L0
% elongation   100 L  length of fracture
L0
L0  Gauge length
70  50
  100  40%
50
A0  A
% reduction in Area   100
A0
A0  Original area of cross-section
A  Area at neck when fracture occurs
 
132  92
4 4
  100  52%
 2
13
4
Stress
Young’s modulus E 
Strain
Load 20  103
Stress     1.509  108 N/m2
Area 0.1325  10 3
Extension 0.0315
Strain e    6.3  10 4
Original length 50
 1.509  108
Young’s modulus E  
e 6.3  10 4
 239  109 N/m2  239 GPa

Problem 1.9 In a tension test on mild steel specimen 10 mm diameter and
250 mm long gauge length, the following observations were made
Elongation under 16 kN load  0.2 mm
Load at yield point  27 kN
Ultimate load  51 kN
Breaking load  36 kN
Length between gauge marks after fracture  290 mm
Diameter at Neck  7.5 mm

Calculate (i) Nominal yield stress (ii) Nominal ultimate stress (iii) Nominal
breaking stress (iv) Young’s modulus (v) Percentage elongation
(vi) Percentage reduction in area
Solution
Load at yield point
(i) Nominal yield stress 
Original cross sectional area

Nominal cross sectional area   102
4
 78.54 mm2
27  103
Nominal yield stress   343.17 N/mm2
78.54
Ultimate load
(ii) Nominal ultimate stress 
Nominal cross sectional area
51  103

78.54
 649.35 N/mm2
Breaking load
(iii) Nominal breaking stress 
area of c/s
36  103

78.54
 458.37 N/mm2
Stress
(iv) Young’s modulus 
Strain
 P L0
E  
e A L
Gauge length L0  250 mm
L  0.2 mm
P  16 kN
16  103  250
E  2.546  105 N/mm2
78.54  0.2
E  2.546  105 N/mm2

(v) Percentage elongation
L  L0
  100
L0
290  250
% elongation   100  16%
250
(vi) Percentage reduction in area
A0  A1
  100
A0
A0  original nominal area of cross section

A0   d2  78.54 mm2
4
A1  area of cross section at neck
 2
 d
4 n

A1   7.52  44.18
4
A1  44.18 mm2
78.54  44.18
Percentage reduction in area   100  43.75%
78.54
Problem 1.10: The following data refer to a mild steel specimen tested in
laboratory.
Diameter of specimen  25 mm
Length of specimen  300 mm
Extension under load 15 kN  0.045 mm
Load at yield point  127.65 kN
Maximum load  208.60 kN
Length of specimen after failure  375 mm

Neck diameter  17.75 mm
Determine: Young’s modulus, yield strength, ultimate stress, percentage
elongation, percentage reduction in area, safe stress with a factor of safety 2.
Solution:
d2   252
Area of specimen A    490.87 mm2  A0
4 4
At load of 15 kN
Load 15  103
Stress     30.56 N/mm2
Area A 490.87
L 0.045
Strain at this load e    1.5  10 4
L 300
Stress  30.56
Youngs modulus E   
Strain e 1.5  10 4
 2.036  105 N/mm2
Yield strength Yield load 127.65  103

   260.05 N/mm2
Yield stress Area A 490.87
Ultimate load
Ultimate stress 
Area A
208.60  103
  424.96 N/mm2
490.87
L  L0 375  300
Percentage Elongation   100   100  25%
L0 300
A0  A1
Percentage reduction in Area   100
A0
252  17.752
  100  49.6%
252
Yield stress 260.05
Safe stress    130.025 N/mm2
Factor of safety 2
Problem 1.11: A short hollow cast iron cylinder of external diameter 220 mm
is to carry a compressive load of 600 kN. Determine the inner diameter of
the cylinder, if the ultimate crushing stress for the material is 540 MN/m2.
Factor of safety of 6 is used.
Solution:
Given: external diameter D  220 mm;
Inner diameter d  ?
Ultimate stress  540 MN/m2  540 N/mm2 ;
Factor of safety  6 [1MN/m2  1 N/mm2]

Ultimate stress
Factor of safety 
Working stress
540
6
Working stress
540
 Working stress work   90 N/mm2
6
Load
Working stress work 
Area
600  103
90 
 2
[D  d2]
4
 2 600  103
[D  d2] 
4 90
 600  103
[2202  d2]   d  200 mm
4 90
 Inner diameter d  200 mm

Problem 1.12: A load of 4 kN has to be raised at the end of a steel wire. If
the unit stress in the wire must not exceed 80 N/mm2, what is the minimum
diameter required? What will be extension of 3.50 m length of wire? Take
young’s modulus E  2  105 N/mm2
Solution:
Given
Load  4000 N ; Stress   80 N/mm2 ;
Length L  3.5 m ; L  
Load
We know that stress  
Area
4000
80 
 d2
4
d2 4000 4000  4

  or d2 
4 80   80
Diameter of wire d  7.979 mm
Extension L 
We know that strain e   or
Original length L L
Stress 80
Young’s modulus E  
Strain L/L
80
Extension L  L
E
80
L   3500  1.4 mm
2  105
1.17 DEFORMATION OF A BAR UNDER AXIAL LOAD

Consider an axially loaded bar as shown in the Fig. 1.16
The applied forces P1, P2, P3 are held in equilibrium by the force P4. The
cross sectional area A of the bar is permitted to change gradually. The change in
length that takes place in the bar between the point B and D due to applied force
is to be determined.
The normal strain ex or ex in the x direction is given by
du
ex 
dx
L+ L
L
uB uD
P1 P4
B P2 P3 D
(a)
dx
x
Px P x +dP x
(b)
Fig . 1.1 6 dx+e xdx
where, due to the applied forces, u is the absolute displacement of a point

on a bar from an initial fixed position in space and du is the axial deformation
of the infinitesimal element. This is the governing differential equation for
axially loaded bars. The initial length between the points B and D is L. On
rearranging the above equation as du  ex  dx. Assuming the origin of x at
B and integrating
L L
 du  u L  u 0   ex  dx 
0 0
L
u L  u 0  Change in length L   ex  dx
0
For Elastic Materials according to Hooke’s law,
x
x or ex 
E
Px
Also x  substituting this in the above equation and simplifying
Ax
we get
L
Px dx
Deformation L   Ax  Ex
0 ...(1)
where Px  Load in N
Ax  Area in m2
Ex  Young’s modulus
1.17.1 Deformation in Simple Bar Subjected to Axial Load

If the bar is simple i.e., cross section of area (A) is uniform through
out the length L as shown in Fig. 1.17.
Fig 1.17
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s modulus

Axial stress
E
Axial strain

E
e
Force P
Direct stress in the bar,   
Area A
Stress
Direct strain in the bar, e 
Young’s modulus
P
e
AE
Elongation of bar  Strain  Length
PL
L
AE
(or)
From Hooke’s law,

Stress
E
Strain
P/A
E
L/L
PL
L 
AE
1.18 DEFORMATION FOR A BAR OF VARYING SECTION

Consider a bar of varying section with Pi, Li, Ai, Ei the internal force,
length, cross sectional area and modulus of elasticity corresponding to part i,
consider three sectioned bar, Consider a section at 1. The Elongation due to
load at section 1 is given by
1
2
3
P
A1 A2 A3
L1 L2 L3
Fig 1.18
P1L1
L1 or 1 
A1E1
Similarly, we have Elongation at section 2 and 3

P2L2 P3L3
L2 or 2  ; L3 or 3  .
A2E2 A3E3
Total Elongation due to the Load P
  1  2  3
(or)
L  L1  L2  L3

P1L1
P2L2 P3L3 PiLi
i.e L or     
A2E2 A3E3
A1E1 AiEi
PiLi
 Total Elongation L or   
AiEi
If the load is uniformly distributed at all the sections, we have total
Li
deformation L or   P 
AiEi
If the varying section is made up of same material with Young’s
modulus E, then
P Li
Deformation L or  
E Ai
P  Li L2 L3 
Deformation L or     
E A1 A2 A3 
 
Problem 1.13 A stepped bar shown in Fig is subjected to an axially applied
compressive load of 40 kN. Find the maximum and minimum stresses
produced.
Given
4 0N
Axial load,
3
P  40 kN  40  10 N
3 cm
Diameter of upper part
D1  3 cm
4 cm
 30 mm

Area of upper part, A1   302
4
 706.86 mm2
 2
Area of lower part, A2  D 
4 2

  402
4
A2  1256.64 mm2
3
Load 40  10
Maximum stress  
A1 706.86
max  56.59 N/mm2

3
Load 40  10
Minimum stress  
A2 1256.6
min  31.83 N/mm2

Problem 1.14: The following figure shows a bar consisting of 3 lengths.
Find the stresses in the three parts and the total extension of the bar for an
axial pull of 40 kN. Take Young’s modulus E  2  105 N/mm2
P= 40 kN 32.5 m m P= 40 kN
30 m m dia 20 m m dia
dia
A B C D
180 m m 260 m m 160 m m
Solution:
Given: Load P  40 kN  40,000 N
Intensity of stress in part AB
P 40000
1    56.58
A1   302 
 
 4 
1  56.58 N/mm2
Intensity of stress in part BC

P 40000
2    127.32 N/mm2
A2   202 
 
 4 
Intensity of str ess in par t CD
P 40000
3    48.2N/mm2
A3  32.52
4
P1L1 P2L2 P3L3

Total Elongation L or    
A1E1 A2E2 A3E3
P1 P2 P3
Here E1  E2  E3  E ;  1 ;  2 ;  3
A1 A2 A3
1 2 3
 Total Elongation L or   L  L  L
E 1 E 2 E 3
1
 [ L  2 L2  3 L3]
E 1 1
1
L or   [56.68  180  127.3  260  48.2  160]
2  105
Total Elongation L or   0.255 mm
Problem 1.15: An axial pull of 35000 N is acting on a bar consisting of

three lengths as shown in Fig. If the Young’s modulus  2.1  105 N/mm2,
determine
(i) Stresses in each section and
(ii) Total extension of the bar. University Problem
Se ctio n 3
Se ctio n 2
Se ctio n 1
3 50 00 N 3 50 00 N
2 cm D IA 3 cm D IA 5 cm D IA
2 0 cm 2 5 cm 2 2 cm
Solution:
Given:
l1  20 cm  200 mm ; d1 2 cm  20 mm ;
l2  25 cm  250 mm ; d2 3 cm  30 mm ;
l3  22 cm  220 mm ; d3 5 cm  50 mm ;
Stress in Section (1),

P 35000
1    111.41 N/mm2
A1  2
 20
4
P 35000
2    49.51 N/mm2
A2 
 302
4
P 35000
3    17.83 N/mm2
A3  2
 50
4
Total extension of the bar,
1
L or      l  2  l2  3  l3 
E 1 1 
1
 111.41  200  49.51  250  17.83  220
2.1  105
 0.1837 mm
Problem 1.16: A bar ABCD of steel is 600 mm long and the two ends
AB and CD are respectively 30 mm and 40 mm in diameter and each is 150
mm in length, the middle portion BC being 25 mm in diameter. Determine
the final length of the bar when subjected to an axial compressive load of
120 kN  E  2.1  105 N/mm2. University Problem
Solution:
l1  150 mm ; d1  30 mm
l2  300 mm ; d2  25 mm
l3  150 mm ; d3  40 mm
Area of cross section (1),
C 3 D
A 1 B 2
1 20 k N 3 0 2 5 4 0 1 20 k N

mm mm mm
1 50 3 00 1 50
mm mm mm

A1   302  706.86 mm2
4

A2   252  490.87 mm2
4

A3   402  1256.64 mm2
4
Compressive load,
P  120 kN  120  103 N ; l  600 mm
Change in length (decrease in length because of compressive load).
P  l1 l2 l3 
l   
E  A1 A2 A3 
 
