ISSN 0579-4706

© Govt. of India PGSI. 340

Controller of Publication 700-2011 (DSK-II)

GEOLOGY
AND
MINERAL RESOURCES
OF
THE STATES OF INDIA
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GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA
Miscellaneous Publication
No. 30, Part XIX – SIKKIM

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Published by order of the Government of India

2012
 © INDIA, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (2012)

Compiled by
the officers of Sikkim Unit, Operation: WSA

Processing and editing of the manuscript by

S/Sri Subhra Suchi Sarkar, Md. Amjad Ali and Smt. Gargi Bhattacharya
Senior Geologists

under the supervision of

S/Sri Pradip De , Bikash Chandra Roy and K.V.Nambiar
Directors, Publication Division,
Geological Survey of India, Eastern Region
and
under the overall supervision of
Shri I. K. Khan,
Deputy Director General
Geological Survey of India, Eastern Region

Price:
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Published by the Director General, GSI, 27 J. L. Nehru Rd. Kolkata 700016 and printed at
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 Foreword

A
detailed account of Geology and Mineral resources of Sikkim has been
prepared in order to publish the volume in the form of Miscellaneous
Publication 30 series for the first time.

The present write up gives a summarized account of information on the geology,

structure and mineral resources to be used by earth science fraternity, administrators,
entrepreneurs and also common man.

The climate of Sikkim is favourable for medicinal herbs and plants. The temperature
of the state ranges between 4°-35°C in lower altitudes and 1°-25° C in higher altitudes.
The state houses one National Park and five wild life sanctuaries. All these factors
contribute to the setting up of tourism and pharmaceutical industries in years to
come.

The Himalayas in Sikkim has been divided into linear geotectonic belts with distinct
geological characteristics. Beginning from south these are Sub-Himalayas, Lesser
Himalayas, Trans Himalayas and Higher Himalayas. The Main Boundary Thrust
separates the Siwaliks of the sub-Himalayas domain from the Lesser Himalayan
Belt and the Main Central Thrust separates the lesser Himalayas from Higher
Himalayas.

The rocks of the area ranges in age from Proterozoic (undifferentiated & Meso) to
Ordovician followed by Permo-Carboniferous Gondowana rocks overlain by Triassic
sequence of sandstone, shale and limestone and culminating in Upper Pleistocene-
Holocene (variegated clay, fine to medium sand and pebble bed) sediments. Due to
highly deformed nature of rocks the area is susceptible to landslides and the recent
earthquake of September, 2011 has warranted a detailed study of structural data of
the terrain for taking up remedial measures and also for handling various geotechnical
projects.

The state is endowed with rich mineral resources. This includes asbestos, base
metals, coal, dolomite, graphite, limestone, marble, sillimanite, talc, topaz, tungsten &
vermiculite. The details of individual mineral regarding the mode of occurrences,
grade and reserves has been dealt in depth in the manuscript.

Kolkata
Dated, 14th December, 2011

iii
iv
vi
 CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION 1
Climate 1
Agriculture 1
Fauna and flora 1
Physiography and drainage 2
Lakes of Sikkim 3
Glaciers of Sikkim 4
Hot Springs 5

II GENERAL GEOLOGY 6
Stratigraphic classification 6
CENTRAL CRYSTALLINES 6
Chungthang Formation
Kanchenjunga Gneiss/Darjeeling Gneiss (Undifferenciated) 7
Banded / Streaky gneisses / Migmatites 7
Augen bearing biotite gneiss with//without Garnet, Kyanite, Sillimanite 8
Sillimanite Granite Gneiss 8
DALING GROUP 11
Gorubathan Formation 12
Reyang Formation 13
Buxa Formation 13
LINGTSE GRANITE-GNEISS 15
MOUNT EVEREST PELITIC FORMATION 16
MOUNT EVEREST LIMESTONE FORMATION 16
GONDWANA SUPERGROUP 17
Rangit pebble slate 17
Damuda Formation 18
Lachi Formation 19
Chho Lhamo (TSO Lhamo) Formation 21
Intrusive Granites 22
Syenitic Rocks 23
Sesela Formation 24

vii
 STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS 25
METAMORPHISM 28
SEISMICITY AND EARTHQUAKES 30

III MINERAL RESOURCES 32

Asbestos 32
Base metals 32
Lead 40
Calcareous Tuffa 40
Coal 40
Dolomite 42
Graphite 43
Kyanite 44
Limestone 44
Marble 45
Silica and silica sand 46
Sillimanite 47
Talc 47
Topaz 47
Tungsten 47
Uranium mineralization 47
Vermiculite 47

IV LOCALITY INDEX 48

V REFERENCE 48

viii
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Sikkim or Sikhim is a name derived from the
Sanskrit word Shikhim meaning ‘Crested’. In all of
Sikkim there is not a single kilometer of ‘flat land’. With
an area of 7096 sq km, measuring 113 km from north to
south and 64 km from west to east, the state has
elevations ranging from 240 to 8484 meters above mean
sea level. The State of Sikkim is located in the southern
mountain ranges of Eastern Himalayas between Northern
Latitudes 27°05and 28°08 and Eastern Longitudes
88°10 and 88° 55. Sikkim is the 22nd State of the Indian
Union, which came into existence with effect from 16th
May; 1975. Sikkim is bounded by Nepal in the west,
Bhutan in the east, Tibet in the north and state of West
Bengal in the south. The state has been divided into four
districts, viz. East, West, North and South districts and
each district has further been subdivided into two sub-
divisions for administrative purposes.
Climate :
The climate of the State has been roughly divided
into the tropical, temperate and alpine zone. For most
part of the year, the climate is cold and humid. Most
part of the state receives heavy rainfall throughout the
year. It is only in the month of October-March that the
State remains comparatively drier. The extreme northern
parts, adjoining Tibet, however, receive very little
rainfall. The mean annual rainfall is minimum at Thangu
(82 mm) and maximum at Gangtok (3494 mm). An
isohyatal analysis of these data reveals that there are
two maximum rainfall areas (i) South-east quadrant
including Mangan, Singhik, Dikchu, Gangtok, Rongli,
etc. (ii) South-west corner including hilly terrain. In
between these two regions, there is a low rainfall area
(around Namchi). There is an area in north-west Sikkim
which receives less than 4.9 mm of rainfall. Rainfall is
heavy and well distributed during the months from May
to early October. July is the wettest month in most of
the places.
1
1
I. Introduction
Places with an altitude of 6065 m and above are
snowbound and places as low as 3002m come within the
snowline in the winter. The temperature in the lower
altitudes fluctuates between 4°-35°C and places with
moderate height (around 1829 m) such as Gangtok
temperature varies between 1°C and 25°C. In the high
altitude area (above 3993 m), the temperature never rises
above 15°C and slides down to the freezing point in winter.
Agriculture
Agriculture accounts for one third of Sikkim’s gross
domestic product. More than 64% of the population
depends on agriculture for livelihood. Products such as
rice, wheat, maize, finger-millet, barley, buckwheat, and
pulses like ricebean, rajmah, fieldpea, cowpea and
clusterbeans and oil seeds like rapseed, mustard,
soyabean and sunflower are grown in the area. Of late
there is a thrust on planting medicinal herbs, which
abound the natural vegetation. The State is reported to
have more than 424 species of the medicinal plants.
Fauna and flora
Sikkim is enriched in forest resources. The total area
under the administrative control of Forest, Environment
and Wild Life Department is 5765.10 sq km which
accounts for 81.24% of the total geographical area of the
state. The State has one national park (Kangchenjunga
National Park) and five wildlife sanctuaries. Names of
principal endangered species of Sikkim are bharal,
clouded leopard, fishing cat, golden cat, himalayan thar,
leopard cat, red panda, marbled cat, musk deer, nayan of
great Tibetan sheep, pangolin, serow, snow leopard,
spotted lingsang, Tibetan antelope, Tebetan Fox, Tibetan
gazzelle, Tibetan wild ass, tiger, Tibetan wolf. Important
birds are black necked crane (migratory), blood pheasant,
peafowl, Tibetan snow cock, tragopan pheasant, snow
partridge, and siberian crane (migratory).
2 GEOL. SURV. IND
The dominant flora in temperate zone is oak, cuherry,
alurel, chestnut, maple, birch and rhododendron and the
dominant flora in the southern part of Sikkim is plantains,
bamboos, tree ferns, walnut, sal and oak. Cimbidiums,
vanda, cattaleya, hookeriana, farmeri, dendrobiun-
amoenum and noble orchid are the most popular flora.
Physiography and drainage
The State encompasses parts of Lesser Himalaya,
Higher Himalaya, and the Trans Himalaya and hosts
some of the highest mountain peaks of the Himalaya.
The elevation ranges from 300 to 8586 m with increasing
elevation from south to north. In Sikkim-Darjeeling
Himalaya, the Lesser Himalaya starts from Kalijhora
(in Darjeeling) in south/west and continues up to Singhik
(in Sikkim) in north/east. The low grade metamorphic
rocks of Lesser Himalaya start at as low as 300 m and
continue up to 3050 m (Mount Mainak).
In Sikkim exposures of Higher Himalayan rocks start
at about 650 m and continue upto 8586 m (Mount
Kangchenjunga). The outcrops of gneisses with granitic
intrusions exhibit sharp, rugged, snow bound mountains
with steep in accessible scarp faces. Extending in the
form of an east-west trending ridge, it forms a barrier
between the Trans-Himalayan zone and the Lesser
Himalayas with Kanchenjunga as its western limit and
Lama Angdang as the eastern limit and a series of high
peaks, deep valleys, gorges and numerous glaciers in
between. Langbo Chhu, Naku Chhu and Chhombo Chhu
form main drainage flow through flat bottomed ‘U’
shaped valleys and finally meet with Tista River.
The Trans Himalaya starts from 5300 m and continue
upto 7000 m. The snow capped jagged ridges in the
northern portion of the state are feeders to the glaciers
which come down to about 4000 m. The topography of
the northern part, where rocks are of sedimentary origin,
is characterized by barren, reddish-brown mounds and
hillocks, with broad, flat bottomed valleys so typical of
Tibetan plateau. These hillocks are seen protruding out
as fingers, from the main Himalayan ranges, gently
merging with broad plains of Tibetan plateau. The river
valleys are open towards the top and attain a steep gorge
like character towards the beds of river.
In Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalaya the first hill ranges
starting from south are having summit between 1158 m
to 732 m and runs east west. In the western part, the
height increases very sharply to 2592 m within 20 km
crow fly distance towards north. Siwaliks starts at 153
m and ends at 823 m. Dalings continues up to 1220 m
and then Darjeeling Gneiss starts. On the eastern side
Siwalik ends at 732 m, Dalings at 1376 m. At the central
part of the area, i.e. in Tista Dome the height is in general
between 1200 to 2500 m though the summit point is on
3233 m. As soon as the Daling rocks are crossed the
height increases sharply from average 1800 m to 3000
m in the lower reaches, 3000 m to 4500 m in the middle
reaches and 4500 m to 6700 m in the upper reaches of
the dome. The rocks north of South Tibetan Detachment
System(STDS) are in general occurring above 4200 m
to 7300 m.
The Tista Rangit water divide is the main N-S water
divide within the Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalaya. This
water divide takes an E-W swing after crossing the
Daling Dome. The N-S stretch culminates at 3700 m
and the E-W trend shows sharp rise in altitude from 3700
to 7300 m. The west bound water divide is having the
summit point at famous Kangchenjunga peak. Another
N-S water divide is between Lachen Chu and Lachung
Chu which starts at about 3000 m and slowly increases
up to 6700 m.
The other water divide in general trends E W. The
height of the water dividing ridges increases slowly from
1100 m to 1500 m, 2100 m, 3000 m, 3600 m, 6700 m
towards north. These ridges are lower in height in central
portion and height increases both towards eastern and
western side. Sharp increase in height has been observed
after crossing the Daling Dome. On the eastern side of
Tista valley water divide of Rilli, Rongpo, Rani Chu,
and Dickchu are spectacular. The ranges south of Dikchu
being the longest one known as Gangtok ridge as the
Gangtok city is on this ridge. The most important feature
is that these ridges continue crossing the Tista River to
the Rangit - Tista water divide. The ridge portions which
crosses the Tista River are very steep.
North of Dickchu, steep ridges on the eastern side
are there but of smaller extent as the Tista valley are
subdivided by the water divide between Lachen Chu and
Lachung Chu. On the western part long ridges are
present. These are Talang Chu and Zemu Chu water
divide.
Thus, the total relief picture of Sikkim-Darjeeling
Himalaya is such that the northern part is always above
3300 m to 7000 m forming a part of Tibetan Plateau.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
The middle part slowly decreases its height towards
south and central part giving rise to an amphitheater type
relief feature. The amphitheatre follows the trend of
MCT indicating that the Higher Himalaya is uplifted
relative to the Lower Himalaya. The important Mountain
peaks of Sikkim are: Mt. Kanchenjunga (8559.42 m),
Mt. Kabru (7361.36 m), Mt. Talung (7356.8m), Mt.
Siniolchu (6870.4 m), Mt. Simovo (6832.7 m), Mt.
Pandim (6718.4 m), Mt. Rathong (6718.4 m), Mt.
Paunhri (6688m), Mt. Kokthang (6129.2 m), Mt.
Lamaongden (5887.26 m) and Mt. Masunyange (5867.2
m).
Salient feature of Tista Drainage Basin:
Tista is the trunk river in Sikkim-Darjeeling
Himalaya. Like all other major rivers of Himalaya, Tista
is also an antecedent river. It starts from Tso Lamo lake
of Trans Himalayan region of north Sikkim. Near its
origin it initially flows for some distance in E-W
direction, and then takes a sudden N-S trend. Near
Chungthang it takes an ENE – WSW trend from Mongan
takes a N – S trend. This trend continues for its entire
route through Himalaya.
At the upper reaches, before Zemu Chu and Lachen
Chu confluence, i.e. in the north of Higher Himalaya
the valley wall is 1520 m high. The valley wall rises up
to 3344m from Lachen to Dickchu as it enters the Higher
Himalaya. After Dickchu, the valley wall slowly
decreases to 915 m near Rangpo and further downward
in the outer hill ranges the valley wall is 457 m high.
Thus the gorge forming tendency is mostly noticed in
the Higher Himalayan region. It is a case of rapid incision
with higher rate of uplift.
Gradient of longitudinal profile of the Tista River is
very low in lesser Himalaya and slowly increases
towards north. The change in the gradient is very sharp
north of Dickchu, near MCT and highest gradient was
observed near Zemu. After Zemu, towards north the
gradient is again low. The Longitudinal profile of Tista
is concave from lesser to Higher Himalaya but changes
to convex in the higher reaches. It has been observed
that the longitudinal profiles of the Trans Himalayan
Rivers are convexo-concave as they pass from the
Tibetan Plateau through the Higher Himalaya to the
Lesser Himalaya and Sub-Himalaya.
The Tista drainage basin is an asymmetric drainage
basin. The western side is wider than the eastern side.
3
The sub basins of the western side tributaries are bigger
compared to the eastern side. The migration of the river
towards east may be considered to be a result of tilt of
the rocks towards east. A spectacular observation is that
the western bounding water divide of the Tista basin is
always higher than the eastern bounding water divide
across the same latitude. This feature continues all along
the east west trend of the bounding water divides.
Rangit sub basin, the biggest sub basin in the Tista
valley on its western bank, also shows an asymmetric
nature. The southern block is more constricted than the
northern block indicating a tilt towards south (Cox 1994).
The Talang Chu, another sub basin in the western part
of the Tista valley just north of Rangit also shows a
southern block constriction indicating a southern tilt.
However, the river north of Talang Chu, the Zemu Chu
is a symmetric sub basin. The Lachung Chu, the eastern
tributary in the similar latitude also shows a more or
less symmetric sub basin. The Tista basin in this latitude
is symmetric upto the confluence of Lachen Chu and
Zemu. Then the eastern constriction starts. The Tista
basin is again symmetric after Tista Rangit confluence.
The Rongpo Chu, the biggest eastern tributary is
symmetric barring a small part constricted towards north.
The other eastern tributaries are symmetric. The lengths
of the eastern tributaries are smaller compared to the
western tributaries.
The drainage pattern in Tista basin is mostly a
mixture of sub dendritic and sub parallel. However, in
the northern part directional trellis type drainage pattern
is observed. Drainage density is high in the lower reaches
but in the higher reaches the drainage density is
moderately high.
Lakes of Sikkim:
The state is endowed with some of the most
picturesque lakes of Himalayan terrain although they
are not very large in size. Most of the lakes have
originated as depression scooped by the glaciers and
subsequently filled by glacial melt. Others have formed
by the damming of glacial water by the terminal
moraines. The lakes are mostly confined to the northern
part of Sikkim but a few are also found in the western
and eastern part.
Gurudongmar is the largest lake in Sikkim, located
probably at the highest point among the lakes. The well
known Thang Chho Lake which is located in the northern
4 GEOL. SURV. IND
part of the state, very near to the Tibet border, is an in-
filled glacial lake which is bounded on all sides by
moraine ridges. Choka is another spectacular lake of
north Sikkim.
In south-western Sikkim, a number of small lakes
like Lam Pokhri, Kali Pokhri, Kanahailal Pokhri,
Deoningale Pokhri, Torepool pokhri are most prominent
ones. Now these lakes are located in the sub-tropical to
temperate region but they show that once upon a time
the area was covered by heavy snow and glaciers.
Kechopari Lake is another lake that lies on way to
Yoksum from Peling. Chhojo Lake is located SW of
Yoksam on the opposite side of Rathang Chhu. This lake
represents original ‘neve’ region of an ancient hanging
glacier, the depression having developed due to the
scooping action of the glacier. A moraine ridge is seen
lower down forming southern bank of Lethang Valley.
In the eastern part of the state, lakes like Chhangu
Lake, Syeberuka chho, Serabthang chho and many others
have all been produced by the erosive action of the
glaciers moraine which carved depressions in the bottom
of the valley. Such lakes are geologically known as
‘Tarn’. Chhangu (Tsomo) lake is located at an altitude
of 3693 meters. Two nearby lakes are Bidang chho and
Menme chho.
Glaciers of Sikkim :
In Sikkim Himalayas the glaciers are restricted to
the western and northern part of the state. The water of
the glaciers drain into Tista River and hence, are
generally known as Tista Basin glaciers. Puri et al. (1999)
have given detailed account of various glaciers.
The area of four glacierised basins of Sikkim
Himalaya is 7172.21 sq km. These fifth order basins are
East Rathong basin, Talung basin, Changme Khangpu
basin and Zemu basin.
East Rathong basin :
This is the southern most among the basins of Sikkim
Himalayas. It is located west of the Tista River and
extends in that direction towards the Nepal border,
occupying an area of 2351.12 sq km. It supports 36
glaciers and almost all the glaciers are restricted to the
northern part of the basin. Obsequent drainage is most
prominent feature of the basin. The major channel is
Rathong Chhu, which joins the Rajal River at Legship.
The East Rathong basin has preserved multi-cyclic
geomorphic history in which both proglacial and
periglacial regimes are found. Epigenetic gorges are very
common from Bakkim northwards. Distinct U-shaped
valley profile is discernible from south of Dzongri.
Talung basin:
The basin lies towards north of the East-Rathong
basin and is west of Tista River and extends towards the
eastern border of Nepal. It occupies an area of 1270.74
sq km and supports 61 glaciers. Most of the glaciers are
restricted to the northwestern portion of the basin. The
Talung glacier, which is the largest one in the basin
covers a sizable part of northwestern portion of the basin.
Subsequent type of drainage is observed to be common.
This basin has also preserved multi-cycle geomorphic
history in which proglacial and periglacial environments
are discernible. West of Umrang Chhu and Rukal Chhu
confluence, distinct U-shaped profile of the valley and
colonized moraine debris are found which appears to be
the lower limit of the palaeo-glaciation in the valley.
Changme Khangpu basin:
This is the eastern most glacier bearing basin of the
Sikkim Himalayas that lies between the Zemu basin in
west and Chumbi valley (Tibet) in the east. The basin
occupies an area of 1158.75 sq km and supports 102
glaciers. The glacierised area is restricted to the north
of Lachung. In the longitudinal profile of the valley from
Khadom to Yomesomdong, three glacial terraces are
identified. The subsequent fluvial action has resulted in
a few cascades. All along the valley up to Khandom
glacier smoothened valley walls are discernible.
Zemu Basin:
It occupies an area of 2391.60 sq km and is supported
by 250 glaciers. The basin is drained by two major
tributaries, the Zema Chhu and Hema Chhu. The Zema
Chhu sector has an area of 1358.88 sq km. The largest
glacier in this sector is Zemu glacier, which is also the
largest glacier in Sikkim Himalaya. Different cycles of
glacier and periglacial regimes are preserved. The
distinct U-shaped valley profile noticed near Telim
indicates the probable lowest limit of the glaciation in
the basin.
The Hema Chhu sector is located east of Zemu Chhu
and occupies an area of 1032.72 sq km. The largest
glacier in the Hema Chhu sector is Tista Khangse glacier
which is the source of Tista River. Various phases of
geomorphic history have been preserved in this sector
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
and about two km south of Thangu, the evidences of
past glaciation are discernible.
Hot Springs:
The thermal springs of Sikkim are included within
the Himalayan Geothermal Province. More than 1000
hot springs are situated in this collision zone. Sikkim is
blessed with a number of hot springs; out of which five
hot springs in Sikkim are studied in detail. These are
Yumthang hot spring, Yumesamdong hot spring, Borong
hot spring, Polot hot spring and Rishi hot spring.
The Yumthang hot spring, also known as Chhachha
hot spring, is located at about 1.5 km SSW of Yumthang,
North Sikkim district at an altitude of 3570 m on the left
bank slope about 200m above the Yumthang Chhu. The
Yumesamdong hot spring is located at an altitude of 4700
m. It is situated at about 1.5 km NW of Yumesamdong,
about 40 m above the Sebu Chhu river bed. The Borong
hot spring, also known as Mangnam Cha Chu is situated
on the left and right banks of Rangit River at about 1 km
NW of Brang village, West Sikkim district at an altitude
of 1000 m. Polot hot spring also known as Ralong Cha
Chu, is situated on the left and right banks of Rangit
5
River about 1.5 km west of Polot village, West Sikkim
district at an altitude of 920 m. The Rishi hot spring is
also called as Phur Cha Chu hot spring and Tatopani. It
is situated on the left bank of Rangit River about 1.8 km
north of Rishi at about 500 m altitude.
A comparative analysis of the chemical data of the
thermal waters of Borong, Polot and Rishi indicates
less concentration of Na, SiO2 (except Rishi hot spring)
and Cl from Borong hot spring. This may be attributed
to the greater admixture of surface / subsurface water
with original hot fluid in this area. The weight ratios
and constituents concentrations in the three (Borong,
Polot, Rishi) hot springs indicates that these springs
completely differ from volcanic type of thermal water
with the exception of K / Na (for all the springs) and
SO4 / Cl (for Polot and Rishi hot springs) values. Higher
values of HCO 3 / Cl and lower to moderate
concentration of TDS are attributed to the admixture
of cold water at shallower levels. On geochemical
considerations, it can be concluded that the thermal
water of all the springs receive contribution from deep
magmatic source and yet diluted by surface and
subsurface water.
6 GEOL. SURV. IND
The Himalayas are traditionally been divided into
linear geotectonic belts supposedly with distinct
geological characteristics. Beginning from the south
these are Sub Himalayas, Lesser Himalayas, Higher
Himalayas and Trans Himalayas. Like other parts of the
Himalaya, in Sikkim-Darjeeling Himalaya, the Sub
Himalayan domain comprises the molasses type deposits
of the Siwaliks. It is followed northward successively
by a thin strip of sandstone, carbonaceous shale and coal
(Gondwana), stromatolitic dolomite and variegated slate
(Buxa and Reyang Formation of Daling Group) and a
thick metasedimentary sequence of dominantly pelites
with subordinate psammite and wacke (Gorubathan
Formation of Daling Group), constituting the Lesser
Himalayan Belt. Towards the north, Daling sequence is
overlain by Higher Himalayan rocks of medium to high
grade dominantly pelitic schist with minor interbanded
quartzite, calc-silicate and metabasites (commonly
known as Chungthang / Paro Formation) and small
bodies of granites (Lingtse Gneiss). This sequence in
turn towards north overlies a migmatitic terrain known
as Darjeeling Gneiss/Kangchenjunga Gneiss and thought
to be equivalent of what is variously described as Central
Crystalline/ Greater Himalayan Crystalline /Higher
Himalayan Crystalline (GHC/HHC). In the far north, a
thick pile of fossiliferous Cambrian to Eocene sediments,
belonging to the Tethyan Belt (Tethyan Sedimentary
Sequence) overlies the HHC.
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) separates the
Siwaliks of the Sub Himalayan domain from the
overlying rocks of the Lesser Himalayan Belt and the
Main Central Thrust (MCT) separates the Lesser
Himalaya from the Higher Himalaya. In the western as
well as in the eastern part of the Sikkim-Darjeeling
Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayan Package is exposed
as thin strip between MBT and MCT. However, in the
central part of the Sikkim-Darjeeling Lesser Himalayas,
a domal shaped culmination structure (known as Tista/
6
II. GENERAL GEOLOGY
Daling Dome) has exposed a wide expanse of the Lesser
Himalayan rocks. The MBT, with the Mio-Pliocene
synorogenic Siwalik Group in the footwall and the
Permo-carboniferous Gondwanas in the hanging wall,
has not been affected by this culmination structure and
has a roughly E-W trace. The Gondwana rocks as well
as the Buxa and Rangit pebble slate are exposed in the
Rangit window zone where these are surrounded by
Daling Group of rocks (Gansser, 1964; Acharyya, 1989,
1992). The Tethyan Belt is exposed on the hanging wall
side of a series of north-dipping normal faults constituting
the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS), Higher
Himalayan Crystallines being the footwall.
Geological investigations in Sikkim and the
adjoining Bengal Region began in the middle of
nineteenth century. Hooker (1854) in his famous
Himalayan Journal reported the geological observations
from his extensive two years travel in many parts of
Sikkim. He was able to trace the regional domal picture
of the gneisses. Darjeeling district and its foothills were
examined by Mallet (1875). Auden (1936) discussed the
problems of the Daling and Darjeeling Gneiss. Heim
and Gansser (1939) visited Tista region, Darjeeling and
made a traverse to Gangtok. A.M.N. Ghosh (1952) first
reported patches of Gondwana within the Daling area,
i.e. Rangit window. Different workers of GSI worked in
connection with mapping and different investigations.
Stratigraphic classification schemes
In recent years Geological Survey of India developed
unified legend for all the formations of India. The
formations exposed in Sikkim can be classified as given
in Table 1 in accordance with the unified legend scheme.
CENTRAL CRYSTALLINES
The Precambrian sequence of Sikkim State can
broadly be classified into two major groups. Low grade
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX) 7

