Power Plant Engineering

(For B.E.
Mechanical Engineering Students)
(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)
Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

Professor and Research Head
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
SATHYABAMA UNIVERSITY
Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai - 600 119
AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)
80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
Email: aishram2006@gmail.com,
airwalk800@gmail.com
www.airwalkpublications.com
First Edition : 20-06-2004
Second Edition : April 2016
and
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS
Unit 1: Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

Rankine Cycle - Improvisations - Layout of modern coal power
plant, Supercritical Boilers, FBC boilers, Turbines, Condensors,
Steam and Heat rate, Subsystems of Thermal power plants - Fuel
and handling, Draught system, Feed water treatment, Binary cycles
and Cogeneration systems.
Unit 2: Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle

Power Plants
Otto, Diesel, Dual and Brayton Cycle - Analysis and
Optimisation, Components of Diesel and Gas Turbine power plants.
Combined Cycle Power Plants. Integrated Gasifier based Combined
Cycle systems.
Unit 3: Nuclear Power Plant

Basics of Nuclear Engineering, Layout and subsystems of Nuclear
Power Plants, Working of Nuclear Reactors : Boiling Water Reactor (BWR),
Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR), CANada Deuterium- Uranium reactor
(CANDU), Breeder, Gas Cooled and Liquid Metal Cooled Reactors. Safety
measures for Nuclear Power plants.
Unit 4: Power from Renewable Energy

Hydro Electric Power Plants - Classification, Typical Layout
and associated component including Turbines. Principle, Construction
and working of Wind, Tidal, Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV), Solar
Thermal, geo Thermal, Biogas and Fuel Cell power systems.
Unit 5: Energy, Economic and Environmental issues

of Power Plants
Power tariff types, Load distribution parameters, load curve,
Comparison of site selection criteria, relative merits & demerits,
Capital & Operating Cost of different power plants. Pollution control
technologies including Waste Disposal Options for Coal and Nuclear
Power Plants.
1
Contents
I. Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

1.1 Rankine Cycle (Simple Steam Power Cycle) ............... 1.1
1.2 Improvisations - Modern Trends in Rankine Cycle
Improvements .... ..................................................................... 1.12
1.2.1 Reheat Cycle...................................................... 1.12
1.2.2 Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating ............ 1.15
1.2.3 Disadvantages ................................................... 1.16
1.3 Methods of Reheating...................................................... 1.16
1.3.1 Gas Reheating................................................... 1.16
1.3.2 Live-Steam Reheating ...................................... 1.17
1.3.3 Combined gas and live steam reheater ..... 1.18
1.4 Regenerative Cycle (Bleeding Cycle) ............................. 1.29
1.4.1 Advantages of Regenerative cycle................... 1.40
1.5 Layout of Modern Coal Power Plant (or)
Layout of Steam Power Plant ........................................ 1.44
1.5.1. Coal and ash Circuit ..................................... 1.45
1.5.2 Air and Flue gas circuit................................. 1.45
1.5.3 Feed water and steam flow circuit ............... 1.46
1.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit...................................... 1.47
1.6 Selection of Site For A Steam Power Plant................ 1.47
1.7 Super Critical Boilers...................................................... 1.50
1.7.2 Benson Boiler.................................................... 1.53
1.7.3 Loefler Boiler .................................................... 1.56
1.7.4 Velox boilers...................................................... 1.57
1.8 Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) Boilers .................... 1.59
2
1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized

bed boilers................................................................... 1.62
1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system. 1.63

(i) Bubbled fluidised bed combustion
system ............................................................... 1.63
(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion

system (CFBC) ................................................. 1.66
(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed

Combustion system.......................................... 1.68
1.9 Steam Turbines ............................................................... 1.72

1.9.1 Types of steam turbine.................................... 1.73
1.9.2 Impulse Turbine ............................................... 1.73
1.9.3 Reaction turbine ............................................... 1.77
1.9.3.1 Velocity diagram for reaction turbine
blade ...... ..................................................................... 1.78
1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction ......................................... 1.79

1.10 Steam Condensers.......................................................... 1.80
1.10.1 Jet condensers................................................. 1.80
1.10.2 Surface condenser........................................... 1.81
1.11 Capacity of a Steam Power Plant............................... 1.84
1.12 Sub System of Thermal Power Plant ......................... 1.85
1.12.1 Boiler Accessories ........................................... 1.85
1.11.13 Cooling tower ................................................1.104
1.11.13.1 Type of Cooling towers ..................1.105
1.11.13.2 Atmospheric (or) natural draft
cooling towers. .................................................1.105
1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers1.107

3
1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling

System...............................................................1.108
1.12 Boiler Mountings ...........................................................1.112
1.13 Fuel and Ash Handling ................................................1.114
1.13.1 Handling of coal ............................................1.114
1.13.2 Ash handling and dust collecting system...1.124
1.14 Draught ..... .....................................................................1.134
1.14.1 Classification of Draught ..............................1.135
1.14.1.1. Natural draught .........................................1.135
1.14.1.2. Artificial draught .......................................1.137
1.14.2 Forced draught ...............................................1.138
1.14.3 Induced draught.............................................1.139
1.14.4 Balanced draught...........................................1.140
1.15 Stockers ..... .....................................................................1.141
1.15.1 Overfeed stokers..............................................1.142
1.15.2 Under feed stokers .........................................1.146
1.15.3 Pulveriser.........................................................1.148
1.15.3.1 Unit (or) Direct system...............................1.150
1.15.3.2 BIN (or) Central System ............................1.152
1.16 Feed Water Treatment..................................................1.153
1.16.1 Need for feed water treatment .....................1.153
1.16.2 Arrangements for Feed Water Treatment ...1.154
1.17 Binary Vapour Cycle .....................................................1.160
1.18 Waste Heat Recovery / Cogeneration System ...........1.168
Waste Heat Boilers .........................................1.169
4
2. Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power

Plants
2.1 Otto Cycle ... ..................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Diesel Cycle ..................................................................... 2.9
2.3 Mixed/Dual Cycle . ........................................................... 2.17
2.4 Brayton Cycle ... ............................................................... 2.29
2.5 Diesel Engine Power Plant ............................................ 2.33
2.6 Types of Diesel Power Plants ........................................ 2.35
2.7 Layout of Diesel Power Plant........................................ 2.37
2.8 Diesel Engine Used For Diesel Power Plants............. 2.44
2.8.1 Selection of Engine Type................................. 2.45
2.8.2 Super charging ................................................. 2.47
2.9 Gas Turbine Power Plant............................................... 2.49
2.9.1 Gas turbine ....................................................... 2.49
2.10 Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plants .............. 2.50
2.11 Layout of Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant ..... 2.52
2.12 Working of Gas Turbine Power Plant........................ 2.53
2.13 Fuels For Gas Turbines................................................ 2.54
2.13.1 Fuel qualities .................................................. 2.55
2.14 Gas Turbine Materials .................................................. 2.56
2.15 Open and Closed Cycles ............................................... 2.58
2.15.1 Open cycle gas turbine .................................. 2.58
2.15.2 Closed cycle gas turbine................................ 2.60
2.16 Reheating, Regeneration and Intercooling.................. 2.62
2.16.1 Intercooling...................................................... 2.63
2.16.2 Reheating......................................................... 2.64
5
2.16.3 Regeneration.................................................... 2.65

2.17 Combined Power Cycles ................................................ 2.66
2.18 Combined Gas Turbine and Diesel Cycles................. 2.70
2.19 Integrated Gasifier Based Combined Cycle (IGCC)
System ................ ..................................................................... 2.72
3. Nuclear Power Plant

3.1 Introduction. ..................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Basics of Nuclear Engineering....................................... 3.1
3.3 Radioactivity ..................................................................... 3.2
3.4 Nuclear Reactions ........................................................... 3.7
3.5 Nuclear Fission and Chain Reaction ............................ 3.8
3.6 Layout of Nuclear Power Plant..................................... 3.10
3.7 Site Selection For A Nuclear Power Plant.................. 3.12
3.8 Nuclear Reactor ............................................................... 3.14
3.9 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) ........................................ 3.18
3.10 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) .............................. 3.19
3.11 CANada Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactor....... 3.21
3.12 Gas Cooled Reactor ....................................................... 3.24
3.13 Fast Breeder Reactor .................................................... 3.26
3.14 Liquid Metal Cooled Reactor ....................................... 3.27
3.15 Safety Measures For Nuclear Power Plant ............... 3.29
4. Power From Renewable Energy

4.1 Hydel Power Plants......................................................... 4.1
4.2 Essential Elements of Hydel Power Plant................... 4.2
4.3 Site Selection For Hydel Power Plant ......................... 4.21
4.4 Working of Hydro Electric Power Plant ...................... 4.24
6
4.5 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines............................. 4.26

4.5.1 Impulse turbine ................................................ 4.27
4.5.1.1 Working of a Pelton Wheel ............... 4.30
4.5.2 Reaction turbine ............................................... 4.30
4.5.2.1 Francis Turbine .................................. 4.31
4.5.2.2 Axial Flow Reaction Turbines .......... 4.32
4.6. Working Principle of A Kaplan Turbine ..................... 4.33
4.7 Turbine Governing ........................................................... 4.35
4.7.1 Working of oil pressure governor................... 4.36
4.8 Selection of Turbine ........................................................ 4.38
4.9 Micro Hydel Development............................................... 4.50
4.9.1 Components of Micro hydel power plant ...... 4.51
4.9.2 Power from a micro hydro plant................... 4.53
4.9.3 Suitable conditions for micro-hydro power... 4.54
4.9.4 Turbines for micro hydro power .................... 4.54
4.10 Turgo Turbine ............................................................... 4.55
4.10.1 Working of Turgo Turbine............................ 4.55
4.10.2 Load factor...................................................... 4.56
4.10.3 Load control governors .................................. 4.57
4.10.4 Electrical power from micro hydro plant ... 4.57
4.10.5 Economics of micro hydel plant .................. 4.58
4.10.6 Low cost grid connection .............................. 4.60
4.10.7 Advantages of Micro hydro plant ................ 4.62
4.11 Wind Energy and Wind Power.................................... 4.62
4.11.1 Advantages of Wind energy .......................... 4.63
4.11.2 Disadvantages of Wind energy ..................... 4.63
7
4.11.3 Characteristic of a good wind power

plant site ..................................................................... 4.63
4.11.4 Wind-Electrical generating power plant...... 4.64
4.11.5 Wind Turbine Types ...................................... 4.65
4.11.6 Types of wind mills....................................... 4.67
4.11.7 Performance of wind machine...................... 4.69
4.12 Tidel Power Plant .......................................................... 4.70
4.13 Pumped Storage . ........................................................... 4.76
4.13.1 Types of pumped storage plant.................... 4.77
4.14 Solar Power Plants ........................................................ 4.81
4.14.2 Solar Central Receiver system...................... 4.87
Heliostats (Mirrors) ......................................... 4.88
4.15 Solar Photovoltaics (SPV) ............................................. 4.90
4.16 Geo Thermal Power Plant............................................ 4.94
4.16.1 Geothermal sources ........................................ 4.96
4.16.2 Hydrothermal convective system................... 4.97
4.17 Ocean Energy Conversion (OTEC) Plant ...................4.102
4.17.1 Types of OTEC ...............................................4.105
4.17.2 Closed-cycle OTEC System ...........................4.105
4.17.3 Open-Cycle OTEC system..............................4.106
4.17.4 Hybrid OTEC System....................................4.106
4.17.5 Important points about OTEC .....................4.107
4.18 Biogas Power Plant .......................................................4.109
4.19 Fuel Cell.... .....................................................................4.115
4.20 MHD Power Plant .........................................................4.118
1. Open cycle MHD ...................................................4.120
8
2. Closed cycle MHD .................................................4.122

3. Closed Cycle MHD with Liquid metal ..............4.123
5. Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues of

Power Plants
5.1 Economics in Plant Selection ......................................... 5.1
5.2 Important Terms and Definitions.................................. 5.3
5.3 Economics of Power Generation .................................... 5.10
5.3.1 Land, building and equipment cost and
installation cost .......................................................... 5.11
5.3.2 Depreciation cost .............................................. 5.12
(i) Straight line method ................................. 5.12
(ii) Sinking fund method ............................... 5.13
(iii) Diminishing value method ..................... 5.15
5.3.3 Insurance ........................................................... 5.16
5.3.4 Management cost .............................................. 5.16
5.3.5 Operating cost................................................... 5.16
5.3.6 Total cost........................................................... 5.16
Customer charges ............................................ 5.17
5.3.7 Cost of power generation ................................ 5.17
5.4 Power Tariffs .... ............................................................... 5.18
5.4.1 Aim of tariffs .................................................... 5.18
5.4.2 Selection of tariffs ............................................ 5.18
5.4.3 Types of tariffs ................................................. 5.19
1. Flat demand rate ....................................... 5.19
2. Straight line meter rate ............................ 5.20
3. Step meter rate ........................................... 5.21
9
4. Block meter rate ......................................... 5.22

5. Two-part tariff or Hopkinson demand
rate .................................................................... 5.23
6. Three-part tariff (or) Doherty rate........... 5.23
7. Wright demand rate................................... 5.24
5.5 Choice of Power Plant and its Site .............................. 5.27
5.6 Electric Load (or) Power Distribution System ............ 5.30
5.7 Load Duration Curves..................................................... 5.34
5.7.1 Important terms and definition ..................... 5.34
(i) Load curve .................................................. 5.34
(ii) Residential load ........................................ 5.34
(iii) Industrial load......................................... 5.35
(iv) Municipal load ......................................... 5.35
(v) Irrigation load ........................................... 5.35
(vi) Traction load ............................................ 5.35
(vii) Commercial load..................................... 5.35
(a) Residential load curve.............................. 5.35
(b) Industrial load curve for one shift ........ 5.36
(c) Municipal load curve................................ 5.36
(d) Traction load curve .................................. 5.37
(e) Commercial load curve............................. 5.38
(f) Load duration curve.................................. 5.38
5.8 Pollution and its Control ................................................ 5.40
5.8.1 Air Pollution by Thermal Power Plants....... 5.40
5.8.2 Control of Atmospheric Pollution by
Thermal Power Plants .............................................. 5.44
10
5.8.3 Water Pollution By Thermal Power Plant

and its Control........................................................... 5.49
5.8.4 Instrument used to monitor pollution ........... 5.50
5.8.4.1 CO2 recorders...................................... 5.50
5.8.4.2 Automatic controls for feed water.... 5.52

5.8.4.3 Automatic combustion control........... 5.54
5.8.5 Indian Boiler Act ............................................. 5.56
5.8.6 Boiler Inspection............................................... 5.57
5.8.7 Boiler Performance........................................... 5.59
5.8.7.1 Boiler Testing ................................................ 5.61
5.8.7.2 Boiler Trial .................................................... 5.62
5.8.8 Boiler safety regulations as per Indian
Boiler Act .................................................................... 5.67
5.9 Nuclear Waste Disposal and Safety.............................. 5.68
Chapter - I
COAL BASED THERMAL

POWER PLANTS
1.1 RANKINE CYCLE (Simple Steam Power Cycle)

Rankine Cycle - Improvisations - Layout of modern coal
power plant, Supercritical Boilers, FBC boilers, Turbines,
Condensors, Steam and Heat rate, Subsystems of Thermal power
plants - Fuel and handling, Draught system, Feed water treatment,
Binary cycles and Cogeneration systems.
Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the

steam turbine (engine) works.
Boiler
Refer the process (4) to (1): Feed water is passing
to the boiler. Heat is added to the water in the boiler. The
water gets heated and becomes dry saturated steam (or)
super heated steam.
Turbine
Refer the process (1) to (2): The high pressure
steam is expanding in the turbine, thus work is produced.
i.e. The turbine rotates. The steam leaves the turbine as
low pressure steam.
Condenser: Condenser is used to convert the low pressure
steam into water. Refer the process (2) to (3). The low
pressure steam is passing through condenser where heat is
liberated from the steam. So the steam becomes water. To
cool the steam, separate cooling water is circulated through
condenser from the cooling tower. This cooling water and
the steam will not mix together in most of the condensers.
1.2 Power Plant Engineering - www.airwalkpublications.com
H ig h Pre ssure S team