120  103  150 300 150 
    
2.1  105  706.86 490.87 1256.64 
l  0.54 mm
 Final length of the bar  l   l
 600  0.54
 599.46 mm
Problem 1.17 A steel bar is 700 mm in length. One end of the rod is 30
mm diameter for a length of 150 mm while the other end is of diameter 20
mm for a length of 150 mm. The central position of the rod is 10 mm in
diameter. Calculate the stress in each section of the rod and the total
elongation of the rod is subjected to an axial pull of 20 kN. Take
E  2  105 N/mm2
Solution:
Data given
Young’s modulus E  2  105 N/mm2
To find:
Stress at each section; Total Elongation
Consider section AB
3
Load 20  10
Stress    28.29 N/mm2
Area 
 302
4
AB  28.29 N/mm2
Consider section BC
3
Load 20  10
Stress    254.64 N/mm2
Area  2
 10
4
BC  254.64 N/mm2
Consider section CD
3
Load 20  10
Stress    63.66 N/mm2
Area 
 202
4
CD  63.66 N/mm2
P  L1 L2 L3 
Total Elongation    
E  A1 A2 A3 
 
20  150 400 150 
    
2  105    302   2   202 
4 10 
 4 4 
20  150 400 150 
    
2  105  706.85 78.53 314.15 
  5.78  10 4 mm Elongation

Problem 1.18: An alloy circular bar ABCD (3 m long) is subjected to a
tensile force of 50 kN as shown in figure. If the stress in the middle portion
BC is not to exceed 150 MPa, then what should be its diameter? Also find
the length of the middle portion, if the total extension of the bar should not
exceed by 3 mm. Take E  100 GPa University Problem
Solution:
Given:
Length of circular bar, AD, L  3 m  3000 mm
Diameter of AB & CD  40 mm  d1
Diameter of BC  d
Length of BC  l
Stress in middle portion BC, BC  150 MPa
Tensile Load, P  50 kN  50  103 N

Total extension l  3 mm
E  100 GPa  100  103 N/mm2
To find
d&l
Solution
Load P
Stress in middle portion BC  
Area   2 
4d 
 
50  103  4
150 
 d2


50  103  4
d  20.6 mm
  150
Diameter of middle portion d  20.6 mm


A1  A3   402  1256.64 mm2
4

A  20.62  333.29 mm2
4
P  l1 l2 l3 
Total extension,  L   
E  A1 A2 A3 
 
P  l1  l3 l 
  
E  A1 A
. .
[Because l2  l (given) and A2  A  . d2  d and since
d1  d3 ; A1  A3 and l1  l3  3000  l
P  3000  l l 
l  
E  A1 A
 
2
50  103  3000  l l  150 N/mm
3   
100  103  1256.64 333.29 
1  3000  l  333.29  1256.54l 

3
2 1256.64  333.29 
 
999870  333.29l  1256.64l
6
418825.55
418825.55  6  923.35l  999870
1513083.3
 l  1638.69 mm
923.35
Length of middle portion, l  1638.69 mm
Problem 1.19: A bar as shown in figure is subjected to a tensile load of
100 kN. Find the diameter and length of the middle portion if the stress
developed in the middle portion is 180 N/mm2 and the total extension of the
bar is 0.30 mm. Take E  200 GN/m2
Solution:
Data Given
Load  100 kN
Stress in middle portion  180 N/mm2

Total Elongation  0.30 mm
Total length  500 mm
Young’s modulus  200 GN/m2  2  105 N/mm2

 80 mm  d2  80 mm
100kN 100kN
500 m m
To find
Diameter and length of middle portion
Load
We know Stress 
Area
100  103
180 

 d22
4
100  103  4
d22   d2  26.59 mm
  180
To calculate length, use total elongation formula
P  l1 l2 l3 
l     
E  A1 A2 A3 
 
100  103  l1 l2 l3 
0.3  5  
  
2  10 2  2  2
4  80  26.59  80 
 4 4 
100  103  l1 l2 l3 
0.3   
5  5026.54 555.29 5026.54 
2  10  
0.3  2  105 l1  l3 l2
 
100  10 3 5026.54 555.29
l1  l2  l3  500
l1  l3  500  l2
500  l2 l2
0.6  
5026.54 555.29
500 l2 l2
0.6   
5026.54 5026.54 555.29
0.6  99.47  10 3  1.989  10 4 l2  1.8  10 3 l2
0.50053  1.6019  10 3l2
l2  312.45 mm length of middle portion.

Problem 1.20 Calculate the change in length of the rod ABCD carrying
axial loads as shown in Fig. E  2  107 N/cm2. The cross-sectional areas
are given in figure.
Solution
6 cm 2 2
2
3 cm
4 cm
3 0kN
8 0kN 3 0kN
A B C D
5 0cm 9 0cm 4 0cm
Portion AB : length L1  50 cm
Cross-sectional area, A1  4 cm2
Portion is subjected to tensile force P1  30 kN

P1 L1
Elongation of AB, AB 
A1 E
30  103  50

4  2  107
AB  0.01875 cm
Portion BC
Length, L2  90 cm
Sectional area, A2  6 cm2
Compressive force, P2  80  30  50 kN
P2 L2
Contraction of BC, BC 
A2 E
50  103  90

6  2  107
BC  0.0375 cm
Portion CD
Length, L3  40 cm
Sectional ar ea, A3  3 cm2
Compressive force, P3  80  30  30  20 kN
P3 L3
Contraction of CD, CD 
A3 E
20  103  40

3  2  107
CD  0.0133 cm
Total contraction in length of member A BCD,
L  BC  CD  AB
 0.0375  0.0133  0.01875

L  0.032 cm
Problem 1.21: A bar 1.5 m long is made up of two parts of aluminium and
steel and that cross sectional area of Aluminum bar is twice that of steel bar. The
rod is subjected to an axial tensile load of 200 kN. If the elongation in aluminium
and steel bar are equal, find the length of the two parts of the bar. Take
Esteel  200GPa; EAluminium  one third of Esteel.
Solution:
Given l  1.5 m  1500 mm ;
AA  2As
P  200 kN  200  103 N ;

3 2
Es  200GPa  200  10 N/mm
Alum inium A
Es 200  103 A
EA   N/mm2
3 3
Elongation in aluminium
1 .5m
P  lA 200  103  lA
A  
AA  EA  200  103 
2As    Stee l
 3  B
1.5 lA
 A 
As
Elongation in steel 2 00 kN
P  ls 200  103  ls ls
s    .
As  Es As  200  10 3 As
Elongation in Aluminium and steel are Equal.

A  S
1.5lA ls
  or ls  1.5 lA
As As
Total length of bar l  lA  ls
1.5  103  lA  1.5 lA  2.5 lA
1.5  103
lA   600 mm
2.5
 ls  l  lA  1500  600  900 mm
Length of Aluminium bar  600 mm;

Length of steel bar  900 mm
Problem 1.22: A circular steel rod PQRS of different cross section is loaded
as shown. Find the maximum stress induced in the rod and its deformation.
E of material = 200 GPa
Solution:
D21   702
Area of part PQ, A1    3848.5 mm2
4 4
D22   502
Area of part QR, A2    1963.5 mm2
4 4
Area of part RS
 2
A3  [D  d2] P
4 1m
70 m m
 1
 [502  302] Q 0 m m
4 2 100
kN
2m
 1256.6 mm2 50kN
O D 0 m m
R D 0 m m
Stress in various parts:
1m 3
Load P1 75  10 3 S
PQ  
A1 3848.5 25 kN
Loads in variou s pa rts
 19.49 N/mm2 Tensile 75kN 25kN 25kN
P Q R
Load P2 25  103
QR  
A2 1963.5
Q R S
 12.73 N/mm2 Compressive
75kN 25kN 25kN
C o mp ressio n Ten sile
Load P3 25  103 Ten sile
RS  
A3 1256.6
 19.89 N/mm2 Tensile
 The maximum stress induced is 19.89 N/mm2 in the rod RS.

Total deformation
Pili P1l1 P2l2 P3l3 1  P1l1 P2l2 P3l3 
      
AiEi A1E A2E A3E E  A1 A2 A3 
 
1 . .P
 [  l  QR  l2  RS  l3]  .   
E PQ 1  A 
1
  [PQ  l1  QR  l2  RS  l3]
E
1
 [19.49  1  103  12.73  2000  19.89  1000]
200  103
Deformation   0.069 mm
1.19 DEFORMATION OF A BODY DUE TO SELF WEIGHT

Deformations of prismatic bars due to self weight
 Apart from the external forces, the self
weight of structural elements also
A
cause considerable amount of
deformations in the elements. The R S
effect of self weight with regards to P Q
deformation some times seems to be
even more than that of the applied
external forces in the case of heavy Fig 1.19 B
structural elements.
 Consider a vertical bar of length ‘L’ and uniform cross sectional
area A which is rigidly fixed at its upper end shown in Fig 1.19.
Let ‘w’ be the unit weight of the material and E be its Young’s
modulus.
Consider a small strip PQRS of length dx at a distance ‘x’ from free
end.
Downward force acting at section
PQ  weight of bar below the section PQ  wAx

wAx
Tensile stress at section PQ   wx
A
wx
Tensile strain in elemental strip 
E
wx
Elongation of elemental strip   dx
E
L
w
Total elongation, L   E
x  dx
o
L
w

E  x dx
o
L
w  x2 
  
E  2 o
wL2
L 
2E
wL
L or  
2AE [W  wAL  total weight]
From the above, we see that the deflection of the body due to self
weight is equal to half the deflection of a load attached to the body with a
weight equal to the body.
Problem 1.23: An alloy wire of 30 m length and 2mm2 cross sectional

area having a total weight of 12 N is hanging freely. Determine the extension
of the wire due to self weight. Take E  150 GPa
Given:
Length l  30m  30000mm
Cross sectional area  2mm2
Weight  12 N
E  150 GPa
 150  103 N/mm2
To find: Elongation due to self weight 

Wl

2AE
12  30000

2  2  150  103
Elongation   0.6 mm
Problem 1.24: A copper wire of 14 m length with a cross sectional area
5mm2 weighs 20 N. The wire is hanging freely. Determine the deflections at
the end and midway of the wire. Take E  2  105 N/mm2
Data Given:
Length l  14 m; CSA  5 mm2;
Weight  20N;
E  2  105 N/mm2
To find: Deflection at B and C

Wl
Deflection at CC 
2 AE
20  14  103
  0.14 mm
2  5  2  105
Deflection at BB  A B  AB due to BC
The deflection at B is due to the self weight of AB and due to the
weight of BC acting as an added load.
W/2  l/2 10  7  103
AB    0.035 mm
2A E 2  5  2  105
W/2  l/2 10  7  103
AB due to BC  
AE 5  2  105
 0.07 mm
 Total deflection at BB  0.035  0.07
 0.105 mm
1.20 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

In all cases, it cannot be expected that the forces are always acting
on the ends of the body. Sometimes forces can also act at internal sections
of the body as well as the outer edges.
In order to solve these problems, the forces acting on each of the
sections should be taken individually. The deformation of the body will be
equal to the algebraic sum of the individual deformations.
This principle of finding out the resultant deformation is called the
principle of superposition. The resultant deformation can be calculated by
P1l1 P2l2 P3l3
   