Table: 1
Generalised stratigraphic succession of Sikkim Himalaya
(As per unified legend scheme of GSI)
LITHOLOGY FORMATION GROUPAGE
Variegated clay, fine and medium sand, Sesela Formation Upper Pleistocene
pebble bed Holocene
Tourmaline / biotite leuco granite, schroll rock/
pegmatite, aplite (Undifferentiated) Intrusive
Syenite / basic dyke/sill (Undifferentiated) Intrusive
Fossiliferous sandstone, limestone, shale Tso Lhamo Formation Triassic
Boulder bed, Fossiliferous limestone and Lachi Formation
sandstone. Carboniferous to
Sandstone, shale, carbonaceous shale with coal Damuda Group Gondwana Permian
Pebble/boulder slate, conglomerate, phyllite Rangit pebble state Groups Supergroup
Fossiliferous limestone with quartzite Everest Limestone Ordovician
Formation
Granite gneiss (mylonite) Lingtse Granite Meso Proterozoic
Gneiss
PhyIlite, quartztte, biotite gneiss Everest Pelite Formation Meso Proterozoic
Amphibole schist / amphibolite Sill
Dolostone, ortho-quartzite, purple phyllite /
slate, chert Buxa Formation
Ortho-quartzite, pyritiferous black slate,
variegated cherty phyllite, meta-greywacke Reyang Formation Proterozoic
Interbanded chlorite-sericite schist / phyllite Gorubathan Formation Daling Group Undifferenciated
and quartzite, meta-greywacke (quartzo
feldspathic greywacke), pyritiferous black slate,
biotite phyllite / mica schist, biotite quartzite,
mica schist with garnet, with / without staurolite,
chlorite quartzite
Banded / streaky migmatite, augen bearing Kanchenjunga Gneiss/
(garnet) biotite gneiss with/ without kyanite, Darjeeling Gneiss Central
sillimanlte with palaeosomes of staurolite, (Undifferentiated) Crystalline Proterozoic
kyanite, mica schist, biotite gneiss, sillimanite Gneissic Undifferenciated
granite gneiss Complex
(CCGC)
1. Quartzite 2. Garnet kyanite sillimanite
biotite schist / Garnetiferous mica schist Chungthang
3. Calc-silicate, carbonaceous schist Formation
Chungthang Formation