H ig h Pre ssure W ater
(1)
(4)
Bo iler
(4)
Q in
W ou t
Steam
Pu m p Turbine
W in
(3)
L ow P ressure Stea m
(2)
Condenser
L ow P ressure
Wa ter (3) (2) L ow P ressure
Steam
Q o ut Fig:1.1 (a)
Pump
Refer the process
T
(3) to (4) The water Qs =
leaving condenser is h 1 -h 4
pumped to the boiler

p 1= p 4
by pump. Usually, 1
pump work is
4
p
1=
p
s1 = s2
neglected since it is
W T = h 1 -h 2
very small work 4
when compared to W p = h 4 -h 3
turbine work output. p 2= p 3
2
3
S
Fig:1.1 (b)
Coal Based Thermal Power Plants 1.3
1 - 2 Turbine work
Turbine work output (Isentropic expansion in Turbine)
W T  h1  h2 kJ/kg


Turbine power  m h1  h2 kW

where m  Mass flow rate of steam in kg/sec.
h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for

p1 and p2 respectively.
(p1  high pressure (or) boiler pressure (or) inlet to

turbine pressure)
(p2  low pressure (or) condenser pressure)
Also, we can use Mollier diagram to find h1 and h2.
2 - 3 Constant pressure condensation

Q 2  Heat rejecte d  h2  h3 kJ/kg

Q 2 in kW  m h2  h3 kW
h3  hf at low pressure p2.
3 - 4: Pump Work
W pump  W p  h4  h3 kJ/kg
 vfp1  p2 kJ/kg
where vf for p2 from steam table
p1 and p2 in kPa

Pump power  m W p
Net Work
W net  W T  W p
 W T If W p is negligib le

Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of net work done to

the heat supplied.
W net
 cycle or rankine or  thermal 
Q supply
4 - 1 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Q supply

(Constant pressure heat supply)
Q supply  h1  h4 kJ/kg

Q supplyin kW  m h1  h4 kW
Specific steam consumption. ‘SSC’ (or) steam flow rate
3600 kg
per kW 
W net kWhr
W net
Wo rk ratio 
WT
Problem 1.1: A steam turbine receives steam at 15 bar and
350C and exhausts to the condenser at 0.06 bar. Determine
the thermal efficiency of the ideal rankine cycle operating
between these two limits. Neglect the pump work.
Solution
p1  15 bar; t1  350 C; p2  0.06 bar
Boiler pressure Condenser pressure 
From Mollier diagram,

h1  3147.5 kJ; h2  2264.1 kJ/kg;
h3  hf fo r 0.06 bar  151.5 kJ/kg
h4  h3  W p  h3  151.5 kJ/kg . .
[ . W p is negligible ]
W net  W T  h1  h2  3147.5  2188.1  959.4 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  h1  h3  3147.5  151.5  2996 kJ/kg
. .
[ . h4  h3 ]
h M ollier D ia gra m
o
1 3 50 c
h 1 = 31 47 .5 kJ/kg
r
ba
15
a r
6b
0 .0
h 2 = 21 88 .1 kJ/kg
2
s
Fig:1 .2
W net 959.4
 rankine    32.023 %
Qs 2996
Problem 1.2: In a rankine cycle, the steam flows to turbine

as saturated steam at a pressure of 35 bar and the exhaust
pressure is 0.2 bar. Determine (using steam table only) (i)
pump work (ii) the turbine work (iii) the rankine efficiency (iv)
the condenser heat flow (v) the dryness fraction at the end of
expansion. The mass flow rate of steam is 9.5 kg/sec.
Solution

p1  35 bar dry saturated; p2  0.2 bar; m  9.5 kg/sec.
To Find h 1
h1  hg for 35 bar  2802 kJ/kg
To Find x2
s1  sg for 35 bar = 6.123 kJ/kg K
Isentropic expansion. So, s1  s2

So, s2  6.123 kJ/kg K T
But at 0.2 bar,

p 1 = p 4 =35bar
sg  7.909 kJ/kg K 1
Since s2  sg ,
6.123 7.909 4
it is wet steam at exit p 2 = p 3 =0.2ba r

3 2
of turbine.
S
So, s2  sf  x2sfg fo r 0.2 bar Fig:1.3
6.123  0.832  x27.077 
x 2  0.748
Dryness fraction at the exit of turbine x2  0.748
To Find h 2
hf  251.5 ; hfg  2358.4 for 0.2 bar
h2  hf  x2hfg for 0.2 bar  251.5  0.748 2358.4 
 2014.72 kJ/kg
To Find h 3
h3  hf3  251.5 for 0.2 bar.
To Find h 4
vf3  0.001017 m 3/kg for 0.2 bar.
h4  h3  W p
W p  vf3p1  p2  0.001017 35  0.2  10 2  3.54 kJ/kg
h4  251.5  3.54  255.04 kJ/kg

To Find Pump Work

W p  3.54 kJ/kg

Pump power  m W p  3.54  9.5  33.63 kW
To Find Turbine Work

W T  h1  h2  2802  2014.72  787.28

Turbine power  m W T  9.5  787.28  7479.2 kW
To Find Rankine Efficiency

W net
 rankine 
Qs
Q s  h1  h4  2802  255.04  2546.96 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  787.28  3.54  783.74 kJ/kg
783.74
 rankine   0.30772  30.772 %
2546.96
To Find Condenser Heat Flow Q rej

Q rej  h2  h3
 2014.72  251.5  1763.22 kJ/kg


Q rej in kW  m h2  h3
 9.5  1763.22  16751 kW
Problem 1.3: Steam at 10 MPa and degree of super heat of

90C is supplied to a rankine cycle. The condenser pressure is
10 KPa. For mass rate of flow of 1 kg/sec determine (i) Power
output (ii) thermal.
Solution
h1  3100 kJ/kg; h2  1975 kJ/kg from Mollier diagram.
h3  hf3 for 0.1 bar  191.8 kJ/kg
W p  h4  h3  vf3p1  p2
vf3  0.001010
for 0.1 bar
h4  h3  vf3p1  p2  191.8  0.001010 100  0.1  10 2
 201.89 kJ/kg [ 10 2 for making bar into kPa]
To Find W T , Wp and Q s
W T  h1  h2  3100  1975  1125 kJ/kg
W p  vf3100  0.1  10 2  0.001010 100  0.1  10 2
 10.1 kJ/kg
W net  WT  Wp  1125  10.1  1115 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  3100  201.89  2898.11 kJ/kg


Power output  m W net  1  1115  1115 kW
W net 1115
 thermal    38.47 %
Qs 2898.11
h
T 1
ar
0b
10
h 1 = 3 10 0kJ/kg
o 4 0 1 oc
90 c
9 0 oc
3 1 1 oc
r
ba
0 .1
4 h 2 = 1 97 5kJ/kg
2
p 2 = 0.1 b ar
3 2
s Fig:1.4 (b) s
Fig:1.4 (a)
Problem 1.4: Dry saturated steam at 15 bar is supplied to a

rankine cycle where exhaust pressure is 1 bar. Find
(a) thermal (rankine), steam consumption per kW, carnot. (b) If
the exhaust pressure is reduced to 0.2 bar by introducing a jet
condenser, then determine % increase in rankine efficiency and
% decrease in SSC. (Apr.’96-Madras University)
Solution
Given: p1  p4  15 bar; p2  p3  1 bar; Initially dry
saturated.
W net WT  Wp
rankine  
Q supply Qs
W T  h1  h2
W p  h4  h3  vfp1  p2
Q s  h1  h4
Find h 1, h 2, h 3 and h4
h1  hg for p1  15 bar  2790 kJ/kg from steam table
(or) from Mollier chart, hs diagram
T h
h1 - h4 r
ba
15
h 1 = 2790 1 ar
p 1= p 4 1b
p4
1
Sa
p1 =
tu
ra
te
s 1= s 2
d
W T = h 1 -h 2
W P = h 4 -h 3
Cu
4 h 2 = 2340 2
rv
e
p2= p3
2
3 s
s
S 1 =S 2
Fig:1.5 (a) Fig:1.5 (b)
15 bar line will cut saturated curve at (1). Draw

vertical line from (1). This vertical line will cut the 1 bar
line at (2).
h2  2340 kJ/kg
h3  hf (for 1 bar from steam table) = 417.5 kJ/kg
vf  0.001043 m 3/kg (for 1 bar)
h4  h3  vf p1  p2
h4  h3  vf p1  p2  417.5  0.001043 15  1   10 2
 418.9602 kJ/k g
[15 bar and 1 bar are multiplied by 10 2 to make KPa

. .
. 1 bar  100 KPa ]
To Find W T , Wp and Q s
W T  h1  h2  2790  2340  450 kJ/kg
W p  vfp1  p2  0.001043 15  1  10 2  1.4602 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  2790  418.9602  2371.04 kJ/kg
To Find rankine
W net WT  Wp 450  1.4602 
rankine     18.92%
Qs Qs 2371.04
To Find Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)

3600 3600
SSC    8.03 kJ/kWhr
W net 448.54
To Find carnot T
Tmax  Tmin
carnot 
T max
p 1 = p 4 = 15ba r 1
For 15 bar,
tsat  tmax  198.3 C  273
 471.3 K 4
For 1 bar, 3
p 2 = p 3 =0 .2ba r 2
tsat  tmin  99.63 C  273
S
Fig:1.6 (a)
 372.63 K
471.3  372.63
 carnot   20.936%
471.3
Case (b)
When p2  0.2 b ar
h3  hffo r 0.2 bar  251.5 kJ
vf3  0.001017 m 3/kg (fo r 0.2 bar)
h4  h3  vf3p1  p2
h4  251.5  0.001017 15  0.2  10 2  253.005 kJ /kg
W T  h1  h2  2790  2120  670 kJ/kg
W p  vf3p1  p2  0.001017 15  0.2  10 2  1.51 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  670  1.51  668.5 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  2790  253.005  2536.995 kJ/kg
New rankine
W net 668.5
rankine    26.35 %
Qs 2536.995
Increase in rankine efficiency

h
26.35  18.92 r
  39.3 % ba
0.1892 15
h 1 = 279 0 1
New SSC
r
ba
3600 3600 0 .2
SSC  
W net 668.5
h 2 = 2120
2
 5.39 kg/kWhr
Decrease in SSC
8.03  5.39 Fig:1.6 (b)

s
  32.94 %
8.03
1.2 IMPROVISATIONS - MODERN TRENDS IN

RANKINE CYCLE IMPROVEMENTS
Rankine Cycle - Reheating and Regenerative cycle
1.2.1 Reheat Cycle:

If the dryness fraction of steam leaving the turbine
is less than 0.88, then corrosion and erosion of turbine
blades occur. To avoid this situation, reheat is used.
In the reheat cycle, the expansion of steam takes
place in one (or) more turbines. Steam is expanded in the
HP turbine first, then it is reheated. The reheated steam
is again expanded in the LP turbine. Reheat cycle gives
small increase in cycle efficiency. It increases the net work
output.
Reheating means heating the steam between turbine
stages (between HP stage and LP stage).
P 1 - Boiler pressure; P 2  P3 = Reheat pressure; P 4 =
Condenser pressure; T 1 = boiler temperature (or) superheat
temperature; T 3 = Reheat temperature.
R e he ater
2
6 1
Bo iler
HPT LP T
Pu m p
5
C o nd enser
Fig:1.7
T 1
h
3 1
T1 3
C
p 3= T3
p 2=
=C
1
p
2 6
6
4
=C
5 4 p4
S 5
s
Fig:1.8 (a) Fig:1.8 (b)
Note:
If T3 is not given, then we can assume T 3  T1
h1, h2, h3, h4 - Take from mollier chart h  s diagram)

(or) from steam table.
h5  hf for condenser pressure.
W p  h6  h5  vf P 1  P 2 100
[ vf  sp. volume of fluid at condenser pressure]
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4
W p  h6  h5
W net  net work  W T  W P
Q s  hea t supplied  h1  h6  h3  h2
W net
 thermal 
Qs
The ordinary Rankine cycle efficiency can be increased

by increasing the pressure and temperature of the steam
entering into the turbine. When the initial pressure
increases, the expansion ratio in the turbine also increases,
and the steam becomes quite wet at the end of expansion.
This is not desirable because the increased moisture content
of the steam causes corrosion in the turbine blades and so
increase the losses. Due to this, the nozzle and blade  is
decreased.
In reheat cycle, the steam is taken out from the
turbine and it is heated by the flue gases in the boiler.
The main purpose of reheating is to increase the
dryness fraction of steam passing through the lower stages
of the turbine. The dryness fraction of steam coming out
from the turbine should not fall below 0.88. By using the
reheat cycle, the specific steam consumption decreases and

thermal also increases. The increase in thermal due to
reheat depends upon the ratio of reheat pressure to original
pressure of steam. The reheat pressure is generally kept
within 20% of the initial pressure of steam:
At low pressure, the  of the cycle is reduced.
It is preferred for only high capacity plants, (or)
50,000 kW and the steam pressure range is 100
kgf/cm 2  ab
1.2.2 Advantages (or) effects of Re-heating

 Due to reheating, net work done increases
 Due to reheating, heat supply increases
 Due to reheating, thermal efficiency increases
 Due to reheating, the turbine exit steam dryness
fraction increases - so moisture decreases
- so blade erosion becomes minimum - so life of the
turbine will be increased.
 It reduces the fuel consumption upto 4 to 5%.

 The size of the low pressure turbine blades can
be reduced.
 It reduces the steam flow of 15 to 20% with
corresponding reductions in boiler, turbine and
feed water heating equipments.
 It also reduces the pumping power.
 Less costly materials are used for lower steam
pressures and temperatures to obtain required
thermal efficiency.
 It has higher thermal  .
 It has reduced feed pump power.

 The condenser and boiler sizes are small.
 The turbine has a very long life.
1.2.3 Disadvantages:
 This cycle is more expensive than simple Rankine
cycle.
 It occupies more space.
 The second stage turbine blade’s design is
complicated and expensive.
 The operation and control reheat rankine cycle is
complicated.
 At light loads, the superheated steam will
overheat the blades. To avoid this, the feed water
should be sprayed on the blades.
1.3 Methods of Reheating:
(a) Gas reheating
(b) Live-steam reheating
(c) Combined gas live steam reheater
1.3.1 Gas Reheating

The steam taken from the high pressure turbine (HP)
turbine is sent back to the reheater to reheat the steam to
its initial throttle temperature.
The reheater is normally placed after the superheater

so that the superheater receives the flue gases first and
then the reheater receives flue gases. Since the reheater
should operate at much smaller temperature difference
between the gas and steam, the counter flow heat
exchanger is used for reheating.
To make the steam to be reheated to its initial

throttle temperature in this gas reheating system, the
following disadvantages are faced.
1. Long and large pipe connections are required and
hence cost is more and the pressure drop becomes
higher.
B oiler To cond en ser
S uper h ea ter
H .P L .P
R eheater
Fig:1.9 Steam Reheating with Flu e G ases.
2. For piping system, the expansion and contraction

allowances should be given.
3. The amount of steam stored within the piping and
reheater may cause considerable rise in turbine
speed and it leads to accident in case of failure of
emergency control.
1.3.2 Live-Steam Reheating:
The live steam reheating circuit is shown in Fig.1.10.
The high pressure steam from the superheater is used for
reheating the steam coming out from the HP turbine in a
specially designed reheater.
H ig h Pre ssu re S team

fo r R ehe atin g
B oiler
L .P.T
H .P.T
S upe r
H eate r
L ive S te am
R ehe ater
C ond en sate
Fig:1.10 Steam Reh eatin g w ith Live Steam.
The advantages of live-steam reheating over gas

heating are given here.
1. The operation of this reheating system is simple.
2. The reheater can be placed near the HP turbine

and minimise extra pipe fittings.
3. The control of temperature is easy since varying

combustion condition will not affect the live steam reheater
performance.
4. Wet steam can also be reheated.
5. More than one reheating can be used since the

piping requirements are less.
1.3.3 Combined gas and live steam reheater

The combined gas and live steam reheater system is
shown in Fig.1.11. Live steam reheating system does not
allow the steam to be reheated to its initial throttle
temperature. By using combined reheating system, this
problem can be solved. The live steam reheating system is
To
con dense r
B oiler
H .P.T
S .H . L .P.T
G as
R ehe ater
L ive C ond en sate