AE AE AE
1
 [P l  P2l2  P3l3  ]
AE 1 1
where P1, P2, P3,  are forces acting on sections 1, 2, 3 ... and l1, l2, l3 are
the lengths of the respective sections.
Problem 1.25: A copper bar having cross sectional area of 1500 mm2 is
subjected to an axial forces as shown in figure. Find the total elongation of a
bar. Take E  1  10 5 N/mm2
Solution:
Data Given: Area A  1500 mm2;
Young’s modulus E  1  105 N/mm2;
To find: Elongation 

For each section of the bar find forces acting on it.
Force on AB A B
Sign convention
(Tensile) Away from 30kN 30kN
element  ve;
(Compressive) towards
element  ve

At A, 30 kN
   
Resultant At B, 70 kN  25 kN  15 kN  30 kN
Total force on AB  30 kN Tensile
Force on BC
B C
At B,  70 kN  30 kN
  40 kN 4 0kN 4 0kN
At C,  25 kN  15 kN
  40 kN
Total force on BC  40 kN compressive
Forces on CD
At C, 30 kN  70 kN  25 kN
  15 kN C D
At D,   15 kN
1 5kN 1 5kN
 Total forces on
CD  15 kN compressive
To calculate elongation
1
 P l  P2l2  P3l3
AE 1 1
1
 30  600  40  1000  15  1200
1500  1  105
   2.66  10 4 mm Reduction in length

Problem 1.26: Find the value of ‘P’ and the change in length of each
component and the total change in length of the bar shown in figure. Take
E  200 kN/mm2 University Problem
Solution:
Data Given: E  200 kN/mm2
To find: Force ‘P’ ; Elongation 
Since the rod is in equilibrium, forces acting towards left  forces

acting towards right.
130  120  P  50
P  130  120  50
 200 kN
To find individual elongation, use the principle of superposition
 2 
A d   252  490.87 mm2
4 4
Consider section AB
Force At A, 130 kN
At B, 200  50  120  130 kN Tensile
Change in length of AB
Pl1 2 5m m dia
AB 
A1E
A B
130  800
 1 30 kN 1 30 kN
490.87  200
 1.059 mm
At section BC 8 00 m m
Force at B  130  200

3 0m m dia
  70 kN
B C
C  50  120   70 kN 7 0kN 7 0kN
Force acting on
BC  70 kN compressive
1 60 0m m
Change in length of BC BC
 
A2   d2   302  706.858 mm2
4 4
Pl2 2 0m m dia
 70  1600
BC   C
D
A2E 706.858  200
5 0kN 5 0kN
  0.792 mm
At section CD 4 00 m m
Force on C  130  200  120

 50 kN
Force on D  50 kN
Force acting on CD  50 kN Tensile
Change in length of CD CD

 2 
A3   d   202  314.159 mm2
4 4
Pl3 50  400
CD  
A3E 314.159  200
 0.318 mm
Total change in length :   AB  BC  CD
 1.059  0.792  0.318

  0.585 mm Elongation
Problem 1.27: A brass bar having a cross sectional Area of 1000 mm2 is
subjected to axial force as shown in figure. Find the total change in length
of the bar take E  1.05  105 N/mm2
Solution:
Force at A  50 kN A B C D
5 0kN 8 0kN 2 0kN 1 0kN

Force at B  80  20  10
 50 kN 6 00 m m 1 00 0 m m 1 20 0 m m
Part AB is
subjected to a tension
of 50 kN
P1l1 50  1000  600
 Extension of AB  
A E 1000  1.05  105
 0.2857 mm
Force at B  50  80   30 kN  30 kN compressive
Force at C   20  10   30 kN  30 kN compressive
Hence, Part BC is subjected to a compression of 30 kN
 Contraction of
P2l2 30  1000  1000
BC    0.2857 mm
AE 1000  1.05  105
Force on D   10 kN  10 kN compressive
Force on C  50  80  20   10 kN  10 kN compressive
Hence, Part CD is subjected to a compression of 10 kN
 Contraction of
P3l3 10  1000  1200
CD    0.1143 mm
AE 1000  1.05  105
 Total change in length of bar  0.2857  0.2857  0.1143

l or    0.1143 mm
i.e. Total decrease in length of bar  0.1143 mm
Problem 1.28: A member ABCD is subjected to point loads
P1, P2, P3 and P4 as shown in figure. Calculate the force P3 necessary for
equilibrium if P1  120 kN ; P2  220 kN and P4  160 kN. Determine also
the net change in length of member. Take E  2  105 N/mm2.
4 0X 4 0m m B
Solution: A 2 5X 2 5m m C 3 0X 3 0m m D
Resolving the forces on the 1 20 2 20 1 60
P1 P P P4
axis of rod, we get 2 3
P1  P3  P2  P4 0 .75 m 1m 1 .2 m
120  P3  220  160

[L  ]
 P3  260 kN
Part AB: Tensile force on AB  P1  120 kN
P1L1 120  1000  750

 Elongation on A B  
L1 A1E 40  40  2  105
L1 or 1  0.28 mm
Force B  120  220   100 kN  100 kN compressive
Force on C  160  260   100 kN  100 kN compressive
Hence at Part BC: Compressive force on BC  100 kN
PL2 100  1000  1000

 Contraction on BC    0.80 mm
A2E 25  25  2  105
L2 or 2   0.80 mm contraction
Part CD: Tensile force on CD  P4  160 kN

CD P4L3
 Elongation on 
L3 or 3 A3E
160  1000  1200

  1.07 mm
30  30  2  105
 Net change in length of bar
  1  2  3
 0.28  0.80  1.07  0.55 mm extension
Problem 1.29 A steel member ABCD of uniform cross-section area
1000 mm2 is subjected to axial force as shown in fig. Calculate the force
‘P’ required for equilibrium of the member and determine the change in
length of member.
A B C D
6 kN 1 0kN 9 kN
P
1m 1 .2m 8m
Solution
For equilibrium condition
Total force towards right  Total force towards left
P  10  6  9
P  15  10  5 kN
First consider the portion BC, on the left of A there is an axial pull
of 6 kN. To the right of B also there is a net pull of 6 kN 10  9  5.
 Portion AB is under axial tension of 6 kN.
P1 L1
Elongation of portion AB 
AE
6000  1000
  0.3 mm
100  2  105
Next consider portion BC On its left side (at B), there is a net axial
push of 4 kN 10  6. On its right side also at C there is a net push of 4
kN 9  5. Therefore portion AB is under axial compression of 4 kN.
P2 L2
Contraction of portion BC 
AE
4000  1200

100  2  105
 0.24 mm
Similarly portion CD is under the axial tension 5 kN
P3 L3 5000  800
Elongation of portion CD  
AE 100  2  105
 0.20 mm
 Net elongation of member
 L  0.30  0.24  0.20

 L  0.26 mm
Force P at D  5 kN
Change in length 0.26 mm elongation
1.21 STRESS IN BARS OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING CROSS

SECTION
Consider a circular bar of uniformly tapering cross section
P  Axial Load
l  length of bar
D1  Diameter of bigger end
D2  Diameter of smaller end
Consider a section of the bar dx at a distance of x from the larger

end. The diameter of this section D can be calculated by
P D1 D2 P
D
dx

Fig 1.2 0
D1  D2
D  D1   x  D1  kx
l
D1  D2
where k 
l

Cross sectional area of dx, Ax  D  kx2
4 1
Load P 4P
Stress    2
Area 
D1  kx2  D1  kx
4
Stress
Strain 
Youngs modulus
4P 4P
 
 D1  kx2 E D1  kx2
E
The elongation of the element dx can be calculated by
4P
dx  strain  dx   dx
E D1  kx2
The total elongation of the bar can be calculated by integrating the

above equation between 0 and l.
 Total elongation
l l
4P  dx 4P dx
   D1  kx E 2

E  D1  kx2
0 0
l
 1  l
4P D1  kx 4P  1 
   
E   1   k  Ek  D1  kx 
0  0
4P  1 1 
 
Ek  D1  kl D1 
 
D1  D2
Substituting k  in the above equation
l
4P  1 1 
   
D1  D2
  D 1  D 2l D 1
E D
 1  
l  l 

4Pl  1

1 
E D1  D2  D2 D1 
 
Deformation
4Pl  D1  D2  4Pl
  D D 
E D1  D2  1 2  ED1D2
If the bar has uniform cross section i.e., D1  D2  D,

4Pl Pl Pl
then    
ED 2  2 AE
DE
4
Problem: 1.30 A circular rod 3 m long tapers uniformly from 25 mm
diameter to 12 mm diameter. Determine the extension of the rod under a
pull of 30 kN. Assume the modulus of elasticity is 2  105 N/mm2
University Problem
Solution:
Data Given:
Length l  3 m; Diameter D1  25 mm; D2  12 mm
Load P  30 kN; Young’s modulus E  2  105 N/mm2
To find
Extension of the rod  for a tapered rod
4Pl 4  30  103  3000

 
ED1D2   2  105  25  12
 1.909 mm
Problem 1.31: Determine the modulus of elasticity of the rod which tapers
from 40 mm to 15 mm diameters. The rod is 400 mm long and is subjected
to an axial load of 5  103 N. The elongation of the rod is 0.035 mm.
Solution:
Given Data
Large Diameter  40mm; Smaller Diameter  15mm;
Length l  400mm; Load P  50  103 N;

Extension   0.035mm
To find Young’s modulus
4Pl
We know 
ED1D2
4Pl 4  5  103  400

E 
D1D2   40  15  0.035
Young Modulus E  1.21  105 N/mm2
1.22 DEFORMATION OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTANGULAR

BAR
A bar of uniform thickness ‘t’ tapers uniformly from a width of b1 at
one end to b2 at other end in a length ‘L’ as shown in Fig. 1.21 subjected
to an axial force ‘P’
Consider an elemental length dx at a distance ‘x’ from larger end. Rate
b1  b2
of change of breadth
L
b1 b b1
P P
b2
x dx
t
L
Fig. 1.2 1
b1  b2
Hence, width of section x is b  b1  x
L
b  b1  kx
b1  b2
where k 
L
Cross-sectional area of element  A  t b1  kx
Pdx
Extension of element 
AE
Pdx

b1  kx Et
L
Pdx
Total Extension of bar is L   b1  kx tE
0
L
P dx

tE  b1  kx
0
P  1 
 [ln b1  kx]L0
tE   k 
 
P
 [ ln b2  ln b1]
tEk
P b1
 ln
tEk b2
PL b1
 or L  ln
tE b1  b2 b2
Problem: 1.32: A steel flat plate AB of 1 cm thickness tapers uniformly

from 10 cm to 5 cm width in a length of 40 cm. Determine the elongation
of the plate, if an axial tensile force of 5000 N acts on it. Take
E  2  105 N/mm2. University Problem
Solution:
Data Given: Thickness t  1 cm; Bigger end b1  10 cm; Smaller end
b2  5 cm; Length L  40 cm; Force P  5000 N
To find: Elongation L
PL b1
 ln  
b
Et 1  b2 b2
5000  400
ln 
100 
 5   0.0138
2  10  10  100  50  50 
  0.0138 mm
1.23 DEFORMATION IN COMPOUND OR COMPOSITE BARS

A compound (or) composite bar is one
which is composed of two or more different
materials which are joined together in such a way
that they are elongated or compressed as a single 1 2
unit.
To solve problems in composite bars, the
following two points must be noted.
1. The extension or contraction of the Fig 1.22 P
materials making up the bar are equal.
Therefore, the strains i.e., deformation per unit length are also equal.
2. The total load on the bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried
by the different materials.
Consider a composite bar made up of two different materials.
P  Total load on bar
l  Length of bar
A1, E1, P1  Cross section area, Young’s Modulus and load on material
1. A2, E2, P2  Cross sectional area, Young’s Modulus and load on material 2.
Total load on bar, P  P1  P2
P1
Stress in bar 1, 1 
A1
1 P1
Strain in bar 1, e1  
E1 A1E1
P1l1
Change in length of bar 1, 1 
A1E1
P2l2
Change in length of bar 2, 2 
A2E2
Since change in length of both materials are equal