Precambrian meta-sedimentary, generally known as
Daling Group, is exposed in the central part of the Daling
Dome. The rock sequence in the outer part of the Tista
Dome have variously been classified as Kanchenjunga
Gneiss, Darjeeling Gneiss, ‘Chhubakha Series’ (Raina
and Bhattacharya, 1962), etc. and by a number of other
local names by pervious workers. This sequence
comprising various types of gneisses, schists, quartzites
and calc-silicates have been given the name of Central
Crystallines in the western and central part of Himalayas.
Keeping in view the necessity of retaining one name for
a single litho pack, they have been hereto called as
Central Crystallines.
Mallet (1875) was one of the earliest workers in the
area who systematically classified the rocks of Nepal,
Darjeeling and Sikkim area. After Mallet (1875), some
of the earliest records of geological mapping and
observations pertain to those of Dutt (1948, 53, 54, 61),
Ghosh (1956);Raina (1965, 66, 68); Raina and
Bhattacharya (1962 and 65); Bhattacharya and Pattanaik
(1964);Bhattacharya (1966); Singh and Bhattacharya
(1968). During this phase of mapping in fifties and
sixties, a lot of proliferation of lithounit names was in
vogue, possibly because the mapping was done in
isolated patches.During early eighties some of the areas
were remapped and some are mapped a fresh on
expedition by Neogi et.al (1983,84,86 and 98).The
8 GEOL. SURV. IND
central crystalline gneiss of higher Himalayan crystalline
of the Darjeeling –Sikkim Himalaya has been classified
by Ray(1989) into the Sikkim Group comprising
Kanchenjunga Gneiss , Darjeeling Gneiss and
Chungthang Sub-Group.
In addition to the gneisses, a prominent sequence of
calc-silicates, calc-gneisses, quartzites and schists which
appeared to be different from the gneissic sequence to
the earlier mappers, was separately identified and
mapped as Chungthang Group of rocks (named after the
village of Chungthang, where this unit crops out
prominently).
In this write-up, in the proposed scheme of
classification, the Central Crystallines have been
classified into Kanchenjunga Gneiss / Darjeeling Gneiss
and Chungthang Formation.
A) Chungthang Formation :
Raina and Bhattacharya (1961-62) while working
in North Sikkim marked a formation which was traced
over a width of 19 km between Myang (27°10:88°22)
in south and Lema (27°39:88°43) in north and has been
designated as Chunthang Formation. This name has been
given after Chungthang (27°36:88°39), a village in
North Sikkim where the rocks of this formation are
prominently exposed. The main rock types of this
formation are quartzites, garnet-kyanite-staurolite
bearing biotite schist, calc silicate rock, graphitic schist
and amphibolite. The rocks of this formation are also
exposed in the districts of east Sikkim and west Sikkim.
1) Quartzite:- The quartzite which forms an
important constituent of this formation is well exposed
in different parts of Sikkim. Raina and Bhattacharya
(1961-62) reported quartzite at Tong (27°33:88°39),
Chungthang (27°36:88°39), near Lema (27°39:88°43)
and in south of Lachung (27°41:88°45). Singh and
Bhattacharya (1968) reported quartzite exposed as thin
bands within calc-gneiss and granulite, gradually
attaining sizeable thickness to be mapped as a separate
unit near Chungthang in north Sikkim and Kyagnosa La
(27o22:88o43) on Gangtok - Nathu La road. Several
bands of felspathic quartzites have been found north of
Menshithang (27o38:88o37) near Rabong Chhu.
The quartzite is greyish and show development of
mica along the bedding planes. Under microscope they
are seen to be quartz-feldspar-schist. Larger grains of
quartz show strain shadows and occasionally contain
inclusions of biotite. Smaller grains of quartz occur in a
granular aggregate. At places biotite grains enclose
quartz crystals. Some times the quartzite shows the
presence of chlorite. Along the contact with gneisses,
garnet is seen to have developed in the quartzite.
2) Calc- silicate rocks and graphitic schist:- Singh
and Bhattacharya (1968) while mapping in North Sikkim
and East Sikkim mapped calc-gneisses and granulite with
bands of marble and quartzite associated with sillimanite
garnet gneiss and graphite schist as the most dominant
rock association which could be traced near Naga
(27°3215:88°3730), Theng (27°34:88°39) and
Rangma in north Sikkim and near 5th and 10th mile posts
on Gangtok - Nathu La road sections. Several bands of
marble are noted at Bop and Theng in north Sikkim and
at 5th and 24th milestone on Gangtok - Nathu La road.
Bands are milky white in colour and vary in thickness
from 30 m to 60 metres, and are traceable for considerable
distance along the strike. The marble band, west of Bop
village, shows graphite concentration along a shear zone.
Traces of graphite are also seen near Theng
(27°24:88°39) and Chhangu. Between Myong
(27°3440:88°2640) in the South and Kishong
(27°4315:88°27’45) in the north three bands of calc-
silicates and associated quartzite bands have been
recorded within gneisses. First band is near Mayong,
second band is near Tolung Gompa
(27°3830:88°2755). The bands trend in NE-SW
direction and are locally folded (Neogi et al. 1986). In
West Sikkim district the limestones and marbles are
observed only in one section at Meguthang
(27°25:88°03) (Raina, 1966).
Under microscope, the calc-silicate contains
diopside, quartz, feldspar, actinolite, tremolite and
calcite. Diopside and feldspars occur as porphyroblasts
while quartz occurs as large plates and also as mosaic
of recrystallised grains. Feldspars are mostly altered
orthoclase, fresh labradorite and few grains of microcline
showing wavy extinction. Diopside occasionally alters
to actinolite-tremolite. Olive green hornblende is also
seen. Sphene and magnetite are accessory minerals. Near
Myang, lenses of wollastonite were found to have
developed within these rocks.
Under microscope; the marble shows idioblastic
calcite and subordinate diopside, tremolite, phlogopite
and a few grains of scapolite. Sphene is a common
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
accessory mineral with inclusions of carbonate. In
graphite bearing marble, graphite occurs as flakes,
sometimes encircling sphene. In Tolung - Kishong area
the calc silicate units show a granular mosaic of equant
grains of calcite, quartz with wollastonite and diopside
typical of high temperature marble. Lamellar twinning
in calcite may be due to twin gliding during plastic
deformation. Visuvianite alters to calcite. Feldspars are
sericitized (Neogi et al., 1986).
3) Biotite Schist:- Biotitic schist with garnet and
staurolite was demarcated as Rongli schist . It has been
named after Rongli, a village in East Sikkiin, where the
rocks of these types were first observed. However, later
workers ignored the Rongli schist in the context that the
Rongli schist represents the higher metamorphic grade
equivalent (garnet , staurollite, etc) of Daling metapelites
and has been variously included within the Lesser
Himalayan or the Higher Himalayan package.
Bhattacharya and Pattanayak (1963 – 64) while mapping
in the North and West Sikkim districts informed that the
rocks comprising Rongli schist are seen in the area
between the Tista Valley and Talung Valley. The
schistose rocks exposed between Sangklang and Namok
(27°26:88°32), between east of Rhamthang
(27°2430:88°3345) and Lebrong (27°25:88°35) and
between Lindok (27°23:88°3515) and Nabhe
(27°23:88°36) have been described by Singh and
Bhattacharya (1968). This schist contains abundant
garnet and occasionally shows bands of flaggy quartzite.
The schistose rocks exposed in West Sikkim district have
been described by Raina (1966) as schist zone. Schists
with interbedded thin quartzite bands are the main rock
types of this zone.
This rock contains abundant garnet and mica.
Garnet, staurolite, biotite and muscovite constitute the
main minerals. Garnet porphyroblasts show sieve
structure with inclusions of quartz and chlorite along
the cracks. Staurolite shows well developed cruciform
twinning and some grains show inclusion of quartz.
Biotite and muscovite show simultaneous crystallisation.
Helicitic inclusions in staurolite and garnet are found to
be arranged in curved lines, across the schistosity of the
rocks suggesting inclusion of minerals during growth.
Alteration of staurolite to chlorite and biotite indicates
retrogression. Sometimes biotite occurs as corona
surrounding quartz crystals.The schistose rocks exposed
in Sangklang, Lindok, Nabhe, Namok, Rhamthang and
Lebrong areas contains abundant garnet with absence
9
of staurolite. Thin section show it to be fine grained
quartz-sericite-muscovite-biotitic schist with prolific
almandine garnet (subhedral grains), a few grains of
feldspar (plagioclase) occur as recrystallised aggregate.
4) Amphibolite:- Amphibole schist and
amphibolites as lenticular sills have been observed to
occur in all rock types of Chungthang Formation. In some
of the cases they are sulphide mineral bearing. They have
been found profusely north-west of Penlong La (27o22:
88o37). These are also common between Mangang and
Singhik and at Kahior (27o31: 88o32).
Under the microscope the rock shows characters of
hornblende-quartz-schist with hornblende, oligoclase
feldspar, biotite (developed from hornblende), quartz and
minor rutile as its main constituents.
B) Kanchenjunga Gneiss / Darjeeling Gneiss
Kanchenjunga / Darjeeling Gneiss are extensively
exposed in the northern part of the Sikkim, to the south
of the Tethyan sequence. In the west; Mount
Kanchenjunga and adjoining hills comprise these rocks
which pass into Nepal territory further west. To the east
these rocks are well exposed around Yum Samdong,
Yumthang, Lachung, Chhangu and Nathu La areas and
further east they continue into Tibet and Bhutan.
The gneisses, dominantly comprising quartz,
feldspar and biotite (with minor amounts of other
minerals) have been classified into three types, ie.1)
banded / streaky gneisses / migmatites, 2) augen bearing
biotite gneiss with/without garnet, kyanite, sillimanite
and 3) sillimanite granite gneisses. Mapping of these
rocks as individual units is very difficult because they
are characterized by frequent interchanging and
gradational features among themselves. However a
couple of zones have been demarcated and shown in the
map.
1) Banded Gneiss/ Streaky Gneiss/ Migmatite:-
In the northern most part of the Central Crystallines of
Sikkim, the gneisses of various types form the major
rock unit (Sinha Roy and Roy, 1972) and of them the
banded gneiss is the dominant type. Hyden, Fermor and
Auden reported ortho gneisses from different parts of
Sikkim which are characteristicaly similar to the banded
gneiss described by the later workers. The pelitic
migmatite of Neogi also indicates this type of rock. Raina
and Bhattacharya (1962 &65), reported banded gneisses
10
(named as Chhubakha Gneiss by them) between Lema
(27°39 :88°43) in the south and Yome Samdong
(27°54:88°45) in the north Sikkim. These are biotite
gneisses whose impregnation by the granitic material
have completely obliterated their original characters.
Bhattacharya and Pattanaik (1964) reported highly
brecciated and folded banded gneiss near Chhateng.
These gneisses are profusely intruded by granites and
pegmatites and have been affected by a series of faults.
Thin graphite schists are observed along shear plane or
fault plane. It is found from Yukti Chu 3 km north of
Menshithang (27°4000:88°3530) to Lachen
(27°44:88°33). Coarse to medium grained, grayish
white to dark grey banded gneiss covers a major portion
of area between Chittre (27°15:88°03) and Phedi
(27°22:88°03) in the south and Zongri (27°27:88°10)
and Yaksam (27°22:88°13) in the north Sikkim (Raina,
1965). Dutt (1955) reported garnetiferous banded gneiss
at Donkung (28°02:88°36) in north-central part of
Sikkim. Singh & Bhattacharya (1968) reported the
streaky banded gneiss at Serabthang on Gangtok - Nathu
La road and migmatised banded gneiss between Singhik
and Manul, near B 2, between B 3 and Penlang in north
Sikkim and between the 1st and 5.5 milepost and at 7th
milepost on Gangtok - Nathu La road.
The banded gneiss consists of alternating bands rich
in quartzo-feldspathic material and mafic schistose
components, imparting a strong s-tectonite fabric.
Under the microscope the rock consists of biotite,
quartz, muscovite, sericitized microcline and plagioclase
feldspars. The quartz is of two types (i) small fractured
grains, showing strain-shadows in the groundmass and
(ii) relatively strain-free patchy grains. Feldspar is albite-
oligoclase with minor amount of orthoclase together
forming more than 35 percent of the mineral assemblage.
Anhedral large andesine/oligoclase with deformed twin
lamellae had also been observed. Secondary albite has
developed along andesine orthoclase contact.
Occasionally highly altered, fine to coarse myrmekite
developed at the interface of quartz and anhedral K-
feldspar. Deep brown to greenish brown biotite is a major
constituent. Biotite in some sections is seen to have
altered to chlorite. Muscovite flakes are interwoven with
biotite and are twisted and bent enclosing grains of
quartz. Some of the sections showed the presence of
sillimanite and almandine garnet. Anhedral garnet
occasionally showing incipient alteration to chlorite with
inclusions of quartz, biotite and sillimanite is abundance.
GEOL. SURV. IND
Apatite, zircon, sphene, epidote, rutile, graphite and
opaques are main accessories.
2) Augen bearing biotite gneiss with/without
garnet, kyanite, sillimanite:- Raina and Bhattacharya
(1965) described reddish brown to grayish black augen
gneisses showing well foliated nature with prominent
augens of feldspar. To the west of Lungme nala
(27°52:88°21), these gneisses show lateral variation
into a coarse grained porphyritic variety which shows
an almost unfoliated nature with subrounded feldspar
grains (10-12 mm across) lying scattered within the body
of the rock. Similar lateral variation is observed to the
west of Khora Chachen (27°56:88°20). In some areas
large blocks of garnet sillimanite gneisses are seen
embedded within the augen gneisses. These xenoliths
are rusty brown in colour and composed of biotite flakes
alternating with crushed quartz stringers. In the north-
central part of Sikkim porphyritic augen-gneisses
containing streaks of biotite has been recorded by Dutt
(1955) to the north of Lachen (27°44:88°33). Half a
mile north of Zemu - Lachen confluence several bands
of calc-gneisses are also observed as inter-stratified with
augen gneiss. Near the Choptha Chhu (27°54:88°32)
yellow ferruginous mica schist bands are recorded within
gneisses. The augen gneisses along Zemu river valley
change from the horizontally banded and foliated rock
on the southern side to the much more knotted and
contorted gneisses on the north. They extend through
the entire Zemu valley from very near to the confluence
of Zemu river with Tista, as well as from Tungaphu-
phiak (27°39:88°28) to Tolung on the Tolung valley
(Bhattacharya and Pattanaik, 1964). Augen gneisses also
occur south of Menshithang (27°40:88°3530) on Tista
valley. Sinha Roy and Roy (1972) reported augen gneiss
in the upper reaches of the Tista River. Raina (1966)
recorded augen gneisses around Singrangpung
(27°21:88°08) in the valley of Rimbi Chhu. Singh and
Bhattacharya (1968) reported augen gneiss at Bop in
north Sikkim and at Karponang, Chhanggu and
Serabthang on Gangtok - Nathu La Road.
The augens mostly of felspar and rarely of quartz,
show extreme idioblastic habit and vary in length from
one cm to 7-5 cm. At isolated locations, the quartzo-
feldspathic bands often show selective bulges in the form
of pinches and swells as a precursor to the formation of
augen gneiss. The gneissosity defined by biotite and
sillimanite wraps round the bulges. At Tolung valley
sometimes there are imperfect gradations from streaky
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
granite gneiss to the augen gneiss with gradual increase
in the size and numbers of augen and the amount of
ferromagnesian minerals. Augen gneisses occuring south
of Menshithang (27040’:88035’30") on Tista valley
(Bhattacharya and Pattanaik, 1964) have been intensely
criss-crossed by tourmaline rich muscovite bearing
granite and pegmatite.
Under the microscope, the rock shows
porphyroblasts of orthoclase and quartz, mostly arranged
parallel to the foliation-planes, embedded in matrix of
biotite, chlorite, quartz and plagioclase. These gneisses
contain quartz which is of two types, (i) highly strained
small fractured grains and (ii) strips and ribbons showing
incipient polygonization, and shapeless patches
intergrown with K-feldspar. In the larger grains of quartz,
the cracks and fractures are all aligned across the
direction of banding, though the elongated direction of
the crystal itself is oriented along the banding of the
rocks. Biotite is highly corroded and dispersed. K-
feldspar occurs as anhedral grains and as large
porphyroblasts, which constitute the augens, showing
slight strain effects and sericitization along cleavage and
twin planes. Another constituent of the augen is lamellar
perthite with crystallographically oriented thin albite
within K-feldspar. Secondary albite also occurs as thin
rims at the margin of K-feldspar. Coarse to very fine
myrmekite occurs at the contact of quartz and K-feldspar.
A few grains of tourmaline, apatite, zircon garnet,
hornblende, scapolite and suspected monazite are noted
as the accessory. In Jemu valley augen gneisses contain
only porphyroblasts of potash feldspar (Bhattacharya and
Pattanaik, 1964).
3) Sillimanite Granite Gneiss:- Bhattacharya and
Pattanaik (1964) reported that sillimanite bearing
gneisses are exposed in Tolung valley from Laben
(27°33:88°2730) to Tolung Monastery and near
Chungthang in the Tista valley. Singh & Bhattacharya
(1968) reported sillimanite-garnet-biotite gneiss near
Bop, Theng, Naga and Singhik in north Sikkim and from
the 6th to 9th, 11th to 13th and 15th to 18th mileposts
on Gangtok - Nathu La road. Kyanite-biotite-muscovite
gneiss with bands of flaggy quartzites are exposed
between Mangan and Sangklang Bridge
(27°3030:88°3230), in Rangrang (27°27:
88°3430), near Chawang (27°2550:88°3530) and
west of Penlang (27°3022:88°3730) in north Sikkim.
To the west of Lachung; sillimanite-biotite gneisses are
reported by Dutt (1955). Raina and Bhattacharya (1961-
11
1962) also reported banded and augen gneisses showing
effects of high grade metamorphism around the Daling
dome in its eastern and northern part. Here the gneisses
starts as kyanite bearing gneiss at the lowermost
structural level near the contact with Chungthang
Formation and become sillimanite bearing gneiss in the
upper level. Raina (1966) while mapping the western
part of Sikkim reported sillimanite-garnet-biotite
gneisses forming mountain ranges west of Dentam
(27°16:88°09) and around Uttare (27°16:88°05).
Under microscope the rock reveals gneissic texture
defined by quartz and feldspar (both as individual grains
and as intergrowth), sillimanite, biotite, muscovite and
garnet as main constituents. Larger crystals of quartz
show strain shadow whereas smaller grains occur in
granular aggregates. Perthitic growth between orthoclase
and plagioclase, replacement growth between quartz and
felspar, and sericitisation of feldspar are quite common.
Biotite is of two generations. First generation biotite is
produced during progressive metamorphism, followed
by garnet and sillimanite. Second generation biotite is
developed due to retrogression and occurs as coronas
and patchy aggregates around garnet and sillimanite
crystals. Sillimanite is present as acicular aggregates
arranged in sheaf, parallel to the foliation and sometimes
within the granular aggregates of quartz and feldspar.
Curved patches of sillimanite (fibrolite) are also seen.
Garnet is mostly pyrope almandine type and shows
zoning indicating probable growth of garnet in more than
one stage. Large porphyroblasts of recrystallised garnet
are seen to be surrounded by lamellae of biotite. These
garnets are highly shattered and show numerous fractures
filled in by megacrysts of quartz and biotite. Presence
of rims of biotite around garnet and formation of
phlogopite from biotite are also noticed. Accessory
minerals are apatite, sphene, epidote and zircon. In some
sections kyanite forms the major constituent and is
arranged haphazardly in the country rock. Kyanite is
mostly broken and contains inclusions of quartz.
Alteration of biotite to chlorite, garnet to biotite and
kyanite to muscovite has been observed.
DALING GROUP
Unfossiliferous low grade metasediments of the
Darjeeling-Western Duars area were subdivided into
dominantly greenish argillaceous assemblage comprising
the Daling “Series” and dolostone, quartzite and
variegated slate assemblage making up the Buxa “Series”
by Mallet (1875). The terms ‘Daling’ and ‘Buxa’ have
12
been extended later to cover wider areas of the Eastern
Himalaya but much confusion exists in their
classification and nomenclature even in the Darjeeling-
Sikkim-Duars area. The Daling Group (sensu lato) of
Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya is characterized by distinct
tectono-stratigraphic position being placed below high
grade gneissic rocks limited by the sheared belt of
mylonitic granite gneiss and above its own cover by
the Lower Gondwana equivalent sediments of the
Himalaya.
Three distinct mappable and regional lithotectonic
assemblages have been recognized within the Daling
Group (sensu lato) by Acharyya (1989) which are
described below:
❑ Gorubathan Formation (Daling sensu stricto)
❑ Reyang Formation
❑ Buxa Formation (sensu stricto)
Gorubathan Formation :
It is best exposed around Daling Fort (27o01:88o43)
in Darjeeling Himalaya from where the term ‘Daling’
(sensu stricto) started. The assemblage is renamed
Gorubathan from the same type area by Ray (1976). The
rocks are exposed extensively in the southern part of
Sikkim from east of Renok to west of Geizing and north
of Dikchu to Rongpo in the south having a dome shaped
outcrop loosely known as Tista Dome.
The formation consists of mappable, monotonous
sequence of inter banded chlorite sericite schist / phyllite,
quartzite, meta greywacke, pyritiferrous black slate/
carbon phylllite, basic meta volcanics. Chlorite phyllite
is dark green to light green whereas the quartz chlorite
phyllite is only light green in color. It shows fine quartz
veins in Tarku, Rongpo, Vasme, Duga and Pachekhani
area. Quartzites are occurring as thin partings to
mappable bands within the chlorite schist and quartz
chlorite schist. Quartz chlorite schist with quartzite
partings is observed to the west of Temi, Barmek, and
Chamthang area. Intercalation of quartzite and chlorite
schist is observed in Rongpo, Duga, Pandem, Singtam,
Manka area. Quartzites are mainly white to light green
depending upon the percentage of chlorite in them. It is
also grey to buff at places. Mostly these are fine grained
in size and massive in nature. Bhattacharyya and
Pattanayak (1963 - 64) reported that the quartzite at
places, form prominent horizon (as at Bhale Dunga and
Pati Dunga near Menam Dunra (27°20:88°50). They
GEOL. SURV. IND
vary in colour from lighter grey to milky white. Several
occurrences of dark grey quartzite and beds of flaky
quartzite are also seen. Quartzites are found in the
Rangpo and Dikchu areas. Most outcrops at Rangpo are
less than 50 feet while the main band just east of Dikchu
is about 200 feet. Intercalations of quartzite appear in
phyllites on the right bank of the river north of Dikchu
Bazar. There after upto the 16 mile stone north of Dikchu
these quartzites continue. Raina and Bhattacharyya
(1961 – 62) reported that the quartzites are preserving
primary sedimentary features such as graded and current
bedding. The carbon phyllite was encountered at Kali
Khola section and Kartok in the east of Pakiyang. The
carbon phyllite usually soils hand but in case of few
bands near Pachekhani this soiling characteristic was
absent. Medium grained massive feldspathic wacke
partings have been observed near Vasme and Tarku
within chlorite schist. Raina (1966) reported schistose
grits from Rinchingpong area. Gritty rocks, light green
to greenish grey in colour, have been observed associated
with the phyllites. These grits show a well bedded nature,
with grains of greasy quartz present along the bedding
planes. Together with this, conformable bands of basic
intrusive occur with the units of the Gorubathan
Formation. They are 2 to 15 m long and 1.5 cm to 2m
thick and observed within the chloritic phyllite near
Sang, Temi, and near Tashiding. Recrystallised quartz
veins and stringers are quite common. Near Rabong
(27 o18:88 o2030) Ben Monastery, several mica
pegmatite intusions have been noticed within slaty
phyllites and quartzite.
Chlorite phyllite and quartz chlorite phyllite contains
following assemblage:- quartz + chlorite + muscovite +
feldspar + opaque. Quartz shows two distinct mode of
occurrence. Matrix quartz are fine and recrystallised
giving rise to mosaic of rectangular and polygonal grains,
the long axis of these grains being in a preferred
orientation parallel to the planar fabric of the rock.
Coarser quartz grains are detrital in nature and mostly
sub-angular to rounded in shape, with the onset of
recrystallisation along the borders. Some grains show
faint undulose extinction but detritus nature is evident
in spite of recrystallisation. At least in two localities,
volcanogenic parentage of the Daling phyllite is noticed.
These are (a) chloritic phyllite from the top of the
abandoned adit of IBM near Rorathang adjacent to the
Pachekhani copper mines. The former shows embayed
quartz grains indicating volcanic characteristic and (b)
Chloritic phyllite adjacent to the pebbly carbon phyllite
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
of Kali Khola near Rongpo. In later case, chlorite grains
are generally elongated shapeless to prismatic in form.
Some grains show faint pleochroism. White mica occurs
as very fine flakes. However, some moderately big
muscovite flakes could be identified. Feldspar is also
detrital in nature. They are angular grains with some
showing twin lamellae of plagioclase. Opaque grains
are elongated/ flattened and generally aligned parallel
to fabric. Other types of opaque grains are subrounded
to rectangular mainly associated with chlorite. Chlorite
and white mica together with finer grained quartz
showing preferred orientation define the planer fabric
of the rock. However, as the clear-cut Q domain and M
domain are not defined it could be a foliation, and not
schistosity. The carbon phyllite microscopically is a
foliated rock with elongated opaque grains. The
feldspathic wacke are matrix supported rock though the
clast matrix ratio is as high as 70:30. The matrix is made
up of very fine aggregate of slightly recrystallised quartz,
chlorite and white mica. The framework grains contain
about 20 percent feldspar grains of microcline and
plagioclase, quartz and chloritic rock fragments. The
framework grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded in
shape. There is evidence of onset of recrystallisation
around the framework grains; however, no preferred
orientation has been observed in these rocks.
Reyang Formation:
Ray (1976), Acharyya and Ray (1977) described a
distinct sequence of thick bedded, ortho to proto
quartzite, variegated phyllite/slate with minor
impersistent beds of crystalline carbonates, conformable
metabasites, from the type section around Reyang in the
Tista River valley in Darjeeling district, transitional
between the Gorubathan and the Buxa Subgroups. This
lithoassociation is underlain and overlain by units of
Gorubathan and Buxa Subgroups, respectively, in the
Rangit Window Zone.
The white, brown or purplish quartzites are
texturally mature with up to 90-97% quartz in a medium
to coarse grained mosaic along with chert or jasper,
minor feldspar, rock fragments, sericite, chlorite and iron
oxides. These show various stages of mineralogical and
textural maturity. They often show ripple marks and cross
bedding are locally associated with lenticular horizons
of oligomictic quartz-chert conglomerate (Acharyya,
1989).
Slates and phyllites of the Reyang Subgroup are
13
variegated in shades of purple, maroon, steel-grey or green
with other colour blotches. Pyritiferous black slates and
minor carbon phyllites are also present. Compared to
those of the Gorubathan Formation the slates and phyllites
are more siliceous and with ubiquitous iron ores. Common
occurrence of chloritoids in the higher grade, restricted
to this unit, corroborates their aluminous nature. Minor
beds and lenses of brown, pink or yellow crystalline
limestone on dolomitic limestones are also present. Veins
of crystalline magnesite are also recorded from Reyang
River section, Darjeeling Hills.
Conformable bands of mafic meta-volcanic rocks
and meta-dolerite have been reported from the Reyang
Subgroup which contains relict igneous textures and
primary pyroxene and plagioclase, grading into foliated
amphibolites in more altered regions (Acharyya, 1989).
Buxa Formation:
In the normal stratigraphic section of the Rangit
Window Zone, the rocks of the Buxa Formation occur
above the Reyang Formation and below the horizon of
Gondwana diamictite (Rangit Pebble Slate). Elsewhere
in the foothill belt, it occurs as a discontinuous narrow
strip of variable thickness between the Gondwana
sediments on the bottom and the units of the Reyang
Subgroup on the top. The Buxa formation essentially
comprises an alternating sequence of thin, grey cherty
mature quartzite, chert, fine grained, and finely laminated
to massive grey dolostone, pyritous sericitic and
variegated slates. The type area for the Buxa is the Jainti
River section in western Duars, where the dolostone
attains considerable thickness and is intimately
associated with pyritous and carbonaceous slates. The
dolostone units are locally fossiliferous, as in the Rangit
River section, near Tatapani in West Sikkim, where
stromatolites have been reported from the upper horizons
of the dolostone beds (Ray, 1976; Acharyya, 1989).
The best exposures of the Buxa Formation in Sikkim
are recorded along the course of Rangit River on Naya
Bazar to Legship road where Dolomite, which is the
main rock type of the Buxa Formation outcrops. The
limestone/dolomite is exposed around Naya Bazar,
Reshi, Rahu, Tatapani, Tinkitam, Mangalbaria, Phali,
Dhara, Wak and Kamigaon. Unlike Gorubathan and
Reyong Formations, the Buxa Formation has only local
distribution. It is characterized by fine grained, fine
laminated to massive, grey and pink dolostone and
limestone beds, often with a weathered, pitted surface.
14
It is associated with pyritiferous, sericitic and variegated
slates, chert, and cherty and mature quartzite (Acharyya,
1989).
There are three different litho units which
characterizes the Buxa Formation
1. Mainly dolomite with purple quartzites and
phyllites.
2. Pink limestone, Grey limestone with calcareous
slates and phyllites.
3. Calcareous purple and green slates with
intraformational conglomerate.
Purple dolomites are recorded along Rishi-
Mangalbaria road section. They are thinly bedded and
siliceous in nature. Wherever the siliceous bands are
associated, differential weathering is prominent. The
grey dolomites which constitute a major part of Buxa
Formation exhibit cross lamination and ripple marks.
Under microscope, the rock shows a fine grained
crystalline mosaic of dolomite crystals with a few grains
of cryptocrystalline quartz, some chert and also algal
impressions (Raina and Ray, 1967). In the Rangit River
section around Tatapani, the dolostone beds are
stromatolitic in the upper most levels and the dolostone-
chert-slate alternations are para conformably succeeded
by Rangit pebble-slate. Near Khandosangphu
(27o15:88o18) and some of the stream sections; the
formation is represented by compact, massive looking,
light brown to cherty-grey, often with bluish tinged
dolomites with minor bands of calcareous slates and
phyllites. Dolomite outcrops are seen as cliff and scarps
along the western bank of Rangit River near Rishi. They
are highly jointed and sheared and exhibit current
bedding, algal structure and bubble prints. Some of the
shear planes are the locale of sulphide mineralization,
mainly galena.
Pink limestones and slates are exposed at Nayabazar-
Damthang-Tinkitam ridge and Chimchi spur. Limestones
are present in the form of thin intercalations, often sheared
into nodular shape. Grey limestones interbedded with
green phyllitic slates are observed only in Rishi khola.
These limestones, almost crystalline, show a well bedded
nature and are fine to medium grained. Limestones are
found associated with purple slate at the bridge abutment
near Nayabazar (27o08:88o17). On the left bank of Rangit
the limestones are well stratified with purple slates, but
on the other bank it occurs as a massive outcrop. Purple
slates are also found south of Somdong (27o09:88o19),
though it is not calcareous here (Dutt, 1954).
GEOL. SURV. IND
Calcareous, purple and green slates form the basal
portion and are exposed in Ranji khola (stream) section.
Calcareous and non-calcareous slates/phyllites are best
observed along Reshi-Sikkip road section, Mangalbaria,
Chakung and Chumbung. They are purple coloured and
substantially thick at places.
Near Rangpo the main rock types of this formation
are carbon phyllites, quartz-chlorite-sericite-phyllite, and
quartz-sericite phyllites, often with a purple tinge, white
orthoquartzite and calcareous-quartzite. The carbon
phyllites comprises alternating thin layers of highly
recrystallised polygonal quartz with small dispersed
grains of carbonate and small stumpy sericite felt with
dispersed carbonaceous material defining the bedding.
In some cases, there are a few subrounded grains of
garnet, arranged in zones, parallel to the bedding, which
suggests that they could be detrital (Sinha Roy and
Mukhopadhyay, 1974).
The black slates underlying the Rangit pebble-slate
are lithologically identical to similar beds within the
latter. The dolostone beds are conformably underlain
by pink and variegated limestone-dolostone beds and
variegated slates, which represent transitional beds with
the adjacent section of Reyang Formation.
Sedimentary structures:
Current Bedding: It is exhibited by Buxa exposures,
along the west bank of Rangit River. Current bedding
indicates normal sequence of strata. This is also
confirmed by the fact that Gondwanas overly Buxa.
Ripple marks: They were observed on the underside of
a dolomite band just south of Khandosangphu (27°15:
88°18). Ripple marks also show a normal sequence.
Graded bedding: Graded bedding was observed in
siltstone bands associated with the phyllites of Daling
Group. One such section outcrops along the western bank
of Rangit River, north of Sosing bridge. Graded bedding
indicates a reverse sequence. Similar reverse sequence
on the basis of graded bedding was also observed east
of Yangthang (27°17:88°20).
Age of Buxa Formation:
Stromatolitic assemblage from the dolostone beds
from Tatapani area, representing top-most unit of Buxa
dolostone, indicates Lower to Middle Riphean age. But
those occurring within the lithologically identical
dolostone from Bhutan foothills indicate late upper
Riphean age (Raha, 1980). Stromatolite biostratigraphy,
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
if valid, would mean diachronous nature of Buxa
Formation.
While discussing the age of Everest Limestone
Formation, Wager (1939) correlated it with the Buxa
Formation of Mallet (1875) and placed it into Permo-
Carboniferous. However, it should be remembered that
Everest limestone is crinoidal in nature and no crinoids
have been reported from Buxa. Both Buxa limestone/
dolomite and Everest Limestone contain stromatolites
and algal mat.
LINGTSE GRANITE-GNEISS
Granite gneiss, exposed around Martam and Lingtse
Gompa area of East Sikkim, has been designated as
“Lingtse Gneiss” by Bose (1891). The gneisses are sheet
like bodies of coarse to medium grained, foliated to
strongly lineated granite mylonite. These are streaky,
banded, augen gneisses or porphyroblastic gneisses and
are traversed by concordant and discordant pegmatite
veins. Amphibolite intrusives with sharp contacts are
also recorded within gneisses. The most characteristic
feature of the Lingtse granite is the presence of a
stretching lineation. This is defined by stretched quartz
and feldspar grains. Biotite flakes are aligned parallel
to the stretching direction. Similar granite gneiss is