S tea m
R ehe ater
Fig:1.11 C om bin ed Live Steam and Reh eating System .
placed in series with the gas reheater. The steam extracted

from HP turbine is first sent to live steam reheater and
then to gas reheater as shown in fig. In order to maintain
a constant final temperature, the supply of live steam to
first reheater is thermostatically controlled.
Problem 1.5: Steam at 90 bar, 480C is supplied to a steam
turbine. The steam is reheated to its original temperature by
passing it through a reheater at 12 bar. The condenser pressure
is 0.07 bar. Steam flow rate is 1 kg/sec. Determine (a) network
output; (b) thermal [neglect the pressure loss in reheating and
boiler. The expansion is isentropic (FAQ)
Given:
p1  boiler pre ssure  90 bar;
T1  boiler tem perature  480C
T3  Reheat temperature  T 1 given   480 C

p4  condenser pressure  0.07 bar

o
h T 1 = 480
From mollier chart, 1
3
2
h1  3330 kJ/kg =1
pb
0
=9
p a
h2  2805 kJ/kg 6 2
h3  3440 kJ/kg
7
p c= 0 .0
4
h4  2360 kJ/kg
5
s
h5  hf for 0.07  163.4 Fig:1.12 (a)
h6  h5  vf pa  pc  100 vf for condenser pressure
h6  163.4  0.001007 90  0.07   100  172.4625
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4
 3330  2805   3440  2360   1605 kJ/kg
W p  h6  h5  172.4625  163.4  9.0625 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  1595.9375 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2
 3330  172.4625   3440  2805   3792.5375 kJ/kg
 3792.5375 kJ/kg
Wnet 1595.9375
 thermal    0.4208
Qs 3792.5375
Extra
Compare network done & efficiency of the above cycle

with that of the simple cycle.
The simple cycle is shown here.
h1  3330 kJ/kg
h2  2030 kJ/kg
h3  hf for condenser pressure  163.4 kJ/kg
h4  h3  vf P a  P c 100
[vf for condenser pressure P c]
h4  172.4559
W T  h1  h2  1300 kJ/kg
W P  h4  h3  9.0559 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  1290.944 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  3157.5441 kJ/kg
Qs 3157.5441
thermal  
W net 1290.944 h o
T 1 = 4 80
thermal  40.884 % o
1
0
=9
pa
Note: reheat cycle
W net  1595.9375 kJ/kg

4
.07
=0 2
 thermal  42.08% pc
Because of reheating, 3
work output increases and Fig:1.12 (b )

s
also thermal efficiency.

Problem 1.6: In the reheat cycle, steam at 150 bar and

550C enters into the HP turbine. The condenser pressure is
0.1 bar. The moisture content at condenser inlet is 5%.
Determine (a) reheat pressure; (b) cycle efficiency; (c) steam flow
rate per KW. [FAQ]
Solution
Hint: condenser inlet is condition (4)
 x4  0.95 h
o
1 T 3 = 550 C
Assumption T1
3
T3  T 1
r
ba
50
=1
1
p
h1  3455 kJ/kg 2
6
ba r
h2  2785 kJ/kg p 4= 0
.1
4
x 4 = 0.9 5
5
h3  3590 kJ/kg s
Fig:1.12 (c)
h4  2460 kJ/kg
h5  hf for condenser pressure vc  191.8 kJ/kg
h6  h5  vf p1  p4 100
[vf is for condenser pressure 0.1 bar]
h6  191.8  0.001010 150  0.1  100
h6  206.9399 kJ/kg
(a) P 3  reheat pressure  12.75 bar
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4  3455  2785   3590  2460 
 1800 kJ/kg
W p  h6  h5  206.9399  191.8  15.1399 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  1784.8601 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2
 3455  206.9399   3590  2785   4053.06
Q s  4053.06 kJ/kg
qs
(b) therm al   0.44037
W net
1 1 kg
(c) SSC   3600   3600  2.01696
W net 1784.8601 kW  hr
Problem 1.7: In a reheat rankine cycle, the condenser

pressure is 7.5 bar. The boiler temperature and reheat
temperature are 500C. The moisture content at any stage
should not exceed 15 %. Determine (a) Boiler pressure;
(b) reheat pressure; (c) work done; (d) thermal
Solution
x 2  x 4  0.85 [moisture is 15%]
 100
Condenser Pressure P c  7.5 KPa  0.075 bar
From mollier chart h

o
1 T 1 =T 3 = 55 0 c
h4  2215 kJ/kg 3
h3  3460 kJ/kg
1
P
2
h2  2540 kJ/kg
6
75
h1  2990 kJ/kg P 4= 0 .0 4 x 2 = x 4 =0 .85
5
h5  hf for pc  168.65 kJ/kg Fig:1.12 (d )
s
h6  h5  vf p1  p4  100
h6  168.65  0.0010075 340  0.075  100
h6  203.9049 kJ/kg
(a) boiler pressure  P1  340 bar; (b) reheat pressure

 P2  38 bar
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4  2990  2540   3460  2215 
 1695 kJ/kg
W p  h6  h5  203.9049  168.65  35.2549 kJ/kg
(c) W net  W T  W p  1695  35.2549  1659.7451 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2  2990  203.9049   3460  2540 
Q s  3706.0951 kJ/kg
Qs
(d) the   44.78 %
W net
Problem 1.8: Steam at a pressure of 10 MPa, 500C is

supplied to a reheat rankine cycle. After expansion in the HPT,
the steam is reheated at an optimum pressure to an optimum
temp. The moisture content at LPT exit should not exceed 15%.
Network done is 1600 KJ/Kg. Determine (a) heat supply per kg;
(b) thermal Condenser pressure is 7 kPa.
Solution
Hint: Dont assume T1  T 3 because steam is reheated to

optimum temperature.
P 2 is not given, reheat temperature is not given.

Pc  P4  condenser h
o
pressure = 0.07 bar. 1
T
T 1 = 50 0 c 3
3
The moisture content
r

ba
m in LP turbine is 15%.
00
=1
1
P
2
(ie) x3  0.85
6
h1  3370 kJ/kg 7bar
P 4= 0 .0 4 x = 0.8 5
2
5
h4  2215 kJ/kg s
Fig:1.13
h5  hf for 0.07 bar
h5  163.4 kJ/kg
h6  h5  vf p1  p4  100  173.4629

vf for p c
 163.4  0.001007 100  0.07   100
h6  173.4629
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4
W p  h6  h5  173.4629  163.4  10.0629 kJ/kg
W net  1600 kJ/kg  h1  h2  h3  h4  h6  h5
W net  W T  W P; W T  W net  W p  1600  10.063
W T  1610.063 kJ/kg
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4  h1  h4  h3  h2
 3370  2210   h3  h2

h3  h2  450.0626 KJ/Kg
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2  3370  173.46295   450.0626
Q s  3646.5997 KJ/Kg
W 1600
therm al    0.43876
Q s 3646.5997
the  43.876%
Problem 1.9: In an reheat rankine cycle steam at 3 MPa,

450C is supplied to a HPT. The reheat temperature is
450C. Condenser pressure is 4 KPa. The HPT expansion is
limited with dry & saturation. Determine (a) reheat pressure;
(b) net work; (c) the
Solution
From Mollier Chart
h4  2510 kJ/kg h
o
1 4 50 c
h1  3345 kJ/kg 3
ar
h2  2720 kJ/kg 2
0b
=3
D ry &
1
p
Sa turation
h3  3385 kJ/kg
6
4 bar
h5  hf for P c P 4 p 4= 0 .0 4
5
s
 121.4 kJ/kg Fig:1.14
h6  h5  vf p1  p4 100
h6  121.4  0.001004 30  0.04 100
h6  124.40798 k J/kg
(a) reheat pressure  2.5 bar

W T  h1  h2  h3  h4  3345  2720  3385  2510 
 1500 kJ/kg
W p  h6  h5  124.40798  121.4  3.00798 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  1500  3.00798  1496.99 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2
 3345  124.40798   3385  2720  3885.59 kJ/kg
W 1496.99
the    0.3853
Q s 3885.59
the  38.53%
Problem 1.10: A steam power plant uses the Reheat cycle.

Steam Inlet to turbine  150 bar, 550C Reheat at 40 bar to
550C. Condenser pressure is at 0.1 bar. Using mollier
diagram, find (i) the dryness fraction of steam at exit of turbine
(ii) cycle efficiency (iii) specific steam consumption SSC.
Solution T
o 1 3
5 50 c
From mollier chart, p 1 = 150 bar
h1  3465 kJ/ kg;

p 2 = 4.0 bar 2
h2  3065 kJ/kg; 6
p 3 = 0.1 bar
5 4
h3  3565 kJ/kg x4
S
h4  2300 kJ/kg; x4  0.88 Fig:1.15 (a)
h5  hf at 0.1 bar from steam table  191.8 kJ/kg

Pump work W p
W p  vf P 1  P4  100
 0.001  [ 150  0.1  100]
 14.99 kJ/kg h
1 3 o
5 50 c
W p  h6  h5  14.99
h6  h5  14.99 r 2
ba
0
= 15 ba
r
 191.8  14.99 p1
=4
0
6 p2
bar 4
P 3= 0 .1 x4
 206.79 kJ/kg 5
s
Heat supplied Q s Fig:1.15 (b )
Q s  h1  h6  h3  h2
 3465  206.83   3565  3065   3758.17 kJ/kg
Turbine Work W T
W T  h1  h2  h3  h4
 3465  3065   3565  2300   1665 kJ/kg
Net work doneW net
W net  W T  W P  1665  14.99  1650.01 k J/kg
W net 1650.01
cycle    0.439  43.9%
Qs 3758.17
Specific steam consumption
3600 3600
SSC    2.182 kg/kWhr
W net 1650.01
1.4 REGENERATIVE CYCLE: (Bleeding Cycle)

Assume 1 kg of steam is expanded in the turbine.
Before complete amount of steam is expanded, some
amount of steam (m kg) is extracted (this process is called
bleeding) and utilized for heating the feedwater. So
remaining amount of steam 1  m kg is completely
expanded in the turbine and condensing in condenser.
In the regenerator, m kg of high temperature steam

and 1  m kg of condensate are passing. Heat transfer
from steam to condensate (feed water) takes place. So this
process increases the enthalpy of feed water. Thus the heat
supplied to boiler will be reduced.
Re-generation means heating the feed water by steam

taken from the turbine. The steam is exhausted (or) bled
from the turbine at several locations (before exhaust) and
is supplied to regenerator (feed water heater) to heat the
feed water. Extracting the steam in the turbine before
exhaust is called bleeding.
1kg 1kg
Bo iler
7 1
ble ed in g
m kg 3
Pu m p 2 m kg
(1-m )kg
2
C o nd enser
6 (1-m )kg (1-m )kg

H e at Exchang er (or)
R e ge nerator (or)
1kg Fe ed W ater H eater 5 4
Pu m p 1
Fig:1.16
Energy - balance
Assume 1 kg of working fluid is circulated.
Energy in = Energy out
mass of steam bled

m
mass of steam circulated
Energy entering regenerator = Energy leaving

regenerator.
m h2  1  m h5  1  h6
m h2  h5  mh5  h6
m h 2  h 5   h 6  h 5
mass of steam bled h6  h5 kg of steam bled

m 
mas s of steam circulated h2  h5 kg of steam circulated
Take h1, h2, h3 from mollier diagram h  s diagram)

(or) from steam table.
h4  hf for condenser pressure p3  p4
h6  hf for regenerator pressure p6  p2  p5
. .
h5  h4  vf p6  p4  10 2 [ . p is in bar;
p  102  kPa]
[vf for condenser pressure P c  P 3  P 4]
h7  h6  vf pa  pb  10 2 [pb for regenerator pressure

pb
and vf for P b
W T  1 h1  h2  1  m h2  h3

h T1
1
1 kg h
=C 1
p a
2
=C
p b
(1-m )
7 1 kg
m kg
g 7
1k
m ) 6 m kg
(1 - 1 kg
5
3 5 6 2
=C (1-m )
pc 4
(1-m ) (1-m ) 3
4 s
s
Fig:1.17 (a) Fig:1.17 (b )
W P  h5  h4 1  m  1 h7  h6
W net  W T  W P
Q s  h 1  h7
W net
thermal 
Qs
Problem 1.11: A steam turbine plant equipped with a single

regenerative feed water heating operates with the following
data. Initial pressure  16.5 bar; Initial super heat  93C;
Extraction pressure  2 bar; exhaust pressure  0.05 bar.
Compare regenerative and non-regenerative cycle for (a) the;
(b) network; (c) SSC. [Frequenty Asked University Questions]
Solution
Given data:
P a  P 1  16.5 bar  tsat 1  202.9 C
Degree of superheat  93C  t1  tsat1 t1  295.9 C

P b  regenerative pressure  2 bar
P 2  P c  condenser pressure  0.05 bar

h
Case (a) non-regenerative 1 o
T 1 =295.9 c
(simple cycle) r
ba
From mollier chart, = 16
.5
p1
h1  3035 kJ/kg; 4
h2  2100 kJ/kg;
0 .0 5 2
p 2=
h3  hf for P 2  137.8 kJ/kg
h4  h3  vf P 1  P 2 100 3
vf for P 2
s
Fig:1.18 (a)
h4  137.8  0.001005 16.5  0.05 100
h4  139.45 kJ  kg
W T  1 h1  h2  3035  2100 
 935 kJ/kg
W p  h4  h3
 139.4532  137.8   1.6532
W p  1.6532
W net  W T  W p  933.35 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4  3035  139.45  2895.568 kJ/kg
W net
thermal   32.23 %
Qs
1 1
SSC   3600   3600  3.85708 kg/kWhr
W net 933.35
Case (b) regenerative cycle
h1  3035 kJ/kg h o
1 T 1 =296 c
=p 1
h2  2610 kJ/kg b ar 1 kg
6 .5
=1
pa 2
h3  2100 kJ/kg g
m k bar
7 1kg =2 (1-m)
pb
h4  hf fo rP c
6
 137.8 kJ/kg 5
.0
5
3
=0
pc
h5  h4  vf P b  P c 100 (1
-m
)
4
s
Fig:1.18 (b)
h5  137.8  0.001005 2  0.05 100
 137.996 kJ/kg
h6  hf for 2 bar P b
h6  504.7 kJ/kg
h7  h6  vf P a  P b 100
h7  504.7  0.001061 16.5  2 100
h7  506.24 kJ/k g
W T  1 h1  h2  1  m h2  h3
 3035  2610   1  m  2610  2100 
h6  h5 504.7  137.996
m   0.148
h2  h5 2610  137.996
kg of steam bled
m  0.148
kg of steam circulated
W T  3035  2610   1  0.148  2610  2100
 859.345 kJ /kg
W p  h5  h4 1  m  1 h7  h6
 137.996  137.8  1  0.148  1 506.24  504.7 
 1.71 kJ/kg
W p  1.71 kJ/kg
W net  WT  W p  857.64 kJ/k g
Q s  h1  h7  3035  506.24  2528.76 kJ/kg
W
the   0.3392  33.92%
Qs
1
SSC   3600  4.198 kg/kWhr
W net
Simple cycle Regenerative cycle

W net  933.35 kJ/kg W net  857.64 kJ/kg
 the  32.116 %  the  33.92%
Note: Work out put slightly decreases and efficiency

increases.
Problem 1.12: A steam turbine operates on a simple

regenerative cycle. Steam is supplied dry saturated at 40 bar
and exhausted to condenser pressure of 0.07 bar. The
condensate is pumped to a pressure of 3.5 bar at which it is
mixed with bled steam from the turbine at 3.5 bar. The
resulting water at saturation is then pumped to the boiler. For
the ideal cycle, calculate. (a) the amount of steam bled per kg
of supply steam and (b) the of the plant, neglecting pump
work. (FAQ)
h
Solution
h1  2800 kJ/kg 1
r
ba
40
h2  2380 kJ/kg p a=
r 2
.5 ba
h3  1880 kJ/kg =3
pb
h 4  h f fo r p c 7 .6 .0 7
3
0
p c=
 163.4 kJ/kg
4 .5
s
Fig:1.19
h 4  h5 Neglecting pump work
h6  hf for pb 3.5 bar
 584.3 kJ/kg
h6  h7 Neglecting pump work
h6  h5 584.3  163.4
m 
h2  h5 2380  163.4
kg of steam bled
 0.1899
W T  1 h1  h2  1  m h2  h3
 2800  2380   1  0.1899  2380  1880 
W T  W net  825.058 KJ/Kg [... W p is neglected ]
Q s  h1  h7  2800  584.3  2215.7 kJ/kg