1  2
P1l P2l

A1E1 A2E2
A2E2
P2  P1 
A1E1
A2E2
We know, P  P1  P2  P1  P1
A1E1
 A2E2 
 P1  1 
A1E1 
 
 A1E1  A2E2 
P  P1  
 A1E1 
 A1E1 
 P1  P  
 A1E1  A2E2 
 A2E2 
Similarly P2  P  
 A1E1  A2E2 
Using the above equations, we can find the load shared by the different
materials.
Also, since strain in the different materials are equal
e1  e2
1 2

E1 E2
E1
 1   2
E2
E2
 2   1
E1
From the above equations, we can find the stresses in the different
materials.
Problem 1.33: A reinforced concrete column 25 cm  25 cm in section is

reinforced with 4 steel bars of 1.25 cm diameter, one in each corner. The
column is carrying a load of 250 tonnes. Find the stresses in the concrete
and steel bars.
Take E for steel  0.21  107 kg/cm2
and E for concrete  0.14  106 kg/cm2
Solution:
Data Given: Size of con crete column  25cm  25cm;

Diameter of steel bar  1.25cm
Load  250 tonnes  250  103kg
Esteel  0.21  107 kg/cm2
Econcrete  0.14  106 kg/cm2
To find: Stresses in concrete and steel

We know, strain in steel  strain in concrete
esteel  econcrete
steel concrete

Esteel Econcrete
Es
s  
Ec c
0.21  107
s   c
0.14  106
s  15 c ...(1)
We know, P  Ps  Pc  sAs  cAc

As   1.252  4  4.908 cm2
4
Ac  25  25  4.908  620.09 cm2
P  sAs  cAc
250  103  s  4.908  c  620.09
 250  103  4.908  15 c  620.09 c

[From (1) ]
 250  103  693.71 c
 c  360.38 kg/cm2
and s  15 c  5405.71 kg/cm2

Problem 1.34: Two vertical rods one of steel and the other of copper are each
rigidly fixed to the top and 45 cm apart. Diameters and lengths of each rods are 2
cm and 4 cm respectively. A cross bar is fixed to the rod at the lower end carries
a load of 4500 N such that the cross bar remains horizontal even after loading. Find
the stress in each rod and the position of the load on the bar. Take
‘E’steel  2  105 N/mm2 and Ecopper  1  105 N/mm2
Solution:
Given Data :
Distance between bar s  45 cm  450 mm
Diameter of each bar  2cm  20mm Length of each bar  4cm  40mm
To find: Stress in each rod; Position of load

Since the cross rod remains horizontal, the elongation of steel and
copper are equal. Thus the strain on the rods are also equal since the rods
have the same original length
es  ec
4 50m m
s c 4 0m m S C
 
Es Ec
 Strain Str ess 

 Young’s modulus  x

Es 4 500N
 s  
Ec c
2  105
s  c
1  105
s  2  c ...(1)
We know, total load  Load on steel  Load on copper
 P
   
A
 
PA
 
4500  sAs  c Ac
 
4500  s   202  c   202
4 4
4500  s  100  c  100
 2c  100  c  100 [From (1)]

4500  3  100  c
4500
c   4.78 N/mm2
300
s  2  c  9.55 N/mm2
To find position of load

Let x be the distance of the load from the copper rod
Taking moments about copper rod
4500  x  Ps  45  0
4500  x   Ps  45
Ps  sAs  9.55  100
 3000N
 4500  x   3000  45
x   30 cm
i.e. 30 cm to left of copper rod
Problem 1.35: A steel rod of 25 mm diameter is placed inside a copper

tube of 30 mm internal diameter and 5 mm thickness and the ends are rigidly
connected. The assembly is subjected to a compressive load of 250 kN.
Detgermine the stresses induced in the steel rod and copper tube. Take the
modulus of elasticity of steel and copper as 200 GPa and 80 GPa
respectively. University Problem
Solution
Given:
Diameter of steel rod, ds  25 mm
Diameters of hollow copper tube.

Inner dia of Cu, dc  30 mm
Outer dia of Cu, Dc  30  5  2  40 mm
Compressive load,
P  250 kN  250  103N
Es  200 GPa  2  105 N/mm2
Ec  80 GPa  0.8  105 N/mm2
To find:
Stresses in steel rod s and copper tube c
We know that
Change in length of steel  Change in length of copper
 Strain in steel  Strain in copper
s c . .
 [ . Original length is same]
Es Ec
Es 2  105
s  c   c 
Ec 0.8  105
 s  2.5 c
We know that,
Total load P  Ps  Pc  Load

Stress 
 Area
250  103  s As  c Ac   Load  stress  area
 
250  103  2.5 c   252  c  402  302
4 4
 1227.19 c  549.8 c
 1776.99 c
250  103
 c   140.68 N/mm2
1776.99
s  2.5  c  2.5  140.68
 351.72 N/mm2
Problem 1.36 A solid copper rod 36 mm diameter is rigidly fixed at both
ends inside a steel tube of 45 mm inside diameter and 50 mm outside
diameter. The composite sections is then subjected to an axial pull of 98 kN.
Determine the stresses induced in rod and tube and total elongation of
composite sections in length of 1 m. E for copper 1.1  105 N/mm2, E for
steel 2  105 N/mm2.
Given
Diameter of solid copper rod  dc  63 mm
External diameter of steel tube  D1  50 mm
Internal diameter of steel tube  D2  45 mm
Axial pull, P  98 kN
 98000 N
Length of composite section, l  1 m  1000 mm
Young’s modulus of copper  Ec  1.1  105 N/mm2
Young’s modulus of steel  Es  2  105 N/mm2

9 8kN
C o pp er
ro d
S tee l
tu be
9 8kN
Required Data,
1. Stress induced in copper and steel, ‘c’ & ‘s’
2. Total elongation l
Solution

Area of copper rod  Ac   d2c
4

  362
4
Ac  1017.87 mm2
 2
Area of steel tube, As  D  D22
4 1

 502  452
4
As  373.064 mm2
Let c and s be stress induced in copper and steel.

s c

Ec Ec
s c

2  10 5
1.1  105
s  1.818 c ...(1)
The total load is equal to sum of load shared by 2 materials
s As  c Ac  Total load
373.064 s  1017.876 c  98000 ...(2)
Substitute the value of s in (2) from (1)
373.064  1.818 c  1017.876 c  98000
678.23 c  1017.876 c  98000
1696.106 c  98000
c  57.779 N/mm2
Substitute the value of c in (1), we get

s  1.818  57.779
s  105.042 N/mm2
s l c l
Total elongation  
Es Ec
105.0421  1000
l 
2  105
l  0.5252 mm
Problem 1.37: A steel rod of 20 mm diameter is enclosed centrally in a hollow
copper tube of external diameter 30 mm and internal diameter 25 mm. The
composite bar is then subjected to an axial pull of 40 kN. Find the stresses in the
rod and the tube. Take Es  200 kN/mm2 and Ec  100 kN/mm2
Solution:
Data Given:
Steel rod diameter  20mm
Copper tube external diameter  30mm
Internal diameter  25mm; Load  40kN
Es  200  103 N/mm2; Ec  100  103 N/mm2
To find Stress in rod and tube

Change in length of steel
 Change in length of copper
. .
Strain in steel  Strain in copper [ . es  ec]
s c . .
 [ . Original length is same]
Es Ec
Es 200  103
s   c  c
Ec 100  103
s  2 c ...(1)
We know, total load P  Ps  Pc
. .
40  103  s As  cAc [ . Load  Stress  Area]
 2 
40  103  s  d  c  D2  d2
4 s 4
 
40  103  s   202  c   302  252
4 4
40  103  100s  68.75 c
40  103  100  2 c  68.75  c [From 1]

3
40  10  268.75 c
c  47.376 N/mm2
And s  2 c  2  47.376  94.752
s  94.752 N/mm2
Problem 1.38: A steel rod and two copper rods together support a load of
400 kN as shown in figure. The cross sectional area of steel rod is
2000 mm2 and each copper rod is 1500 mm2. Find the stress in the rods.
Take Es  2  105 and Ec  1  105 N/mm2
Solution
Given Data:
Load  400kN  400  103 N
Area of steel rod As  2000 mm2
Area of copper rod Ac  2  1500  3000 mm2
Es  2  105 N/mm2; Ec  1  105 N/mm2
Length of steel Ls  15  10  25 cm  250 mm
Length of copper Lc  15cm  150mm
To find: Stresses in copper and steel

We know change in length of steel  Change in length of copper.
Strain of steel  original length  Strain in copper  original length.
s c
 Ls   Lc
Es Ec
s c
5
 250   150
2  10 1  105
150 2  105
s    c
1  105 250
s  1.2 c
Also, total load P  Ps  Pc
P  sAs  cAc
400  103  s  2000  c  3000
400  103  1.2 c  2000  c  3000
400  103  5400 c
c  74.07 N/mm2
s  1.2 c  1.2  74.07  88.889 N/mm2
s  88.889 N/mm2
Problem 1.39 Three pillars, two of Aluminium and one of steel support a
rigid platform of 20 kN as shown in Fig. If area of each aluminium pillar
is 1000 mm2 and that of steel pillar is 800 mm2, find the stresses developed
in each pillar. Take Ea  1  105 N/mm2 and Es  2  105 N/mm2. What
additional load ‘P’ can it take if working stresses are 65 N/mm2 in Aluminium
and 150 N/mm2 in steel?
P=?
W = 20 0kN
Alum in ium
Alum inium
200
mm
250mm Stee l
Solution
Step 1
Due to 200 kN load only.
Let Pa be force in each of aluminium pillars and Ps be the force in
steel pillar.
 F force in vertical direction  0
Pa  Ps  Pa  200
2Pa  Ps  200 ...(1)

 Ls   La
Ps Ls Pa La

As Es Aa Ea
Ps  250 Pa  200
5

800  2  10 1000  1  105
Ps  1.28 Pa ...(2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get
Ps  2 Pa  200
Ps  1.28 Pa  0 
3.28 Pa  200
Pa  60.97 kN
Ps  200  2  60.97  78.048
Ps  78.048 kN
Stress developed
60.975
in Aluminium a   1000  60.976 N/mm2
1000
78.048
in Steel s   1000  97.56 N/mm2
800
Step 2 Additional load carrying capacity

(a) If s governs the load carrying capacity
a  65 N/mm2
Pa  65  1000  65000 N
Ps  1.28  65000  83200 N
 Total load carrying capacity  2Pa  Ps
 213.2 kN
(b) If s governs the load carrying capacity
s  150 N/mm2
Ps  150  800  120000 N
120000
Pa 
1.28
Pa  93750 N
Total load capacity  2Pa  Ps
 307500 N  307.5 kN
Selecting s as the governing stress for load carrying capacity,
Pmin  213.2 N
Additional load P  Pmin  W
P  213.2  200
P  13.2 kN
Problem 1.40 A steel rod 18 mm in diameter passes centrally through a

steel tube 25 mm in internal diameter and 30 mm in external diameter. The
tube is 750 mm long and is closed by rigid washers of negligible thickness
which are fastened by nuts threaded on the rod. The nuts are tightened until
the compressive load on the tube is 20 N. Calculate the stresses in the tube
and rod. Find the increase in these stresses when one nut is tightened by
one quarter of a turn relative to the other. There are 4 threads per 10 mm.
Take E  200 kN/mm2
Solution:
Note: When the nuts are tightened, the tube will be compressed and
the rod will be elongated. Since no external forces have been applied, the
compressive load on the tube must be equal to the tensile load on the rod
 2 
Area of tube At  D  d2  302  252  216 mm2
4 4
 2 
Area of Rod AR  d   182  254.5 mm2
4 r 4
Tensile load on rod  Compressive load on the tube
r  Ar  t  At
At
r  t   0.8487 t
Ar
(i) Stress in the tube when Load is 20 kN