exposed all along the Himalayan belt in the same
tectonostratigraphic level. It start from west having
Besham gneiss, Iskere gneiss, Kotla Indress, Shasher
gneiss (in Pakistan) to Rameshwar granite, Kulu-Bajura
gneiss, Bandal Granite, Wangtu Granitic Complex,
Naitwar, Hanuman Chatti, Bhatwari, Namik, Gwalda,
Chailli, Ghuttu, Chirpatiya, Rihee-Ganga, Ramgarh,
Tawaghat, Almora-Askot-Dhramgarh gneiss (in India)
to Ulleri augen gneiss, Mellung augen gneiss (in Nepal)
through Lingtse, Darjeeling-Sikkim, Kangpur, Ari Uri
Granite in Bhutan, Kalaktang and Bomdila granite gneiss
(in Arunachal Pradesh).
This granitoid gneiss occur in two modes; as a
narrow belt occurring at the base of the Higher
Himalayan Crystalline, along the trace of the Main
Central Thrust (MCT) or as detached sheets within the
Lesser Himalayan low grade rocks. The Lingtse Gneiss
of the first mode in the Darjeeling-Sikkim area extends
discontinuously along the southern fringe of the
Kalimpong hills through Lingtse Gompha (the type
locality), to Gangtok in the eastern part of the Daling
Dome. In western part of the Daling Dome, Lingtse
Gneiss is exposed in Sikkim from Barmek to Heegaon
15
and in the Kurseong-Darjeeling hills from Mahananda
through Mongphu and Peshoke. The Lingtse Gneiss of
the second mode, i.e. within the Lesser Himalayan low
grade rocks which in Darjeeling Sikkim Himalaya is the
Gorubathan Formation of the Daling Group, occur as
major elongated north south body. This central Lingtse
gneiss body is exposed from Ramthang - Phodong sector
in the north to Pendum in the south via Martam. In
addition to these larger bodies a number of small granite
bodies have also been recorded from within the Daling
Group of rocks.
The granite is two-feldspar granite where K-feldspar
predominates over plagioclase. The main constituent
minerals are quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase (mainly
oligoclase), biotite, muscovite and opaque ores.
Accessory minerals are apatite, sphene, epidote, zircon
and tourmaline. At places tremolite is also seen.
Microscopic study reveals albite-oligoclase with minor
amount of orthoclase forming more than 35% of the
minerals assemblage. Secondary albite has developed
along andesine-orthoclase contact.
The minerals occur as subhedral and anhedral grains.
Augen to porphyroblastic texture is usually very
prominent with clear evidence of post crystalline
deformation and recrystallization of feldspar and quartz.
Feldspars occur as porphyroblasts and are surrounded
by recrystallised biotite and muscovite. Large
porphyroblasts of quartz having wavy extinction and
even granulation have also been observed at places. In
general quartz shows evidences of strain. K-feldspar
shows evidences of fracturing and marginal granulation.
The schistosity is seen to bend around feldspar grains.
Dutt (1955) observed that the contact of phyllites
and gneiss is very disturbed near 10th milestone on
Gangtok-Singhik road. This granite-gneiss appears to
have been intruded through a fault plane (op. cit). In
parts of toposheet nos. 78 A/7, 8, 11 & 12 both of these
two modes of Lingtse Gneiss have been mapped by S.
Sinha Roy and S. K. Mukhopadhyay (1974). According
to them these bodies were previously considered to be
intrusive granites, but from the adjacent area to the east,
it was shown that they are allochthonous masses within
the Daling rocks (Sinha Roy, 1969). The granite bodies
in the area are also thrust bound and not intrusive, as
evidenced by their clear-cut contact relations and by the
occurrence of granite mylonite at the contact zone. In
these zones the granite is highly sheeted, with well
16
developed mylonite banding. But away from the contact,
the degree of crushing decreases appreciably, so that the
granitoid texture is retained. These granites are typified
by the well developed mineral lineation, marked by felt
of biotite.
In major element composition, these granites are
similar to alkaline granites (Paul et al. 1981). Chakrabarti
(1989) on the basis of CaO-Na2O-K2O diagram of
Glikson (1979) classified them as granulites, with a
minor spread to trondhjemite field and adamellite field.
On the basis of the above mentioned chemical and
normative data they opined that Lingtse granite gneiss
indicates mixed S-type and I-type character.
Two different ages have been proposed for the
granite-gneiss. Paul et al. (1982) advocated age of 1075
±28 Ma which Paul et. al. (1996) revised to 1678 Ma on
the basis of Rb-Sr whole rock isochron.
There have been many opinions regarding the nature
and origin of Lingtse Gneiss. Wager (1934) considered
Lingtse Gneiss as an intrusive sheet similar to that found
within the Mt. Everest Pelitic Series north of Mt. Everest.
Auden (1935) considered it as granite gneiss. Ray (1935)
recorded the granitic nature of “Lingtse granite” distinct
from the granodioritic character of Darjeeling Gneiss.
Ghosh (1956) considered them as lit-par-lit interfolial
injection gneisses through concentrated igneous activity
along shear zones. Gansser (1964) considered them as
diapthoretic rocks and considered them as foreign to
Daling environment. Sinha Roy (1977, 80) opined that
this gneiss represents wedge sliced up from the basement
of the Daling Group. Acharyya (1971, 1980) and
Acharyya and Ray (1977) opined that the gneiss
represents partly recrystallised Daling volcanogenic
sediments and partly metasomatic granite. Similar
granites from adjacent sections of western Nepal are
regarded as recrystallised volcano-sediments by Le Fort
(1975). Sinha Roy and Sengupta (1986) suggested that
the Lingtse granite represent a part of the Precambrian
basement (> 1000 Ma) over which deposition of the
younger Daling and Buxa sediments took place in the
eastern Himalayas.
In view of the variable mode of occurrence of various
granite-gneiss exposures at or very near to the contact
of Dalings and Central Crystallines, and also within the
Daling Group of rocks in the form of smaller bodies
(which, at present, have been put under the basket term
GEOL. SURV. IND
of Lingtse granite-gneiss), it is necessary to carry out
detailed petro-chemical and geo-chronological studies
of individual occurrences.
MOUNT EVEREST PELITE FORMATION
Mount Everest Pelitic Formation is exposed in the
north-western part of Sikkim only and is absent in the
north-eastern part where younger Tethyan sequence is
well exposed. This formation is well exposed north of
Chorten Labsang (27056´:88014´) and continues on
either side; east and west, constituting an inaccessible
ridge separating Sikkim from Tibet. The sentinel peak
and Chorten Nyima peak (27057´:88011´) are areas where
this formation is well exposed. Raina and Bhattacharya
(1965) carried out geological mapping of this sequence.
Quartz-biotite schist, which forms the base of this
series, overlies the lime-silicate rocks of Chungthang
Formation. The schist is characterized by lit-par-lit
injection of granitic material. Under microscope, it is
composed of biotite, quartz, chlorite and a few grains of
plagioclase. The latter are highly sericitized and show
myrmekitic growth with quartz. A few crystals of highly
sheared and fractured sillimanite are also observed along
the junction with intrusive granites. The sillimanites
show development of biotite along the boundary.
Quartzites and phyllitic-quartzites are next in
succession. They are very much deformed and fractured;
and like the underlying schists, have been affected by
granitisation but only along the base. These are dark
brown in colour and are marked by the presence of
elongated quartz stringers, at times forming boudinage,
along the foliation. Microscopic study reveals these to
be essentially recrystallised arkosic sandstones
composed of quartz with few grains of feldspar and a
biotite rich matrix. Some sections show incipient growth
of sericite and exhibit very low grade metamorphism.
Phyllites which become prominent towards top of
this formation are dark in colour and are composed of
quartz, sericite and chlorite with traces of carbonaceous
(graphitic) material and exhibit a very low grade of
metamorphism.
MOUNT EVEREST LIMESTONE FORMATION
Wager (1939) adopted this name for a typical
arenaceous limestone formation outcropping along the
top of Mt. Everest which was subsequently traced
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
eastward into Sikkim. In Sikkim the formation is exposed
in two widely separated patches. The Limestone series
in the north-east Sikkim is defined from Central
Crystallines by the presence of a fault. In the north-
western part, however, the formation overlies Everest
Pelitic Formation. The limestone was mapped by Raina
and Bhattacharya (1965) and subsequently by
Roychoudhury et al. (1998). Raina and Bhattacharya (op.
cit.) have extended this name to include a thick formation
which consists of brown argillaceous limestone, cherty
and flaggy quartzite, highly contorted ferruginous
sandstone and limestone and typical arenaceous
limestone in ascending order. This series forms the base
of the Tethyan sedimentary sequence in Sikkim.
❑ Mount Everest Limestone Formation contains
following litho units
❑ Cherty quartzite
❑ Ferruginous sandstones and limestone
❑ Arenaceous limestone
Argillaceous limestone is massive and
unfossiliferous and form vertical cliffs on the western
sector of the series of Chorten Nyima ridge. Though
massive, closer examination reveals a finely laminated
nature with calcite stringers both along and across the
lamination. Thin sections reveal the rock to be
constituted mainly of calcite with clay matter.
Roychaudhuri et al. (1998) have recorded algal mat in
this limestone. The argillaceous limestone is overlain
by cherty (flaggy) quartzites which are fragmentary in
nature and show contortions. Individual beds show an
average thickness of 2 cm. Quartzites are overlain by
interbedded ferruginous sandstone and limestone, the
latter often showing a brecciated nature. The sandstone
is reddish in colour and show a fine granular surface.
Under microscope they reveal the presence of calcareous
matter within the matrix. Iron ore occurs as opaque
mineral. Associated limestone bands, on microscopic
examination, were found to be calcareous marls
composed of fine grained calcite and clay matter.
The topmost formation of this series is a highly
fractured, thinly bedded arenaceous limestone, the
typical Mt. Everest limestone. It outcrops along the top
of sentinel and Lhonak peaks. The dark grey limestone,
characterized by the presence of thin yellow bands or
stringers, weather into a reddish-brown to buff coloured
rock. They are practically unfossiliferous and are seamed
throughout by calcite stringers. Though well bedded,
individual beds show compact character and exhibit a
17
thickness of five to six centimeters. The yellow beds,
representing arenaceous impurities, stand out
prominently in weathered sections. Thin sections show
the rock to be essentially a recrystallised calcite rock
with grains of quartz and feldspar.
GONDWANA SUPERGROUP
In Sikkim, the Gondwana Supergroup is represented
by two formations - Rangit pebble slate overlain by
Damuda Formation.
Rangit Pebble Slate:
Rangit pebble slate is a very distinct horizon which
occurs in the ‘Rangit Window’ at the contact of Buxa
dolomite and Damuda Formation of Gondwana age. Dutt
(1954) felt that these beds are important on account of
the association of marine brachiopod fossils in one of
the outcrops which indicates the age of the beds of the
coal measures as Upper Palaeozoic.
The pebble slates are well exposed in the road
section towards Singtep, west of Naya Bazar; on the
Rangit River and adjoining areas near Tatapani Temple
and on the Rishi Khola, north of Rishi. In addition to
these the localities the formation is also observed
between Tatapani Temple and Rishi as well as north of
Naya Bazar. Marine fossils have been reported from
Gondwana sequence near Khemgaon (Ghosh, 1952) and
near Wak (Dutt, 1954). Similar marine fossil bearing
sequence is suspected to occur in the diamictite bearing
section exposed on the Rangit River near Tatapani
Temple (De, 1982).
The pebble slate is represented by diamictite, dark
slate, dark grey claystones, bands and lenses of
sandstone. The pebbles essentially comprise quartzite,
calcareous quartzite, sandstone, limestone, stromatolitic
dolomite, slaty phyllite and granite gneiss (De, 1982).
The matrix of the rock may enclose rock fragments
ranging in size from microscopic to 3 feet in diameter.
The enclosed pebbles may be made of diverse rocks such
as porphyritic granite, mica-schist, quartzite, vein quartz,
limestone and black slate. The irregular nature in which
these unsorted fragments occur suggests that they could
have been deposited by glacial or fluvio-glacial action.
The matrix is usually a black clay-slate very much like
a glacial till, but it is white in colour and siliceous on
top of the Salebong (27°9:88°23) peak.
At an altitude of 1494 m south-west of Khemgaon
18
(27°11:88°22) a conglomerate in which well rounded
elliptical pebbles of quartzite, mica-schist, vein quartz
and granite, measuring up to 20 cm across are present,
contains distorted invertebrate fossils including that of
spirifer. The thickness of fossiliferous horizon is about
100 feet. Between Mangble (27°11´:88°21´) and
Ranguthang (27°12´:88°22´) four bands of limestone
alternate with boulder slate. Some of these, at the contact
of the limestone, contain casts resembling invertebrate
fossils. These casts are almost totally replaced by
limonite.
In the Rangi Khola (27°12´:88°22´) section, the slate
contains nodules and lenses of calcareous matter some
of which appears to have been formed syngenetically.
Boulders slate is found as continuous outcrops
extending WNW from Manpur Khola section to the
Salphuk (27°09:88°21) peak. They are also
interstratified with sandstone and carbonaceous shale
in all the nala sections south of the Baisalu
(27°08´:88°18) – Asangthang (27°09:88°20) ridge,
between Kitam (27°07:88°21) and Sorokpani
(27°08:88°21), at Dumra (27°11:88°20), in Khemgaon
area and on either side of the Pabong stream.
Outcrops of pebbly slate are recorded on the descent
to Tarkhola from Sangser, about 1/2 km east of Tarkhola
and in the Rishi village opposite Rishi-Rangli confluence
(here this appears to be grading upwards in to
greywacke). Dutt (1955) found black slate, similar to
the Gondwana slate in Namchi area in western Sikkim,
on the northern slopes of the hills south-east of Yum
Chho (27°03:88°42). Besides blue calcareous
sandstone, he found a conglomerate with brown clayey
matrix in which pebbles of chert, quartzite, limestone
and slate were embedded. In appearance they resembled
certain pebble beds of western Sikkim.
When the size of the pebbles varies between 1 mm
and 30 mm, the rock exhibits nature of a greyish-yellow
splintery slate. With the increase in size of the pebbles
(5 cm to 30 cm) the rock almost looses its slaty character
and gives conglomeratic appearance. Pebbles show
elongation which is parallel to dip direction. Quartzite
is the main pebble constituent, followed by granite,
dolomite and shale. Acharyya (1971) published detailed
account of the Rangit Pebble slate.
Das et al. (1984) located small exposure of
GEOL. SURV. IND
Gondwana rocks in Kali Khola section, about 3 km south
of Pakyong in east Sikkim, just to the east of Bhasme.
The exposure is in the form of a small window zone and
is surrounded by Daling phyllite. The pebble-phyllite is
light grey in colour and contains pebbles of quartzite,
phyllite, grey slate, granite and quartz vein embedded
in argillaceous matrix. The pebbles are stretched and
aligned parallel to the foliation plane. The Gondwanas
have been affected by F2 and F3 folding.
Damuda Formation:
Damuda Formation is one of the most prominent
units of the Rangit Window, and prominently exposed
on Naya Bazar-Legship road, Jorthang-Namchi road and
surrounding areas. The exposures of this unit are also
recorded in a small window about 6 km south of Pakyong
on the northern bank of Rangpo Chu (stream). Mallet
(1875), Dutt (1954, 1955, 1961), Raina (1966) have
made observations on Gondwanas of Rangit Window.
The formation comprises sandstone, calcareous
sandstone, shale, carbonaceous shale with thin coal beds.
The sandstone and siltstone at places exhibit cross
stratificaton and channel structures. The sandstone
occurring in this group are coarse grained, micaceous,
ferruginous, and of either brown or blue colour.
Sandstone of grey colour is found in the Rangit river
section north of Nayabazar (27°08´: 88°17´) and between
Kamrang (27°11:88°21) and Denchong
(27°10:88°20). Hard, greyish-black, felspathic
sandstones and arkose grit are located on the right bank
of Rangit, one mile north of Nayabazar. A rock
resembling grit is found in the stream east of Burntar
(27°9:88°22), at Namchi (27°10: 88°22) and in the
Bhondi Khola (27°08:88°19) section (Dutt, 1954).
The sandstone is usually intercalated with black
fissile slate, carbonaceous slate and occasionally with
thin impure coal horizons. Sandstone is far in excess of
argillaceous rocks south of the Salgari (27°08´:88°18´),
Asangthang ridge, but north of it they are subordinate
to slate. The sandstone so imperceptibly grades into slate
that it is sometimes difficult to draw a stratigraphical
boundary between the two. At places, such as in small
stream west of Bhondi Khola, the sandstone is twice
repeated in a bed of slate.
In the Rangit section at Nayabazar, the sandstone
group occurs adjacent to the magnesian limestones.
Sandstone is developed just above the purple and green
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
slates at Samdong (27°09´:88°19´). Such arenaceous
beds are also found in contact with the limestone beds
near Salebong (27°09´:88°23´).
Under microscope the sandstone comprises of sub-
angular to rounded grains of quartz, plagioclase,
muscovite, biotite and opaque minerals. Larger grains
show strain effects. Some of the feldspar and quartz
grains have completely sericitized. Muscovite and biotite
show alteration to clay minerals. Finer variety of
sandstone has similar mineral composition but has more
rounded grains.
Frequently the sandstone has been converted into
quartzite, the shale into splintery slate and carbonaceous
shale into carbonaceous or even graphitic schist; while
the coal has lost a large proportion of its volatile matter,
so as to approach to anthracite in composition. The
amount of metamorphism in the Damuda is by no means
constant, generally the beds are more or less altered and
the rocks closely resemble typical ones of the Raniganj
field.
Small structural windows of Gondwanas also occur
north of Majhitar, in Ratu Khola, Tarkhola and at Kali
Khola in eastern Sikkim (Dutt, 1961). Plant fossils so
far have not been recorded from last three localities.
Fossils in Gondwanas:
In the geological succession of the area the coal
seams contain plant fossils such as Glossopteris,
Gangmopteris and Vertebraria. This assembelage is also
seen in carbonaceous shale and slate. Recently Pal and
Wanjarwadkar (2002) have recorded Calamites,
Palaeopteridium, and Lesleya etc. from Damuda
sandstones of Rangit Valley. On the basis of this fossil
finds the age of the coal bearing sandstone becomes
Lower Carboniferous.
The sandstone bed is underlain by pebble and
boulder slate in grey argillaceous matrix and Brachiopod
and Lamellibranch bearing beds of Wak (27°13:88°21)
by Dutt (1954) and Khemgaon (27°11:88°23) by Ghosh
(1952).
Dykes in Gondwanas:
The sandstone-slate sequence is intersected by
sills of lamprophyre at Dumra (27°11:88°20),
19
Kamrang (27°11:88°21) and in the section of the
Rangit River. When in the contact with the
carbonaceous beds the lamprophyre has produced a
rock resembling coal. Under microscope the rock
shows sericitized feldspar, pale coloured biotite as
small flakes, carbonate and long corroded streaks of
a dark opaque mineral. Apatite, orthoclase, sphene
and epidote are also observed.
Some 300 feet above Salebong, a 30 feet thick dyke
of orthoclase-porphyre (orthophyre) intersects the
dolomites. The minerals are Orthoclase (80%), biotite
(7%), haematite (8%) apatite, quartz etc. make up the
remainder (5%).
LACHI FORMATION
Sediments of the Lachi Formation are exposed in
the north-eastern part of Sikkim only. The Tethyan
sediments start with a basal conglomerate. The
Formation is represented by a sequence of quartzite and
shale with some pebble beds. This rock sequence is
exposed to the north of Dongkya Range, in the vicinity
of Chho Lhamo Lake (28°01:88°46) and the hills
consisting of these sediments is named as Lachi hill.
The sequence is exposed in the form of small rounded
hillocks with smooth topography. Lachi hill, a continuous
ridge of small hillocks trending roughly north-south with
a height of about 300 metres or so above the surrounding
plains, forms a barrier between Gurudongmar Chhu
(stream) in west and Chho Lhamo lake in the east. This
ridge is in contact with the Central Himalayan range on
the southern side and is cut off from the Kampa Dzong
Series of Tibet, in the north, by the valley of the Tista
River.
Wager (1939) first studied this formation and named
it as Lachi Series, allotting a Permo-Carboniferous age
on the basis of fossil evidences. This was further
supported by A.M. N. Ghosh (1952 and 1956) by
correlating pebble bed of Lachi Series with the boulder
slate bed of Rangit Valley. Auden discovered Triassic
fossils towards the top of this formation and came to the
conclusion that the top of Lachi Series is Triassic in
age. He renamed the top of this formation as Chho
Lhamo series. G. N. Dutt (1955) examined in the Chho
Lhamo- Lachi hill area and indicated presence of the
Lachi sequence. Raina and Bhattacharya (1962, 1965)
carried out systematic mapping of this sequence and later
Raychoudhury et. al. (1998) worked in this area.
20
Lachi Formation comprise the following lithological
units
◆ Fossil bearing calcareous sandstone, slate and
quartzite
◆ Fossil bearing argillaceous limestone and
calcareous sandstone
◆ Pebble beds and conglomerate
◆ Crinoidal limestone, infolded shale and
quartzite
The base of Lachi Series consists of infolded
quartzite and shale with a thin band (4 m. thick) of fossil
bearing crinoidal limestone (Raina and Bhattacharya,
1965). The quartzite is hard and cherty and stands out
as ridges whereas the shale forms depression. Quartzite
is light to greyish brown in colour and show a coarse
matrix. Brachiopod fossil- Syringothyris of Lydekkeri
(Dien) of Upper Permian age was found in one of the
quartzitic sandstone boulders covering the quartzite
(Raina and Bhattacharya, 1962).The quartzite shows
well bedded nature while the shale is fragmentary and
shows the tendency of breaking into thin rectangular
fragments. This shale is devoid of any plant fossils. Shale
is found to be harder in nature and is almost slaty in
character. Thin dark shale bands which appear to be
carbonaceous are also seen to be interbedded with the
shale. The limestone band occurs in the upper parts of
the shales. It is dark crinoidal limestone showing pitted
surface and fragmentary nature which has been caused
by the intersection of two prominent joint systems. Under
microscope; it proved to be a bryozoan limestone
consisting of bryozoan fragments in calcareous matrix
(Raina and Bhattacharya, 1962). Fossils collected from
this zone could not be properly identified as they are
not properly preserved.
The pebble bed forms the most prominent zone of
the Lachi ridge. Its outcrop width is about one kilometer
though it is only 200 m thick. Auden (1935) has
correlated them with the Talchir boulder bed. Angular
grains (pebbles?) of quartz, shale and sandstone are
found in siliceous matrix. In general it looks like a pebble
bearing slaty grey coloured siltstone. Actually it shows
a regular variation in grain size of the matrix as well as
that of the pebbles from bottom to top. At the bottom
the matrix is silty with pebble size between one to two
millimeters. This is followed by coarse sandstone with
pebbles ranging in size from 5 to 10 mm. It becomes a
boulder bed formation with boulders ranging in size from
30 to 100 cm towards top. The pebbles are mostly of
GEOL. SURV. IND
quartzite and show a subangular, subrounded or elliptical
shape. Larger boulders show a well rounded and polished
surface. In addition to quartzite, pebbles of granite, shale
and limestone are also encountered. These generally
show a flattened (bladed) or disc shape. Under
microscope, the matrix is formed of clay associated with
small grains of quartz and feldspar. Within this matrix,
rounded and angular grains of quartz, quartzite, calcite,
shale and mica-gneiss are seen. Veins of calcite cut across
rocks.
The pebble beds are overlain by a zone of highly
fossiliferous calcareous sandstone and arenaceous
limestone of about 100 m thickness. In some parts the
pebble beds are overlain by carbonaceous shale (inferior
coal seams) and splintery shale. The carbonaceous shale
is very much puckered. The splintery shale is similar to
the shale forming the base of the sequence. The
sandstone and arenaceous limestone are reddish-brown
in colour, show a sandy surface and resemble quartzites.
It weathers into irregular fragments. Raina and
Bhattacharyya (1965) recorded a large number of fossils
from this calcareous sandstone and arenaceous limestone
of Lachi Formation. These are Productus
(Linoproductus) cora d’Orb., Productus cf.
semireticulatus, Productus semireticularus Martin,
Productus (Dictyoclostus) cf . spiralia Waagen,
Productus (Dictyoclostus) cf. gratiosus, Productus
(Linoproductus) cf. kulikid Freedericks, Productus
(Waagenoconcha) purdoni (Davidson), Productus (Sp.
Unidentifiable), . Spirifer (Spiriferella) rajah Salter.
Spiriferina (Spriferellina) zewanensis Diener, Chonetes
Wageri Muir Wood, Chonetes (Sp. Unidentifiable),
Marginifera himalyensis Diener, Marginifera sp,
Derbyia cf. dorsoplna, Protocetapora ampla Lonsdale,
Ingelarella pelicanensis. The fossil assemblage indicates
a definite Permian age (Raina and Bhattacharya, 1965).
Some of the fossils like Marginifera Himalayensis,
Diener Spirifer, (Spiriferella) rajah Salter are the
characteristic fossils of Permian horizons in other parts
of Himalayas.
This highly fossiliferous horizon is overlain by 120
m thick horizon of quartzite and slate. Towards top, fossil
bearing calcareous sandstone bands are seen infolded
with the slate. The quartzite which shows a yellowish
colour often reveals a brecciated character. Associated
slate beds, characterized by a cleavage, show a highly
jointed nature. Under microscope the slate is entirely
formed of clay matter with few arenaceous patches.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Associated fossil bearing calcareous sandstone, showing
a weathered pitted surface, do not outcrop so commonly.
These are encountered in Chhothina (28°04:88°42)
section only and are missing in Lachi ridge. Among the
fossils Productus (Linoproductus) cora d’Orb, Spirifer
trigonalis Mart, Spirifer Lydekkeri Diener, and Spirifer
curzoni, Chonetes Wageri Muie wood, Pleurotomaria
(Trepospira) cf. Chitralensis Reed, Pleurotomaria
sp.,Lima sp. are most prominent ones. Fossil
identification indicates an upper Permian age for this
horizon.
The topmost formation of this series is a thick
quartzite which may represent a different zone altogether.
The quartzite is exposed with a width of 1000 m or so.
They are light grey in colour and are associated with
cherty white bands. Towards the contact with the
underlying formation, they show brecciated nature. A
thin section of white band revealed recrystallised quartz
rock metamorphosed at very low temperature. The
stratigraphic position of this quartzite band is rather
doubtful. Although at present it is placed within Lachis,
it could, however, represent the base of Triassics which
is missing in this area.
Roychoudhury et al (1998) have recorded sprifer,
Neophricadothyris, Lissella, Daviecella, Echinaria,
Muirwoodia, Squamaria, Reticulatia, Tschernyschewia,
Spiriferellina, Syringothyris (s.l.), Stenoscisma,
Notospirifer, Eospiriferina, Probolionia, Sinuatella,
Productus, Taeniothaerus and Planolites. Fossils were
collected from different levels at Dorjila hill section and
have been grouped into four assemblages. Lower one
occurs close to the contact of Everest Limestone
Formation and is identified by Eospiriferina - Daviecella-
Reticulatia assemblage. Middle of the succession is
characterized by Syringothyris-Spirifer assemblage. This
assemblage is correlated with Syringothyris Limestone
fossil assemblage of northwestern Tethyan Himalaya
where Lower Carboniferous age has been assigned to
this assemblage (Middlemiss 1910). Next assemblage
is the Productus-Sinuatella assemblage. This assemblage
is correlated with those from Po Series (Lr.
Carboniferous) of Spiti and with lower part of
Fennestella Shale (Up Carboniferous) of Kashmir.
Towards the top, most richly fossiliferous association is
represented by Muirwoodia-Athyris-Spririferella
assemblage having close faunal similarity with
brachiopods of Nihal, Nabi and Girthigal Formations of
Kumaon-Garwal Tethyan sequence. Such a rich and
21
diversified brachiapods of Lachi Formation match with
Zewan Formation (Mid-Up Permian) of Kashmir which
contains numerous colonies of sessile benthonics of
similar characters. Thus, Lachi Formation is
provisionally dated Upper Devonian to Upper
Carboniferous (Middle Permian).
CHHO LHAMO (TSO LHAMO) FORMATION
This sequence of rocks is exposed only in the form
of a small patch in north-east Sikkim. The name “Chho
Lhamo” was given by Auden (1935) to an ammonite
bearing horizon of limestone, sandstone and shale on
the eastern side of the Lachi ridge. This was subsequently
examined by Raina and Bhattacharya (1962, 1965), and
Roychoudhury et al. (1998).
This Formation is represented by sandstone at the
base, overlain by limestone and shale. They show a
faulted contact with the rocks of underlying Lachi
Formation.The entire Formation is tectonically disturbed
resulting in a faulted contact between the limestone and
overlying shale. On the eastern bank of Chho Lhamo,
limestone is seen overriding the sandstone and shale of
Lachi Series.
Basal sandstone is hard and slightly coarse in texture
and grey to light brown in colour. The sandstone contains
well rounded nodules of hardened clay, a few of them
having a limestone core. Towards its junction with the
overlying limestone this sandstone become calcareous
and exhibits a flaggy character. They are quite rich in
invertebrate fossils especially brachiopods and corals.
A few ammonite fossils were also collected. This horizon
was found to be rich in Rhynchonella Thinodosi showing
Muschelkalk (middle Triassic) affinity. The fossils
identified are as follows: Pseudosageceras. Sp,
Spiriferina sp, Rhynchonella cf. trinodosi. Bilt,
Rhynchonella sp, Orthoceras sp., Chonotes sp.(Raina
and Bhattacharyya 1963, 1965)
Black coral bearing limestone, which overly the
sandstone shows a weathered wrinkled surface due to
the presence of corals. The rocks are black and well
bedded and jointed. They also reveal Muschelkalk age
from their fossil assemblage among which Meekoceras
is the most prominent. Towards top they alternate with
shale.
The shale is from the top of Triassic exposures. This
22
horizon is formed of shale and quartzite with interbedded
thin bands of limestone. The shale is very rich in
ammonite fauna and reveals a Muschelkalk age.
Cephalopods form the major proportion of the fossils
collected from this horizon, though brachiopods and
lamellibranches are also present. The fossils identified
in this horizon are as follows: Ceratites trinodosus Mojs,
Ceratites dimorphus, Ceratites sp., Meekocers cf.
nalikanta Diener, Meekoceras khanikofi Oppel,
Meekoceras kesva Diener, Proptychites plicatus Waagen,
Pleurophors cf. curonii Hau Lam , Dielasma cf.
himalayana Bittner, Athyris sp., Euomphalus sp.,
Pleorotomaria sp., Lima sp. ind. Aff. Subpunctatae D
‘Orb., Gervillia cf. praecursob Quen, Meekoceras cf.
affine E.V. Mojs, Meekoceras cf. Rhanikofi opal,
Ptychites Sp., Ceratites ef. Brinodocus Mojs, Ptychites
cf. Sumitrs Diener, Ceratires sp. (op. cit.)
Roychoudhury et. al. (1998) reported that 740 m
thick Chho Lahmo Formation has yielded nine
fossiliferous horizons where cephalopod is represented
by Genus Salterites Diener 1907 and Tibetites
Mojsisovics 1896. Salterites belongs to similar affinity
with Otoceras zone (Lower Triassic) of western Tethys
Himalaya and Tibetites being marker genera of Upper
Triassic (Lower Noric) beds of Himalaya, is correctable
with ammonoid assemblage of Holorites beds of
Kumaon Himalaya(op. cit.).
INTRUSIVE GRANITES
Throughout the Himalaya, two main variants of late
intrusive granites have been documented, viz. a) Two
mica granites and b) tourmaline granite. This is true of
Darjeeling Sikkim also. Intrusive granites are generally
recorded in Central Crystalline Gneisses. These occur
as sills and discordant intrusives. Apart from these there
are local products of partial melting such as aplites and
pegmatites.
These intrusive granites such as biotite granite,
tourmaline granite and pegmatite veins had been reported
in north and west districts of Sikkim by Bhattacharya
and Pattanaik (1964), Raina (1966), Raina and
Bhattacharya (1965), Sinha Roy and Ray (1972), and
Neogi (2004).
Heron (1922) was the first to notice presence of these
tourmaline granites (termed as schorl granite) in the
Everest Region. He states “the schorl granite is the latest
GEOL. SURV. IND
in the age of igneous rocks and occurs practically
everywhere in the crystallines examined”. Hayden
(1907) regarded unfoliated granites of Chumbi Valley
as equivalent to the schorl granite of Everest. Since the
Chumbi granite has intruded Jurassic beds, both it and
the related granite of Sikkim and Everest were presumed
to be of Tertiary age.
Biotite granite
It has been observed in the north-eastern part of
Sikkim Raina and Bhattacharya (1965) intruding into
foliated biotite granite and gneisses in the form of lit-
par- lit injections, as thin veins along the foliation plane
of country rock and also as small bosses. The bosses
contain xenoliths of older gneisses. It is also observed
to have intruded into the basal rocks of the Everest Pelitic
Series as lit-par-lit injections. Sinha Roy and Ray (1972),
while working in parts of toposheet 77 D/12 and 78 A/
9, observed following modes of occurrence:
(i) Small pods at the core of small scale folds and at
the construction zone of boudins in banded gneiss.
(ii) Along strain-slip cleavages within banded gneiss.
(iii) As thin veins cross-cutting the gneissosity in which
case a relic foliation is preserved within the granite
through the orientation of recrystallised biotite.
(iv) As concordant bodies within biotite-rich banded
gneiss where there is selective crystallization of
garnet in the host rock around the biotite granite.
It is a medium grained rock with quartz, feldspar
and biotite as the main mineral constituents. This
biotite granite, like tourmaline granite, is exposed
from Chungthang to Jakthang on Tista and Zemu
valley and from Phentong to Phyaggu on the Tolung
Valley. It is best developed between Menshithang
(27°40: 88°3530) and Lachen (27°44:88°33) in
the Tista Valley. South of Menshithang, a zone of
augen gneisses is seen which has been formed by
the massive intrusion of biotite granite. A thin section
from Lungme (27°52:88°21) stream shows quartz,
biotite, muscovite, minor chlorite, zoned plagioclase
and microcline. Plagioclase is earlier than
microcline. Another thin section of the rock collected
from Khora Phu (27°57:88°18) showed presence of
oligoclase and a few almandine garnets. The biotite
crystals vary from small flakes to big books. The
books are generally seen near the contact with the
country rock.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Tourmaline granite:
The part of North Sikkim, especially from
Chungthang to in Tista Valley to Jakthang (27°4730:
88°29) in the Zemu Valley and from Phentong
(27°3446:88°25) to Phyaggu (27°42:88°2630) in
the Tolung Valley has been criss-crossed by numerous
granitic masses and aplitic veins. Granite and pegmatites
veins of varying thickness of 1 cm to nearly one km
have been met with (Bhattacharya and Pattanaik, 1964).
They are seen mainly within the area between
Chungthang (27°36:88°38) and Lachen (27°44:
88°33). At some places, these intrusions have taken
place along the fault and joint plane. It occurs as small
lenticular bodies (3 to 6 m thick) disposed athwart the
gneissosity. When they are located near the mesoscopic
folds in banded gneiss, they invariably occur along the