W
the   37.237 %
Qs
Problem 1.13: A ideal regenerative cycle operates with steam

supplied at 30 bar and 400C and condenser pressure of 0.10
bar. For this cycle, find (a) WT in KJ/Kg; (b) cycle efficiency;
(c) steam rate in Kg/KW hr. The feed water heater can be
assumed to be direct contact type which operates at 5 bar
(FAQ)
o
3 0 b ar 400 c
1 kg
1
Turbine
5 ba r
2
0 .1 bar
5 ba r
B oiler 3 con dense r
m kg
H eater
4
6
7
P um p 5 P um p
1 kg (1-m )kg Fig:1.20
Solution
h1  3230 kJ/kg
h2  2800 kJ/kg
h3  2195 kJ/kg
h4  hf for P c  191.8 kJ /kg

o
T 1 T 1 = 400 c 1
h 1 kg
b ar
1kg 30
30 b ar p a= 2
1kg r
a
= 5b )
7 5 ba r 2 7 pb kg (1 -m )
(m
m kg (1-m) kg 6
6 1 kg
5 0.1 bar 5 3
4 (1-m) kg 3 0 .1
p c=
(1 -m )
Fig:1.20 (a ) S 4 s
Fig:1.20 (b )
h5  h4  vf P b  P c 100
h5  191.8  0.001010 5  0.1  100
h5  192.295 kJ/kg
h6  hf for P b  640.1 kJ /kg
h7  h6  vf P a  P b 100
h7  640.1  0.001093 30  5 100
h7  642.83 kJ/kg
h6  h5 640.1  192.29
m 
h2  h5 2800  192.29
kg of steam
 0.1717
W T  h1  h2  1  m h2  h3
 3230  2800   1  0.1717 2800  2195 
W T  931.107 kJ/kg
W P  1  m h5  h4  h7  h6
 1  0.1717  192.29  191.8  642.83  640.1 
 3.14 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  927.965 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h7  3230  642.83  2587.168 kJ/kg
W
the   35.87%
Qs
1 1
SSC   3600   3600  3.88 kJ/kWhr
Wnet 927.97
Problem 1.14: A steam turbine plant, working on a single

stage of regenerative feed heating receives steam at 3 MPa and
300C. The turbine exhausts to a condenser at 15 KPa while
the bled steam is at 300 KPa. Assuming that the cycle uses
actual regenerative cycle, calculate the thermal efficiency of
cycle. Compare this value with a rankine cycle operating
between same boiler and condenser pressures. (FAQ)
h1  2990 kJ/kg; h2  2540 kJ/kg; h3  2115 kJ/kg;

h4  hf forPc  226 kJ/kg
h5  h4  vf pb  pc 100
h5  226  0.001014 3  0.15  100
h5  226.29 kJ /kg
h6  hf for P b  561.5 kJ /kg
h7  561.5  0.001074 30  3 100
h7  564.4 k J/kg
h6  h5 561.5  226.29
m 
h2  h5 2540  226.29
kg of steam bled
 0.145
W T  h1  h2  1  m  h2  h3
 2990  2540   1  0.145  2540  2115 

 813.426 kJ/kg
W p  1  m h5  h4  h7  h6
 1  0.145  226.29  226  564.4  561.5
 3.15 kJ/kg
W net  W T  W p  810.28 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h7  2990  564.34   2425.6 kJ/kg
W net
the   33.41%
Qs
Simple Rankine cycle

h1  2990 kJ/kg h o
1 T 1 =3 00 c
1 kg
h2  2115 kJ/kg 0 ba
r
=3
pa )
h3  226 kJ/kg kg 2
r (m
ba
=3
pb
h4  229.03 kJ/kg 7 6
(1-m ) kg
W T  h1  h2
5 ar
.1 5b 3
 2990  2115 =0
p c
 875 kJ/kg 4
s
Fig:1.21 (a)
W p  h4  h3
 229.03  226 h 1
o
T 1 =3 00 c
 3.03 kJ /kg 0 ba
r 1 kg
=3
pa
W net  W T  W P
4
 871.97 kJ/kg
Q s  h1  h4 r
ba 2
5
= 0.1
 2990  229.03  p b
3
 2760.97 kJ/kg
Fig:1.21 (b ) s
Wnet 871.97
 the    0.3158
Qs 2760.97
 31.58%
Note

Mass rate of steam bled  m m
. . 
[ . m  kg of steam circulated /s ]
 mass of steam bled 
 m  mass of steam circulated 
 
kg of steam bled kg of steam circulated
 
kg of steam circulated sec
kg of steam bled 
So mass rate of steam bled  mm
sec
1.4.1 Advantages of Regenerative cycle

1. Heat supplied to boiler becomes reduced.
2. The heating process in the boiler approaches the
reversible process.
3. Since feed water temperature is high, the range of

temperature in the boiler is minimum. It reduces
the thermal stresses produced in the boiler.
4. Thermal efficiency is increased since the average
temperature of heat addition to the cycle is
increased.
5. Due to bleeding in the turbine, erosion of turbine
due to moisture is reduced.
6. Condenser can be a smaller size.
This type of heating arrangement gives the efficiency
equivalent to the Carnot cycle efficiency. This type of
arrangement cannot be used in practice because steam
becomes too wet in the later stages of the turbine. In actual
practice, the advantage of regenerative heating principle is
taken by bleeding a part of steam from the turbine at
certain stages of expansion and it is used for heating the
feed water in the separate feed heaters. This arrangement
does not reduce the dryness fraction of remaining steam
passing through the turbine.
There are different methods of using the bled steam
for heating the feed water as discussed here.
Methods:
(a) Direct contact heaters
The steam bleed from the different points of turbine
is mixed directly with the feed water to increase the
temperature of feed water and the steam mixed with feed
water is extracted with the help of the pump and supplied
to the boiler.
(1 -m 1 -m 2)k g
To b o ile r m 1 kg m 2 kg
1 kg p b
p1 p2
con de nse r
Fe ed (1 -m 1 ) Fe ed
H e ate r h ea ter
Pum p 1 Pum p 2 Pum p 3

Fig:1.22 D irect C o ntact H eaters
The main disadvantage is that

The pump has to work with hot feed water. So this
system is normally not used in practice.
(b) Drain pump method:
(1- m 1-m 2) kg
To B oile r
con denser
1 kg p b
m 1 kg m 2 kg
1 kg p1 p2
(1- m 1 -m 2 ) kg
(1- m 1 ) (1- m 1 )
m 2 kg
m 1 kg
m 2 kg Fig:1.23
m 1 kg
In this method, the feed water is heated with indirect

contact of bled steam in the heat exchangers. The bled
condensate is extracted by the drain pump discharges into
the feed pipe line. This method also suffers from the same
disadvantage as mentioned in the direct contact heaters
arrangement.
(b) All drains to hot well:

All drains to hot well method is shown in Fig.1.24.
(1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
pC
To b o ile r
con de nse r
m 1 kg m 2 kg
pC
1 kg
p1 p2
1 kg pa
1 kg (1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
Fe ed
Fe ed h ea ter
h ea ter m 2 kg
m 1 kg
Fig:1.24 A ll D rain to H ot W ell.
In this method, the condensate of bled steam coming

out from the indirect heat exchangers is fed to the hotwell.
The total condensate (Condensate coming from condenser +
Condensate from bled steam) from the hot well is pumped
to the boiler through the regenerative feed heaters.
(c) Cascade System:
(1 -m 1 -m 2 )kg
C o nd en ser
To b o ile r m 2 kg
m 1 kg
pb
pc
1 kg
4 kg 1 kg pa pa
Fe ed
H e ate r
m 1 kg (m 1 + m 2 )kg
Fig:1.25 C a sca de Sy stem .
In this method, the condensate of bled steam coming

out from the first heat exchanger is passed through the
second heat exchanger and lastly to hot well as shown in
Fig.1.25.
1.5 LAYOUT OF MODERN COAL POWER PLANT (OR)

LAYOUT OF STEAM POWER PLANT
In steam power plant, the water is converted into
steam and the steam expanded in a turbine to produce
kinetic energy which is converted into mechanical energy.
The steam power plant has four major circuits by
which the layout can be studied in detail. These are
Ash To
Stora ge Atm osph ere
Air fro m
a tm osph ere C h im ney
H o t A sh
o r Slag F.D .F an
H a nd ling
Pre he ated air
Air I.D .Fa n
Pre he ater
C o al D u st
h an dling C o llector
Fuel C o ntrol Valve
Tu rbine
G ene rator
Econo mise r
C o al Turbine Exh au st
Su perheater
C oo ling Tow er
Pre pa ration H o t W ate r

Pu m p
C o olin g
Wa ter In
Bo iler H ig h D e ae rator L ow
C o al Feed Pre ssure Pre ssure
Stora ge Pu m p H e ate r H e ate r
Fig:1.26 Steam Po wer P lan t or Therm al Pow er Plan t .

1. Coal and ash circuit

2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam circuit
4. Cooling water circuit
1.5.1. Coal and ash Circuit:
This circuit consists of coal delivery, preparation of
coal, handling of coal to the boiler furnace,ash handling and
ash storage.
The coal which is received from the mines are stored
in coal storage. This raw coal is sized by crushers and then
this prepared coal is transferred to the boilers.
In the boiler, the coal is burnt and converted into ash.
This ash is usually quenched to reduce the temperature,
corrosion and dust content. Then it is stored at ash storage.
1.5.2 Air and Flue gas circuit
A ir fro m To
A tm o sph ere A tm o sph ere
F.D .F an C h im ne y
P re he a ted A ir
A ir I.D .Fa n
P re he a ter
S u pe r D u st C olle ctor
H e ate r
Fig:1.27 A ir an d F lue G as C ircu it

E c on o m ize r
This circuit consists of forced draught fan,

air-preheater, boiler furnace, super heater, economiser, dust
collector, induced draught (ID) fan and chimney.
The air from the atmosphere is forced into the circuit

by a forced draught fan. This air is preheated in the air
preheater by flue gases. This pre heated air is supplied to
the furnace where this air is converted into flue gases. This
flue gases pass over the boiler tubes by which the water
is converted into steam Then this flue gas is passed to the
super heater where the steam is converted into super
heated steam. Then it is passed to the economiser to heat
the feed water and to the air preheater. The dust in the
flue gases are collected by the dust collector and then left
to atmosphere through chimney.
1.5.3 Feed water and steam flow circuit:
C ontrol Valve
Tu rb in e
G en e rator
E con o m ise r
S upe rh ea ter Tu rbine E xh au st
H ot W a ter
P um p
B oiler
Fe ed H ig h L ow
P um p P re ssu re P re ssu re
H eater D eae rator H eater
F ig:1.28 Feed Water A n d S team Flo w Circuit
This circuit consists of feed pump, economiser, boiler

drum super heater, turbine and condenser. From the hot
well, the feed water is pumped to the economiser where
the water is preheated by the flue gases. This preheated
water is supplied to the boiler drum. In the boiler drum,
the pre heated water is converted into steam by burning
of coal. The steam raised in boiler is passed through the
super heater where the steam is converted into super
heated steam. The super heated steam is expanded in

turbine which is coupled with generator. The expanded
steam is then passed through the condenser in which the
steam is converted into water and this water is
recirculated.
1.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit
This circuit consists of
a pump, condenser and Turbine E xha ust S te a m
cooling tower. In the
condenser, cold water is
C oo ling To w e r
H ot Wa te r
circulated to condense the
steam in to water.The steam
C ooling
is condensed by loosing its Wa te r in
latent heat to the circulating w a te r
Fig:1.29 Co olin g W ater Circuit
cold water. By this, the
circulating water is heated. This hot water is cooled at the
cooling tower, where the water is sprayed in the form of
droplet through nozzles. The cold air enters the cooling
tower from the bottom which cools the sprayed hot water.
The cooled water is collected in the cooling pond and the
same is re circulated again and again. To compensate the
water lost due to vapourisation, the make up water is
added to the pond by means of a pump.
1.6 SELECTION OF SITE FOR A STEAM POWER PLANT

The following consideration should be taken while
selecting the site for a steam power plant.
1. Availability of raw materials
Huge quantity of coal and fuel are required to run a
steam (thermal) power plant. Therefore, it is important to
locate the plant as near as possible to the coal fields to

reduce the transportation cost.
If it is not possible to locate the plant near the coal
field, then it should be located near the railway station or
near to a port.
2. Ash disposal facilities

As a huge quantity of coal is burnt, this results in a
huge quantity of ash too. The ash handling problem is more
serious as compared to handling of coal because it comes
out very hot and is very corrosive. If not disposed properly
it will result in environmental pollution and other hazards.
Therefore there must be sufficient space to dispose this
large quantity of ash.
3. Nature of land
The land should have good bearing capacity about
1 MN/m 2 as it has to withstand the dead load of plant and
force transmitted to the foundation due to working of heavy
machinery.
4. Cost of land
Large area is required to build a thermal power plant,
therefore the land price should be affordable (cheap). For
eg: Large plant in the heart of city will be very costly.
5. Availability of water
Water is the working fluid in a steam power plant,
and a large quantity of water is converted to steam in order
to run the turbine. It is important to locate the plant near
the water source to fulfill its water demand through out
the year.
6. Size of the plant

The capacity of the plant decides the size of the plant,
large plant requires large area and the smaller plant
requires considerably smaller area. Therefore, the size of
the plant and its capacity play an important role in
selection of site.
7. Availability of workforce
During construction of plant, enough labour is
required. The labour should be available at the proposed
site at cheap rate.
8. Transportation facilities
Availability of proper transportation is another
important consideration for the selection of site as a huge
quantity of raw materials (coal & fuel) through out the year
and heavy machinery are to be brought to the site during
the installation.
9. Load centre
The plant must be near to the load centre to which
it is supplying power in order to decrease transmission loss
and minimize transmission line cost.
10. Public problems

The plant should be away from the town or city in
order to avoid nuisance from smoke, ash, heat and noise
from the plant.
11. Future extension

A choice for future extension of the plant should be
made in order to meet the power demand in future.
1.7 SUPER CRITICAL BOILERS

Super critical boiler is a boiler that operates at super
critical pressure (high pressure) to increase the efficiency
of the plant and to reduce the cost of electricity production.
Normally, water tube boilers are generally preferred for
high pressure. In this water tube boilers, the water is
circulated through tubes and their external surfaces are
exposed to the flue gases.
It is the most economical cycle. The working steam

pressure range is 125 bar to 300 bar and temperature is
510C to 600C . Usually sub-critical boiler consists of three
distinct sections as preheater, evaporator and superheater.
And in case of supercritical boiler, only preheater and super
heater are required.
Generally super critical boilers are used for more than