20000
Stress in tube  t   92.6 N/mm2 (compressive)
216
At
Stress in rod  r  t   0.8487 t
Ar
 0.08487  92.6  78.6 N/mm2

(ii) When one nut is tightened by one quarter of turn. Let t and r be
stresses in tube and rod due to tightening of nut.
Obviously r  0.8487 t
Reduction in length of tube

 t  t  750
t  l  0.00375  t mm
E 200  103
Extension in length of Rod
 r 0.8487  t
r  l  750  0.003183  t mm
E 200  103
Reduction in tube length + Extension in Rod Length  Axial movement

in nut
1 1
0.00375  t  0.003183  t   10
4 4
0.006933  t  0.625 m
  t  90.15 N/mm2 (compressive)
 r  0.8487  90.15  76.52 N/mm2 tensile
Problem 1.41 Three bars made of copper, zinc and aluminium are of equal
length and have cross-section 500, 750 and 1000 square mm respectively.
They are rigidly connected at their ends. If this compound member is
subjected to a longitudinal pull of 250 kN estimate the proportion of the load
carried on each rod and induced stresses. Take the value of E for copper
 1.3  105 N/mm2, for zinc  1  105 N/mm2 and for aluminium
5 2
 0.8  10 N/mm
A lum in iu m
C op pe r
Zin c
P = 2 50 kN
Solution
Total load, P  250 kN  250  103 N
For copper bar,
Area, Ac  500 mm2
Ec  1.3  105 N/mm2
For zinc bar,
Area Az  750 mm2
Ez  1  105 N/mm2
For aluminium bar,

Area, Aa  1000 mm2
Es  0.8  105 N/mm2

a  stress induced in copper bar
z  stress induced in zinc bar
a  stress induced in aluminium bar
Pc  load shared by copper rod
Pz  load shared by zinc rod
Pa  load shared by aluminium rod
L  length of each bar
Strain in copper  Strain in zinc  Strain in aluminium

Stress in copper Stress in zinc Stress in aluminium
 
Ec Ez Ea
c z a
 
Ec Ez Ea
Ec 1.3  105
c   a    1.625 a
Ea 0.8  105 a ...(1)
Ez 1  105
z   a   a  1.25 a
Ea 0.8  105 ...(2)
Total load  Load on Load on Load on
 
copper zinc Aluminium
250  103  stress in copper  Ac  stress in zinc  Az
 stress in Aluminium  Aa
 c  Ac  z  Az  a  Aa
 1.625 a  500  1.25 a  750  a  1000
 2750 a
250  103
a   90.9
2750
a  90.9 N/mm2
Substitute the value of in equation (1) and (2), we get
c  1.625  90.9  147.7 N/mm2
z  1.25  90.9  113.625 N/mm2

Now load shared by copper Pc  c  Ac
 147.7  500  73850 N
Load shared by zinc Pz  z  Az
 113.625  750  85218 N
Load shared by aluminium rod Pa  a  Aa
 90.9  1000  90900 N
1.24 BAR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH

Fig. 1.23 shows a bar subjected to an external tensile load P. If the
bar had been of uniform cross section, the tensile stress intensity at any
section would be constant, only if the self weight of the member is ignored.
If the self weight is considered, the intensity of stress increases for sections
at higher level.
A1
A A = Area
A2
Fig. 1.23
It is possible to maintain a uniform stress for all the sections by

increasing the area from the lower end to the upper end.
If A1 and A2 are the area at upper and lower ends. If w is the weight
per unit volume of member and  be the uniform stress intensity, then we
have
A1  A2 e wl/ 
A1 w
i.e ln  l
A2 
At any location x from bottom with Area A

A w
ln  x
A2 
Problem 1.42: A vertical tie of uniform strength is 18 m long. If the area

of the bar at lower end is 500 mm2; find the area at the upper end when
the tie is to carry a load of 700 kN. Take w  8  10 5 N/mm3
Solution:
Given: A2  500 mm2 ; l  18 m ; Load P  700 kN ;
w  8  10 5 N/mm3
700  103
Intensity of stress    1400 N/mm2
500
Area at upper end

A1 w
We know that, ln  l
A2 
A1 8  10 5  18000
ln 
A2 1400
A1
 1.001029
500
 A1  1.001029  500  500.514 mm2
Area at upper end A1  500.514 mm2

1.25 THERMAL STRESSES

When a body is subjected to an increase in temperature the body tends
to expand. This is due to the tendency of the molecules to move further apart
from each other. When the body is cooled it will contract. If this body is
allowed to expand or contract freely with the increase and decrease in
temperature, the body will not undergo any stresses. However, if the
deformation of the body is prevented by some means, stresses will be induced
in the body. This type of stress is called thermal stress or temperature
stress. The corresponding strain is called thermal strain or temperature
strain.
1.25.1 Thermal Stresses in Simple Bars

The thermal stress in a body can be calculated by the following
method.
(a) Calculate the amount of deformation, the body will undergo due to
the temperature change
(b) Calculate the force used to bring the body back to its original length
(c) Calculate the stress induced by the above load
Consider a body subjected to increase in temperature
Let ‘l’ be the length of the rod; ‘t’ be the increase in temperature and
‘’ be the coefficient of linear expansion
The increase in length l due to the change in temperature ‘t’
l  l    t
If the ends of the bar are fixed so that the bar cannot expand, there
is compressive stress and strain induced.
l lt
Compressive strain is e    t
l l
Stress
E
Strain
Stress  Strain  E
   t  E
The compressive stress   eE    t  E
tE
In some cases where the supporting structures of the rod are not rigidly
fixed, they might yield to a certain distance  due to the stress on the rod.
Then the actual expansion of the rod would be
l  l t  
l lt   
The strain here is e    t 
l l l
 
and stress induced   eE   t    E
 l 
T for kelvin
t for C; But here, change in temperature will not be affected in T

(or) t. So both T (or) t can be used in the equation.
Problem 1.43 A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10C. Find the

expansion of the rod, when the temperature is raised to 80C. If this
expansion is prevented, find the stress induced in the material of the rod.
Take E  1.0  105 MN/m2 and   0.000012 per degree centrigrade.
Given
Length of rod  2m  2000 mm
Initial temperature  t1  10 C
Final temperature  t2  80 C
Rise in temperature  t  t2  t1
 80  10  70 C
Young’s modulus, E  1.0  105 MN/m2
 1  105 N/m2
Co-efficient of linear expansion   0.000012

Step 1
Expansion of rod due to temperature rise   tL
 0.000012  70  2000
 1.68 mm
Step 2
Stress in the material of rod if expansion is prevented by equation
Thermal stress,    tE
 0.000012  70  1.0  105 N/mm2
 84 N/mm2
P  84 N/mm2
Problem 1.44: A rod is 2.5 m long at a temperature of 20C. Find the
expansion of the rod, when the temperature is raised to 90C. If the expansion
is prevented, find the stress induced in the material of the rod. Take
E  2  105 N/mm2 and   0.000012/C
Solution:
Data Given:
Length l  2.5 m; Initial tempeatur e  20 C;

Final temper atur e  90 C; Young’s modulus E  2  105 N/mm 2;
Coeff  of Expansion   0.000012/ C
To find
Expansion of the rod; Stress induced in the rod
(i) Expansion of the rod due to temperature rise is given by l
l   tl  0.000012  90  20  2500
l  2.1 mm
(ii) Stress induced in the rod, if the expansion is prevented
    t  E  0.000012  70  2  105
 168 N/mm2
Problem 1.45: A copper rod 2 m long is supported at its ends. If the thermal
stresses should not exceed 60 N/mm2, calculate the temperature through which
the rod should be heated if: (a) The supports do not yield; (b) The supports
yield by 1 mm: Take E  1  105 N/mm2 and   18  10 6 / C.
Solution:
Data Given:
Length ‘l’  2 m; Maximum stress   60 N/mm2;
Coefficient of expansion   18  10 6 / C;
Young’s Modulus E = 1  105 N/mm2

To find: Temperature change
(a) When the supports do not yield
Thermal Stress     t  E
60  18  10 6  t  1  105
60
Rise in temperature t  6
 33.33  C
18  10  1  105
(b) When the supports yield by 1 mm
 l 
Thermal Stress    t   E
 l 
1 
60   18  10 6  t    1  10
5
 2000 
60 1
 18  10 6  t 
1  10 5 2000
60 1
  18  10 6  t
1  105 2000
18  10 6  t  1.1  10 3
1.1  10 3
Rise in Temperature t   61.11  C
18  10 6
Problem 1.46 A steel rod of 3 cm diameter and 5 m long is connected to

two grips and the rod is maintained at a temperature of 95C. Determine
the stress and pull exerted when the temperature falls to 30C if
(i) the ends do not yield (ii) the ends yield by 0.12 cm
Take E  2  105 MN/m2 and   12  10 6/ C
Given
Dia of rod, d  3cm  30 mm

Area of rod, A  302
4
 225  mm2
Length of rod, l  5 m  5000 mm
Initial temperature t1  95 C
Final temperature t2  30 C
Change in temperature, t  t1  t2  95  30  65C
t  65 C
Modulus of elasticity, E  2  105 MN/m2

 2  105  106 N/mm2
 2  1011 N/mm2
Co-efficients of linear expansion
  12  10 6 / C
Step 1 When the ends do not yield

Thermal Stress    t  E
 12  10 6  65  2  105
 156 N/mm2 Tensile
Pull in rod  stress  area
 156  225 
 110269.9 N
Step 2
When the ends yield by 0.12 cm
  0.12 cm  1.2 mm
tl
Stress   E
 l 
 12  10 6  65  5000  1.2  5
   2  10
 5000 
 3.9  1.2  5
   2  10
 5000 
 108 N/mm2
Pull in the rod  stress  area
 108  225 
 76340.7 N
1.25.2 Thermal Stresses in Composite Bars

When two materials are subjected to the same temperature change,
they will expand or contract to different length. This is because each material
has its own coefficient of expansion. Suppose two materials of different
coefficients of expansion are rigidly fixed together and is subjected to a rise
in temperature. If the bars were free to expand, no stress would be induced,
but since the bars are rigidly fixed together, they would have to expand by
the same amount. This would cause a compressive stress in the material with
a higher coefficient of expansion and a tensile stress in the material with a
lower coefficient of expansion
Let 1 and 2 be the stress induced in the material 1 and 2 respectively
e1, e2 be the strains induced in materials 1 and 2 and 1, 2 be the

coefficients of expansion of materials 1 and 2.
The compressive load on one material is equal to the tensile load on
the other
1A1  2A2 ...(1)
Since the materials are rigidly fixed together the expansion is the same.
 Actual expansion in material 1  Actual expansion in material 2
Actual Expansion in material 1
Free expansion Expansion due to tensile
 
in Material 1 stress in Material 1
1
 1TL  L
E1
Actual expansion in material 2
Free expansion Contraction due to compressive
 
in Material 2 stress in 2
2
 2TL  L
E2
Actual Expansion in 1  Actual Expansion in 2
1 2
 1TL  L  2TL  L
E1 E2
1 2
 1T   2T 
E1 E2
On rearranging the above equation we get