axial plane. Near the contact with the wall rock,
tourmaline is aligned parallel to the contact plane. But
towards the centre of the body, this alignment is lost
and tourmaline shows crude dimensional orientation at
right angles to the contact. The granite varies from fine
grained homogenous granite to a coarse pegmatite in
texture. They vary in colour and texture. Colour varies
from milky white to light brown to light grey. These
granites have been found to be very rarely affected by
faulting and folding of the Himalayan orogeny. These
granites are medium grained with different sizes of
prismatic crystals of tourmaline in a ground mass of
plagioclase and quartz. Under microscope, it reveals a
coarse grained nature with tourmaline, quartz, biotite
and feldspar as main constituents.
In Tista valley, very near to Jorepul (27°42:88°34),
a tourmaline bearing granite containing Topaz has been
located. Auden (1935) has reported the occurrence of
topaz bearing granite from a place on the Tista Valley
which is nearly 48 km north of this occurrence. The topaz
crystals are 1.5 cm to 2 cm in length; flesh coloured and
irregularly arranged. The zone is 30 cm thick and nearly
8 metres long.
Near Jorepul, a little south of the locality referred
to the above section, a massive well jointed, unfoliated
zone of tourmaline granite is seen. The tourmaline occurs
as clusters of radiating fine needles occupying an area
which is rectangular in shape. Auden (1935) has also
mentioned the presence of clustered tourmaline granite,
well jointed and massive in nature, on the Sibu Chu
Valley in northeast Sikkim.
23
Pegmatite and Aplitic granite:
In north district, Sikkim the pegmatites, except for
the coarse nature of its minerals and its occurrence as
veins and stringers, it shows the same mineral
assemblage as the biotite granite. In field they are
observed intruding along well developed joint planes,
crack and fissures.
In West District, Sikkim the pegmatites intrude into
gneisses and schists along well developed joints and
fissures. They do not appear to be intruding in to the
foliated granites.
Thin section shows zoned coarse grains of
plagioclase and oligoclase and inclusions of quartz and
biotite. Garnet and apatite are accessories with
occasional tourmaline.
Aplitic granite is a fine grained, homogenous mass
of grey and black clots in which biotite grains are easily
discernable, and occurs as thin bands varying in
thickness from 1 cm to 10 cm. These intrude the country
rock along N75W-S75E joint planes. Under microscope
it is composed of fine grains of quartz, feldspar and
biotite with flakes of muscovite and chlorite. Feldspar
is oligoclase. In one section garnet and epidote are seen.
They intrude into earlier granite.
SYENITIC ROCKS
The Ultrapotassic syenitic rocks of Sikkim occur as
intrusive within the “Dalings” of Sikkim Himalaya.
Syenitic rocks are reported from many localities. Verma
et al, (1983) presented an account of these rocks. Ghosh
Roy (1996A, 1996B, 1997) studied these rocks in great
details. Small bouldery outcrops of syenitic rocks occur
at many localities within the Daling Formation in Sikkim
Himalayas near Legship, Ben, Damthang, Rishi, and
Maniram. Although their intrusive nature can be
recognized at places, their disposition is not clear due
to paucity of outcrops and small dimension of the bodies.
They are of two varieties. One is coarse grained
mesocratic rocks having dark greenish grey color. Coarse
feldspars and fibrous blue riebeckite are often discernible
in hand specimen. Anastomising veins of riebeckite of
variable width are also common. The rock is composed
of orthoclase, biotite, aegirine and riebeckite. Orthoclase
is mostly subhedral. Anorthoclase is a minor phase. The
24
biotite has a deep reddish brown colour, and distinct
colour zoning with dark reddish brown cores and lighter
coloured rims. The aegirine grains are often bleached.
Riebeckite is distinctly a late phase and replaces mica
and feldspars. Brown katophoritic amphibole also occurs
as minor phase in the syenitic rocks. Sphene is a common
accessory mineral in these rocks. This variety of syenitic
rocks shows occasional porphyritic and crude
panidiomorphic texture. The rocks have very high K2O
(4.87 - 10.31%) compared to Na2O (1.76 - 2.49%) and
they also contain high TiO2 (2.27 - 4.47%) which implies
their ultrapotassic nature. Presence of acmite and
potassium metasilicate in norms of some samples and
presence of modal aegirine and riebeckite indicate their
peralkaline nature. Trace element data for these rocks
reveal that they contain high amount of Rb (40 - 160
ppm), Ba (300 - 3900 ppm) and Sr. (210 - 3600 ppm).
The other variety is comparatively finer grained
having dark ash-grey colour. These are generally
massive. This finer-grained variety is composed of
orthoclase and katophoritic amphibole as essential
phases with minor amounts of riebeckite and phlogopitic
mica but does not contain aegirine. These rocks exhibit
panidiomorphic texture. They contain high SiO2, Al2O3
and total alkali and less TiO2, MgO, CaO and total iron
and also higher Zr, La and Y, lower Ba and Sr compared
to the former group.
Although the rocks are apparently of syenitic
composition, these are in many respects dissimilar to
typical alkali syenites. Absence of microcline/microcline
perthite, occurrence of colour zoned phlogopitic mica
and dominance of aegirine-riebeckite and katophoritic
amphibole exhibiting panidiomorphic texture with
evidences of autometasomatism and typically
ultrapotassic chemical character indicates that these
rocks are more akin to lamprophyres rather than typical
alkali syenites.
Sodic-calcic (katophorite/anophorite) and alkali
amphiboles (arfvedesonite / riebeckite) are reported from
lamprophyres and primary alkali amphiboles are mostly
reported from minettes but may occur as a secondary
phase in all calc-alkaline lamprophyres (minettes,
kersantite, vogesite, spessartite etc) (Rock, 1991).
Besides, Ca-Na pyroxenes (sodian augite and aegirine
augite) have been reported from all lamprophyres (Rock,
op cit). Thus, the mineralogy coupled with chemical
characters of these syenitic rocks suggests them to belong
GEOL. SURV. IND
to the lamprophvre clan and are likely to be soda minettes
rather than ‘syenitic’ composition.
The two groups of syenitic rocks have been found
to occur in close proximity. Close to them, neither typical
minettes nor leucite or olivine lamproites have been
found. However, a coarse grained rock comprising fresh
olivine, diopsidic augite, phlogopite, richterite as major
phases have been found near Rishi. This rock shows
distinct evidences of ‘modal metasomatism’. The
invading veins had given rise to secondary phlogopite
and apatite and the veins also contain minor amount of
carbonate. The rock having higher 100 Mg/ (Mg + FeT)
is fairly primitive and it appears that the original rock
has been considerably modified by the metasomatising
fluids. This rock is likely to be a richterite-peridotide of
deep seated origin and the textural features observed
are comparable with the features considered to represent
‘mantle metasomatism’. It is probable that the original
rock was a mantle rock of lherzolite or garnet lherzolite
composition which has been substantially modified by
metasomatism. In that case, apart from olivine, diopside
and some phlogopite, richterite, phlogopite and apatite
have possibly resulted from the invading metasomatic
fluids. The metasomatising fluid was partially rich in
CO2 as is evidenced by presence of carbonates in the
veins. For the syenitic rocks, this rock may represent
the source material from which the magma for the
ultrapotassic syenitic rocks had formed by partial melting
of the source material (Ghosh Roy, 1997).
SESELA FORMATION
Rocks of Sesela Formation are exposed in the north
eastern corner of Sikkim state bordering Tibet. They are
exposed along Bomchho area in the north to 5554 m
peak in southeast through 5456 m peak and Sesela peak.
They are best developed along Kareng-Sesela axis and
represented by 200m thick sediments and are named as
Sesela Formation (Roychoudhury et. al. 1998).
Sesela Formation comprises well rounded, disc and
ball shaped pebbles (few millimeters to 10 cm diameter)
of shale, sandstone, limestone, argillite, quartzite,
granites and tilloids embedded in a sandy matrix. Rocks
are crudely banded, unconsolidated to semi-consolidated
in nature.
Alternation of variegated clay, fine and medium sand
and pebble beds indicate bedding which is mostly
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
horizontal or very low dip (2-5°). The more accessible
Kerang-Sesela section has been studied in detail where
conglomerate, grey, yellow, brown sand, sandy clay,
pink, black-brown clay and pebbles layers have been
found in irregular alternations.
Most of the pebbles of para-conglomerate and
conglomerate are well polished of different size and
shape and are made-up of shale, quartzite, limestone,
sandstone and granite of older horizons. Sediments were
apparently laid down in shallow to moderately deep
depressions or lakes and transported and rearranged by
streams. No fossil has been recorded from these rocks.
Sesela Formation is provisionally correlated on
lithological criteria with Upper Karewa Formation of
Kashmir, Potwar Silts of Potwar plateau and similar
deposits of Trans-Himalaya, and assigned pliostocene
age.
Sesela Formation, presumably of Pliestocene age
deposited in shallow to moderately deep depression or
lake, is of fluvio-glacial nature, but well polished,
pebbles of various size and shape are result of long term
rolling, dumping and transportation. Restricted outcrop
of this Formation suggests that present sectarian Chho
Lahmo Lake is a closed remnant of large sized water
mass, thought to be of tectonic origin or obstructed
drainage channel by glacial moraines.
STRUCTURE AND TECTONICS
The present tectonic framework of the Himalaya and
adjacent orogenic belts is the result of tectonic collage
of autochthonous to allochthonous linear crustal blocks,
geologically unrelated to each other and sutured together
during different periods of its evolutionary history. Such
unrelated crustal blocks of regional extent having their
distinctive tectono-stratigraphic characters, which are
generally fault bounded, are being termed “terranes”
following Howell (1985). The evolution of the accreted
allochthonous terranes of different ages, forming the
Himalaya and adjacent orogenic belts, by fragmentation
and reassembly of the north-eastern margin of the greater
Gondwana super continent has been advocated by
Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; 1977; Bassoulet et al.,
1980; Nur and Ban-Avraham, 1982; Allegre et al, 1984;
Valdiya, 1988; Thakur, 1996; Acharyya, 1996; Ghose,
2000a, 2000b and many others in recent years.
The Himalaya and adjacent parts of the Trans-
25
Himalayan regions are generally subdivided into the
following morpho-tectonic units from north to south.
Karakoram/Changtang Belt
—Shyok (SS)/Bangong-Nujian (BNS) Suture Zone —
Kohistan/Ladakh/Lhasa Terrane
—Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITS)—
Tethyan Zone
South Tibetian Detachment System (STDS)
Higher Himalayan Zone
—Main Central Thrust (MCT)—
Lesser Himalayan Zone
—Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)—
Sub-Himalayan (Foothill) Zone
—Main Frontal Thrust (MFT)—
Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra foreland basins
These morpho-tectonic units also represent
distinctive tectono-stratigraphic terranes, bounded by
major thrusts or sutures and constitute the main tectonic
framework of the Himalaya and adjacent regions. The
Himalayan region, sensu stricto, comprising Higher,
Lesser and Sub Himalaya (Foothill) is bounded by the
Indus-Tsangpo Suture (ITS) in the north and the Main
Frontal Thrust (MFT) in the south. A substantial part of
the Himalayan region constitutes recently elevated
Indian platform (Wadia, 1966) and the main Himalayan
region upto the Indus-Tsangpo Suture is represented by
the reactivated northern part of the Indian shield
(Gansser, 1980 and1981).
The State of Sikkim encompasses parts of Lesser
Himalayas, Higher Himalayas and Tethyian Zone. Main
boundary thrust (MBT) just passes through the area
slightly south of West Bengal-Sikkim boundary. Main
Frontal Thrust (MFT) between Siwaliks and Neogene
sediments is located further south. Main Central Thrust
(MCT) passes through the Central part of the State. The
normal fault (STDS) between Central Crystallines and
Tethyan Sequence passes through the northern part of
the State. There is one tectonic window named as Rangit
window which exposes subthrust rocks of the Lesser
Himalayan Package.
Tethyan zone lying between the Indus-Tsangpo
suture in the north and Higher Himalayan
crystallines(HHC) in the south is represented by nearly
complete stratigraphic sequences of the northern
continental margin of India over the Late
Neoproterozoic-Eocene interval with some breaks in the
form of unconformitics / diastems.
The base of this Tethyan sedimentary sequence has
26
long been regarded as a pronounced unconformity
overlying the high grade metamorphic rocks of the
Higher Himalayan sequence (Gansser, 1964: Stocklin.
1980). A major fault system has, however, been recorded
at many places along the southern boundary of the
Tethyan zone in the last two decades (Burg et al., 1984;
Burchfiel et al., 1992; Searle, 1986; and Valdiya, 1987).
Valdiya (1987) delineated Trans-Himadri Thrust
stretching for 1600 km between Ladakh and Sikkim that
separates the Higher Himalayan Crystalline Zone from
the Tethyan sedimentary zone. The existence of such a
fault is however, not seen at all the places and the Late
Neoproterozoic sequence commences unconformably
over the crystalline with diamictite and conglomerate at
the base.
However, in Sikkim the presence of Fault is reported
by Raina and Bhattacharyya (1965) and Roychoudhury
et. al. (1998). It has been observed that all along the
contact of Tethyan Sedimentary Sequence with
underlying Central Crystalline Gneissic Complex,
bedding trend of Tethyan are abuted against the foliations
of rocks of CCGC. There is tectonic pinching and
swelling, tear apart and scattered occurrence of Tethyan
sequence all along the north eastern part of Sikkim.
Slices of Lachi Formation within Chholahmo Formation
are additional references to such disturbances
(Roychoudhury et. al. (1998).
The Tethyan Sedimentary sequence is in general
unmetamorphosed and most of the rocks of Tethyan
Sedimentary Sequence shows prominent bedding and
is defined by colour banding, lithological variation and
grain size variation. Among Tethyan successions,
lineations and at places kinks are present in Everest
Limestone Formation.
The Higher Himalayan zone, defined by the MCT
in the south and arbitrarily demarcated in the north by
the appearance of marine Tethyan sequence, represents
the metamorphic core of the Himalaya. A continuous
belt of high grade metasedimentary and meta-igneous
rocks and associated granitoids commonly known as the
Central Crystallines are exposed all along the Higher
Himalayan zone.
Higher Himalayan rocks preserve imprints of poly-
phase deformation and related fabric elements (Naha
and Roy, 1970; Sinha Roy, 1977). In the micro-scale,
the dominant structural surface in the pelitic rocks has
GEOL. SURV. IND
been correlated with the penetrative foliation S2, axial
planar to a set of, locally preserved, tight isoclinal folds,
F2 formed during the D2 deformation. A relict early
fabric, S1, related to the earliest deformation D1, is
occasionally recorded in the pelitic rocks, defining micro
folds within the S2-related layering, or as internal trails
within syn-S2 garnet prophyroblasts. The pelitic units
also show a D2 mylonitic microfabric, S D2m ,
characterised by narrow bands of fine grained
recrystallised quartz-feldspar aggregates which
anastomose around porphyroclasts of feldspars and
quartz. The SD2m fabric is generally conformable with
S2 and often mutually inseparable. The most common
folds (F3) in the Higher Himalayan pelites, however, are
those developed on the S2 folia during a later deformation
D3. A set of weakly developed crenulation cleavage, S3,
have locally developed parallel to axial planes of these
meso and macro scale folds and are marked by incipient
growth of biotite and chlotite. The high grade HHC is
considered here as a dominantly gneissic thrust sheet
overlying the metasedimentary mica schist-quartzite of
the Lesser Himalayan stack along the Main Central
Thrust (Neogi et.al.1996).
Main Central Thrust:
Two distinct tectono-stratigraphic terranes
comprising Higher and Lesser Himalayan zones,
corresponding to two heterogeneous morphotectonic
domains, constitute the main Himalayan region and are
separated by a major intracrustal thrust zone termed as
the Main Central Thrust (MCT). The thrust contact
between the Central Crystallines and equivalent rocks
of the Higher Himalaya in the north and weakly
metamorphosed to unmetamorphosed volcano-
sedimentary sequences in the south in Garhwal-Kumaon
area was termed as the Main Central Thrust (MCT) by
Heim and Gansser (1939) to designate the surface along
which the crystalline rocks of the Great (Higher)
Himalaya had moved southward over the Lesser
Himalayan sedimentary sequences.The MCT represents
a major structural zone extending for at least 2500 km
along strike all along the Himalaya from Jammu and
Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east
and is one of the most distinctive structural features of
the Himalayan range. Recently Stephenson et al (2000,
2001) defined the MCT as a crustal scale high strain
ductile shear zone, between 1.5 and 3 km. wide,
commonly coincident with an inverted metamorphic
field gradient from biotite to kyanite grade, which places
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
the metamorphic rocks of the High Himalayan zone over
the unmetamorphosed to weakly metamorphosed rocks
of the Lesser Himalaya.
In Sikkim-Darjeeling area, Central Crystallines are
represented by Darjeeling Gneiss, Kanchenjunga Gneiss
and Chungthang Gneiss. According to Sinha Roy and
Bhargava (1989), the greenschist facies assemblages
represented by the Lesser Himalayan Daling sequence,
is delimited in the north by a dislocation zone at the
base of the tectonised slivers of the Lingtse Gneiss and
he termed this thrust as MCT-1. The rocks on the north
of MCT-1, represented by the Darjeeling Gneiss, are
metamorphosed to amphibolite facies. The tectonic
contact of the Dalings with the Gondwanas in the
southern front of the Lesser Himalaya has been termed
as MCT-II.
The Lesser Himalayan zone, bounded by the Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south and the Main
Central Thrust (MCT) in the north, are represented by
the areno-argillaceous formations with inter layered
volcanics of Late Palaeoproterozoic age at the base
followed by carbonate-orthoquartzite sequence of
Mesoproterozoic age. However the sequence in not
totally represented in Sikkim Himalaya barring the
Carbonate – ortho-quartzite sequence of
Mesoproterozoic age which in Sikkim Himalaya is
represented by Buxa Formation exposed only in the
Rangit window. The Gorubathan Formation, areno-
argillaceous lithofacies of the Daling Group comprise a
thick assemblage of green slate, epidiorite and chloritic
greywacke and carbon phyllites (Acharyya and Sastry,
1979).
The different structural elements and tectonics of
Daling rocks have been stated by different workers
(Sinha Roy, 1974; Sinha Roy, 1977; Bhattacharya, 1989;
Acharyya, 1989). At least, three main phases of
deformation (D1, D2, D3) may be recognized. The first
deformation (D1) produced schistosity, mostly parallel
to the bedding, folds (F1) and linear structures. Minor
F1 folds, rarely recognized within the thin intercalated
quartzite bands, are overturning to recumbent and tight
to isoclinals folds. The main penetrative and pervasive
foliation (S1) is the axial planar foliation of these folds.
Microscopically the S1 foliation is defined by parallel
alignment of chlorite, sericite, muscovite and lenticular
quartz and opaque grains. The second deformation (D2)
is responsible for the generation of recumbent / reclined
27
folds (F2) on all scales with pervasive schistosity and
occasional crenulation cleavage. These minor F 2
crenulations and folds are asymmetrical (sinistral) and
close to tight in nature. The marker units in Dalings viz.,
graywacke, psammite etc. define such folds on
mesoscopic scale. In the late stages of second
deformation, mylonitic zones developed almost parallel
to the axial planes of second generation folds (F2). The
third deformation (D3) is manifested in conjugate folds,
kinks and monoclines and on regional scale in
contemporaneous cross folds (E-W, N-S) at right angle
(F3, F4) and that may form the Sikkim domal structure
(Sinha Roy, 1977; Acharyya and Ray, 1977, Acharyya
and Sastry, 1979). The structures of both the second and
third deformations might have been generated by
independent N – S directed principal stress. The planar
structures related to first and second deformation, thrust
planes and regional metamorphic isograds were folded
on steep to upright axial planes with axes plunging east-
west or north to form in contemporaneous cross folds.
In eastern Himalaya the younger Phanerozoic belt
is represented as a linear belt of Permo-Carboniferous
sequence equivalent to Gondowana all along the frontal
zone of the Himalaya just adjacent to the MBT from
central Nepal to Arunachal Pradesh. In Sikkim
Darjeeling, these are represented by the Rangit pebble
slate and Damuda Formation. In Sikkim though Damuda
Formation is exposed only in Rangit Window, the Pebble
slate beds are exposed in the surroundings of the window
within Dalings as slices.
From the map pattern of the Sikkim Darjeeling
Himalaya it has been observed that in the western as
well as in the eastern part MBT and MCT run parallel
to one another defining a narrow E-W trending zone,
where as in the central part the MCT recedes towards
north defining deep recesses along the N - S flowing
Tista. Strike of the dominant foliation of rocks in the
hanging wall as well as footwall of the MCT in the recess
zone runs parallel to the thrust trace there by indicating
northerly plunging antiformal folding of the MCT in
the recesses zone. In other words, the MCT has laterally
arched up in the shape of isolated northerly plunging
antiform. Such lateral arches with axes trending at high
angles to the mountain front can be termed as
Culmination (McClay, 1992). This culmination zone
exposes a vast tract of Lesser Himalayan sequences
together with the presence of a window where younger
rocks of a lower level thrust sheet are exposed. Within
28
Teesta Culmination Zone in the Darjeeling-Sikkim
Himalayas, the Rangit window exposes Proterozoic
Buxa Formation and Mesozoic Gondwanas within the
Proterozoic Lesser Himalayan Daling Group of rocks.
Upper level thrust surfaces along with the thrust
sheets on their hanging walls arch upwards because of
insertion of imbricate thrust wedges at the lower levels
(Elliot and Johnson, 1980, Medewedeff, 1992). These
wedges may be arranged (Boyer and Elliot, 1982) as
imbricate fan, duplex or imbricate antiformal stack. But
such imbricate wedges are parallel to the thrust transport
direction and the axes of the resulting roof arch trend
parallel to the orogenic front (frontal antiforms,
Schirmer, 1988). The culmination antiforms, on the other
hand, are lateral arches trending at high angle (almost at
right angles) to the orogenic front. Hence their
development can not be explained by insertion of thrust
wedges.
Ray (2000) explained the development of
culmination in Sikkim Darjeeling Himalaya. According
to him the sole thrust shifts to a lower level to bypass
the zone of high frictional resistance forming a
rejoining splay of the sole thrust. By this process a
part of the autochthonous foreland below the sole
thrust, usually a slice of the crystalline basement, gets
accreted to the allochthon and moves forward as a horse
and finally occur as a far-traveled horse. A large part
of the autochthonous foreland below the sole thrust
may get tectonically mobilized and accreted to the
overlying allochthonous zone. Because of insertion of
this additional material within the allochthonous zone,
the roof sequence of the stack of allochthons arches
up in the form of antiforms. Arches with two separate
orientations develop simultaneously. Because of listric
curvature of the rejoining splay, the horse (or the bundle
of horses) cut from the foreland, has a spindle-like
shape in transverse section (Ray, 2000), and as a
consequence, the roof sequence arches up on an axis
perpendicular to the movement direction (a frontal
antiformal arch). Moreover, because of concave-up-
ward lateral curvature of the rejoining splay, another
arch with axis parallel to the movement direction
(lateral antiformal arch) forms. Interference of these
two sets of antiformal arches with their respective axes
at high angles to one another, would build up a domal
structure which is characteristic of the culminations
formed because of insertion of basement horse(s). The
Teesta culmination zone has this characteristic domal
GEOL. SURV. IND
structure. Moreover, a complementary synform should
form in front of the frontal antiform. Such a
complementary frontal synform is also very prominent
in the Teesta culmination zone. The resultant map
pattern of the culmination zones is a mushroom-shaped
pattern, which is seen in the Sikkim-Darjeeling
Himalaya.
METAMORPHISM
The metapelitic rocks of the Sikkim Lesser
Himalayas show an inverted metamorphic sequence
(IMS) of the complete Barrovian zones from chlorite to
sillimanite + K-feldspar, with the higher grade rocks
appearing at progressively higher structural levels. Ray
1947 first studied in detail this inverted metamorphism.
However Neogi et.al.1998, Ganguly 2000, Neogi 2004
carried out detail studies on metamorphism of Sikkim
Himalaya.
Metamorphic Character of Daling and Central
crystallines
Chlorite biotite zones:
In these zones, millimetre to centimetre scale
domains of phyllosilicate-rich (muscovite + chlorite) and
quartzose bands define a compositional layering (S0).
Muscovite in the chlorite zone is rich in paragonite (d”12
mol %) and celadonite (d”16 mol %). The latter was
found to decrease in the biotite zone. In a rare outcrop
within the biotite zone, idiomorphic (50–75 lm) Mn rich
garnet porphyroblasts were observed, which show strong
growth zoning. Since Mn fractionates strongly into
garnet, the stability limits of garnet are expanded in Mn-
rich bulk compositions. These rocks contain significant
amount of plagioclase, which shows compositional
zoning from around Ab75An25 at the core to around
Ab84An16 at the rim.
Garnet zone:
This zone starts with appearance of small garnet
crystals on foliation and bedding planes of schists and
quartzites. Schistosity becomes prominent and garnet
crystals become bigger further away from the margins
of the zone. The rocks are quartz – garnet-biotite schists
and phyllite, quartz-sericite-garnet schist and garnet
bearing quartzite. The minerals are quartz, garnet
(almandine), biotite, sericite and vermiculite.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Both garnet and chloritoid are present in some thin
sections of aluminous pelites, but are segregated in 1–5
mm thick layers, with the garnet having a relatively Mn-
rich composition and a well-preserved growth zoning.
The chloritoid bearing layers are commonly rich in
muscovite and have minor chlorite. The formation of
chloritoid and garnet in Mn-poor and Mn-rich bands,
respectively, is due to the effect of Mn in expanding the
field of stability of garnet.
There is a marked decrease in the modal abundance
of chlorite, particularly in garnet-bearing domains.
Garnet shows preservation of growth zoning. Biotite in
contact with garnet has slightly different compositions
from those away from it. Ilmenite contains 6 mol %
pyrophanite. The compositions of garnet and ilmenite
indicate Mn-rich bulk composition. The observed
depletion of chlorite in garnet-rich layers suggests that
garnet formed from the breakdown of chlorite, such as
Chl + Qtz = Grt +H2O
Staurolite zone :
This zone is demarked on the basis of the presence
of staurolite with relatively Mn-rich garnet. Garnet grains
show partly preserved growth zoning, and an increase
of Mn content in the rim. The modal abundance of garnet
is distinctly less than that in similar rocks at lower grades.
There is total disappearance of prograde chlorite,
whereas biotite is intergrown with staurolite. These
observations suggest formation of staurolite plus biotite
at the expense of chlorite, for example,
Grt + Chl + Ms = St + Bt +Qtz + H2O
Staurolite-kyanite zone:
The rocks are characterized by the first appearance
of staurolite and kyanite. There are minor amounts of
retrograde chlorite replacing staurolite and garnet.
Garnet is distinctly poor in Mn compared with that of
the previous assemblages, and shows considerable
relaxation of the growth zoning. Biotite shows only
minor compositional variation regardless of spatial
distribution and grain size. Plagioclase is sodic (XAn
around 0.2) and shows no zoning even when it is in
contact with garnet. The latter observation implies that
garnet did not suffer a resorption reaction to produce a
plagioclase bearing assemblage in these rocks. Presence
of rare chloritoid inclusions in garnet and of staurolite
in the same thin section suggest a reaction of the type
Cld + Qtz = St + Grt (±Chl) + H2O
29
Kyanite zone:
Two groups of metapelites were recognized in this
zone. One group has high-modal abundance of kyanite
(>25% by volume) with very little garnet, while the other
is characterized by high-modal garnet and very few
kyanite grains. The former possibly represents aluminous
and the latter sub-aluminous pelites. Staurolite is present
only as rare inclusions in outer massive portions of
garnet. The rock is locally migmatitic with quartz plus
plagioclase-bearing leucosomes alternating with biotite-
rich melanosome. Garnet shows poorly preserved growth
zoning and retrograde diffusion zoning (increase of Fe
and Mn and decrease of Mg) near the rim at the contact
with biotite. Biotite grains in the matrix do not show
any appreciable variation of composition irrespective
of whether these are in contact with garnet or not.
Plagioclase shows a flat profile with XAn around 0.43.
Petrographic features, namely the preservation of rare
staurolite inclusions in the outer rims of garnet and
presence of kyanite in the same thin section, suggest the
reaction
St +Qtz = Grt + Ky + H2O
and/or
St + Bt + Qtz = Grt +Ky + Ms + H2O
Sillimanite-muscovite zone:
In this zone, pelitic rocks contain prismatic
sillimanite and rarely relict kyanite, along with
muscovite. K-feldspar is present at places and locally
occurs with quartz and plagioclase in the leucosomes.
Garnet shows retrograde diffusion zoning of Fe and Mg
near the rim, especially when it is in contact with matrix
biotite, as expected from the change of equilibrium
composition at the interface during exhumation
(Ganguly et al., 2000). There is also a small increase of
Mn concentration near the rim. Muscovite contains
around 14 mol % paragonite identical to that in the
previous zone. Plagioclase is sodic (XAn around 0.22)
and shows no significant zoning.
Sillimanite + K-feldspar zone:
With the total elimination of primary muscovite, K-
feldspar appears as a dominant constituent along with
garnet, prismatic sillimanite and biotite. The pelitic
migmatites are by far the most dominant constituent of
the Higher Himalaya in this zone, and consists of Qtz +
Kfs (locally perthitic) + minor Pl bearing leucosomes
30
dotted with small euhedral garnet, and mesosomes with
porphyroblasts of garnet, biotite and sillimanite. Garnet
becomes considerably Mg-rich at this grade and shows
well developed retrograde zoning of Fe and Mg near
the rim when these are in contact with biotite.
The results of detailed petrographic and
thermobarometric studies of the metapelites along a
roughly E–W transect by Neogi 2004 shows progressive
increase of both pressure and temperature with
increasing structural levels in the entire IMS. This is
contrary to all models that call for thermal inversion as
a possible reason for the origin of the IMS. Also, the
observation of the temporal relation between
crystallization and S2 structures is problematic for
models of post-/late-metamorphic tectonic inversion by
recumbent folding or thrusting.
Prolonged and complex polymetamorphic history
with two episodes of prograde metamorphism (Ml and
M2) followed by retrograde metamorphism (M3) have
been recorded from the Higher Himalayan Crystalline
Complex from Sikkim (Neogi et al., 1998). Ml may
represent pre-Himalayan metamorphic episode.
Prograde metamorphism M2 is related to renewed burial
of the crystalline complex in the early stages of
collisional events. Geothermo-barometric estimates for
peak M2 metamorphism indicate a pressure of 10-12
kbar and temperature of 800°-850°C. Subsequent
metamorphic event (M3) took place as a result of ~5
kbar of decompression. The inverted Barrovian
metamorphic zonation has been attributed to probable
large scale structural inversion and/or tectonic
juxtaposition.
The exhumation history of pelitic migmatites of the
Higher Himalayan Crystalline from Sikkim-Darjeeling
section has been determined on the basis of thermo-
barometric analysis, retrograde breakdown reaction,
compositional zoning of garnet and numerical modelling,
suggesting initial rapid exhumation (~15mm/year) from
~34km upto a depth of-15 km followed by a much slower
process (~2mm/ year) upto at least, ~5km depth. The
dramatic change in the rate of exhumation might reflect
a process of tectonic thinning followed by erosion and/
or horizontal flow at shallow depth (Ganguly et al. 2000).
SEISMICITY AND EARTHQUAKES
The State of Sikkim encompasses parts of Lesser
Himalayas, Higher Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. Main
boundary thrust (MBT) just passes through the area
GEOL. SURV. IND
slightly south of West Bengal-Sikkim boundary; Main
Frontal Thrust (MFT) between Siwaliks and Neogene
sediments is further south. Main Central Thrust (MCT)
passes through the Central part of the State and the
normal fault between Central Crystallines and Tethyan
Sequence passes through the northern part of the State.
A number of smaller thrusts and NW and NE trending
oblique faults are also recorded in Sikkim Himalayas,
some of which appear to be active faults.
In this area most of the earthquakes are shallow focus
(<40 km) and commonly of 4.5 to 5.5 magnitude range.
The state along with adjoining regions have been divided
into three blocks. The central main Himalayan Block
with considerable Seismicity separates the northern
Tethyan block and southern fore deep block with
subdued seismic activity.
A look at the regional distribution of earthquakes
and lineament/fault patterns in Sikkim and adjoining
region indicates that a number of high (5.0 to 5.9) and
medium magnitude earthquakes are clustered around and
related to Tista Lineament along NW-SE direction. One
more NW-SE trending lineament, and marked as a fault
along Tista River between Lachen and Chungthang (and
further south-east) appears to have been the cause of
high magnitude earthquakes. There also appears to be
yet another NW-SE trending lineament in north-east
Sikkim along which the earthquakes have been recorded.
Similarly a NE-SW alignment of earthquakes is also
observed.
The map published by the India Meteorological
Department indicates that the state of Sikkim comes
under seismic zone IV- a zone of considerable
vulnerability. The nearby regions come under zone V
and are highly susceptible to earthquakes.
Table indicates the list of recorded earthquakes of
magnitude >4 in Sikkim state. It is interesting to note
that a majority of the earthquakes originated at a depth
of ~30 km. Apart from a few earthquakes which appear
to have been controlled by aforesaid lineaments, other
earthquakes do not appear to have structural controls
which are visible on surface.
Deep seismic reflection profiling beneath southern
Tibet by Zhao et al. (1993) indicates MFT and MBT
merging at the depth of around 5 km and having a slope
of about 3° towards north. The thickness of the crust
between MBT and MCT varies from 2 km to 4 km in
this region and then MFD, MBT and MCT finally merge
with the Detachment Zone or Main Himalayan Thrust
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX) 31