300 MW power plants.
Advantages of super critical boilers:

1. The amount of scale formation is less since the
velocity of water through pipes are more.
2. In this method, light weight tubes with better
heating surface arrangement can be used. It
occupies less space. The cost for foundation, time for
erection are very less.
3. All parts of the system are heated uniformly. So
there is no danger of over heating.
4. The differential expansion is reduced due to uniform
temperature throughout structure. So there is no
leakages of gas (or) air
5. The flexibility is more.
6. The temperature of steam can be raised rapidly

without the use of any control devices.
7. By increasing the temperature and pressure of the
steam, the thermal efficiency of the plant can be
increased by 40 to 42%.
8. The system can be started from cold condition
rapidly.
9. The heat transfer rate is more. The steam side heat
transfer co-efficient for sub critical boiler is 16,500
kJ/m 2hrC and the temperature of steam and
pressure are 180 bar and 538C .
But in super critical boiler, the heat transfer
co-efficient is 2,20,000 kJ/m 2hr C when the steam
is generated at 240 C .
10. The turbo generators connected to super critical
boilers can generate peak loads by changing the
pressure of operation.
The following are some of the important super

critical (High pressure) boilers:
1. La Mont Boiler, 2. Benson boiler, 3. Loefler
Boiler, 4. Velox boiler.
1.7.1 La Mont Boiler: This type of boiler was introduced

by Lamont in 1925. The arrangement is shown in the Fig.
1.30.
It is a forced circulation, high pressure water tube

boiler. The circulation of the water is maintained by a
centrifugal pump. This pump is driven by a steam turbine
using the steam from the boiler. In this boiler, the
separator drum is kept outside the boiler.
C old
B low er A ir in
H ot Air to
C om bu stion
C ham b er
A ir P re hea ter
Feed P um p E cono m ise r
S uper
H eated
S tea m
E xhau st G as
S tea m E vapo rato r
S epara tor
D ru m
C om bu stion C ham b er
C ircula ting
P um p Fire
G ra te
D istrib uting
H eader
Fig1.30. L a-M ont Bo iler.
From the hot flue gases produced from the combustion

of the fuel, the heat is supplied to the water in the
evaporator tubes, super heater tubes, economizer tubes and
the air in the air heater tubes; Then the waste gases move
to the atmosphere through the chimney.
The separator drum separates the steam from water.
Steam passes from the evaporator and feed water is fed
from the economiser to the drum. The steam is separated
from the water. The water is again pumped to the
evaporator by the centrifugal pump via the distributing
header. The separated steam is sent to the super heater

which receives the heat from the flue gases flowing from
the combustion chamber. This super heated steam is then
delivered out through stop valve. An economizer is provided
in the water circuit to preheat the feed water using the
hot gases leaving the boiler.
The feed water is sent inside the boiler through the
economiser. The centrifugal pump is used to circulate the
water to the economizer. The centrifugal pump delivers the
feed water to the headers at a pressure of 2.5 atm above
the drum pressure. In evaporator, water is distributed
through the nozzles.
The steam is going to the superheater before it goes

to the prime mover. A choke is usually fitted at the
entrance to each unit, in order to give a secure uniform
flow of feed water through the pipe lines.
Capacity of boiler:
Steam: 45 to 50 tons
Pressure: 120 atm.
Temperature: 500C
Disadvantage of La Mont boiler:

The major disadvantage is the formation and
attachment of bubbles on the inner surfaces of the heating
tubes. This reduces the heat flow and steam generation.
1.7.2 BENSON BOILER:

In 1927, Benson boiler was developed by Benson in
West Germany. It was the first super critical drumless
boiler.
Construction:
It is a high pressure, vertical, fire tube boiler. The
Fig. 1.31 shows the schematic arrangement of a Benson
boiler. This boiler has no drum and is designed to operate
at critical pressure of 225 bar.
The fuel is burnt on the grate and the hot flue gases
flow over radiant evaporator, convection super heater,
convection evaporator, economiser and air preheater and
Exhau st G as
C o ld
Air Prehea ter Air in
Blow e r
H o t A ir to
Co mb ustion
C h am ber
Wa te r Econo mise r
Fe ed P um p
C o nvection
Evapo rator
Su pe r H eater C o nvection
Steam to
Tu rb ine Su pe r H eater
R a diant
Evapo rator
Fire
G ra te
Fig:1.31 Benson Boiler

then pass through chimney. The feed water is pumped

through the economizer tubes and receives heat from the
flue gases. Then this heated water flows into the radiant
super heater where it receives further heat from the flue
gases and gets evaporated. The remaining water is
evaporated in the convection super heater. The steam now
becomes saturated steam in the convection super heater.
Then the steam is delivered out through the stop valve.
The water is passed to the radiant evaporator through
the economiser. In the economiser, the major amount of
water is converted into steam. The remaining water is
evaporated in the final evaporator absorbing the heat from
the hot gases by convection. The main disadvantage is salt
deposition in this system in the transformation zone when
all remaining water is converted into steam. To avoid this,
for every 4000 hrs, after working periods, the boiler is
cleaned by high pressure water. The maximum pressure
obtained from Benson boiler is 500 atm.
Advantages
1. In this system, there is no drum. So the total
weight of the Benson boiler is reduced by 20%, when
compared to other boilers.
2. The erection of Benson boiler is easier and quicker
3. Transformation is easy.
4. It occupies very less space.
5. It can be started very quickly, since it has welded

joints.
6. It is an economical one.
7. Sudden fall of demand creates circulation problems

due to bubble formation in the natural circulation boiler
which never occurs in Benson boiler.
8. Around only 4% of blow down losses are occurred

in Benson boiler.
9. There is no explosion hazards.
1.7.3 LOEFLER BOILER:

The major disadvantage in La Mont boiler is the
deposition of salt and sediment on the inner surface of the
water tubes. It reduces the heat transfer and ultimately
the generating capacity. The salt deposition will increase
overheating.
In Loeffler boiler, this problem is solved by preventing

water from flowing through the boiler tubes. Most of the
steam is generated outside the tubes. The arrangement is
shown in Fig. 1.32.
Water is pressurized by feed pump to the evaporator

drum through the economizer as shown Fig. Over 65% of
the steam coming out of superheater is passed through the
evaporator drum in order to evaporate the feed water
coming from economizer.
The steam circulating pump draws the saturated

steam from the evaporator drum and is passed through the
radiant superheater and then convective superheater.
Nearly 35% of steam coming out of the superheater

is supplied to the H.P. steam turbine. After that, the steam
from H.P turbine is passed through reheater before
supplying to the L.P. turbines.
Exha ust
G ases
Stea m R eh eate r
Fe ed
Pu m p
Fe ed W ate r Exha ust

fro m H ot W ell Stea m to
C o ndenser
Econ omise r
0.35W
Co mbu stion H .P.

C ham ber
Stroker
D irection of G as F lo w 0.65w
Steam Stea m
C ircu la tin g
Pu m p
0.65W
Fe ed in F ig:1.32 Loeffle r B o ile r

Evap orating D rum
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than

any other type and is more compact than indirectly heated
boilers having natural circulation.
The steam generating capacity of Loeffler boiler is 100
tons/hr and is operating at 140 bar.
1.7.4 Velox boilers:
When the gas velocity exceeds the sound velocity, the
heat is transferred from the gas at much higher rates than
rates achieved with sub-sonic flow. This advantage is used
to utilize the large heat transfer from a smaller surface
area in this boiler. The arrangement is as shown in Fig.
1.33.
Feed W ate r Fuel

Tan k Tan k
Fuel Pu m p
E xhau st To
stea m
A tm osphere
sep era tor
Feed
P um p C om pre sse d A ir stea m in
o
1 50 c S uper
o
H eater
A B 5 00 C
A ir G as
E cono m ise r Water C irculating NRV
P um p C om pre sso r Turbine
E xhau st S tea m
To P rim e
S ection on AB M over
G as Tube
Wa ter Tube
Fig:1.33 Velox Boiler
Air is compressed from air compressor in the range

of 2.5 bar, before supplying to the combustion chamber to
get the supersonic flow of the gases passing through the
combustion chamber and gas tubes. From the combustion
chamber, the burnt gases are passed through the annulus
of the tubes. The heat is transferred from gases to water
while passing through the annulus to generate the
steam.Water steam mixture is formed and it is entered in
the form of spiral flow. Due to the centrifugal force, the
heavier water particles are thrown outward on the walls.
This is used to separate the steam from water.
The separated steam is further passed to superheater
and then supplied to the prime mover. The water removed
from the steam in the separator is again used into the

water tubes with the help of a pump.
The gases coming out from the annulus is passed over
the super heater where its heat is used for superheating
the steam. The gases are used to run the gas turbine as
they carry sufficient kinetic energy. The power output of
the gas turbine is used to run a gas turbine. The exhaust
gases coming out from the gas turbine are passed through
the economizer to utilize the remaining heat of the gases.
The electric motor is used to supply the extra power

required to run the compressor.
Capacity of Velox boiler: 100 tons/hr.
Advantages:
1. The combustion rate is more.
2. It is more compact.
3. It has greater flexibility.
4. It can be quickly started even though the separator
has a storage capacity of about 10% of the maximum
hourly output.
1.8 FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION (FBC) BOILERS

The coal available in India is of low quality, high ash
content and low calorific value. The traditional grate fuel
firing systems have got limitations and are
techno-economically unviable to meet the challenges of
future. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable
alternative and has significant advantages over
conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits -
compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion
efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such
as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include

coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other
agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide
capacity range of 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr.
When the high velocity gas is passed through a
packed bed of finely divided solid particles, the particles
become suspended in the gas stream and the packed bed
becomes a fludised bed. When the gas velocity is very high,
the fludised bed become turbulent and rapid mixing of
particles occurs. Ultimately, the behaviour of mixture of
solid particles and gas become a fluid. Burning of a fuel in
such a state is known as Fludised Bed Combustion. The
boiler plant using this fludised bed combustion is known
as fludised bed boilers.
The FBC system arrangement is shown in Fig.1.34.
Wa lls
Flue G a ses
... ............... . ... ...... . . ... ..... .... ....... ............

. . . . . . . .. . . . . ..... ........ .. . .
Steam . ..... . . .. . . ...... . .. ..... .. . . .
... ............. .. .. ... ........ ... ... ......... .. . . ... ................... Ash
... . ....... . .... . .. .. .... . . .......... ..... .. C o ve r
.......... .. . ............... . .. . .. . ........ .. ..... .
.. . . . ... . . . . . . . ..... ... . . . . . .. ... ..
. .... .. ... ...... .... . ..... . .. ........ .
. .......... . ......... ... .. . ..
. ....... . ..... . . ..... .
Bu bb le
......... .. . ......... ..
. . . . . ..
... ....... . .... . . .
. ..... . ........... ... ...... ..

... .. .... . . . .
......... .... .......
..... ..... . . . . .... .

. ..... .. ... . .... .. .......... .
.. ....
. . .. . .
H e at Ab so rbing
.... .... .. .. ..... ..
. . . . . . ..
........ ..............
Fu el a nd Tubes
... .......
..
.
.
D o lom ite .. . ... .. . ... . Wa ter
. ... . . . .... .
D istrib utor
Plate
Fig:1.34 FBC System

Air
At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles

are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some amounts of
particles have to be recirculated to maintain a stable
system - “circulating fluidised bed”.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and

the air velocity. The mean solids velocity increases at a
slower rate than does the gas velocity. The difference
between the mean solid velocity and mean gas velocity is
called as slip velocity. Maximum slip velocity between the
solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and
intimate contact.
If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the

ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected
continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and
bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed
combustion (FBC) take place at about 840 C to 950 C. Since
this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature,
melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved

because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid
mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat
from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls
of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between
minimum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment
velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids
particle entrailment in the gas stream.
The fuel and inert material dolomite are fed on a

distributor plate and air is supplied from the bottom of the
distributor plate. High velocity of air keeps the solid fuel
in suspended condition during burning.
The heat is generated rapidly and transferred to the

water passing through the tubes immersed in the bed and
the steam is generated.
The inert material is used for controlling bed
temperature. The heat generated by the combustion is first
used for keeping up the temperature of the inert material
and the balance is absorbed by the heat transfer surfaces.
Sintered ash, fused alumina, sand, mullite and zirconia are
some suggested inert materials for FBC.
Since the FBC system behaves like a violently boiling
liquid, the heat transfer rate to the tube surface is quite
high. Normally, 50% of the heat released in the bed is
absorbed by the tubes immersed in the bed. Hence, the
weight of the material and size of the boiler are
considerably reduced.
Since the operating temperature of the bed is low and
uniform, it prevents the fusion of coal ash and hence the
ash produced is soft and less abrasive. The corrosion and
erosion of submerged tubes are minimised as compared to
conventional methods of combustion.
Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of
SOx and NOx emission in the combustion chamber is
achieved without any additional control equipment.
1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized bed
boilers
Nowadays, oil fired boilers are slowly shifting to
fluidized bed boilers. For that, the following modifications
are done.
1. Furnace: Normally, oil fired boiler furnace is small in

volume when compared to coal fired boiler furnace.
Therefore, the furnace has to be suitably enlarged to retain
the capacity. It requires high modification cost.
2. Combustion system: To achieve complete combustion,
excess air has to be supplied. The forced draft and induced
draft fans provided for oil firing may not be suitable for
coal firing needs. To get high flue gas velocity of 15 m/s,
the existing forced draft fan has to be modified (or) replaced
by high capacity fan for smooth running of FBC system.
3. Air system: An air duct below distributor plate with

approximate connection from forced draft fan is needed in
FBC system. Hence special air ducting is needed.
4. Flue gas system: The fly ash from FBC is soft due to
low temperature. But high velocity excess air will lead to
severe erosion. This unwanted erosion can be reduced by
changing the gas path accordingly.
1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system

There are three types of fluidised bed combustion
system, they are
(i) Bubbling fluidised bed combustion system
(ii) Circulating fluidised bed combustion system
(iii) Pressurised fluidised bed combustion system
(i) Bubbled fluidised bed combustion system

In Bubbling bed combustion system (or) Atmospheric
bed combustion system, coal is crushed to a size of 1 - 10
mm depending upon the quality of coal and type of fuel fed
into the combustion chamber. Air is used for both
Flue G a s
C oal in
H opper
Fuel F eed
Fuel
D istrib utor
E vapo rato r tub es

to m aintain tem p era tu re
Fluidize d bed
A ir P assage
A ir D uct
Fig:1.35 Bubbling Bed Tra m p M a teria l M ove s

Co mb ustion D ow n and C oo ls D o w n
System . B efo re Being R e m oved
fluidization and combustion. Air is allowed to pass through

bed after preheating, [preheating of air is done by the
exhaust flue gases]. The rate at which air is blown through
the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reacted.
The bed consists of sand and coal. To maintain the
temperature of the bed, an evaporator tube is used which
passes through the bed and extractes heat. Very little
materials leaves the bubbling bed (i.e) only 2 to 4 kg of
solids are recycled per ton of fuel burned.
When evenly distributed air passes upwards through
a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand on a
fine mesh, the particles are not undisturbed at low velocity.
As the air velocity is gradually increased to a stage the
individual particles are suspended in the air stream, then
the bed is known to be fluidized. With further increase in
air velocity produces bubble formation, vigorous turbulance
and rapid mixing. Hence bubbles are formed near the
distribution plate and continuous to rise and erupt near
the bed surface and ejects particles from its surfaces. Solid
particles are driven upward by the bubble movement.
Hence, the intensive particle circulation due to bubble
movement promotes good air and solid mixing. The bed of
solid particles exhibits the property of a boiling liquid and
assumes the appearance of fluid called bubbling fluidized
bed.
If the sand particles in fluidized state is heated to
the ignition temperature of coal, then the coal is injected
continuously in to the bed, the coal will burn rapidly due
to the heat transfer between sand and coal and bed attains
an uniform temperature. Then the fluid bed combustion
takes place at about 840C to 950C. Since the temperature

is much below ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and
associated problems are avoided.
The low combustion temperature is achieved because
of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing of
fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed
by heat transfer tube and walls of the bed.
(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion system

(CFBC)
The circulating fluid bed combustion technology has
evolved from conventional bubbling bed combustion to over
come some of the drawbacks associated with bubbling bed
combustion. CFBC provides greater flexibility in burning
wide range of coal and other fuels without reduction in
efficiency and with reduced pollution.
The CFBC technology uses fluidised bed principle.