1 2
2T  1T  
E E

if  strain e per unit length
E
1 2
  e1  e2  T 2  1
E E
Total strain e1  e2  T 2  1
Problem 1.47: A steel rod of 20 mm passes centrally through a copper

tube of 50 mm external diameter and 40 mm internal diameter. The tube is
closed at each end by rigid plates. If the temperature of the assembly is
raised by 50C, calculate the stresses developed in copper and steel. Take
Es  200 kN/mm2, Ec  100 kN/mm2,

s  12  10 6 perC, c  18  10 6perC
Solution
Given
Dia. of steel rod, ds  20 mm
Dia. of copper tube, Dc  50 mm & dc  40 mm
Change in Temperature, T  50C
Es  200 kN/mm2  200  103 N/mm2
Ec  100 kN/mm2  100  103 N/mm2
s  12  10 6/C ; c  18  10 6/C
Since c  s, copper will expand more than steel. But, here the copper
tube is closed at each end by rigid plates, the steel rod and copper tube are
not free to expand. The members expand by the same amount. The copper
tube, supposed to expand more, being restricted, will be subjected to
compressive stress c while the steel rod will be subjected to tensile stress
s.
For the equilibrium of the system,

Tensile load on steel  Compressive load on copper.
i.e s  As  c  Ac
 
s   d2s  c   D2c  d2c 
4 4
 2
D  d2c  D2c  d2c 
4 c 502  402
s  c   c   
 2 d2s c
202
ds
4
s  2.25 c
We know that
Actual expansion of steel  Actual expansion of copper
Expansion due to tensile

 Free expansion of steel 
stress in steel
Contraction due to
 Free expansion of copper 
compressive stress in copper
s c
i.e., s T  L   L  c T  L  L
Es Ec
s c
 s  T   c T 
Es Ec
Substituting the values,

2.25 c c
12  10 6  50  3
 18  10 6  50 
200  10 100  103
0.0006  1.125  10 5 c  0.0009  0.1  10 4 c
1.125  10 5 c  0.1  10 4 c  0.0009  0.0006
2.125  10 5 c  0.0003
0.0003
 c   14.117 N/mm2
2.125  10 5
s  2.25  c  2.25  14.117  31.76 N/mm2
c  14.117 N/mm2 & s  31.76 N/mm2
Problem 1.48: A steel rod of 25 mm diameter passes centrally through a

copper tube of 55 mm external diameter and 40 mm internal diameter. The
tube is closed at each end by rigid plates of negligible thickness. If the
temperature of the assembly is raised by 60C, calculate the stresses
developed in copper and steel. Take E for steel and copper are
200 GN/m2 and 100 GN/m2 and  for steel and copper as
6 6
12  10 / C and 18  10 / C.
Solution:
Data Given: Dia of steel rod  25 mm; Dia of copper tube D  55 mm;
d  40 mm; Esteel  200  103 N/mm2;
Ecopper  100  103 N/mm2; steel  12  10 6 / C; copper  18  10 6 / C
Since copper is more than steel, copper will expand more than steel.
But since the ends of the rod and tube are fixed to the end plate, the members
are not free to expand. The tube and the rod would expand by the same
amount. The free expansion of copper would be more than the common
expansion whereas the free expansion of steel will be less than the common
expansion. Hence, the copper tube will be subjected to compressive stress
while the steel rod will be subjected to tensile stress.
Let s be the tensile stress in steel and c be the compressive stress

in copper
For the equilibrium of the system
Tensile load on steel  Compressive load on copper
sAs  cAc
Ac
s  
As c

 552  402
4
  c

 252
4
35.6 25
s  
156.25 c
s  2.28 c
...(1)
We know that the copper tube and the steel rod will actually expand
by the same amount. Actual expansion of steel  Actual expansion of copper
Free expansion Expansion due to tensile


of steel stress in steel
Free expansion Contraction due to
 
of copper Compressive stress in copper
s c
sTL  L  cTL  L
Es Ec
s c
 sT   cT 
Es Ec
2.28 c c
12  10 6  60  3
 18  10 6  60 
200  10 1  105
2.28c c
  18  10 6  60  12  10 6  60
2  105 1  105
72
3.28  c  72 ; c   2.195
3.28
c  21.95 N/mm2 ; s  2.28 c ; s  50.05 N/mm2
1.25.3 Thermal Stress in Taper Bar - Circular Section

l – Length of bar
d1 – diameter at Bigger end
d2 – diameter at Smaller end
T – Increase in temperature
 – Coefficient of linear expansion
If the bar AB is subjected to rise in temperature, the bar AB will tend

to expand. But since both ends are fixed, compressive stress is induced.
Elongation due to rise in temperature
l  l    T ...(1)
P  Load required to bring to original length
4Pl
then l  ...(2)
Ed1d2
Equating (1) and (2) we get

A B
4Pl
lT
Ed1d2
d1 d2
Ed1d2 T
 Load P 
4

Maximum stress
Fig 1.24
Load Ed1d2T  TEd1
max   
Area A2  2 d2
4   d2
4
TEd1
 max 
d2
If d1  d2 ; max  TE  As same for simple bar
Problem 1.49: A circular bar rigidly fixed at its both ends uniformly tapers
from 75 mm at one end to 50 mm at the other end. If its temperature is
raised through 26 K, then what will be the maximum stress developed in the
bar? Take E as 200 GPa and  as 12  10 6 / K for the bar material.
Given:
Larger dia of taper bar, d1  75 mm
Smaller dia of taper bar, d2  50 mm

Temperature raise, T  26 K
E  200 GPa  200  103 N/mm2
  12  10 6 / K
Solution:
Maximum stress induced in the taper bar,
 TE d1
max 
d2
12  10 6  26  200  103  75


50
 9360 N/mm2
Problem 1.50: A rigid fixed bar 1.75 m long uniformly tapers from 250
mm diameter at one end to 200 mm diameter at the other. Maximum stress
in bar is limited to 216 MPa. Find the temperature through which it can be
heated. Take E  100 GPa ;   18  10 6 / C
Solution:
Given L  1.75 m ; d1  250 mm ; d2  200 mm ;
max  216 MPa  216 N/mm2;
  18  10 6 /  C ; E  100 GPa  100  103 N/mm2

We know that the maximum stress induced in a taper bar is given by
  T  E  d1
max 
d2
18  10 6  T  100  103  250

216 
200
Rise in Temperature
216  200
T   96 C
6
18  10  100  103  250
1.25.4 Thermal Stress in Varying Section Bar
PQR is varying section bar
P R
subjected to increase in
Q
temperature
l1, 1, A1  length, stress, area in
A1 A2
section 1
l2, 2, A2  length, stress, area in
section 2
1 2
Fig 1.25
  Coefficient of Expansion
T  Increase in Temperature
Thermal load is shared equally in both the sections
1A1  2A2
Total deformation of the bar (Free expansion)

1l1 2l2
l  l1  l2   (For Different E )
E1 E2
1
l  [ l  2l2] [for same E]
E 11
Problem 1.51: A steel rod ABC is fixed between two supports A and C as
shown in figure. Find the stress developed in the two portions of the rod,
when it is heated through 15C. Take   12  10 6 /C E  200 GPa
Solution:
If 1 and 2 are stresses in section (1) and (2)
We know that 1A1  2A2
A2 600
 1   2    1.5 2
A1 400 2
1  1.52
Expansion (free) in part one due to rise in temperature
l1  l1    T  500  12  10 6  15  0.09 mm
Similarly
l2  l2    T  800  12  10 6  15  0.144 mm
Total Expansion of rod

l  l1  l2  0.09  0.144  0.234 mm
Also We know that

1
l   l  2l2
E 11
1
0.234  1.52  500  2  800
200  103
0.234  7.75  10 3 2
0.234
 2   30.2 N/mm2  30.2 MPa
7.75  10 3
Also 1  1.5 2  1.5  30.2  45.3 MPa
Problem 1.52: A composite bar made up of aluminium and steel, is held

between two supports as shown in figure. The bar is stress free at a
temperature of 40C. What will be the stresses in the two bars when the
temperature is 23C, if (a) the supports are not yielding (b) the supports
come nearer to each other by 0.1 mm? Temp change is uniform along the
length of bar. Take Esteel  200 GPa, EAluminium  75 GPa,
 S  11.7  10 6 / C ;  Al  23.4  10 6 /C
2
A st= 10 00 m m A Al= 50 0m m 2
S tee l A lum in iu m
6 00 m m 3 00 m m
Solution:
Given lst  600 mm ; lAl  300 mm ; Ast  1000 mm2 ;
AAl  500 mm2 ; Decrease in temp T  40  23  17C ;
If st, Al are stresses in Steel and Aluminium bar,

Free expansion in bars due to the temperature
lst  lst  st  T  600  11.7  10 6  17  0.119 mm
lAl  lAl  st  T  300  23.4  10 6  17  0.119 mm
Total Contraction in bar l  lst  lal  0.119  0.119  0.238 mm
st  lst Al  lAl

We know that l  
Est EAl
(a) When supports does not yield

st  Ast  Al  AAl
500
st  Al   0.5 Al
1000
st  0.5 Al
0.5 Al  600 Al  500

 l  0.238  3

200  10 75  103
0.238  5.5  10 3 Al
 Stress in aluminium bar

0.238
Al   43.3 N/mm2
5.5  10 3
Stress in steel bar st  0.5  43.3  21.65 N/mm2
(b) When the supports come near by 0.1 mm

l  0.238  0.1  0.138 mm
st  lst Al  lAl
0.138  
Est EAl
0.5 Al  600 Al  300

0.138  3

200  10 75  103
0.138
Al   25.1 N/mm2 or 25.1 MPa
5.5  10 3
 st  0.5  25.1  12.55 N/mm2 or 12.55 MPa
Problem 1.53: A flat steel bar 200 mm  20 mm  8 mm is placed between

two Aluminium bars 200 mm  20 mm  6 mm to form a composite bar. All
three bars are fastened at room temperature. Find the stress in each bar when
whole assembly is raised by 80C. Take Est  200 GPa ; EAl  80 GPa ;
 st  12  10 6/ C ;  Al  24  10 6 / C
Solution:
Size of steel  200  20  8
Size of aluminium  200  20  6
Area of steel Ast  20  8  160 mm2
Area of aluminium AAl  20  6  2  240 mm2
We know that Al  AAl  st  Ast
AAl 240
st  Al    A  1.5A
Ast 160
st  1.5 A
st st
Strain in each bar est  
Est 200  103
Al Al
eAl  
EAl 80  103
We know that total strain

est  eAl  T A  S
st Al
3  3  80 [24  10 6  12  10 6]
200  10 80  10
1.5 Al Al

3
  960  10 6
200  10 80  103
20  10 6 Al  960  10 6
Stress in Aluminium bar
960  10 6
Al   48 N/mm2 or 48 MPa
20  10 6
Stress in steel bar st  1.5A
 1.5  48  72 N/mm2 or 72 MPa

Problem 1.54: A rigid slab weighing 1600 kN is placed upon two bronze rods
and steel rod each of 6000 mm2 area at a temperature of 25 C as shown in
figure. Find the Temperature at which the stress in steel rod will be zero.
Take: st  12  10 6 / C ;  Br  18  10 6 / C; E Br  80 GPa
E st  200 GPa ;
Solution:
Given: P  1600 kN; ABr  Ast  6000 mm2
T  Rise in temperature when stress in steel rod is zero
Since Br  st, Bronze will expand more than steel. If steel bar stress
is zero, then the loads should be shared only by Bronze bars. In others words,
decrease in length of two bronze bars should be equal to the difference of
the expansion of bronze rods and steel rod.
Br Br
Free expansion of bronze rod
lBr  lBr  Br  T
 250  18  10 6  T  4.5  10 3 T
Free expansion of steel rod lst  lst  st  T
 300  12  10 6 T  3.6  10 3 T
Difference in expansion of two rods
 4.5  10 3 T  3.6  10 3 T  0.9  10 3 T ...(1)

Contraction in bronze rod due to load 1600 kN.
PlBr 1600  103  250

   0.4166 mm
ABr  EBr 2  6000  80  103 ...(2)
. .
[ . ABr  2 rods area  2  6000]
Equating (1) and (2) 0.9  10 3 T  0.4166
or Rise in Temperature T  462.2  C

1.26 ELASTIC CONSTANTS

Modulus of Elastiticity, Modulus of Rigidity and Bulk Modulus are
the three elastic constants.
1.26.1 Modulus of Elasticity
The Ratio of the axial stress to the corresponding axial strain is found
to be constant within elastic limit. This constant is called “Modulus of
Elasticity”. It is denoted by letter ‘E’.
Axial stress
E
Axial strain
Unit for modulus of elasticity is N/mm2 (or) Pascal or MPa.