Year Month Date Lat. Long. Magnitude Depth Source of the

(°N) (0E) (Km) Earthquake
mS mb
1959 12 15 27 88 - - - -
1960 08 21 27.00 88.50 5.5 5.5 29 CGS
1961 09 11 28.2 88.3 23
1964 08 30 27.36 88.21 - 5.1 21 ISC
1964 08 30 27.9 88.52 - - 33 -
1964 10 25 27.9 88.6 4.8 0 ISC
1966 12 28 28.00 89.00 - 5.2 - ISC
1972 08 21 27.33 88.01 - 4.5 33 ISC
1972 08 21 27.23 88.02 - 5.1 33 ISC
1974 03 24 27.63 88.01 - 4.7 ? ISC
1974 01 22 28.1 88.7 33
1975 01 23 27.44 88.37 - 4.5 33 ISC
1979 11 16 27.90 88.70 - 4.6 39 ISC
1980 11 19 27.40 88.80 6.1 6.0 47 ISC
1982 04 05 27.38 88.83 4.6 5.0 09 ISC
1985 05 25 27.60 88.48 - 4.6 33 ISC
1986 01 07 27.40 88.43 - 4.7 41 ISC
1987 12 06 27 88.52 - - 42 ISC
1988 01 19 27.8 88.8 - 4.3 33 ISC
1988 03 27 27.1 88.42 - 4.1 70 ISC
1988 05 26 27.45 88.61 - 4.7 42 ISC
1988 09 27 27.19 88.37 4.6 5.0 23 ISC
1990 09 18 27.32 88.84 - 4.1 33 -
1995 11 28 27.58 8.84 - - 67 ISC
1995 12 24 27.54 88.26 - 4.1 26 ISC
1996 02 25 27.6 88.8 33
1996 03 23 27.17 88.30 4.0 33 -
1996 91 32 7.32 88.54 - 4.1 33 ISC
1996 09 25 27.43 88.55 5.0 33 -
1996 12 30 27.28 8.6 - 3.8 33 ISC
1998 03 18 27.37 88.33 4.0 33 -
1998 09 10 27.20 88.34 4.7 33 -
1998 11 27 27.5 88.8 - 3.5 45 ISC
1999 09 20 28.18 8.1 3.8 84
2000 01 25 27.7 88.36 - 1.8 33 ISC
2001 04 08 27.34 88.09 3.8 33 -
2001 10 03 27.01 88.10 4.8 - 77 -
2001 12 02 27.15 88.17 5.1 33 -