The coal is crushed to 6 - 12 mm size and limestone is
injected into the furnance (or) combustor. Since limestone
is used as bed particle control of sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions in the combustion chamber is
achieved without any additional control equipment.
Special design of air nozzle is provided at the bottom

of the bed which allows flow of air without clogging.
Primary air fan provides the preheated fluidised air.
Secondary air fan provides preheated combustion air.
Nozzle in the furnance walls at various levels distribute
the combustion air in the furnance.
There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the

bed because circulating bed is designed to move a lot more
solids out of the furnace area and to achieve most of the
L ig ht P articles
S econ dary
A ir Fan
Particles
S uper
H e avy
H e ater
M echan ica l
S ep era tor
C yclo ne
E co no m iser
Cyclone
C om b ustion Air
Pre H eate d
A ir
H e ater
F lu e G ases
B ed Ma terial
Furn ace R eturn
C oal in
P re H e ated
Fluidize d B ed A ir
S pecia l
d esign air
n ozzle
P rim ary Air F an

Fig:1.36 Circulated Fluidized Bed Com bu stion
heat transfer outside the combustion zone (i.e) convection

section. Some circulating bed boiler units have external
heat exchangers.
Working
When a preheated air supply is given at the bottom
at high pressure, it lifts the bed material (limestone) and
coal particles and keeps it in suspension. The coal
combustion takes place at 840  900C at this suspended
condition, fine particles and partly burned coal ash and bed
material are carried along with the flue gases to the upper
areas of the furnace and then it passes through the
mechanical cyclonic separator which separates light and
heavy particles. The heavy particles are collected by
mechanical cyclone separator and circulated back to
furnance. Hence the name circulating fluidised bed
combustion. The hot gases from the cyclone passes to the
heat transfer surfaces and go out of boiler.
The particle circulation provides efficient heat transfer

to the furnance walls and longer utilization time for carbon
and limestone utilization.
(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion system

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) system
is used for large coal burning applications. The operating
efficiency of PFBC is increased by introducing differential
air pressure.
In PFBC, coal is injected into pressurised bed of

850  900C. The bed consists of 90 - 95% of coal ash and
desulphurisation sorbent. When the air flows through the
bottom of the furnace it suspends the particulates in air,
where rapid combustion takes places. Then the gases from
H ot
G ases
1 2 B ar
G as
Turbine
G ene rator
Tem p
o
= 850 c
P re ssu re
Ve sse l
M echan ical
C yclon e
S epera tor
To E lectrostatic
P re cip itato r
S tea m
S tea m G e ne rato r
Lim esto ne
C oal an d
Turbine
Wa ter
C o nde nser
Air
B ed C yclon e
A sh A sh
Fig:1.37 P ressu rised F luidised Bed Co mb ustion
the combustion chamber passes through a mechanical

cyclonic separator where large particles are separated and
sent back to fluidised bed. The hot combustion gases from
the fluidised bed combustor drives the gas turbine.
The steam turbine is driven by steam received in
tubes which is immersed in the fluidised bed. The
condensate from the steam turbine is pre-heated using
waste from the gas turbine exhaust and then it is taken
as fluid water for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for combined cycle
power generation. By using gas and steam turbines in this
way, the electricity generated will be more efficient than
the conventional system. (i.e) efficiency will increase by 5%
to 8%.
Advantages of Fluidised Bed Combustion boilers
1. Any type of fuel - solid, liquid (or) gaseous fuel (or)
domestic and industrial waste can be used in FBC
system. Any type of combustible matter can be
burned by adjusting the factors such as size, air
velocity and rate of feed.
2. High combustion intensity can be achieved and it
can be varied with variation in air pressure supplied
to the combustor. Hence the FBC combustor is much
smaller than the conventional furnaces. Due to this,
the capital and running cost of the fludised bed
boiler system is cheaper.
3. High heat transfer rate is possible to the surfaces
immersed in the bed because solid mixing is
extremely rapid.
4. Since the combustion temperature can be controlled

accurately, volatization of ash constituents like
alkali metals are avoided. Also, since ash particles
are not melted, they are soft and non-abrasive.
5. FBC system design can be done very fast because
of its simplicity, small size of plant and corrosion
and erosion problem are less.
6. In FBC system, the unwanted sulphur retention
equipment and combustion system are dolomite,
hence there is no need of separate big gas cleaning
system.
7. In FBC system, the combustion is stabilized even at
700 C  900 C. Since this temperature is well below
the temperature at which the ash sinters, the vast
bulk of ash can be tapped from the bottom of the
bed. Also, this low combustion temperature prevents
the formation of NOX.
8. High combustion efficiency.
9. High ash content coal can be burnt efficiently.
10. The solid fuel need not to be pulverized.
11. At bed temperature around 800 C  900C, the
volatization of alkali compounds does not occur and
hence the deposition of the tubes is minimised.
The FBC system is more popular and attractive
because the high ash content fuels like tar sands, oil shales,
and coal refinery slurry can be burned at ease. A
commercial FBC water tube boiler plant is shown here in
Fig. 1.38.
S tea m O ut
To e xha ust
S olid B ed
Fuel D osing Wa te r Tu be B oiler
. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. .... . .. . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . .. .
. . .. .. . . . . . . .. . .................... .................. ... .. ...
.. . . . . . .
C him n ey
.. .. . . .. ... .. .. .. ....
.
. . . .. . . . . . . ........ .... ........
. .. .. . . . .... . ............ .
. .. . . . .. ........ .. .. .... .....
. .
. . .. . .. ....... . . . . . .
. . . ..
. . .
.
... .... ..... . . ....... ..... .... .. ..
C yclone
.. .. .. .. ........ . .... . .. .
........................
C hain G rate ............... .. . ...... ...... .. .........
.................. ..... ...... . .... ....
S troker .. . ....... .. . ....
. ..
M om entu m
S epe rator
.... .
Fan ...... . ....... ..... .. .. . ..
.........
. ......... A sh
R ocks an d M eta ls
Fig:1.38 Com mercial FBC Water Tube Boiler Plant
1.9 STEAM TURBINES

Steam turbines are one of the most versatile and
oldest prime movers that transform the potential energy of
the steam into kinetic energy and later in turn transformed
into mechanical energy - rotation of turbine shaft.
Working principle
The steam energy is converted into mechanical work
by expansion through the turbine. The expansion takes
place through a series of fixed blades and moving blades.
Each row of fixed blade and moving blade is called stage.
The moving blades rotate on the central turbine rotor and
fixed blades are concentrically arranged within the circular
turbine casing which is designed to withstand the steam
pressure.
1.9.1 Types of steam turbine

Steam turbine can be classified
1. According to the design of the moving blade (steam
flow) turbine is classified into two types.
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
2. According to the number of pressure stage.
(a) Single stage turbine
(b) Multi stage turbine
3. According to the direction of steam flow
(a) Axial turbine
(b) Radial turbine
1.9.2 Impulse Turbine
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the
steam flow into high speed jets due to the expansion of
steam in the nozzles. These high speed jet contains
significant kinetic energy which is converted into shaft
rotation by the moving blades, as the steam jet changes
direction. There is a pressure drop at the fixed blades, with
net increase in the steam velocity across the stage. The
steam leaving the moving blades has maximum velocity.
The loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is called
the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
This can be better understood by passing a velocity
diagram.
V1
V r1 V f1
1 1
U
Vw 1
U Vw 2
2 2
V f2
V2
V r2
Fig:1.39 Velocity Diagram For M ovin g Blade.
Where
U  Linear velocity of moving blade
V1 & V2  Absolute velocity of steam at entry

and exit respectively
Vw & Vw  V elocity of whirl at the entry

1 2
and exit respectively

 Radial component of V 1 & V 2 respectively
V f  Ve locity of flow at entry of moving blade

1
 axial com ponent of V 1
V f  Velocity of flow at exit & m oving blade

2
 Axial com ponent of V 2
V r & V r  Relative velocity at entry and exit

1 2
1  angle with the tangent of the wheel at which
the s team enters, also called nozzle angle.
 2  angle which the discharging steam makes with
the tangent of the wheel at the exit
1  Entrance angle of moving blade
2  Exit angle of moving blade
The steam jet issuing from the nozzle at a velocity of

V 1 strikes the blade at an angle 1. V w is the tangential
1
component of the jet which perform work on the blade. The

axial component Vf1 does work but causes the steam to flow
through the turbine. The blades move with a tangential
velocity of U . The entering steam jet has a relative velocity
V r1 which makes an angle 1 with the tangent of wheel.
The steam then glides over the blade without any shock
and discharges at a relative velocity of V r2 at an angle
2 with the tangent of blade. The absolute velocity V 2 of
leaving steam make an angle 2 to the tangent at the

wheel.
In order to have simplicity while solving problem, it
is an usual practice to combine the two vector diagram as
shown in Fig. 1.40. The diagram has been obtained by
superimposing the inlet velocity diagram on the outlet
diagram in order to coincide the blade velocity U.
Vw
V w1 V w2
U
E F
A 2 1 1 2
B
V r1
V f1 V2 V f2
V1 V r2
C D
Fig:1.40
Work done on blade

The work done on the blade may be found out by the
law of change of momentum of the steam jet during its
flow over the blade.
 Force on the wheel  Mass of stress  Acceleration


 m V w  V w 
1 2 ...(1)
Note:
V w is actually negative as the steam is discharged
2
in the opposite direction to blade motion, therefore

consideration should be given to the fact that the values of

V w & V w are to be added while solving the problems:
1 2
1. Work done on blades/sec

 Force  distance travelled/sec

 m V w  V w   U
1 2
 . .
 m Vw U  . V w  Vw  V w 
 1 2 

m Vw U
 kW
1000 ...(2)
1.9.3 Reaction turbine

The reaction turbine is turned by reactive force rather
than a jerk or impulse in case of impulse turbine. In
reaction turbine, there are no nozzles, instead, the blades
that project radially from the periphery of the rotor are
formed and mounted so that the space between the blades
have a shape like nozzle. This blades are mounted on the
revolving rotor therefore they are called moving blades.
Fixed blades of the same shape as of the moving blade

are fastened to the casing in which the rotor revolves. Fixed
blade guides the steam into the moving blades as shown
in Fig.1.41.
A reaction turbine is moved by three forces
1. Reactive force produced on the moving blades as the

gas increases in velocity as it expands in the
nozzle-shaped spaces between the blades.
2. Reactive force produced on the moving blades when
the steam changes direction.
M oving Bla de
Fixe d B lad e
E nte rin g
S tea m
Fig:1.41 Reactio n Tu rbine B lading
3. The push of the steam impinging upon the blades.

The reaction turbine which are used now a days are
really impulse-reaction turbine as the expansion of steam
and heat drop occurs in both fixed and moving blades.
1.9.3.1 Velocity diagram for reaction turbine blade

In reaction turbine blades, the steam continuously
expands at it flows over the blades. The effect of the
continuous expansion of steam during the flow over the
blade is to increase the relative velocity of steam.
Note:
V r  V r for reaction turbine

2 1
V r  Vr for impulse turbine

2 1
Fig:1.42 Velocity Diagram for Reaction Turbine.
1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction

It is given by the ratio of heat drop over moving
blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
Heat drop in moving blades
 Rd 
Heat drop in the stage
 hm

 hf   hm
  hf  heat drop in fixed blade 
 
  hm  heat drop in moving blade 
When  1  2 and  2  1 ,
the mo ving blade and fixed blade must have the same
shape (symmetric al shape) if the degree o f reac tio n in 50%.
This type o f turbine is also kno w n as Parson’s reaction
turbine.
1.10 STEAM CONDENSERS

Steam condenser is a device in which the exhaust
steam of a turbine is condensed by means of cooling water
below atmospheric pressure. By decreasing the exhaust
pressure of steam below atmosphere, the efficiency of the
power plant is greatly improved. The condensed steam is
called condensate which can be reused in the boiler, saving
the cost of water. This also reduces, the capacity of the
water softening plant.
The condensers are mainly classified into two types,

namely
 Mixing type or Jet condensers.

 Non-Mixing Type or Surface condensers.
1.10.1 Jet condensers
In this type of condensers, the exhaust steam from
turbine (prime mover) and cooling water come in direct
contact with each other and as a result, the steam
condenses into water. So, these condensers are also called
as Direct contact condensers. Usually water is
introduced in the form of a spray from a jet. The
temperature of the condensate is the same as that of the
cooling water leaving the condenser.
As the condensate is not free from salt and pollutants,

it cannot be used as feed water to the boiler. Hence these
condensers are preferred only where ample good quality
water is available.
Jet condensers are divided into two types
 Parallel flow condensers: Here steam and cooling

water flow in the same direction.
 Counterflow condensers: Here steam and cooling

water flow in opposite directions.
Jet condensers are never used in modern power plants
and hence are not discussed here.
1.10.2 Surface condenser

A surface condenser is a commonly used term for a
water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger. These
condensers convert steam to water at a pressure below
atmospheric pressure. Here, the exhaust steam and cooling
water do not come in contact.
1.10.2.1 Classification of surface condensers

The cooling water flow through a series of tubes and
the exhaust steam passes over these tubes. Condensation
of a steam is due to heat transfer by conduction and
convection.
Surface condensers are mainly of two types

1. Two flow condenser
2. Multi flow condenser

 Two flow condenser consists of air tight cast iron
cylindrical shell. A number of water tubes are
fixed in the tube plates as shown in Fig.1.43.
 If the cooling water is impure, condenser tubes
will be made up of red brass.
In two flow steam condenser, cooling water travels
twice once from inlet-water box to end water box and once
from end water box to outlet water box.
In multi flow condenser, the rate of heat exchange is
rapid but the power required to circulate the cooling water
is also more.
E xha ust
C ylindric al S team
S hell
C oo ling
W ater
O u tle t
Water W ater
B ox Wa ter Tub e s
B ox
C oo ling
W ate r
In let
To W et A ir P um p
Fig.1.43 Tw o Flow Su rface Con denser
According to the direction of flow of steam, the surface

condenser can be classified as,
(a) Down flow surface condenser
(b) Central flow surface condenser
(c) Inverted flow surface condenser
(a) Down flow surface condenser

In Down flow surface condenser, steam enters through
the top of the condenser vessel and it comes down over the
S tea m an d
A ir
Tubes
A ir a nd
S tea m
C onden sate
Fig:1.44 Dow n F low Cond en ser.
cooling water pipes. Then the steam starts to condense, the

pressure as well as temperature of the condensate get
decreased. Two separate pumps are employed for the
extraction of condensate and the air. The air exit is shielded
from the down stream of the condensate by means of baffle
plate and thus air is extracted with only a comparatively
small amount of water vapour. The condensate is extracted
from the bottom of the condensate with the help of the
condensate extraction pump.
(b) Central flow surface condenser
It is also shell type S te a m an d A ir
cross flow heat exchanger at
the center of which is
located the suction of an air
extraction pump so that the
Tu be s
entire steam moves radially
A ir C o oling
inward and comes in better A ir
S e ctio n
contact with the surfaces of
nest of the tubes in which
the cooling water flows. The
steam condensate is extracted
from the bottom by the C o nd en sa te
condensate extraction pump.