1.26.2 Rigidity Modulus (or) Shear Modulus
The Ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain is found to
be a constant upto elastic limit of material. This constant is called “Modulus
of Rigidity” or “Shear Modulus”.
It is denoted by G, C, N, etc.
Shear stress
Shear Modulus, G 
Shear strain
1.26.3 Bulk Modulus


The Ratio of direct stress to the
corresponding volumetric strain is found to be
constant upto elastic limit. This elastic
constant is called “Bulk Modulus”. It is
denoted by letter ‘K’.

Direct stress
K
Volumetric strain 

K
ev Fig. 1.26 (a)
1.26.4 Linear Strain and Lateral Strain

A body under the axial deformation is subjected to the following
strains.
1. Primary or Linear strain
2. Secondary or Lateral strain
A A A
d 1 d 1
B B
 d 2
B ·
Fig 1.26 (b ) P
When a bar AB is subjected to an axial load P, then the bar is subjected

to a deformation both axially and radially. The strain in axial direction is
called primary or Linear strain and the strain in every direction at right
angle to primary strain is called Lateral strain
The bar is expanded by length l and the diameter of the bar reduces
from d1 to d2
l
Linear strain e 
l
1.27 POISSON’S RATIO

If a body is stressed within the elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a
1
constant ratio to the linear strain known as Poisson’s Ratio  or  
m 
Lateral strain 1
 A constant known as Poisson’s Ratio  or  
Linear strain  m 
1
Lateral strain  ee
m
d2  d1 d
Also Lateral strain  
d1 d
In case of a rectangular bar
b t
Lateral strain  or
b t
b  width of bar
t  thickness of bar
Problem 1.55: A steel bar 3 m long, 50 mm wide and 30 mm thick is
subjected to an axial pull of 200 kN in the axial direction. Find the change
in length, width and thickness of the bar. Take E  2  105 N/mm2 and
poisson’s ratio  0.3
Solution:
Given Data
Length  3m  3000 mm; Width  50 mm;
Thickness  30 mm; Load  200 kN;

1
E  2  105 N/mm2; Possion’s ratio  0.3
m
To find: Change in length l; Change in breadth (b; Change in thickness
t
Pl 200  103  3000

Change in length l    2 mm
AE 30  50  2  105
l 2
Longitudinal Strain    6.667  10 4
l 3000
Lateral strain 1

Longitudinal strain m
1
Lateral strain   Longitudinal strain
m
 0.3  6.667  10 4  2  10 4
Change in width b  b  Lateral Strain
 50  2  10 4  0.01 mm
Change in thickness t  t  Lateral strain
 30  2  10 4  0.006 mm
Problem 1.56: Determine the values of Young’s modulus and poisson’s ratio
of a metallic bar of length of 25 cm, breadth 5 cm and depth 5 cm when
the bar is subjected to an axial compressive load of 1.75 MN. The decrease
in length is 0.175 cm and increase in breadth is 0.013 cm.
Solution:
Given Data: Length  25 cm; Br eadth  5 cm  50 mm ;

Load  1.75 MN; l  0.175 cm; b  0.013 cm
To find: Poisson’s Ratio; Young’s Modulus
l 0.175
Longitudinal strain: 
l 25
 7  10 3
b 0.013
Lateral strain  
b 5
 2.6  10 3
Lateral Strain 2.6  10 3

Poisson’s Ratio: 
Longitudinal Strain 7  10 3
1
 0.37
m
Stress Load 1
Young’s Modulus   
Strain Area Strain
1.75  106
E  1  105
3
50  50  7  10
E  1  105 N/mm2
1.28 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

Whenever a body is subjected to a force it will undergo a change in
its dimensions. This deformation of the body will also cause some change in
the volume. The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume is
called volumetric strain.
V
Volumetric strain is given as ev 
V
where V  Change in volume
V  Original volume
1.28.1 Rectangular Body Subjected to Axial Loading

For a rectangular body subjected to an axial load, the volumetric strain
can be calculated by
V P  2
 1  
V btE  m
V 2  . . . P  Linear strain 
or  e  1    
V  m   btE 
where P Load
b Width
t Thickness
1 Poisson’s ratio

m
E Young’s modulus
Problem 1.57: A steel bar 350 mm long, 55 mm wide and 40 mm thick is

subjected to a pull of 300 kN axially. Determine the change in volume. Take
1
E  2  105 N/mm2 and  0.25
m
Solution:
Data Given: Length  350 mm; E  2  105 N/mm2; Width  55 mm;
1
 0.25; Thickness  40 mm
m
To find: Change in volume

Original volume  L  b  t  350  55  40
 770  103 mm3

V P  2
Volumetric strain   1  
V btE  m
300  103
 1  2  0.25
55  40  2  105
 3.409  10 4
Change in volume V  Volumetric strain  V
 3.409  10 4  770  103
V  262.6 mm3
Problem 1.58 A steel bar 400 mm long, 60 mm wide and 15 mm thick is
subjected to an axial tension of 100 kN. Calculate the final dimensions and
change in volume of bar. Take E  2  105 N/mm2 & 1/m  0.3.
Given data
Breadth of steel bar  b  60 mm
Thickness of steel bar t  15 mm
Length of steel bar  l  400 mm
Axial load  P  100 kN  100  103 N
Young’s modulus  E  2  105 N/mm2

1
Poisson’s ratio   0.3
m
To find
1. Change in length
2. Change in breadth
3. Change in thickness
4. Change in volume
Solution
Volume of bar  b  t  l  60  15  400
 360000 mm3
Area of bar along longitudinal direction
Abt
 60  15
A  900 mm2
P 100  103
Longitudinal strain, e  
AE 900  2  105
e  5.55  10 4
Change in length  Longitudinal strain  length
 5.55  10 4  400
 0.2222 mm
lateral strain
Poisson’s Ratio 
longitudinal strain
lateral strain
0.3 
5.55  10 4
Lateral strain  0.3  5.55  10 4
 1.666  10 4
Change in breadth
Lateral strain 
Breadth
Change in breadth
1.666  10 4 
60
Change in breadth 60  1.666  10 4  9.999  10 3 mm
Change in thickness
Lateral strain 
thickness
Change in thickness  1.666  10 4  15
 2.499  10 3 mm
Change in volume
Volumetric strain ev 
Volume
2
 e  1  
 m 
Change in volume
 5.55  10 4 1  2  0.3
360000
Change in volume  79.992 mm3 increase
1.29 RECTANGULAR BAR SUBJECTED TO 3 MUTUALLY

PERPENDICULAR FORCES
Consider a rectangular body subjected to
tensile loading in 3 mutually perpendicular z
direction i.e., x, y and z
Let x be the stress in the x direction

x
y be stress in the y direction
and z be stress in the z direction

y
Fig. 1.27
The volumetric strain is given by the
formula
1 2
ev    y  z  1  
E x  m 
Problem 1.59: A metallic bar 400mm  100mm  40mm is subjected to a
force of 5.5 kN (tensile), 6.5 kN (tensile) and 4 kN (tensile) along the
x, y and z direction respectively. Determine the change in the volume of block.
Take E  2  105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio  0.25.
Solution:
Data Given: Dimension of bar  400mm  100mm  40mm;
1
Px  5.5 kN; Py  6.5 kN; Pz  4 kN ;  0.25
m
To find Change in volume z 4kN

Volumetric strain ev
5.5kN
V 1 2
 x  y  z  1  
x
 40
V E  m 100
400
Stress in x direction y 6.5kN
Px 5.5  103
x    1.375 N/mm2
yz 100  40
Stress in y direction
Py 6.5  103
y    0.41 N/mm2
xz 400  40
Stress in z direction
Pz 4  103
z    0.10 N/mm2
xy 400  100
V 1 2
 x  y  z  1  
V E  m 
1
 1.375  0.41  0.10 [1  2  0.25]
2  105
 4.72  10 6
Change in Volume V  Volumetric strain  V
 4.72  10 6  400  100  40
V  7.552 mm3
1.30 CYLINDRICAL ROD SUBJECTED TO AXIAL LOAD

Consider a cylindrical rod of length l and diameter d subjected to an
axial load P. The volumetric strain of the rod can be calculated by the formula
V l 2d
ev   
V l d
Problem 1.60: A steel rod 4.5 m long and 35 mm in diameter is subjected

to an axial pull of 150 kN. Determine the change in the length, diameter
and volume of the rod. Take E  2  105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio  0.25.
Solution:
Data Given: Length l  45m  45  103 mm ;
Diameter d  35mm ; Load  150kN
To find
Change in diameter, length and volume
l stress P
Longitudinal strain  
l E AE
150  103
  7.795  10 4

 352  2  105
4
 Change in length l  Longitudianal strain  l
 7.795  10 4  4.5  103
 3.51mm
Lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio 
Longitudinal strain
Lateral strain  Longitudinal strain  Poisson’s ratio
 7.795  10 4  0.25
 1.95  10 4
d
Lateral strain   1.95  10 4
d
 Change in diameter  d  1.95  10 4  d
 1.95  10 4  35  6.83  10 4 mm

V l d
Volumetric strain   2
V l d
 7.795  10 4  2  1.95  10 4
V
 3.895  10 4
V
 Change in Volume V  3.895  10 4  V

 3.895  10 4   d2  l
4

 3.895  10 4   352  4.5  103
4
V  1686.34 mm3
1.31 BULK MODULUS

When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses of
equal intensity, the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain
is known as bulk modulus. It is usually denoted by K.
Direct stress 
K 
Volumetric strain V
V
1.32 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS

It was already seen that each elastic material has 3 elastic constants.
These constants are inter-related with one another. If the values of any 2
constants are known for a material, the other 2 constants may be easily
determined using the relationship equations.
1.32.1 Relation between Bulk Modulus and Young’s Modulus

Consider a cube ABCD A, B, C, D as shown in Fig.1.28. The cube is
subjected to 3 mutually perpendicular forces of equal intensity.
Consider the deformation of one side of the cube (AB). This side is
subjected to the following strains.
 