at the depth varying from 28 km in the south to about 40
km in the north. The depth of Moho discontinuity in the
entire region is of the order of ~80 km. From the data on
the depth of origin of the earthquakes it is found that
majority of the earthquakes have originated at depths of
about 30 km. This is the surface of detachment. The
progressive drift of the Indian subcontinent beneath
Tibetan plate at a rate of ~3 cm per year (op. cit) may be
taking place along this zone of detachment and the
accumulated strain must be reflected in periodic
earthquakes of this region with a depth of about 30 km.
It is also observed from the table that the earthquake
activity is periodical in nature, followed by a period of
quiescence.
Site response studies in Sikkim using strong motion
network by Nath et al. (2000) reveal a much higher
frequency of earthquakes of smaller magnitude. The
studies indicate that small magnitude earthquakes are
more frequent in number and the depth of their origin
varies from 3.2 km to maximum 8.0 km. These
earthquakes could be the result of small structural
adjustments within Himalayas, possibly due to
reactivation of faults.
The seismically vulnerable state of Sikkim, which
falls in seismic zone IV, comprises of a variety of earth
material (various types of soils, weak and strong rocks)
with complicated structure etc., and on which multi-
storied buildings are being constructed. In view of the
vulnerability of the region, seismic-microzonation of
towns is essential for hazard prevention and mitigation.
32
Mineral Resources of Sikkim
In spite of low accessibility, thick vegetal and soil/
debris/moraine cover, the state of Sikkim is represented
by a number of base metal occurrences. Most of the
occurrences are in Daling Group of rocks in parts of
west, south and east districts of Sikkim. Base metal
occurrences at Bhotang, Pachekhani and Dikchu have
been explored in details. The Bhotang and Pachekhani
lodes which are mined presently are possibly the only
working mines in Himalayas. Among non metallic
minerals coal, graphite, dolomite, limestone, marble,
wollastonite, talc, sillimanite and asbestos etc. also occur.
ASBESTOS:
Sosing Hill:
In Legship area an amphibolite sill, intruded into
phyllites at the southern foot of Tashiding ridge and very
near the confluence of Rathong Chhu with Rangit river,
and another in the western face of Sosing hill
(27°17:88°20) are asbestos bearing. Asbestos which is
developed along cracks and fissures is bluish-grey in
colour and of short, matted, harsh fiber type. The
maximum length of fibers is 10 cm. The fibers are
associated with acicular tremolite and actinolite crystals.
Both of these occurrences are not of much economic
importance.
Crocidolite bearing highly kaolinised rocks have
been traced near Rabong (27°18:88°2030). They occur
in area of 30m x 10m. The country rock is most probably
mica pegmatite.
BASE METALS:
Most of the base metal occurrences in Sikkim are
recorded in Gorubathan Formation of Daling Group of
rocks. Systematic geological mapping and mineral
exploration programmes launched by Geological Survey
32
GEOL. SURV. IND
of India revealed presence of base metals at Rangpo,
Dikchu, Pachekhani, Temi, Reshi, Jungdum, Sumbuk,
Rothak, Mangreng, Rinchingpong, Chongbong, Keorani,
Sirbong, Sisni, Dong Busty, Uttare, Siging, Bum, Sipik,
Tukhani, Namthang, Pamphuk Khani, Parbing and
Ratopani.
Out of all these occurrences, the Bhotang (Rangpo),
Pachekhani and Dikchu are most important and have
been proved in the form of deposits. Rangpo and
Pachekhani are currently been mined.
RANGPO (Bhotang) (27o11:88o32 ):
Basemetal occurrences of East Sikkim are most
important in the sense that they constitute the only
working base metal mines of Himalayas. In Rangpo-
Pachekhani area the main rock units are phyllites schists
and quartzites, associated with ellipsoidal lenses of
amphibolites and quartz veins and stringers. These rock
units are repeated and intricately intermixed with each
other and can be traced at different places and altitudes.
Numerous intra formational faults, thrusts and folds have
affected the country rocks considerably (Raina and
Bhattacharya, 1965).
Phyllites are exposed in the area between the Tista
in the west and Kalikhola-Pachekhola in the east and
consists of chlorite-sericite-phyllite, sericite-chlorite-
phyllite, quartz-biotite-phyllite, slaty-carbonaceous-
phyllite and quartz-sericite-phyllite. The first two rock
types are soft, grey to deep grey in colour and are
repeatedly exposed in the western part of the area. The
chlorite-sericite-phyllite contains specks of pyrite,
pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite, which at places like Bhotang
and Mangreng, show good concentration. Quartz-biotite-
phyllite is fine grained, light green in colour and shows
the presence of thin blebs of biotite along the foliation
planes. Slaty-carbonaceous-phyllite is dark charcoal-
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
grey in colour, soft and friable in nature, contains specks
and occasional good concentration of sulphide minerals
and graphitic carbon at places like Pache, Rorathang and
Kalikhola.
The schists are generally exposed in the eastern part
of the area, between Rorathang-Damlakha to Mamring-
Taza. The gritty, quartz-biotite-schist is highly sheared,
shows the presence of irregular shaped (0.1 cm to 0.65
cm in length) quartz grains and contains dissemination
of sulphide minerals like chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite
and galena. Good concentration of sulphide minerals is
recorded at Rorathang and Pachekhani. Sericite-biotite-
schists and quartz-biotite-schists are repeatedly exposed
in this area. These two rock types show good
development of biotite, whereas garnet though present
sparsely in the sericite-biotite-schist, is well developed
only in the quartz-biotite-schist.
Quartzites are generally phyllitic, cherty and
calcareous in nature. The phyllitic quartzite which is
repeatedly exposed in the entire area is grey to greyish-
brown in colour and fine grained in nature. It contains
good concentration of sulphide minerals in the Bhotang
and Mangreng areas. Cherty quartzite bands are exposed
at Lusing and along Rangpo-Rorathang road. This rock
is highly sheared and brecciated and locally has given
rise to autoclastic conglomerate, consisting of elongated
to sub-elongated quartz grains arranged closely along
the foliation planes. Calcareous quartzite is exposed only
at Pachekhani. This rock is medium grained, hard, light
brown to buff in colour and dolomitic in nature. It shows
good concentration of sulphide minerals like
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, and galena.
Basic intrusives occur as amphibolite and
amphibolite schists. These are lenticular and elongated
sills of irregular length, show concordant relation with
the country rocks. These intrusives invariably contain
sulphide minerals as disseminations, where from pyrite
has commonly leached out leaving voids.
Two types of quartz veins i.e. pre-tectonic and post-
tectonic are identified in this area. The pre-tectonic vein
is only traceable at the junction of Baghe khola and
NH31A, where a band could be traced for more than
100 m and is tapered off at its southwestern side. It shows
conformable relation with the country rocks. The post-
tectonic veins and stringers are seen both along and
across the foliation planes and have filled up the
33
fractures, faults and thrust planes and have criss-crossed
the country rocks in a net-work fashion. Presence of
sulphide minerals is frequent in these post tectonic veins.
Sulphide minerals like chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite,
pyrite and galena show four modes of occurrence: (i) as
disseminations within the country rocks (strata bound),
(ii) as lensoid replacements within vein quartz which
vary from 3 cm to 6 cm in thickness and 10 cm to 10 m
in length,(iii) within basic intrusives (iv) as joint and
fracture fillings localized along fault, thrust and shear
zones.
This is the only polymetallic base metal deposit
under active exploitation in the entire Himalaya
producing Cu-Zn-Pb concentrates. Several old workings
present in the area were formerly opened by local Nepali
workers, and were later on prospected by M/S Burn and
Co. and the Indian Bureau of Mines. The Cu-Zn-Pb
sulphide deposit of Rangpo is exposed on the left bank
of Tista River, just north of Rangpo town. The host rocks
of mineralization are rocks of Daling Group. The ore
body is stratabound and folded. The mineralized quartz
veins are post-tectonic and are of hydrothermal origin.
Disseminations of sulphide minerals are confined mostly
to the basic sills (amphibolite and amphibolite schists),
chlorite sericite phyllites and phyllitic quartzite (Raina
and Bhattacharya, 1965)
In Rangpo-Bhotang Block sulphide minerals of all
three types occur, but the predominant one is the
replacement type. Two lodes- Bhotang lode or Lode-I
and Subsidiary lode or Lode-II – have been delineated
at Rangpo. Bhotang lode is the important lode and is
being mined in Bhotang Mines. The ore body is 280 m
long and average width is 5 metres. The principal ore
minerals are Chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena with
pyrrhotite, pyrite and marcasite. Minor phases comprise
arsenopyrite, tetrahedrite, pyrartyrite, jordanite – Silver
and gold are present in traces in the ore with the former
in greater amount. The copper content varies from 0.02%
to 1.57%, lead from 0.64% to 1.2% and zinc from 2.10%
to 3.15 percent.
Indian Bureau of Mines(Mukherjee and Rao, 1974)
conducted drilling and exploratory mining operations
and estimated 0.6 m. tones of ore with 2% copper and
Zn. GSI’s efforts between 1978 to 1982 extended the
western extension of Rhotang lode by more than 60
metres, so that till date, more than 400 metres of strike
34
length of Bhotang lode has been established. The lode
increases in width and copper content at depth. More
than 0.1 m tones of additional 2-3 Cu ore have been
estimated due to additional 60 m strike extension
established by G.S.I. It is expected that with further
development of lower levels, nearly 0.3 m tonnes of Cu-
Zn-Pb ores could be established. A noteworthy feature
is the silver metal occurrences in the lead concentrate.
The amount of silver is estimated to be around 700-800
gm per tonne of lead concentrate. Traces of bismuth,
cobalt, cadmium, chromium and manganese are also
recorded.
Studies/exploration have also been carried out to
prove the western extension of Bhotang lode across Tista
River by Mitra and Das (1984), Das (1985), William
et.al. (1984), Mukhopadhyay and Banerjee (1978) and
others.
Pachekhani-Rorathang block (27°12:88°32 ):
There are three old workings in the Rorathang area
and five in the Pachekhani area. These workings were
being exploited at the time of visit of P. N. Bose (1891).
The Indian Bureau of Mines also carried out detailed
exploration in this block from 1957 to 1961 (Mukherjee
and Jog, 1963). The sulphide mineralization occurs as
disseminations in gritty, quartz-biotite-phyllites, slaty-
carbonaceous-phyllites and calcareous quartzites and is
traceable for a distance of 300 m up the dip and for about
150 m along the strike. Some occurrences are also seen
in post-tectonic hydrothermal quartz-veins and along
fault and shear zones. Vein-quartz type of concentration,
occurring mostly along the foliation, joint and fracture
planes, is prominently seen in an old working at
Rorathang and is traceable for a distance of about 30 m.
In the Pachekhani area, a highly mineralized, calcareous
quartzite was traced, within which mineralization was
found to be pinching both up dip and down dip. Sulphide
minerals are mostly chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite and
galena. This area has been found to contain several small
isolated highly mineralized pockets, which do not show
any systematic extension. Investigation carried out in
this block by the Indian Bureau of Mines indicated no
workable lode (Raina and Bhattacharya, 1965).
Old working of adits and incidence of copper bearing
quartz veins in both the upper and lower reaches of Pache
and Rorathang villages led Indian Bureau of
Mines(1958-61) & Geological Survey of India(1970-71)
GEOL. SURV. IND
to explore the two areas separately. In all, three blocks-
upper and lower Pachekhani Blocks and Rorathang
Block – were delineated by IBM. IBM drilled 10
boreholes (1047m) and carried out exploratory mining
of about 1500m. length in Upper Pachekhani and
Rorathang Blocks only. Later GSI carried out
geophysical survey and test drilling in Lower Pachekhani
Block. Sulphide mineralization occurs as lenticular
bodies arranged in “en echelon” fashion. The country
rock hosting the base metal mineralization is chlorite
schist, phyllites and quartzite of Gorubathan Formation
of Daling Group.
Copper mineralization is confined to small, narrow
impersistent lenses having limited strike and depth
extensions and analyze in general 1.5% copper over
widths of 1-1.20 metres. Hardly a single lode could be
found which showed persistence in strike for more than
30 metres and in depth for more than 70 metres.
Detailed study on Pachekhani area was again carried
out from 1990 to 1995. During this period 1.20 sq km
area was covered on 1:2000 scale and an area of 212 sq
km was covered on 1:25,000. A total of 7 boreholes
totaling 705.70m were drilled and a possible ore reserve
was estimated to 0.15 m tonnes of 0.75% Cu and 636.55
tonnes at 1% Cu.
Ore-Microscopic studies from Bhotang and
Pachekhani deposits reveal that the ore mainly contains
pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and a minor amount
of galena. In some samples concentric bands of pyrrhotite
and chalcopyrite with quartz at the centre are observed.
Pyrrhotites are usually rimmed and veined by marcasite
which is seemingly the alteration product of pyrrhotite
which in turn is altering to pyrite. A few grains of
interstitial tennantite set in chalcopyrite are also noted.
Ilmenite intimately associated with pyrrhotite is also
noticed. Disseminated allotriomorphic aggregates of
chalcopyrite with minor amounts of pyrite and pyrrhotite
are seen in some of the samples. Ilmenite grains are also
noted. Coarse idiomorphic to hypidiomorphic granular
aggregates of pyrite with interstitial grains of highly
altered pyrrhotite are dispersed into gangue, which also
occur as discrete dispersed grains along with a few grains
of chalcopyrite. Dispersed chalcopyrite containing
interstitial grains of galena and pyrrhotite with minor
amount of pyrite is also recorded. Discrete aggregates
of ilmenite are conspicuous. Pyrrhotite alters to pyrite.
Pyrite shows a wide range of size variation from coarse
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
single idiomorphic to micro spherules of tiny pyrite
aggregates. Hypidiomorphic granular aggregates of
pyrite, occurring in bands, contain interlocked grains of
ilmenite.
Duglakha Block (27°14:88°36 ) :
The location is along Pache Khola stream; about 2
km upstream of Pachekhani copper deposit. Exact
location of the lode is 27°14:88°37. The Daling Group
of rocks comprises a sequence of Garnetiferous-biotite-
chlorite phyllite, biotite-chlorite phyllite, chlorite
phyllite, quartzites and amphibolite schists. Amphibolite
Schist occurs as sill within the metasediments. The
Quartz veins follow foliation planes but at times have
cross-cutting relations. The general trend of the rocks is
north-south to WNW-ESE with persistent easterly to
northerly direction. Raina and Bhattacharya (1963)
carried out detailed study of this occurrence.
At Dugalakha three lenses of varying dimensions
show on an average 2-5% lead in the surface exposures.
Lode ‘A’ is exposed over a strike length of 66 m and
average width of about 1 metre. Average grade is 2.5%
lead. Lode ‘B’ could be traced over a strike length of 58
metres on the hanging wall of the amphibolite sill;
average thickness of lode is 1 metre. Average grade of
lode ‘B’ is 5.8% lead. Lode ‘C’ is traced over a strike
length of 160 m and thickness of 15 m. But in lode ‘C’
the mineralization is in disseminated mode. The
analytical results are also very poor. Here mineralization
is mostly of galena and pyrrhotite with subordinate
chalcopyrite and sphalerite concentrated generally in
hydrothermal vein quartz, and disseminated along the
foliation of the country rock. Several such veins are seen
along the fault or shear zones. This area does not show
much of promise.
Geophysical investigation (1965-66) was carried out
covering an area of about 0.5 sq km at Dugalakha which
indicated poor copper mineralization with limited
extents. Test drilling by GSI confirmed the findings of
geophysical investigation.
Dikchu (27o24 :88o31 : 78 A/11):
The base metal occurrence of Dikchu was visited
by P. N. Bose during 1891 and 1894 (Bose, 1891, 1928).
35
During the period 1908-1911 M/s Burn & Co. initiated
exploration work and carried out underground aditing
(60.96 m in 4 adits). In the year 1909 Pillow Harveg, a
London based Mining Engineer examined the deposit
and expressed favourable opinion. In the year 1948 the
Geological Survey of India carried out sampling of the
mineralized zone. Indian Bureau of Mines carried out
exploration during the period November, 1959 to June,
1963 by drilling and exploratory mining (underground
development 1544.20 m; drilling-4604.21 metres). It was
further investigated by Mineral Exploration Corporation
during the period May, 1977 to May, 1983.
The Cu-Zn- mineralization occurs as conformable
vein in the garnet-staurolite bearing quartz-mica-schist
of Daling Group near its contact with the gneisses of
Central Crystalline Gneissic Complex. The hanging wall
comprises of hard compact quartz-mica schist grading
into quartzite. The footwall comprises quartz-biotite-
muscovite-sericite schist.
Two lodes have been delineated at Dikchu. The
Dikchu main lode trends north-south and dips at 30° to
35° towards east. Ore appears to be stratabound. It is
found to be persistent over a length of about 600m up to
a depth of 100 metres and has a thickness of about 1.25
metres. The Lingdok lode is thin and impersistent. The
Dikchu lode is essentially a massive sulphide lode of
copper and zinc. It is composed of chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite, sphalerite and traces of galena and covelite.
Magnetite and garnet are common gangue minerals.
Exploration by IBM (1959-63) earlier established a
probable reserve of 0.3 million tones of 2.96% Cu and
1.5% Zn. Tests carried out by IBM on bulk sample of
Dikchu ore yielded 90-95% recoveries of copper
concentrate, 3.4 ppm gold and 92 ppm of silver. The
common ore minerals associated with the mineralization
are chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite and galena.
Magnetite is the common oxide. Presence of gold and
silver has also been recorded in this deposit.
The work by MECL included 1891.8 cum of
exploratory mining, 290.50 m of underground drilling
and 3 numbers (500 kg each) of bulk sampling. The work
was confined to the southern part of Dikchu River.
MECL proved 0.45 m tones of ore with 2.82% Cu and
0.9% of zinc under following categories:
36
1. Developed category
2. Proved category
3. Probable category
4. IBM’s proved and probable category to the north of the river
Mamreng-Duga Belt:
Dominant lithounits are phyllite and quartzite-
talcose phyllite. Epidiorite also occurs as subordinate
unit. Sulphide mineralization is found within
epidiorite, talcose phyllite and also in the associated
quartz veins.
Danak Khola:
The mineralization is located in Danak Khola
(stream), about 5 km east of Rorathang village. Two
mineralized veins have been recorded (Das et al., 1984).
The first mineralized vein, in the northern part, has a
width of 1.5 m and continues for about 30 m along
apparent dip direction. The second vein is 20 m south of
the first vein and has a maximum width of 2.5 metres and
continues up o 35 m along apparent dip direction. The
sulphide mineralized part consists of chalcopyrite, pyrite,
pyrrhotite, magnetite and a few specks and stringers of
galena. Mineralisation is sporadic and discontinuous in
nature. Nine samples from these veins indicated copper
values ranging from 0.14% to 9.15 percent.
Rungdu-Sodunlakha area:
Recent investigation by Geological Survey of India
has brought to light a promising sulphide occurrence in
the Rungdu-Sodunlakha Belt. The copper mineralization
is associated with the quartz-biotite-chloritoid schist
band (within chlorite schist). It is confined to the
schistosity plane and more so along the silica rich
portion. Schistosity of the rocks varies from N25°E-
S25°W to N70°E-S70°W with a south-easterly dip of
20°-65°. Groove samples indicate maximum values of
1.81% Cu in Rungdu and 1.45% Cu in Sodunlakha area.
Mineralisation is structurally controlled and better
concentrated at the closure of Rongpo Chhu antiform,
near Sodunlakha than the limb portion. Gold values from
this area vary from 50 ppb to 255 ppb. The investigation
is in progress.
Rolep area:
This area is about 15 km from Rongli by road and
GEOL. SURV. IND
1.66 lakh tonnes 3.07% Cu1.01% Zn
1.58 lakh tonnes 3.12% Cu0.98% Zn
0.99 lakh tonnes 1.48% Cu0.58% Zn
0.27 lakh tonnes 4.08% Cu0.40% Zn
occurs by the side of a newly constructed bridge. The
host rock is a amphibolite intruding calcareous quartzite
enclave within banded biotite gneiss (Mullick and
Chattopadhyay, 1991). The mineralization is in the form
of specks and big crystals of chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and
bornite. Near Rolep village and slightly north of it, on
the opposite bank of Rangpo Khola, there are calc-
silicates showing richer portions of sulphide
mineralization in the form of disseminations of pyrrhotite
and chalcopyrite with rare bornite.
Rongli:
Near Rongli Chu-Sewa Khola confluence, a one
metre garnetiferous sericite-quartzite with quartz veins
show mineralization in the form of pyrite,
bornite+pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. The thickness of
mineralized zone is more than 2 metres and apparent
length is 25 metres (Mullick and Chattopadhyay, 1991).
Sumbuk (27°07:88°23):
Indication of copper mineralization is observed on
both the banks of right tributary of the Khani Khola, a
branch of Manpur Khola. Two adits and two minor
excavations are located on the left bank of the stream.
Sulphide mineralization is noted in quartz vein
traversing a dark grey phyllite of the Daling Group.
These quartz veins are mostly of pinch and swell type.
Sulphide minerals include chalcopyrite and occasional
pyrite and occur as nests and stringers in quartz vein
and as dissemination in the country rock in the proximity
of the veins. The mineralized lode has maximum width
of 1.00m and can be traced along the strike for 30m.
Chemical analysis of the groove samples collected from
the mineralized zone indicates copper (0.98% to 1.86%)
while Pb, Zn, Ag are present as traces.
Pampukhani (27°07:88°29) :
In Pampuk area, base metal mineralization has been
observed in Pampuk R.F., located 5 km. south of the
Namthang village. The mineralization is exposed on a
scarp face at a height of 200 m. from the Tista river bed.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Sulphide mineralization is noted in quartz veins
traversing slaty phyllite of Gorubathan Formation of
Daling Group. The veins, which have a brown stained
spongy appearance on the surface, are exposed in a series
of old inclines. Overall strike length of the mineralized
zone appears to be 30m and maximum width of
mineralized zone is about 20 cm. Mineralization mainly
contains pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite.
Chemical analysis of the mineralized zone indicates
0.05-1.64% Cu, 0.15-0.52% Pb and 0.16-0.96% Zn.
Besides the above two locations, there are some
minor base metal sulphide occurrences at Temi
(27 o 14’:88 o 26’, 0.06%-1.25% Cu), Dong Basti
(27o12’:88o20’, 1.32% Cu) and Parbing (27o11’:88o25’,
0.78% Cu) areas in South Sikkim.
Temi area:
The Dalings comprise chlorite phyllite and quartzite
with quartz veins. Both bedding and schistosity trend
west to NW with moderate dips towards south-east.
Basic sills within phyllite have also been reported with
asbestos bearing quartz veins near the contact.
Chalcopyrite and pyrite bearing quartz veins are
emplaced along schistosity, shear plane and fracture
cleavages in the phyllite. The mineralized veins are
confined along a zone which is about 370 m long and 4
m wide. The channel samples yielded traces to 7.93%
copper.
Dong Basti:
Phyllite and quartzite dominant lithounits of the area
are traversed by quartz veins. Mineralization as
disseminations and granular aggregates of chalcopyrite
occurs in quartz veins (3 m thick zone). Other associates
are pyrite and covelite. Analytical data of channel
samples show 1.32% copper. This occurrence needs
geophysical and geochemical appraisal before a final
verdict.
Sikkip:
The mineralized quartz veins traverse slate and
dolomite, north of Sikkip Thrust. The mineralized quartz
veins occupy north-south trending fractures. The beds
strike N70°E-S70°W with 40° dip towards north. Due
to the proximity of the thrust, these rocks are highly
contorted and secondary foliation (N10°W-S10°E) has
37
been developed (Nautiyal et al, 1961). The mineralized
quartz veins showing pinch and swell structures plunge
at 25°-30° towards north. A few small 3 to 6 metres long
adits occur in these zones. The copper values range from
10.7% to 3.40% over 30-40 cm width. The
mineralization is structurally controlled by the
complementary shears. The deposit is fracture-fill type
with little wall rock alteration except for some sericite
bordering the mineralized quartz veins. The predominant
sulphide minerals in order of abundance are chalcopyrite,
pyrrhotite and pyrite.
Tukhani:
Copper mineralization is in the form of old workings,
disseminations of chalcopyrite, stains of malachite which
are seen in the quartz veins traversing the phyllites of
the Daling Group.
Namthang:
The area comprises slaty phyllite and quartz-chlorite
schist traversed by quartz veins. Sporadic pyrite and
chalcopyrite is found in quartz veins in Shenti Khola
over 0.5 m thick and 30 m long zone.
Parbing:
Mineralised quartz veins, emplaced along the
foliation planes of quartz-chlorite phyllite and are spread
discontinuously over 70 m long and 0.4 m wide zone.
Pyrite and chalcopyrite are found as disseminations.
Analysis of ore indicated 0.78% copper.
Ratopani:
Traces of pyrite and chalcopyrite have been noticed
in quartz veins traversing the phyllite and quartzite. Soil
samples assayed less than 50 ppm copper.
Rothak Khola:
Rothak Khola area is dotted with a number of small
base metal sulphide mineralization of which most
important ones are Rothak Khani (27°0950:88°1518
0.15% Cu), Jagdum (27°11:88°1415, 0.64% Cu),
Sirbong (27o1035:88°1530, 0.05% Cu), Chungbong
(27°0730:88°15, 0.41% Cu), Sisni (27°1018:
88°1420, 0.35% Cu) and Siging (27°1040:88°1510,
0.30% Cu). During 1960-62, G.S.I. worked in this area,
0.645 sq km area was mapped on 1:2000 scale, 600
38
geochemical samples were collected and 700m were
drilled in all the mineralization ore associated with quartz
veins as stringers and fracture filling within host of
chlorite phyllite/sericite chlorite phyllite of Daling
Group. Main ore minerals are chalcopyrite and pyrite
with minor amount of sphalerite and galena.
A revaluation of the above deposits by GSI’ during
1996-97 also indicates that the above occurrences are
not of economic importance in the present day standard.
Jugdam (27°11:88o14°15):
The area consists of chlorite phyllite, dark slaty
phyllite, quartz sericite phyllite and epidiorite-quartz
veins. Copper mineralization occurs in quartz veins as
stringers, foliation and fracture filling (Nautiyal et al,
1962). The mineralized quartz veins with strike extension
of 15 m to 107 m and width of 1.50 m to 3.96 m have
been reported. Groove samples indicated 0.51% copper
where as drill core samples indicated 0.21% to 0.64%
copper.
Rothak Khani (27°0950:88°1518):
This occurrence is located at the confluence of Khani
Khola and Rothak Khola. Dominant lithounits are grey
phyllite, sericite-chlorite phyllite and crumpled
carbonaceous slate with thin bands of quartzite. General
trend of foliation is north-south to NE-SW with 60° dip
towards WNW to NW. Chalcopyrite with subordinate
pyrite has been observed within quartz veins traversing
slaty phyllite. Main zone with 120 m length and 1 m to
1.5 m width is located on right bank of Khani Khola. A
few mineralized quartz veins are present on the left bank.
Soil samples from these areas indicated 1500 to 3000
ppm and 500 to 2000 ppm copper respectively. This
occurrence needs to be evaluated by geophysical and
geochemical surveys.
Rinchinpong:
The area comprises greenish-grey chlorite schist
with opaque quartz and chlorite-sericite schist
interbedded with flaggy quartzite, containing occasional
sheared limonitised bands (Kurien and Pattanaik, 1963).
A sheared limonitised 15 m long zone containing
primarily pyrite and chalcopyrite has been recorded.
GEOL. SURV. IND
Chonbong (Chungbong- 27°0730:88°15):
Greyish-green phyllitic slate, interbedded with
quartzite is traversed by quartz veins. Schistosity trends
N67°E-S67°W with 35° to 45° dip towards north-west
(Kurien and Pattanaik, 1963). Chalocopyrite and
malachite with occasional crysocola associated with
quartz veins has been observed in phyllite along foliation
planes and joints. Samples analysed 0.41% copper. A
further geochemical appraisal is called for.
Keorani:
Carbonaceous and chloritic slates with quartz veins
host the mineralization in this area. The foliation trends
N20°E-S20°W with 40 to 45° dip towards WNW. Quartz
veins varying in thickness from 2.5 to 5 cm contain poor
mineralization along a 20 metres long and 0.6 m wide
zone.
Sirbong (27°1035:88°1530):
Chalcopyrite and pyrite has been observed in a 6 m
wide and 40-50 m long zone, traversed by thin quartz
veins within the grey-slaty phyllite and quartzite.
Foliation plane of the host rock trends N30°E-S30°W
with 53° dip towards N60°W. Analytical data indicates
copper values from traces to 0.5 per cent.
Sisni (27°1018:88°1420):
Carbonaceous slates with chlorite and sericite
intercalations, traversed by quartz veins have foliation
which in general trends N20°E-S20°W (Nautiyal et al,
1962). The main mineralized band, 0.77 m to 2.44 m
wide occures towards upslope over a slope distance of
44 metres. Total mineralized zone is 213 m long. A part
of the mineralized zone is across the Rothak Khola.
Groove samples from this zone indicated 0.15% to
0.35% copper. The minerals are mainly chalcopyrite and
minor pyrite.
Chitre:
The country rock of this area belongs to
metamorphites of Darjeeling Group of rocks with calc
silicate inrusive, along with granite and pegmatite
(Nautiyal et al, 1962). Foliation in calc-silicate bands
trends north-south with moderate to high dips towards
east. Pyrrhotite is sporadically distributed.
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Siging (27°1040:88°1510):
There are a few old adits at the confluence of Signing
Khola and Santolo Khola. The mineralization is in the
vein quartz traversing the highly sheared and fractured
quartzite. Geochemical samples gave values ranging
from 50-3000 ppm copper. The anomaly trends in
roughly NE-SW, making an angle of 15° to 20° with the
strike of the beds. Old adits have been driven in N50°W
direction for a distance of 10-15 metres. This occurrence
needs appraisal by structural analysis, geophysical and
geochemical surveys.
Bum:
The mineral occurrence is observed in phyllite and
quartzite which are exposed on either bank of Rishi
Khola near Bum village (Nautiyal et al, 1961). Pyrite,
chalcopyrite, bornite, galena and pyrrhotite stringers
having thickness of less than 1 cm to 13 cm are seen
associated with quartz veins. Samples from a 15 cm thick
quartz vein have analysed 3.41% and 4.5% copper.
However, the mineralized zone does not show strike
persistence.
Legship:
In Legship area the base metal mineralization is
observed in the northern bank of the Baniya Nala, near
its confluence with the Rangit River. Pyrite, pyrrhotite,
chalcopyrite, bornite and galena occur as disseminations
and as thin hairline fracture-fillings in quartz veins.
Groove samples from the area indicated 1200 ppm to
less than 100 ppm copper.
Sontale:
Copper mineralization within the sericitic phyllite,
slate and chlorite schist of Daling Group occurs in
association with quartz veins. Three mineralized quartz
veins were identified having thickness ranging from 0.3
m to 0.60 metres.
Bhattacharya and Pattanaik (1964), in the course of
their systematic mapping recorded a number of base
metal occurrences, the details of which are produced
below. :
39
Sada (27°24:88°22):
At this place several thin, highly ferruginous, quartz
veins and stringers have been seen on the Rangit River
bed, within hard and well bedded quartzite. These quartz
veins contain some concentration of galena associated
with chalcopyrite and pyrite. The zone is 5 metres thick
and nearly 10 metres long are exposed along strike
direction. The quartz veins are sheared.
Rangpo Chu:
On this stream concentration of sulphide minerals
has been detected at four places.
Near the confluence of Ranken Chu and Rangpo
Chu- Nearly 300 m downstream from the said confluence
on the southern bank two metres thick quartzite zones
rich in pyrite separated by a 25 m thick phyllitic band,
have been met with. Mineralization in a disseminated
pattern has taken place within the quartzite itself. The
quartzites are light brownish grey in colour, fine grained,
hard and compact. Along with pyrite a certain amount
of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite has also been detected.
The zone is exposed along the strike for 100 metres.
Pading (27°18:88°2330): Very near to this village,
on the southern side of Rangpo Chu, within a highly
sheared and brecciated zone of quartzite, a some what
good concentration of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite has
been found. The qurtzites are light grey in colour and at
places, are highly limonitic. The zone is 10 m in width
and 15 m in length.
On Rangpo Chu near the log bridge on the mule track
for Aitabarey. Very near to the bridge, at several places
within a distance of 150 m. sulphide minerals like
chalcopyrite, galena and pyrite have been seen
disseminated within the quartz veins and stringers. The
country rock is chloritic phyllites and quartzites. The
dissemination is concentrated only within quartz veins and
stringers. The zone is exposed on both sides of the river.
Upstream of Momain Chu near Thurphyak
(27°18:88°23) nearly 800 m. upstream of Momain Chu,
a tributary to Rangpo Chu, on the western bank,
concentration of chalcopyrite has been found within
three quartz veins which are approximately 2 to 3 metres
thick and are exposed for about 25 metres. They are
milky white to brownish in colour.
40
Brom Chu (Brom: 27°1830:88°2650):
A little upstream, nearly 300 m. within highly
sheared sericite phyllite and quartzites, disseminations
of chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite has been observed. The
zone is 16 m. long and 5 m wide.
Run Chu:
From the confluence of Run Chu and Tista River
nearly 800 m. upstream along Run Chu, a pocket of
sillimanite bearing schists is located. They are highly
sheared and brecciated. The zone is exposed on a vertical
cliff nearly 10 m. in width and exposed for about 70 m.
The zone is highly intruded by quartz veins and stringers.
This area shows best concentration of sulphide minerals
of all the localities. Sulphide minerals are mostly
chalcopyrite along with pyrrhotite and pyrite. The
exposure is seen on both sides of the river.
Bartag (27°30:88°30):
At this place, very near the contact between the
quartzose schist and garnet rich biotite schist, some
dissemination of pyrite has been located, in a zone 3 m.
in width. The zone is exposed for a distance of 7 m.
Section between Chungthang (27°36:88°38) to
Jorepul (27°42:88°34):
In this area, along the new road section, at several
places, dissemination of sulphide minerals have been
seen restricted within amphibolites and amphibole
schists. Chalcopyrite is the most common mineral.
Phentong (27°3446:88°25):
Near this village on road to Sakyong some pyrite
disseminations are observed within sheared and fractured
quartzite bed.
Traces of sulphide mineralization in the form of
disseminations, occur in the basal rocks of the Everest
Pelitic Series exposed along the western wall of the
quarry below Chorten Nyima Peak (27°57:88°11) and
some malachite and azurite encrustations in lime-
silicates in the eastern valley wall of Lungme nala
(27°52:88°21). These are so meager that they do not
possess any economic interest (Raina and Bhattacharya,
1965).
GEOL. SURV. IND
LEAD MINERALIZATION:
Pawde (1965) reported lead mineralization between
Ingming khola (local name) and Chunbhatti khola (local
name, toposheet 78 A/8) on the hill slope to the west of
Rangit River at an altitude of 740 metres. The host rock,
Buxa dolomite, strikes N30°E-S30°W and dip 50° due
N60°W. Mineralization of galena is recorded along joint
planes trending NW-SE and NNE-SSW. Some of these
joints have been traversed by quartz stringers. The
mineralization is observed in quartz veins when they
are present; otherwise joint planes of dolomites are host.
The thickness of mineralized zone varies from 10 cm to
25 cm and it is observed over a distance of 7 meters.
Dutt (1954) reported that dissemination of galena
occurs in the vein quartz, which is 10 inches thick
emplaced in flaggy quartzite 300 yards south of
Damthang and also between 32 and 33 milestone near
Jaubari (27°12:88°24).
CALCAREOUS TUFFA:
Calcareous tuffa is located in the northern bank of
Rangit River. This occurs in pockets within the Buxa
slate. The tuffa is creamy white to earthy looking, soft
and spongy. Six channel samples indicated following
chemical analytical results.
Maximum Minimum
CaO (%) 51.45 43.40
MgO (%) 1.75 1.00
R2O3 (%) 3.93 1.30
Insol (%) 14.03 2.51
COAL:
Coal beds associated with Gondwanas are folded
and faulted, and show pinching and swelling. Coal,
varying from carbonaceous shale to semi-anthracitic
variety occurs as crushed, often nodular variety. Its
exposures can be seen at a number of places within
Gondwanas. Linking and correlation of individual
outcrop is very difficult due to the complexity of the
structure.
Around Namchi:
Regional geological exploration by GSI in Namchi
area of south district has established a reserve of 1.4
lakh tonnes of bituminous to semi-anthracitic coal
analyzing 40% to 60% fixed carbon, 4% to 22% ash,
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
8% to 13% volatile matter and 3% moisture. Thin coal
seams (1 m to 5 m) are found to occur on the road linking
Legship with Nayabazar and to the south of Putkhola. A
good account of coal seams of this area is provided by
Raina and Ray (1967).
Regional geological exploration in and around
Namchi (27o10’:88o24’) area of south district of Sikkim
was carried out during the period from 1968 to 1971.
The investigation led to the estimation of a total reserve
of 1.4 lakh tones of coal in the area. This is bituminous
to semi-anthracite variety of coal, occasionally
pulverized due to intensive folding and shearing. On
analysis, these varieties of coal indicate 40% to 60%
fixed carbon, 22%-40% ash, 3%-8% volatile matter and
3%-6% moisture. These coals have not been found
suitable for domestic and industrial use in their present
state.
Coal also occurs as thin seams within the Gondwana
sandstone shale sequence in Nayabazar Legship area of
West district, in the valley of Little Rangit River. A
number of coal seams are exposed on the road linking
Table No. 1 : Coal bed succession near Kamling village.
Coal 0.6 m.
Parting 12.30 m
Coal 1.20 m
Parting 8.00 m
Coal 1.00 m
Parting 110.00 m
coal 4.50 m to 6.00 m
About 2 km from Rothak Khola towards Reshi on
Nayabazar Legship road section:
Two coal seams are exposed with parting of
sandstones. The continuity of the seams is seen on
opposite side of Rangit River.
Near Rothak Power Station:
Two coal seams (0.8 m and 1.10-1.50 m thick) are
separated by 3.4 m parting of sandstones near the
confluence of Rothak Khola and River. Further west of
this section, a few thin coal outcrops are seen. South of
Samsing, near Roong doong Khola and Rangit River
confluence, a few thin coal exposures are seen varying
in thickness from 0.20 m to 0.90 metres.
41
Legship-Nayabazar, with varying thickness. Other seams
are exposed south of Put Khola; in between 14 and 15
km. milestones. However, these coal seams are 1m-5m
thick and are not of economic importance.
Only one coal seam, located near Rishi Bazar, has
been investigated by pitting and drilling during F.S.1990-
92 and 1992-93. The total reserve potential of this Coal
Seam is approximately 0.58 million tones (Sharma,
1994).
There are numerous coal outcrops of various
thicknesses in road sections, stream cuttings, and hill
and scarp sections. Majority of these occurrences are of
limited strike extension. The coal occurrences are as
follows:
Near Kamling School in new road cutting of
Kamling approach road:
An outcrop of coal of about 5 m thickness with shale/
sandstone partings of approximately 2 metres thickness
is exposed. To the SSE of Kamling village, following
succession (Table no. 1) is noted by De (1982):
(with numerous shale/ carb. Shale bands/lenses.
(with some slate lenses)
About 3 km from Nayabazar on Nayabazar-
Sombaria road section:
Coal seam of approx. 4 metres thickness with shale/
sandstone partings is exposed in the stream section.
About 30 metres below Nayabazar Forest Bunglow:
In toe cutting section of Ramvang River, coal seams
are observed but are covered with thick overburden. Near
Sise village below Nayabazar-Legship road section,
opposite to Karfektar a coal seam of about 5 metres is
traced out but its thickness and lateral continuity could
not be traced. On the NW slope of Gumpagaon about
Namchi Bazar, two coal seams of approximately 2 m
and 1 metre thickness are exposed. They show continuity
42
along NE direction and one of the seams is exposed on
Namchi road section about 1 km above Namchi.
Tinher area:
Along old road section connecting Denchong and
Namchi there are number of coal exposures. One of them
is 2.5 metres thick and is exposed about 1 km from
Namchi bazar towards Denchong.
On Kalikhola section below Bumtar:
There are a few coal seams but only three show
thickness of more than 1 metre.
On Tiri Khola section:
Along Tiri Khola section, SE of Wak village, number
of coal seams are exposed. They are of limited strike
extension and covered with thick overburden.
Coal exposures of Put Khola section:
About 200 m above the road along Put Khola
section, about 2 m thick coal seam is exposed having
strike extension of 30 m. along NE direction.
West of Nandugaon four thin coal outcrops are seen
which appear to abut against an ENE-WSW trending
fault. The coal beds are intercalated with carbonaceous
shale and vary in thickness from 0.20 m to 0.90 metres.
Two highly weathered coal outcrops are seen about a
km east of Jorthang dipping 44° towards north-west.
The coal of Rangit River is flaky in nature and highly
friable. They are bituminous to Semi-anthracitic having
high carbon-ash content and low volatile matter. The
investigation carried out so far reveals that the coal seams
of Rishi extends about 1500 m to 1700 m along strike
along Rishi Khola section in east-west direction with
little variation in thickness (Sharma, 1992). The coal
seam on the road section is approximately 6 metres in
thickness, and runs parallel to Reshi Khola for about
1700 metres on the northern bank. The seam crosses
over to the southern bank with more or less same
thickness. However, in between these two places the coal
seam is not traceable.
The coal occurrence of the southern bank is
continuous up to Reshi-Mangalbari road section and
GEOL. SURV. IND
continues over Rothok Khola. It is divided into three
different seams with partings of shale and sandstone of
5 to 10 metres. The results of analysis of coal by
Directorate of Mining & Geology, Sikkim are as follows:
Max. Min.
Ash percent 51.7 26.6
Moisture content percent 17.5 12.2
Volatile matter percent 3.15 1.4
Fixed carbon percent 60 38
The utility studies of CMPDIL, Ranchi indicate that
this coal can be used for room heating and cooking
purpose after making briquettes/pellets by adding
suitable additives which burn well and lasts for 3 to 4
hours non-stop.
DOLOMITE:
Essentially the dolomite has been recorded in Buxa
Formation and the best exposures are found along Naya
Bazar-Legship road (along Rangit River) and
surrounding hills. Both high grade massive and low grade
flaggy types of dolomites have been located in Rishi
area, west of the Jorethang-Legship state highway. On
either banks of Rishi Khola, adjacent to Rishi village
(27o13’N:88o46’E), four dolomite bearing blocks have
been delineated by geological mapping, pitting and
trenching by Geological Survey of India. Massive
dolomites are light grey in colour, fine grained with high
percentage MgO (18% to 22%), CaO being around 30%
and insoluble 1.5 to 3%. A total reserve of more than
one million tones has been estimated by GSI down to a
depth of 30m from the surface. The low grade flaggy
type has high silica content and is not suitable for blast
furnace. However, this type may find selective usefulness
as powder for neutralization of acidic soil. Dolomite has
also been recorded at Phong, Kaluk, Rishi area west of
Jorethang-Legship Highway. Preliminary assessment of
occurrences along Rangit River and along Rishi khola
has been done by Sarkar (1978).
Rangit River:
The dolomite is mostly flaggy in nature although
massive dolomite is also recorded. It is intercalated with
quartzite. The occurrence is divided into four blocks;
three on the northern bank of Rangit River and one on
the south of the river. The dolomite indicates CaO
varying between 17.85% and 29.50%, MgO varying
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
between 9.05% and 20.70%, R2O3 between 1.28% and
8.00% and insolubles between 0.86% and 45.98%. As
such this is not a good quality dolomite. Rough estimates
have also been made for this dolomite.
Rishi khola occurrence:
The dolomite occurs as a thick horizon forming a
ridge and strikes N30°E-S30°W to almost east-west with
moderate dips towards north. This dolomite underlies
the Gondwanas in the west along a thrust boundary.
Reserves of approximately 1.1 million tonnes have been
estimated (down to 30 m depth) on the basis of channel
sampling. The CaO varies from 28.37% to 40.32%, MgO
from 12.06% to 21.50%, R2O3 from 0.95% to 2.95%
and insolubles from 0.15% to 3.22 percent. This is a
good quality dolomite.
GRAPHITE:
Graphite, both lumpy and flaky type with graphite
schist, marble and limonitised pegmatite of Chungthang
Formation of Darjeeling Group, has been located at
Chitre (27°1620:88°0210) and Dareli (27°15:
88°03) of west district. The graphite bands occur even
at depths of 2-3m below the surface and the thickness
varies from 30 cm to 80 cm. The graphite bearing zone
extended in depth and can be traced over a considerable
length in a very irregular manner. Preliminary
exploration, including limited drilling, was conducted
by GSI in Chitre area. An estimated reserve of about
6000 tonnes of graphite has been computed from Chitre
sector.
Impersistent and pockety nature of graphite
occurrences, their inaccessibility and high elevation
(3000-4000m) and locations near the India-Nepal border
have rendered these graphite occurrences uneconomical
in view of the high cost of the exploration, mining and
transportation of the materials.
Insignificant amount of amorphous to flaky variety
of graphite occurs as stringers, lenticles and small lenses
along the foliation plane of the high grade biotite gneiss
at some places around Dentam and Bega village.
Chitre and Dareli (west Sikkim):
Occurrences of graphite have been classified into
three groups. (a) In Kali Khola and Pache Khola, flaky
graphite occurs as dissemination in the gritty quartz
43
biotite phyllite and slaty carbonaceous phyllite, mostly
oriented parallel to the foliation planes and are of
irregular thickness and length. Flaky graphite
concentration has also been noted within the marble
bands at Bop in north Sikkim and at the 18th milestone
on the Gangtok-Natu La road sections. The
concentrations of graphite are of very small extent and
have sharp contacts with the host rocks. The graphite is
crystalline to amorphous type. (b) Amorphous graphite
concentrations, associated with vein quartz and clay
matter is seen mainly along shear and thrust zones and
are exposed in upper Kali Khola and middle Kali Khola
area. The zones vary in thickness from one to two metres
in length up to 15 metres or more. At places, the cavities
within the graphite are filled with box-work of limonite,
quartz, chert and kaolin. (c) Lump graphite is seen in
north Sikkim near Rangma, Chungthang and on the
Gangtok-Natu La road near the 15th and 18th mileposts.
Here graphite is associated with pegmatite, occurring in
the shear zone between sillimanite-garnet-gneiss and
calcareous suite of rocks. Within the calc-silicate rocks
graphite fills scattered pods and fractures.
Considering the different types of distribution it can
be postulated from occurrence (a) that the original
sediments must have been contaminated with
carbonaceous material. The crystallization of graphite
has taken place by dynamothermal metamorphism due
to heat generated by tectonic movement during thrusting,
faulting and folding as is evidenced by the occurrence
(b) Migration of this graphite and its subsequent
concentration has been helped by quartz and pegmatite
veins as revealed by occurrences (b) and (c). Occurrences
of graphite within the marble might have probably taken
place due to denudation.
Prospecting for graphite was carried out in Kali
Khola and Pache Khola area, where some surficial
exposures of graphite could be traced. As the geological
and structural setting of the graphite zone was known,
exploratory trenches were dug along the strike wise
extensions of the different graphitic horizons and from
the trenches 73 groove samples were collected covering
a length of 105 m. The chemical analysis reveals poor
concentration of graphitic carbon.
The graphite mineralization of insignificant nature
has also been recorded about 13.3 km NW of
Chungthang-Lachen road and 600 m south of Tarun Chu
cutting across the highway (Kumar and Mitra, 1985).
44 GEOL. SURV. IND