Fig.1.45 C entral F low C ond en ser
(c) Inverted flow type

Here, the air extraction pump is located at the top of
the condenser. The steam enters through the bottom and
flows upwards in cross flow with the cooling water flowing
in the tubes. The steam after being condensed on the outer
surface of water tubes is removed by the condensate
extraction pump situated at the bottom of the condenser.
1.10.2.2 Advantages of surface condenser

 Improves plant efficiency.
 Auxiliary power requirement is less.
 Any kind of feed water can be used.
 There is no mixing of cooling water and steam.
 So the condensate can be reused as boiler feed
water directly.
 This condenser develops high vacuum and hence
is suitable for large power plants.
1.10.2.3 Disadvantages of surface condenser

 High manufacturing and maintenance cost.
 Requires large floor space.
 Requires large quantity of cooling water.
1.11 CAPACITY OF A STEAM POWER PLANT

Steam rate: It is defined as the rate of steam flow (kg/hr)
required for producing unit shaft output (1 kW), therefore
3600
Steam rate  kg/kWh 
W net
Heat rate: It is rate of heat input required for producing

unit output (1 kW)
3600
Heat rate   Q1 kJ/kWh
W net
Where Q 1 is heat added per kg of steam
1.12 SUB SYSTEM OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

The sub systems of thermal power plant are the
auxiliary plants required for the plant for its proper
operation and for the increase of their efficiency.
Some of the sub systems are discussed as follows:
1.12.1 Boiler Accessories

The appliances used to increase the efficiency of the
boiler are known as boiler accessories.
The important boiler accessories are:
1. Feed pump,
2. Economiser,
3. Air preheater,
4. Superheater,
5. Steam separator and so on
6. Injector.
1. Feed pumps
Feed pumps are used to deliver water to the boiler.
It is essential to use a feed pump because the quantity of
water supplied should meet amount of water evaporated
and supplied to the engine.
D elivery Air C ock

Valves
Steam
Suction
Valves
Steam Stuffing
C ylinder D rain C ross
Box H ead
C ock Water D rain
Piston C ylinder Plug
R od
Fig:1.46 F eed P um p
Basically two types of pump are in use

1. Reciprocating feed pump
2. Rotary feed pump
Reciprocating feed pump consists of a cylinder and a
piston. The piston displaces water as it reciprocates inside
the cylinder. The reciprocating pump may be of two types.
(i) Single acting pump and
(ii) Double acting pump
They are continuously run by steam from the same
boiler to which water is to be fed.
Rotary feed pumps are of centrifugal types and are
commonly run either by a small steam turbine or by electric
motor.
The duplex feed pump is a double acting reciprocating
feed pump. In this pump, there are two simple engine
cylinders placed side by side. The pressure of steam acts
directly on the piston to pump the water. Each pump has

one steam cylinder and water cylinder.
2. Economiser
It is a device in which the waste heat of the flue
gases is utilized for heating feed water.
The uses of a economiser has many advantages

1. The temperature range between various parts of the
boiler is reduced which results in reduction of stress
on the inner wall of boiler drum due to uneven
thermal expansion.
2. Evaporate capacity of the boiler is increased.
3. Less fuel is required to turn the feed water into
steam.
W orm W heel P ulley
H ot
Water Safety
valve
Scrape
So ot F eed
C h am ber Water
Fig.1.47 G reen’s Vertical Tube Econo miser

4. Overall efficiency of the plant is increased.

Greens’ vertical tube economiser is shown in Fig.1.47.
Economiser is used to preheat the feed water using
furnace flue gases.
It consists of a large number of cast iron vertical
tubes. These tubes are connected at the top and bottom by
two horizontal pipes and are placed in the main flue
between the boiler and the chimney. The water is pumped
to the lower horizontal pipe and then flows through the
vertical tubes.The water becomes heated by absorbing heat
from the flue gas which passes over the tubes. The hot
water enters the upper horizontal pipe and is fed to the
boiler. To remove the deposits of soot from the surface of
the tubes, scrapers are provided. These scrapers move up
and down slowly by means of a chain passing over the
pulleys to remove the soots.
3. Air preheater:
Air preheater is an Flue G as Inlet
auxiliary system that Air
increase the temperature of O utlet
air before it enters the

furnance. It is generally
placed after the economiser Air
- ie in between economiser inle t
and chimney.
Flue G as To
Preheated air accelerates O utlet C h im ney
the combustion and facilitates So ot
H o pper
the burning of coal.
So ot
Fig:1.48 Air Preh eater
There are two types of air preheaters (a) recuperative

and (b) regenerative.
In a recuperative air preheater, the heat from the flue

gases is transferred to air through a metallic medium. In
a regenerative air preheater, air and flue gases are made
to pass alternatively through the matrix. When the hot
gases pass through the matrix it transfers heat to the cold
air. The preheating of air helps the burning of low grade
fuel, thus permitting a reduction in excess air and thereby
increasing the efficiency. The overall efficiency of the plant
may be increased by 10% by its one.
4. Super heater
The function of the super heater is to increase the
temperature of the steam above its saturation point.
Super heater steam has the following advantages.
1. Steam consumption by the turbine is reduced.
2. Loss due to condensation is reduced.
3. Erosion of turbine blade is eliminated.
4. Efficiency of the plant is increased.
A superheater is located in the path of the hot furnace

gases. Fig.1.49. shows a Sudgen’s superheater.
When the superheater is in operation, the valve A is

closed. The wet steam from the boiler enters the right
heater through the valve C. The steam flows through the
number of U  tubes where it receives heat from the hot
flue gases and becomes superheated. The superheated
steam then passes to the discharge header and then to the
M ain S team P ipe

A B
S top
Valve
Wa ter L evel
C B oiler H2
H1 H eaters
B oiler H andle
Ste el Tub e s
B ottom Flue D ow n Take
D am pe r
Fig:1.49 S udg en ’s S uper Heater
main steam pipe connected to one end of the discharge

header through the valve B.
The overheating of the superheater tubes is prevented
by using a damper which is controlled by the Handle. It
controls the flow of flue gases to the superheater chamber.
When the damper is horizontal, the hot flue gases pass over
the U tubes (superheated tubes). But when the damper is
vertical, the hot flue gases directly pass to the bottom flue
without superheating. Thus degree of superheating is
controlled by changing the position of damper.
5. Steam separator
The steam generated may be either wet steam (or)
dry steam (or) superheated steam. The wet steam must be
seperated from the dry steam before letting it enter the
main steam line. This separation is done by steam

separator. It prevents the wet steam from entering the
main steam line, thus prevents the turbine blades from
corrosion.
6. Injector
An injector is used to feed water into vertical and
locomotive boilers using steam from the same boiler. It
consists of three jets - steam jet, suction jet, combining and
delivery jet.
The steam expands in the steam nozzle where its
pressure drops but its velocity increases. As the steam
passes across space between steam and suction nozzles a
vacuum is developed in the suction chamber. The water is
drawn into the suction chamber from the feed tank. The
high speed steam jet takes the water along with the steam
into the combining and delivery jet. Here the steam is
condensed and mixed with the water. The delivery jet is so

designed that a considerable amount of kinetic energy of
the jet changes into pressure energy which is sufficient to
force the water in the boiler. There will be no overflow
when the steam and water are in proper ratio. For the
injector to act properly there is a definite relation between
the quantity of steam and water entering the injector.
7. Wagon tippler
It is the machine used to tip the coal from the wagon.
The coal tipped is directly fed to conveyor belt which takes
the coal to the coal mills.
8. Coal mills
Coal feeds in the coal mill are converted into
pulverised form and they are fed to the boiler furnance.
9. Boiler furnance
It is the chamber in which fuel burns and fire blows.
10. Boiler Drum

It contains feed water for boiling.
11. Electro Static Precipitator (ESP)

ESP is located between the boiler and the chimney,
it extracts the fly ash from the flue gases and thus prevents
the fly ash from entering the atmosphere. Electrodes are
used to attract the fly ash when the flue gas coming out
of the boiler is passed through the ESP.
Working Principle:
In this, the dust particles are separated from flue
gases by electrostatic attraction. It has two steps of
operation. One is charging of dust particles and other is to
collect dust particles. In charging section, the flue gas is
ionized and in collecting section dust particles are collected

on the collector electrodes.
Construction
The Fig. 1.51(a) shows the general layout of an
electro static precipitator. In a single stage electrostatic
precipitator, a pair of electrodes serve both the particle
charging and collecting function and in two stage electro
static precipitator, two pair of electrodes are used - one for
charging and other for collecting. The discharge electrode
is connected to the high tension power supply. The collector
G ro un ded D ust C olle ctin g P late s

C ylind ers
D ust C le a n
L ad en + G as
G as in O ut
C harged
W ire s G ro un ded 4 00 V A .C R ectifi e r
C hargin g
S ectio n Tra nsfo rm er
Fig:151 (a) L ayout of Different Com p onents of Electrostatic P recipitato r
Electro- Static Precip itaor
C le a n
G as ou t
D ischarge
H igh Ten sion Ele ctrode s
R e ctifier R e ceiving
H ig h Te nsion
Transform er E le ctrodes
C ontrol E arth E a rth
P anel D ust
L ad en { E arth
G as in
D ust
Fig:1.51 (b ) G eneral Arrangem ent of an E lectrostatic Precip itator
Fig:1.51 E lectro - Static Precipitator
electrode is earthed. An electro static field is setup in

between two electrodes. A weight is kept to align the
electrode along the cylinder axis.
In Fig.1.51(b) the flue gas is passing through the
bottom of the precipitator. When gas moves upward, the
dust particles and the flue gases are ionized by the high
voltage (30,000 to 60,000 volts) applied between the
conductors. The electro static field exerts a force on the
dust particles and they are driven towards the grounded
plates. The dust particles are deposited on the collector
electrodes and they are removed by rapping (Shaking
motion given to electrode) by means of cams. The dust
particles are collected in hopper and removed periodically.
Advantages:
1. Best suitable for high dust laded gases.
2. Very small particles, mist and fly ashes enter the
atmosphere.
3. The dust is collected in dry form and can be
removed in dry or wet form.
4. Maintenance cost is less compared to other types.
5. It has efficiency of 99.5%.
Disadvantages:
1. Power requirement is high for charging the dust
particles and fly ash.
2. Space requirement is more than wet system.
3. Efficiency varies inversely with the gas velocity
4. The dust carried with the gases increases with an
increase of gas velocity. Electrical equipments are
needed for conversion of low voltage to high voltage.

This increases the capital cost.
Even though its cost is more, it is frequently used
with pulverised coal firing system because of its
effectiveness.
12. Chimney
It is used to release flue gas into the atmosphere.
The chimney is constructed 2.5 to 3 times of height

of the power plant. The main purpose of this is to emit the
flue gas at a considerable height to avoid nuisance to the
surrounding people.
There are two types of loads acting on the chimney

namely
1. Its own weight which is considered to act as a

single vertical force acting through the centroid
2. Wind pressure, which is considered to act as a
horizontal force acting on the centroid of vertical
projected area. It is found, from the experiments,
that the wind pressure acting on a cylinder is 2/ 3
times of vertical plane surface of same projected
area and shape. For design considerations, the wind
pressure on the chimney, is taken as 1.5 kN/m 2
Three different types of chimney and their design
considerations are given below.
1. Steel Chimney
This type of chimney is preferred for short exhaust
stacks where the draft is created by fan. To increase the
life of the chimney, these are lined with bricks. The erection
period of this type of chimney is less compared to that of
other types. This type of chimney is constructed by welded

section and erected by horizontal welding joints (or) by
riveting.
Because of low capital cost of the chimney, the
number of steel chimney constructed were increased
considerably, But the sulphur content in the flue gas
created severe problems such as acid condensation and
severe attack inside surface of brick, concrete and steel
chimneys. This has been rectified by the insulation of the
steel chimneys by aluminium cladding.
‘Cold air inversion’ is being faced by the system

when several number of boilers are attached to a single
chimney. In order to avoid this nowadays, ‘One boiler - One
chimney pattern’ is used.
The chimneys in the gas turbine power plants often

face the thermal shock brought by an increase in
temperature of about 450  500C during a period of full
load. The steel chimneys are capable of handling this
because of thin wall and high coefficient of expansion of
steel.
2. Site constructed chimneys

Site constructed chimneys of brick (or) concrete are
used where very tall chimneys are necessary for power
stations (or) where the life requirement is more than 30
years.
Nowadays perforated radial bricks are used, instead

of common bricks, as they give better results. The
perforations aid the structural stability. The crushing
strength of perforated radial brick is more than that of the
design value required in the actual practice.
Another common material that is used for building

chimneys is pre-casted reinforced concrete. Due to
structural difficulties, it is limited to chimneys of height
around 80m. There are two methods 1. “Jump forming”
where the shuttering is moved up the stack in steps (or)
2. “Slip forming” where the shuttering is gradually moved
up with continuous concrete pouring. The second method is
the fastest method of construction. Concrete is not suitable
for chimneys due to its high thermal inertia which leads
to cracking. The steel chimneys are preferred where the
cost factor is important and concrete chimney is preferred
where the life of the chimney is most important.
3. Plastic chimneys
These chimneys are made of glass fiber reinforced
plastic. They cannot be operated at high temperature.
Because at high temperature, the flue gas catches fire and
leads to disintegration of chimney. This kind of chimneys
plays a vital role where a low stress, low temperature
chimney is required for highly corrosive effluents.
Chimney height calculation

Let
H  height of chimney above grate level in meters
W  weight of air required in kg per kg of fuel
T g  Average absolute temperature of chimney gases in K
Ta  Absolute temperature of air outside the chimney in K
Pressure  density  g  height of chimney
Mass
Density 
Volume
G ro un d G ro un d
L evel L evel
Found ation Found ation

. .. .. .. ..
. .. ... . .. .
. . ..
. . . .. .
. . ..
. .. . .
.
. ..
Fig:1.52 (a) Brick Chim ney Fig:1.52 (b ) Reinforced C him ney
Fig:1.52. Chim ney
Weight of chimney gases produced  w kg of fuel burnt
Volume of chimney gases at 273 K  volume of 1 kg of air

at 273 K
RT 273
v  0.287 
p 1  10 2
v  0.78351 m 3  kg
 volume of 1kg of air at Ta
Ta
 0.78351 
273
Volume for W kg of a ir at T a
Ta
 0.78351  W
273
Mass W  273
Dens ity of air at T a   }
V olume 0.78351  T a  W
273

0.78351  T a
Therefore, Pressure at grate due to column of cool air

of H meters height  Density  height of chimney
273 273
 H  1.28  H
0.78351  T a Ta
Similarly,
Volume of chimney gases at T g per kg of air
Tg
 0.78351 
273
Volume of W  1 kg of chimney gases at T g
Tg
 0.78351  W
273
Density of chimney gases at T g
mass W  1  273
 
volume 0.78351  Tg  W
273  W  1 
 1.293   
Tg  W 
 pressure at the grate by column of hot gases of

height H meter  Density  H kg/m 2
273  W  1  2
 1.28     H kg/m
Tg  W 
1.100 Power Plant Engineering- www.airwalkpublications.com
 Pressure P causing the draught  pressure due to colum n
of cool air  pressure due to co lumn of hot air
 273   273  W  1    kg
   1.28   H    1.28  H  2
Ta Tg  W m
  
 1 W1 1 
 350  H     kg/m 2
Ta   W  Tg  
  
If draught is measured in h mm of water by U-tube
manometer, then
 1 W1 1 
h  353  H     mm of water
Ta   W  Tg  
  
. .
[ . 1 kg/m 2  1 mm of w ater column]
Let h be the height of column of hot gases
then
273  W  1   1 W1 1 
h  1.293     P  353  H  T   W   T 
T  W  
 a  g 
  W  Tg 
h  H     1
Ta
W1 
Problem 1.15: The height of chimney is 35 m. Hot gas
temperature inside the chimney is 340C. The temperature of
out side air 25C and the furnace is supplied with 20 kg of
air per kg of coal burnt. Find (a) Draught in mm of water
(b) Draught in meters of hot gases.
Solution:
Given data:
Height of chimney  H  35 m
Hot gas temperature  T g  340 C  613 K
Outside air temperature  Ta  25C  298 K
Weight of air W  20 kg per kg of coal burnt.
(a) Draught in mm of water
 1 W1 1 
h  353  H   
T W  Tg 
 a  
 1  20  1  1 
 353  35     
 298  20  613 
 353  35  0.0016429 
 20.3 mm of water
 W Tg 
(b) Draught in meters of hot gas h  H   1
Ta
W1 
 20 613 
 35     1   33.568 meters
 20  1 298 
Problem 1.16: Determine the height of chimney to produce a
static draught of 22 mm of water if the mean flue gas
temperature in chimney is 290C and atmospheric temperature
is 28C. The gas constant for air is 0.287 kJ/kgK. Assume
barometer reading as 760 mm of Hg.
Given data:
Static draught h  22 mm of water
Temperature inside the chimney Tg  290C  563 K
Atmospheric temperature  28C  301 K

Gas constant for air  0.287 kJ/kg K
Gas constant for gas  0.257 kJ/kg K
1.102 Power Plant Engineering- www.airwalkpublications.com
Solution:
We know that Pv  RT
Where P  Absolute pressure of gas kN /m 2
v  Volume of gas m 3  kg
R  Gas constant
T  Absolute temperature of gas K
RT
v
P
Difference in pressure = height of chimney  air  flue
P  22 mm of water  w  h  9810  0.022  215.82 N/m 2
[w  9810 N/m 3 for water]
1 P
air  
v RT
1.01325  102 . .
 [ . P  760 m m of Hg  1.01325 bar ]
0.287  301 
 1.194 kg/m 3
1 P 1.01325  10 2
flue   
v RT 0.257  563
 0.7 kg/m 3
Height of chimney
P 215.82
   44.53 m
air  flue g 1.194  0.7  9.81
 44.53 m
Problem 1.17: A chimney produces a draught of 15 mm of

water when the temperature of flue gas is 300C and ambient
temperature is 30C. The flue gases formed per kg of fuel burnt
is 26 kg. By taking dia of the chimney as 2 m, determine the
mass of gases flowing through the chimney.
Given data:
h  Draught  15 mm of water
Tg  Te mperature of flue gas  300  573 K
T a  Te mperature of air  30C  303 K
Mass of flue gas  26 kg
Solution
Mass of air required per kg of fuel  26  1
 25 kg/kg of fuel
 1 W1 1 
h  353 H   
T W Tg 
 a 
 1 25  1 1 
15  353  H    
 303 25 573 
15  H  0.52431  H  28.609 m
h  height of colum n of hot gases
 W Tg 
H  1
W1
Ta 
 25 573 
 28.609   1
 25  1 303