1. Tensile strain due to
E
A1 B1
stress on faces BB1 CC1 and AA1 DD1
2. Compressive lateral strain
A B
1  
 due to stress on faces
m E
AA1 BB1 and DD1 CC1. C1
3. Compressive lateral strain

D
1   C
equal to  due to stress on faces Fig 1.28
m E
ABCD and A1B1C1D1
The net tensile strain that AB will suffer is
l   1    1    1 2 
     
l E  m E   m E  E 
 m  ...(1)
We know, the original volume of the cube
V  l3
Differentiating with respect to l
V
 3l2
l
l
V  3l2  l  3l3 
l
l
Substituting from (1)
l
 1 2 
V  3l3  
E  m 
V 3l3   2 3  2 
or  3   1    1m
V l E  m  E  
  E 1  E 1 
      
V 3  2  3 1 2  3  m2 
1   
V E  m  
m

 m 
 
mE E
K (or) K 
3 m  2 2
3  1  
 m 
1.32.2 Shear Stress and Strain
When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces which do not have the same line C C· D D· P
of action, the result will be that the body tends
to shear off across a section leading to shear
stress. The resulting strain is called shear strain.
Consider a cube of length l fixed at the
A B
bottom face AB. A force P is applied tangentially
at CD. The cube gets distorted from ABCD to
ABCD through angle .
Deformation
Shear strain 
Original length
CC 

l
P
Shear stress   
Area
1.32.3 Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity

Within elastic limits, the shear stress is proportional to the shear strain

G

G

G  Modulus of rigidity (or) shear modulus

1.32.4 Relation between Modulus of

Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity
C C · D D ·
Consider a cube of length l subjected

to a shear stress of  D2
The cube will get distorted and the

 
diagonal AD will get elongated to AD  and
the diagonal BC will get shortened to BC 
AD   AD A B
Strain of AD 
AD
D D2 DD  cos 45 DD  
   
AD BD 2 2BD 2
We see that the linear strain of the diagonal AD is half of the shear
strain and is tensile. It can also be seen that the linear strain of AC is equal
to half the shear but is compressive
 
Linear strain of AD  
2 2G ...(2)
where   Shear stress
G  Modulus of rigidity
Consider the shear stress  acting on AB, CD, CB and AD. The effect
of this stress will cause a tensile stress on diagonal AD and compressive
stress on BC

The tensile strain on AD due to stress on AD  and tensile strain
E
1 
on BC due to compressive stress on BC  
m E
The combined effect of the above two stresses on diagonal
 1   1  m1
AD      1    
E m E E m  E  m  ...(3)
Equating equations 2 and 3 we get
  m1

2G E  m 
mE E
G 
2 m  1 2  1  1 
 m 

Problem 1.61: In an experiment, a bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to
a pull of 60 kN. The measured extension on gauge length of 200 mm is 0.09
mm and the change in diameter is 0.0039 mm. Calculate the Poisson’s ratio
and the values of the three modulli. University Problem
Given:
Diameter of bar, d  30 mm
Length of bar, l  200 mm
Extension, dl  0.09 mm
Change in dia, d  0.0039 mm
Pulling load, P  60 kN  60  103 N
Solution
l 0.09
Linear strain    4.5  10 4
l 200
d 0.0039
Lateral strain    1.3  10 4
d 30
1 Lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio, 
m Linear strain
1.3  10 4

4.5  10 4
1
 0.289
m
Pl
Change in length, l 
AE
Pl
(or) E
A  l
 d2 302
A   706.86  mm2
4 4
60  103  200
 Young’s Modulus E 
706.86  0.09
E  188628.08 N/mm2
E 188628.08
Bulk Modulus K  
 2  3 1  2  0.289
31 
 m
 K  148995.3 N/mm2
E
Rigidity Modulus, G 
1

2  1  
 m 
188628.08
  73168.38 N/mm2
2 1  0.289
Problems 1.62: A bar of 40 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 50 kN.

The measured extension on gauge length of 200 mm is 0.2 mm and change
in diameter is 0.005 mm. Calculate (i) Young’s modulus; (ii) Poisson’s ratio;
(iii) Bulk modulus.
Solution:
Given Data: Diameter of bar  40mm ; Load  50kN;
Gauge length l  20 mm; Extension l  0.2 mm;

Change in diameter d  0.005 mm
To find: (i) Young’s modulus; (ii) Poisson’s ratio; (iii) Bulk modulus;
Stress
(i) Young’s modulus 
Strain
3
Load 50  10
Stress    39.79 N/mm2
Area  2
 40
4
l 0.2
Strain    1  10 3
l 200
Stress 39.79
 Young’s modulus    3.979  104
Strain 1  10 3
E  3.979  104 N/mm2
(ii) Poisson’s Ratio

1 Lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio 
m Longitudinal strain
d  0.005 
d  40 
 
l 1  10 3
l
1
 0.125
m
(iii) Bulk Modulus

E 3.979  104 39.790
K  
2 2.25
3  1   3 1  2  0.125
 m 
K  1.77  104 N/mm2
Problem 1.63: A rod of length 1 m and diameter 20 mm is subjected to a
tensile load 20 kN. The increase in length of the rod is 0.30 mm and decrease
in diameter is 0.0018 mm. Calculate the Possion’s ratio and three moduli.
Solution:
Given: d  20 mm, l  1 m  1000 mm;
P  20 kN  20  103 N; l  0.30 mm; d  0.0018 mm

d 0.0018
Lateral strain     9  10 5
d 20
Linear or longitudinal strain
l 0.3
e    3  10 4
l 1000
(i) Poisson’s ratio

We know that Poisson’s ratio
 1 or    Lateral strain  
m  longitudinal strain e
 
1 9  10 5
or    0.3
m 3  10 4
(ii) Young’s modulus (E)

Tensile stress
3
Load 20  10 20  103  4
     63.65 N/mm2
Area d2   202
4
Youngs modulus
Tensile stress 63.65
E  
Longitudinal strain 3  10 4
 2.12  105 N/mm2
(iii) Rigidity modulus G

We know that E  2G 1  
2.12  105  2  G  1  0.3
2.12  105
G  8.153  104 N/mm2
2  1.3
(iv) Bulk modulus K

We know that E  3K 1  2 
2.12  105  3  K 1  2  0.3

2.12  105
 Bulk modulus K 
3  1  2  0.3
 1.766  105 N/mm2
Problem 1.64: A bar 30mm  30mm  250mm long was subjected to a pull
of 90 kN in the direction of its length. The extension of the bar was found
to be 0.125 mm, while the decrease in each lateral dimension was found to
be 0.00375 mm. Find the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, Rigidity modulus
and Bulk modulus for the material. University Problem
Solution:
Given Data:
b, t and l  30mm  30mm  250mm; Load P  90kN
Extension l  0.125mm;
Decrease in lateral dimension b  0.00375mm

To find: Young’s modulus; Poisson’s ratio; Rigidity modulus; Bulk modulus
P
 
Stress  A  P l
(i) Young’s modulus    
Strain  l  A l
 l 
 
90  103 250
 
30  30 0.125
E  2  105 N/mm2
Lateral strain
(ii) Poisson Ratio 
Longitudinal strain
 b 
 b 
  b l 0.00375 250
      0.25
 l  b l 30 0.125
 l 
 
1
 0.25
m
(iii) Rigidity modulus

E 2  105
G 
1
2  1   2 1  0.25
 m 
G  80  103 N/mm2
(iv) Bulk Modulus
E 2  105
K   133.333  103 N/mm2
2
3  1   3 1  2  0.25
 m 
Problem 1.65 A brass bar 10 mm  10 mm size and 500 mm length is
subjected to an axial compression of 15 kN (bar is prevented from bending).
The decrease in length and increase in lateral dimensions are found to be
0.5 mm and 0.004 mm respectively. Determine the elastic constants of brass.
Given
P  15 kN  15000 N
Area of cross section  A  10  10  100 mm2
15000
Axial stress in bar,  
100
  150 N/mm2
Original length of bar, L  500 mm
Decrease in length, L  0.5 mm
Solution
0.5
Longitudinal strain el   1  10 3
500
Lateral dimension of bar, b  10 mm
Increase in lateral dimension b  0.004 mm

0.004
Lateral strain eb 
10
 0.4  10 3
 150
Young’s modulus, E  
el 1  10 3
E  1.5  105 N/mm2

3
1 eb 0.4  10
Poisson’s Ratio  
m el 1  10 3
1
 0.4
m
Using the relation,
E
Rigidity modulus, G 
1

2  1  
 m 
1.5  105
  0.53571  105
2 [1  0.4]
G  0.5357  105 N/mm2
E 1.5  105
Bulk modulus, K 
2 3 [1  2  0.4]
3 [1  ]
m
K  2.5  105 N/mm2
Elastic constants
Poisson’s Ratio  0.4
Young’s modulus  1.5  105 N/mm2
Rigidity modulus  0.5357  105 N/mm2
Bulk modulus  2.5  105 N/mm2

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First Edition: January 2006

675(1*7+ 2) Second Edition: January 2010

0$7(5,$/6 Fourth Edition: May 2014

This book or part thereof should not be reproduced in any

Dr. S.Ramachandran, Prof. George V.J. IS B N :978-81-924031-4-4

Dr. R. Venkatasubramani Ms. A. Vennila

S.Ramachandran, A/c.No.482894441 (IFSC:IDIB000S201), Indian Bank,

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

© All Rights Reserved by the Publisher

This book or part thereof should not be reproduced in any

ISBN: 978-81-924031-4-4 9 788192 403144

Books will be door delivered after payment into AIRWALK

S.Ramachandran, A/c.No.482894441 (IFSC:IDIB000S201), Indian Bank,

Stress, Strain and Deformation of Solids

1.1 Introduction to Strength of Materials ................................ 1.1

Beams - Loads and Stresses

3.37 Axial Deflection .................................................................. 3.95

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................... 4.1

Strain Energy and Energy Principles

5.1 Strain Energy....................................................................... 5.1

Principal Stresses and Theories of Failures

Introduction .......................................................................... 6.1

Cylinders and Spheres

STRESS, STRAIN AND DEFORMATION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

1.2 RIGID AND DEFORMABLE BODIES

Fig.1.1 After the load is applied on

A material when subjected to an external load system undergoes a

Consider a rod AB subjected to an external load F at the ends as

Load in N, area in mm2, unit of stress N/mm2

1.4 UNIT OF STRESS

Kilo pascal (kPa)  103 Pa

Mega pascal (MPa)  106 Pa

Giga pascal (GPa)  109 Pa

1 GPa  109 Pa  109 N/m2 or 1 GN/m2

 1000  106 N/m2

1 GPa  1000 N/mm2  1 kN/mm2

1.6 TYPES OF STRESS

Norm al Stress Tan gential Stress

Ten sile Com pressive Sh ear Pu nchin g

1.7 NORMAL STRESS: AXIALLY LOADED BAR

respective areas generate a stress resultant that is statically equivalent to the

In the integral form, the load applied is given by Load P    dA

A material is capable of offering the following types of stresses.

1.8 TENSILE STRESS AND TENSILE STRAIN

given by Fig . 1.5 X

Tensile com pressive Lateral Longitudinal Volumetric Shear

Fig. 1.5 (a)

Tensile strain: Ratio of change in length to original length is known as

1.9 COMPRESSIVE STRESS AND COMPRESSIVE STRAIN

1.10 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN

Two forces are passing at section C as shown in Fig. 1.7(b). Internal

Consider a block of height l, length L and width unity Fig.1.9.

Shear force or Resistance R P

1.11 BEARING STRESS (CRUSHING STRESS) IN CONNECTIONS

CD which we have discussed in Fig A

1.12 STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR OF MATERIALS

 Materials such as concrete, stones and bricks that are stronger in

1.12.1 STRESS STRAIN CURVES (TENSION)

1.12.2 STRESS - STRAIN CURVE FOR DUCTILE MATERIALS

Point P : Limit of proportionality

U -U ltim ate stre n gth

P -P rop ortio na lity Lim it