The graphite mineralization occurs along some shear
planes which are at an acute angle to regional schistosity.
The marble band, west of Bop village, shows graphite
concentration along a shear zone. Traces of graphite are
also seen near Theng (27°24:88°39) and Chhanggu.
KYANITE BEARING PEGMATITE:
Kyanite bearing pegmatites were observed by Raina
(1966) to the west of Gerethang (27°21:88°15) while
working in west Sikkim (toposheet nos. 78 A/3, 4, 7, 8).
The pegmatites cut across kyanite bearing schists.
Kyanite blades are 15 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm in size.
LIMESTONE:
The Buxa Formation comprises dolomite and
limestone with interbeds of slates and phyllites. The
Geological Survey of India and State Department of
Mining & Geology have done preliminary exploration
work. Grey limestones, interbanded with green phyllites,
are observed in Rishi Khola, south of Namgaon. An
exposure of limestone, about 30m thick, is traceable over
a strike length of 60m near Rishi Khola. Selected
portions of this limestone band indicate 42 to 46% CaO,
1.22 to 2.20% MgO and 12 to 14% insolubles. This
limestone almost crystalline, shows well bedded nature
and are fine to medium grained in texture. Pink limestone
with shales is exposed at Nayabazar. Selected portions
of the limestone horizon have 42 to 44% CaO, 1.22 to
1.6% MgO and 11 to 18% insolubles.
Mangalbaria and Namgaon area:
Two exposures of limestones are recorded at
Namgaon and four bands of limestones recorded at
Mangalbaria area. The CaO percentage in limestone
varies from 30% to 42%, MgO from 0.5% to 4%, R2O3
from 1.3% to 7% and insolubles from 15% to 30%.
Seiging area:
The limestone is interbedded with phyllite and slate
and is about 35 m thick. The limestone contains 34% to
43% CaO, 0.23% to 2.3% MgO, 1.1% to 1.9% R2O3
and 16% to 25% insolubles.
North of Nayabazar:
Raina and Ray (1967) have recorded a thick
sequence of highly folded limestone and lime bearing
purple and green slates in the area north of the Nayabazar
Bridge. The sequence is traceable from the west bank
of Rangit River up to about 1 km east of it. This formation
outcrops only along the road section, being covered
otherwise by soil and forest cover. The sequence along
the road section (Nayabazar-Namchi road) and the
chemical analysis of samples is indicated in the table 5.

Table no. 5: Chemical analysis of limestones exposed along Namchi-Nayabazar road.

Rock type Outcrop Analyses (%)
Width (m) Ins R 2 O3 CaO MgO L.I.
Slumped cherty limestone 60 40.42 9.06 26.29 0.93 22.24
No exposures 300
Massive limestone 13 13.27 2.87 44.42 1.65 31.00
Slates with nodules of limestone 6
Massive limestone 16 15.54 3.15 42.98 1.24 35.29
Greyish-green slates 45
Massive limestone 16 10.43 7.30 44.45 1.34 34.46
Slates with thin intercalation of limestone 9
No exposure 150
Massive limestone with intercalation of shale 25 16.66 4.72 42.21 1.03 33.00
Slates with thin limestone bands and nodules 13
Massive limestone with shale intercalations 30 18.57 3.25 40.67 1.51 33.85
Slates with occasional nodules of limestone 45
Greenish-grey shales 13
Green slates with thin pink limestone bands 10
Slumped greenish-grey slates
Pebble slates
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX) 45

Rishi Khola south of Namgaon: The outcrop is 30 m thick and traceable over a strike
distance of 60 m across the stream; the surrounding area
Greyish-black to steel grey, hard, compact, partly is covered by soil and forest. Representative analysis of
crystalline limestone interbanded with green calcareous limestone band is produced in the table no. 6.
slates outcrop in the Rishi stream just south of Namgaon.
Table no. 6: Chemical analysis of the limestones of Rishi khola area.
Rock type Outcrop Analyses (%)
Width (m) Ins R 2 O3 CaO MgO L.I.
Massive limestone 1.5 13.69 2.80 42.69 1.66 36.77
Calcareous slates and phyllites
Massive limestone 3 13.17 2.04 44.71 1.24 37.00
Calcareous slates
Massive limestone 3 12.94 1.44 46.44 1.03 37.54
Limestone with phyllite
Massive limestone 3 12.25 2.60 43.00 2.17 33.15
Phyllites with thin bands of limestone
Green phyllite

On the northern bank of Rishi khola Raina (1968) did preliminary prospecting for limestone in three blocks and
estimated reserves of 0.81 million tonnes. On the southern bank five small blocks were delineated with the total
reserves of 0.263 million tonnes. The limestone is cement grade. This report is supported by sufficient analytical
data.

Chhomdo hill & eastern slopes of Dorjila hill:

Roychoudhury et al. (1998) indicate presence of good quality limestone bands in Chholahmo Formation and
Everest Limestone Formation of north Sikkim, particularly in Chhomdo hill and eastern slopes of Dorjila hill. The
limestone bands are up to 55 to 60 m thick and traced over a strike length of 500 m to 750 m. Following is the
chemical analysis of three representative samples of limestones (table no. 7).

Table no. 7: Chemical analysis of limestones from Chho Lhamo and Everest Limestone Formations.
Sm Lat. Long. SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MnO MgO CaO Na2O K 2O TiO2 P 2O 5 LOI.
No.
46 28°0440 88°4240 10.78 2.26 0.65 0.45 0.03 0.63 47.25 0.06 0.51 0.04 0.05 37.02
46A 28°0435 88°4250 5.73 2.07 0.85 0.73 0.12 2.81 48.09 0.04 0.19 0.03 0.05 38.59
77A 28°0130 88°4445 4.26 1.98 2.36 0.82 0.09 1.56 49.60 0.04 0.16 0.07 0.06 38.59

MARBLE: A. M. N. Ghosh (1952) collected a few samples of

Several bands of marble of variable thickness were
seen near Chungthang, Theng and Naga in north Sikkim
and near the 6th & 16th mile posts and near Changgu on
the Gangtok-Natu La road.
marble from Chhangu area, which shows SiO2- 16.34%
to 14.31%, Al2O3- 3.82% to 3.21%, Fe2O3- 1.19% to
1.24%, CaO- 42.98% to 44.85, MgO- 2.50% to 1.97%.
He concluded that the marble can be utilized for low-
heat cement.

Chhanggu area :
Greyish white to creamy white, coarse grained
marble bands are reported from about 1.5 kilometer west
of Chhangu Lake in East Sikkim. The bands vary in
thickness from 12m to 42m with average CaO varying
from 39% to 73%.
Raina and Vohra (1969) mapped four marble bands
within a horizontal distance of 600 m (east-west) and
vertical distance of 100 m (between 3600 m and 3700
m) between the 6th and the 10th loop about 1 km west of
Chhanggu. The marble bands are closely associated with
sillimanite-garnet-biotite- gneiss and show an almost
north-south trend with steep dips.
46 GEOL. SURV. IND

The marble is greyish-white to creamy white, coarse underlain by second band. The second band is 12 m wide
grained and almost granulitic in appearance. It shows and shows synformal folding towards the base. Again a
characteristic differential weathering. Microscopic 200 m thick biotite-sillimanite gneiss band separates 2nd
examination reveals presence of quartz, diopside, band from 3rd band. The third marble band is 18 m thick;
scapolite, feldspar, sphene, zircon and biotite besides the western-most fourth band is 30 m wide. Between
calcite. Individually the eastern most band is 42 m wide, third and fourth band there is 180 m thick zone of gneiss.
followed westwards by 20 m thick zone of banded gneiss Analysis of chip samples from four bands is indicated
in table no. 8.
Table No. 8: Chemical analysis of marble samples from Chhanggu area.
Band No. Insol. (%) R2O3 (%) CaO (%) MgO (%)
1. 18.40 2.10 42.73 0.28
2. 17.19 1.59 43.25 1.11
3. 29.52 1.79 36.80 0.62
4. 32.55 1.73 34.96 0.84

Area around Chungthang:
A very preliminary assessment of marble bands of
this area was carried out by Kumar and Mitra (1985).
Prior to that NEITCO, a consulting agency of SIDICO,
Sikkim State had made assessment of these marble
occurrences.
4.5 km NW of Chungthang on Chungthang-Lachen
road:
The occurrence of marble is very much limited and
only some boulders of marble are seen.
Chubinbin nala occurrence:
This occurrence is 1 km NW of the above mentioned
occurrence. It has a length of about 300 m along the
road upto the point where the Chubinbin nala cuts across
the highway.
South of Tarun Chu:
The occurrence is located about 13.3 km north-west
of Chungthang-Lachen road and 600 m south of Tarun
Chu cutting across the highway. Crystalline marble is
associated with calc-silicate, quartzite and calc-granulite
(Kumar et.al., 1986).
Malten Shiva Temple:
This occurrence is near Malten Shiva Temple 6 km
north-east of Chungthang on Chungthang-Lachung road.
The occurrence covers a distance of about 50 m along
the road. Good exposures are found on the scarp face
only.
Pegong occurrence:
This occurrence is located about 5 km south of
Chungthang on Chungthang-Mangan road near Pegong
village. It is a very minor occurrence.
Other minor occurrences of calc-silicate/marble are
recorded on Singhik-Chungthang road, particularly
around Myang village and near police check post at Tong
village. Marble is also located at Selep, Mensithang,
Malten, Theng, Tong, Myong, Chhangu, and Chakung.
G. N. Dutt (1955) located small calc-tufa occurrences
at an altitude of 8400 ft above the confluence of Benshoi
and Lachen streams. They appear to have been originated
from the nearby calc-gneisses as seen in one of tributaries
to Benshoi Chhu. In Chungthang-Lachen area of North
Sikkim several bands of calc silicate/marble are
intimately associated with high grade metasedimentaries
of Chungthang Formation. These calc silicate may be
used for mini cement factories.
SILICA AND SILICA SAND:
Upper middle part of the Everest Limestone
Formation in north-east Sikkim is represented by pink
and white ortho-quartzite which is 45 metres thick, of
good quality and considerable strike length (300 m).
Following is the chemical analysis of the quartzite. This
quartzite can be used in ferro-silicon, glass and other
related industries Roychoudhury et al., 1998).
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX)
Sm.No. Lat. Long. SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO
54-1 28°0030 88°4550 96.38 0.77 0.53 0.18
SILLIMANITE:
Sillimanite occurs as needles (Fibrolite) or as
aggregates in the high grade gneisses in Chitre, Uttare,
Dentam, Chhange Khola and Sordung area of West
Sikkim. Sillimanite occurs as fibrous aggregates mainly
along the closely spaced slip planes within the gneiss or
along the contact of the pegmatite vein cutting across
the foliation plane of the gneissic country rock. Kyanite
is also found to be associated with sillimanite. The
kyanite and sillimanite occurrences in the area are at
present not of economic significance.
TALC:
The talc hosted by Mansari quartzite unit at and
around Mansari village (27°0841:88°1210) is of
economic importance and was mined by M/s Sikkim
Minerals Pvt. Ltd. through three crude rat hole type
excavations. The talc is lumpy and occurs along fractures
in the host quartzite. The quartzite itself is reportedly of
optical grade and was also quarried. A crushing unit was
also set up. A preliminary estimate of quartzite and talc
reserves up to 25m depth is a round 15 million tones,
maximum true thickness of the quartzite being around
65-80m.
TOPAZ:
In Tista valley, very near to Jorepul (27°42:88°34),
a tourmaline bearing granite containing Topaz has been
located (Bhattacharya and Pattanaik, 1964). Auden
(1935) has reported the occurrence of topaz bearing
granite from a place on the Tista Valley which is nearly
48 km north of this occurrence. But in this area, the
occurrence of this mineral is found for the first time.
The topaz crystals are 1.5 cm to 2 cm in length; flesh
coloured and irregularly arranged. The zone is 30 cm
thick and nearly 8 metres long.
47
MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2 O TiO2 P 2O 5 LOI
0.01 0.62 <0.01 0.02 0.11 0.23 0.03 0.53
TUNGSTEN:
Wolfram has been observed at Chitre. Sills and dykes
of tourmaline granite and garnetiferous pegmatites are
intruded in to banded migmatised biotite psammite
gneiss and granite gneiss of Central Crystallines. At
places, these granites are found to contain sheelite which
is concentrated along the joint and fracture planes
(Roychudhury et al., 1998)
URANIUM MINERALIZATION:
Udas (1986) indicated association of uranium
mineralization with copper-lead-zinc ores in low grade
schists of lesser Himalayas and in Daling Group of rocks
of Darjeeling and Sikkim. The significant concentration
of uranium have been met with along a major zone of
intense shearing within the Daling phyllites, parallel and
close to the Gondwana-Daling thrust. The shear zone is
traceable from Nepal border in the west to the Bhutan
border in the east. The well known copper-lead-zinc at
Gorubathan falls in this shear zone. Significant uranium
concentrations have also been found in the sheared
Daling phyllites on the foot wall and hanging wall of
the Cu-Pb-Zn lode in the Bhotang mine near Rangpo.
VERMICULITE:
Quartz vermiculite veins either occur independently
in a close proximity of pegmatites in the rocks of
sillimanite and kyanite zone. The rock type associated
is granitised mica schist. The thickness of the vein varies
from one cm. to about 30 cm. Conspicuous deposits are
found on the north Sikkim road south of Labi, at Tingda,
about 4th milestone east of Gangtok and between 8th &
9th milestone.
In addition building stones and sand are also
available.
48 GEOL. SURV. IND

Locality Index

LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Degree Min. Sec. Degree Min. Sec.
Bartag 27 30 88 30
Bhondikhola 27 08 88 18
Bop 27 37 25 88 39 10
Borong (Hot spring) 27 21 48 88 19 22
Brom 27 18 30 88 26 50
Bumtar 27 09 88 22
Chakung 27 09 88 12
Chawang 27 25 50 88 35 30
Chejima 27 50 88 46
Chhangu 27 23 88 46
Chho Lhamo Lake 28 01 45 88 45 30
Chhothina 28 04 88 42
Chittre 27 16 20 88 02 10
Chongbong 27 07 30 88 15 00
Chopta Chhu 27 54 88 32
Chorten Nyima La 27 58 88 13
Chorten Labsang 27 56 88 14
Chorten Nyima peak 27 57 88 11
Chungbong 27 07 30 88 15
Chungthang 27 36 20 88 39 00
Danak Khola 27 13 00 88 39 00
Dareli 27 15 88 30
Denchong 27 10 88 20
Dentam 27 16 88 09
Dholepchan 27 11 20 88 40 48
Dhond 27 20 88 05
Dikchu 27 16 48 88 36 47
Dong Busty 27 12 30 88 29 00
Dongkung 28 01 15 88 35 30
Dongkung 28 02 88 36
Duga 27 11 40 88 32 10
Duglakha 27 14 88 36
Dumra 27 11 88 20
Gangtok 27 20 00 88 37 15
Geyzing 27 16 45 88 15 30
Gogong 27 58 88 35
Gurudongmar Lake 28 02 15 88 42 45
Jagdum 27 11 88 14
Jorepul 27 42 88 34
Jorthang 27 07 30 88 17
Kamling 27 12 88 17
Kamrang 27 11 88 21
Kanchendzonga 27 42 88 08
Keorani 27 10 15 88 14 52
Khandosangphu 27 15 88 18
Kyagnosa La 27 22 88 43
Labing 27 21 30 88 14 30

48
MISC. PUB. NO. 30(XIX) 49

LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Degree Min. Sec. Degree Min. Sec.

Lachen 27 43 50 88 33 15
Lachung 27 41 30 88 44 50
Legship 27 17 00 88 13 00
Lema 27 39 15 88 43 35
Lukrap 28 00 88 36
Malten 27 37 30 88 40 45
Mamring (Mamreng) 27 13 30 88 37 45
Mangalbaria 27 16 15 88 26 28
Mangan 27 30 00 88 32 30
Mangreng 27 10 88 31
Mansari 27 08 41 88 12 10
Mayang 27 15 88 18
Menshithang 27 38 40 88 36 50
Myang (Myong) 27 34 40 88 26 40
Naga 27 32 15 88 37 30
Namchi 27 10 88 22
Namgoan 27 12 88 17
Namok 27 26 05 88 32 10
Namthang 27 10 88 29
Naya Bazar 27 08 88 16
Pachekhani 27 12 05 88 36 50
Pamphuk Khani 27 07 88 29
Parbing 27 11 88 29 30
Penlong 27 30 22 88 37 30
Phedi 27 22 88 03
Polot 27 21 00 88 19 46
Rabong La 27 18 20 88 22 00
Rangma 27 36 45 88 38 15
Rangpo 27 10 00 88 31 00
Rangrang 27 28 45 88 32 00
Ratopani 27 11 88 25
Rinchingpong 27 14 88 16
Rishi 27 14 20 88 18 15
Rolep 27 16 15 88 43 10
Rongli 27 12 12 88 42 05
Rorathang 27 11 35 88 37 05
Rothak (Roathak) 27 10 88 18
Rungdu 27 10 15 88 38 45
Runglo 27 32 00 88 29 00
Sada 27 24 88 22
Salebong 27 09 88 23
Sang 27 15 24 88 30 29
Sanklang 27 30 30 88 30 30
Sardung 27 16 20 88 11 30

Selep
Siging 27 10 40 88 15 10
Sikkip Bridge 27 12 45 88 19 50
Singrangpung 27 21 88 08

Sipik
Sirbong 27 10 35 88 15 30
Siringyong 27 20 88 09
Sisni 27 10 18 88 14 20
Sodunlakha 27 12 00 88 40 00
Somdong 27 09 88 19
Sosing Hill 27 17 88 20
Sumbuk 27 07 88 23
Suntole (Sontale) 27 10 88 16
50 GEOL. SURV. IND

LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Degree Min. Sec. Degree Min. Sec.
Temi 27 14 00 88 26 00
Thanggu 27 54 88 32
Theng 27 24 88 39
Tigda (6 km of Gangtok)
Tolung 27 40 40 88 26 30
Tong 27 33 00 88 38 55
Tukhani 27 08 88 26
Tunga-phu-phiak 27 39 88 28
Uttare 27 16 88 05
Yome Samdong 27 55 00 88 42 00
Yaksam (Yoksum) 27 22 00 88 13 00
Yangdi 27 56 88 31
Yumthang 27 47 30 88 42 00
Zongri 27 27 88 10
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Acharyya,S.K. and Sastry, M.V.A. (1979) Stratigraphy of Eastern
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Acharyya,S.K. (1980) Pre-Tertiary fabric and metamorphism in
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