 23.412 m of air
Let
V  V elocity of flue gases
 
   
2gh 2  9.81  23.412  21.432 m/sec
A  area of chimney
 2 
 D  22  
4 4
 26 1 
g  353     0.640695
 25 573 
g  0.640695 kg/m 3
m g  g A V  mass of flue gas  sec
m g  0.640695    21.432
 43.138 kg/sec
1.11.13 Cooling tower

It is used to cool the water, and its height is about
140 meters. The hot water is to pumped the tower top and
H o t A ir
H o t w ate r
H o t w ate r
C o oling W ate r
Pu m p Air Air
C o oled Wa te r
C o nd en ser
Fig:1.53 Arrang em ent of a Cooling Tow er
falls down through the tower and is broken into small

particles while passing over the baffling devices. Air enters
the tower from the bottom and flows upwards. The air
vapourises a small percentage of water thereby cooling
water falls down into tank below the tower from where it
is pumped to the condenser and cycle is repeated.
1.11.13.1 Type of Cooling towers

(a) According to the construction material
1. Timber - for small tower
2. Ferro - concrete - for large capacity stations
requiring - high initial cost
3. Multi deck concrete towers - for large steam stations
4. Metallic
(b) According to the nature of air draught
1. Atmospheric (or) natural draught cooling system
2. Mechanical draught cooling tower
(c) Air - cooled (or) dry - type cooling tower
1.11.13.2 Atmospheric (or) natural draft cooling
towers.
In this, the natural air provides the required cooling
without the use of fans. This is further classified into three
types.
1. Natural Draft spray filled towers

In this, the air enters through the lower sides and
flows in the transverse direction across the unit. The
amount of air flow depends on the wind velocity. Its
capacity varies from 50  100 liters per min per m 2 of base
area. This is not suitable for high capacity thermal plants.
The arrangement is shown in the Fig.1.54.
w ater
in
A ir o ut
A ir in
w ater
o ut
Fig:1.54 Atm o spheric S pray- Filled Coo lin g Tower
2. Natural draft packed type tower

It is similar to that of the above type except that
water distributing troughs are used. This helps to have
better surface exposure of water by breaking it into small
droplets. This is rarely used for thermal power plants as
the capital cost and pumping head required are high. This
arrangement is shown in Fig.1.55.
w a ter
in
P a cking
A ir in A ir o ut
w a ter
o ut
F ig:1 .5 5 Pac ked A tm osp heric C oo lin g Tow er
3. Hyperbolic Cooling Tower

This tower is made of steel reinforced concrete
structure mostly stack. The shape of the stack is hyperbolic
in profile and circular in cross section. The operation is
similar to that of Natural draft spray cooling tower.
The air flow is established by chimney action ie due
to density difference between atmospheric air and air inside
the tower. Because of more water vapour and higher RH
value which is lighter than air, the net humidity of the air
becomes lower than the surrounding air. This difference in
density provides necessary draught. Since the difference in
density is very small, the height required is considerably
large.
1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers
Mechanical draft towers are mostly preferred than the
natural draft towers because 1. They provide closer
approach to WBT 2. They have reduced spray and wind
losses, 3. They have higher efficiency and 4. They require
less ground area.
Instead of depending on the natural draught and wind
velocity, it employees fans to move air through the tower.
By this, the efficiency of the system is increased and
required amount of air velocity can be readily obtained.
Mechanical draft is classified into three types.
1. Forced draft tower, 2. Induced draft counter flow
tower 3. Induced draft cross - flow tower.
1. Forced Draft Tower

In this, a fan is located at the bottom of the tower
and the air is forced from bottom to the top. This
arrangement is shown in Fig.1.56.
A ir o ut
W a te r
in
Fa n
A ir in
Fig:1 .56 F orced D raft C oo lin g To wer
2. Induced Draft counter - flow tower

In this type, the fan is located on top of the tower.
This arrangement is shown in Fig.1.57(a). The air enters
louvers located on sides of the tower
3. Induced draft cross-flow Tower

In this, the flow of air is in horizontal direction and
the flow of water is in vertical direction. The fan is centered
at the top. The drift eliminators turn air towards outlet
fan. Lower air static pressure and less resistance to flow
of air are the features of this system.
1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling System

Since the thermal pollution and water requirement
are major problems with the wet type cooling towers, it can
A ir o ut
W a te r
in
A ir in A ir in
W a te r
o ut
Fig:1.57. (a) Indu ced D raft Coun ter flow Cooling Tow er
A ir o ut
w ater in
w ater in
P acking
A ir in A ir in
w ater
out
Fig:1.57. (b) Ind uced Draft Cross Flow Co oling Tow er
be replaced by dry type cooling system. In dry type, the

heat is directly rejected to the atmosphere.
The dry type cooling tower is classified into two types

as
1. Indirect type 2. Direct type
1. Indirect dry type or HELLER COOLING system
S tea m
from
M ech an ical B oiler
Fan
D ra ft
Tow e r S tea m
C ooling Turbine
C oils
D irect
C onta ct
C ond en ser
Wa te r
Turbine
P um p M otor
To C oolin g To B oile r
Tow e r
Fig:1.58 Indirect Dry - Type Coo lin g To wer
The arrangement is shown in the Fig.1.58. The

collected condensate is partially fed to the cooling coil and
partially fed to the boiler. The cooling coil is cooled by the
air. The cold water coming out of the cooling water is sent
to the condenser through the nozzle and water turbine. The
water turbine is used to utilise the pressure and elevation
head between the cooling coil and condenser. There is no
evaporation loss in the system as there is no direct contact.
2. Direct Dry type cooling system
The arrangement of direct dry type cooling system is
shown in Fig.1.59. Through the air cooled coil, the turbine
exhaust is made to flow. A forced fan is used to pass the
air through the coil. In the condensate header, the

condensate is collected and passed to the boiler through
feed pump.
S tea m
H ead er
Tu rbine
Ste am
C ooling S tea m
C oils from
C ooling B oiler
C oils
C ond en sing
h ea der
Forced
Fan
C ond en sate
R ece iver
To B oile r
Fig:1.59 Direct Dry - Type
Cooling System P um p
The major difference between direct and indirect type

of cooling system is that the direct system handles large
amount of steam than lesser amount of steam in the

indirect system.
14. Low pressure heater
It is used to increase the temperature of water at low
pressure, in this way efficiency of system increases.
15. High pressure heater

In HP heater, the temperature of water increases at
high pressure. Thus efficiency further increases.
16. Deaerator
It is used to remove air from water which is
entrapped in the water molecules. It is very important part
because the entrapped air affects air drum badly.
1.12 BOILER MOUNTINGS

The devices used for the efficient operation, proper
maintenance, safe operation, etc are called Boiler
mountings.
The different boiler mountings are given below

1. Water Gauge or Water Level Indicator: It
indicates the level of the water inside the boiler. It
is a glass tube covered with a special glass cover.
It is fitted in front of the boiler. It is used to
maintain the quantity of water at safe level.
2. Pressure Gauge or Steam Gauge: It is the
device used to indicate the pressure inside the
boiler. It is mounted in the front end, at the top of
the steam drum.
3. Safety valves: It is used to maintain safe pressure
inside the boiler. When the pressure exceeds the
limit, the excess steam will be allowed to escape
through the safety valves to the atmosphere to

reduce the pressure inside the boiler. It is mounted
on the top of the steam drum. Different types of
safety valve are given below:
(a) Dead Weight safety valve: It is just like
the dead weight in the household cookers.
Since the heavy weight is required to balance
the steam pressure, it is not suitable for high
pressure boilers
(b) Spring loaded (Rams bottom) safety
valve: The valve is loaded with spring
instead of weights; Here heavy spring force is
needed to balance the steam pressure.
(c) Lever safety valve: The heavy dead weight
is replaced by a lever with a smaller weight.
(d) Excess steam - Low water level safety
valve: The excess steam is allowed to escape
when the steam pressure exceeds the limit.
And when the level of water in the boiler falls
below a certain minimum value, this safety
valve open to prevent bursting.
4. Fusible Plug: It is fitted just above the grate in
the furnace. It is used to extinguish the fire in the
furnace when the water level falls below safe level
to avoid bursting.
5. Stop valve: It is used to control the amount of the
steam passing through the steam pipe. It is hand
operated. It is fitted with the steam pipe.
6. Blow off cock: It is fitted at the bottom of the
boiler. When it is opened during the running of the
boiler, the high pressure steam pushes out the
impurities like mud, sand. etc in the water collected

at the bottom.
7. Feed check valve: The feed check valve is used
to allow the supply of water to the boiler at high
pressure continuously. It prevents the back flow of
water from the boiler, when the pump pressure is
less than the boiler pressure. It is fitted to the shell
slightly below the normal water level of the boiler.
Difference Between Boiler Mountings and Boiler
Accessories:
Sl. No. Boiler Mountings. Boiler Accessories

1. These are used for the These are used to
safe operation of the increase the boiler
boiler. efficiency.
2. They must be provided Optional
in all the boilers
Examples: Examples:
Safety valves, Pressure Economiser, Air pre
gauge heater, Super heater
1.13 FUEL AND ASH HANDLING
1.13.1 Handling of coal:

The coal handling is divided into two types:
1. Out-plant handling.
2. In-plant handling.
1. Out-plant handling.
This handling includes the handling of coal from coal
mine to the thermal power plant. These handlings are done
outside the plant in the following ways.
(a) Transportation by sea or river:

If the power plant is located on the bank of river (or)
near sea shore, then it is most economical to transport the
coal by ships. The coal is unloaded from the ship and taken
to the plant through desired handling methods.
(b) Transportation by rail

The most commonly used means of transportation of
coal is by rail. A railway sliding line is taken to the power
station and the coal is either delivered to the point of
consumption or to the storage yard.
(c) Transportation by Road

This type of coal transportation is used only for small
capacity plants. In this the coal is carried upto the point
of consumption of the power plant. It is the major
advantage in this kind of transportation. Self-tripping
lorries are used for transporting the coal and the lorries
have one (or) two hydraulic cylinder to unload coal from
the lorries after it has been weighed.
(d) Transportation of coal by pipeline:

In this type, the coal is transported through pipeline.
The advantages and disadvantages are listed below.
Advantages:
1. It is unaffected by weather and climate and it is
continuous transport system.
2. It has high degree of reliability and safety since the
moving parts are limited.
3. Transportations are made in large quantities
4. Maintenance and man power requirements are low.
5. Transportation losses are eliminated.
6. It is more economical while dealing with large

volume of coal over long distance.
Disadvantages
1. High capital is required for preparation of coal at
pumping station as well as dewatering and recovery
of coal.
2. Water requirement is high as the water coal ratio
in the mixture is 1:1.
Inplant handling of coal
U n loadin g
Tra nsfer
O ut D oor
Storage
C o vered S tora ge
In P lan t
h an dling
W eigh ing
Fig:1.60 The Operation and Devices Used in Coal Han dling Plant.
In order to handle large quantity of coal inside the

plant, some mechanical handling systems are provided for
smooth, easy and better controlled operation.
The following are to be considered while designing the

inplant coal handling.
1. Inplant transportation should be minimum and

should be simple and sound.
2. There should not be rehandling of coal
3. For better maintenance and inspection, the handling
units should be centralized.
4. The prime-movers used should be of electrical
motors of high residual value.
5. To avoid corrosion and abrasion, the working parts
should be enclosed.
6. It should be capable of delivering coal at peak hours.
2. The inplant coal handling is divided into following
categories
(a) Coal unloading
(b) Coal preparation
(c) Coal storage
(d) Coal transfer
(a) Coal unloading:

The kind of unloading equipment used is based on
the out plant handling. For small and medium capacity
plants, transportation of coal by trucks is more economical.
Lift trucks with scoops are used because these trucks can
unload without additional equipments. Generally rail
transport is used when large quantities of coal is to be
transmitted for long distances. The transported coal are
unloaded into the unloading hoppers or directly to coal
conveyors. For the fastest unloading, the following are used:
Car shakers, rotary car dampers, coal accelerators,
unloading towers and bridges, self-unloading boats, lift

trucks, cranes and buckets. The coal towers, unloading
bridges and self unloading boats are used when the coal is
transmitted by sea.
Coal preparation:
U ncrushed C oal
C oal C rush er
Vibratin g
Separator
C am
B elt C on ve
yo r Hot Gases Ou t
C oa l to Sto rag e H opte r

H ot
C lo sed
G ases
C oal S tora ge
in
C oal D rier
B elt C onveyor
M ag ne tic P ullys
Fig:1.61 Coal Preparation Plant R eje ct C hu te
B ucket Eleva tor
Tho coal from coal mines can not be directly fed into
the furnace. Proper preparation on the coal should be done
before feeding the coal to the furnace. In the coal
preparation, the coal has to pass through the following
equipments. 1. Crushers 2. Sizers 3. Driers and
4. Magnetic separators.
The coal to be supplied to the combustion chamber
should be of proper size. So this crushers are necessary to
crush the raw coal to the required size. The crushers

capacity is 600 tons per hour in order to meet peak load
requirements. The crushed coal is passed through the sizer
where unsized coal is seperated and sent back to the
crushers. In the drier, the sized coal is dried to remove the
moisture in the coal. The hot flue gases are passed through
the coal storage in closed space for removing the moisture
from coal. The iron scrap and other particles are removed
with the help of magnetic separators because these iron
scrap may chock the burners and may increase the wearing
of the handling equipment. Usually, the separator consists
of magnetized pulley. When the coal is passed over the
pulley, the iron particles cling to the belt. The iron particles
drop off into a reject chute as they leaves the pulley.
(c) Coal storage:

The crushed coals are stored here, ready for transfer.
(d) Coal Transfer:

The coal transfer starts by carrying of coal from
unloading point to the storage site. The different types of
coal transforming equipments are given below.
1. Belt conveyors, 2. Screw conveyors, 3. Bucket

elevators 4. Grab bucket elevators,5. Skip hoists and 6.
Flight conveyors.
1. Belt conveyors:
Belt conveyors are suitable for transporting coal over
long distance with large quantity. The arrangement of belt
conveyor is shown in the Fig.1.62. An endless belt made
of rubber, canvass or balata is made to run over a pair of
end drums and pulleys and supported by series of roller at
regular intervals. The conveyors can have inclination of
. . .. . .C o al . . . .B e lt .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. .
. . . .. . . . .... . . .. .. . . ... . .
. . .. . . . . . .
. .
R o lle rs
S u pp orts
B e lt
R eturn R oller
Fig:1.62 B elt Con veyo r
20 to the horizontal. The load carrying capacity is 50 to

100 tonnes per hour. The speed of the conveyor varies from
60m to 100m per hour.
Advantages
 Most economical for medium and large plants.
 By increasing the speed of belt, rate of transfer
can be increased
 Minimum maintenance and repair cost.
 Lesser power consumption compared to other
means.
 Coal is protected from rain and wind just by
providing overhead covers.
Disadvantage
 Not suitable for short distance.
 Not suitable for greater heights, since the
inclination is limited to 20 to horizontal.
2. Screw conveyor:
The line diagram of screw conveyor is shown in
Fig.1.63. An endless helicoid screw is fitted to the shaft.
Coal Supply
Coal D ischarge Fig:1.63 Screw Conveyor
On one end of the shaft, the driving mechanism is fitted

and the other end of shaft is supported on a ball bearing.
While the screw is rotating, the coal is transferred from
one end to the other end. The speed varies from 70 to 120
rpm and diameter of screw varies from 15cm to 50cm. The
maximum capacity of this conveyor is 125 tonnes per hour.
Advantages:
 Space requirement is less and initial cost is low.
 It is simple and can be made dust tight.
 It is more compact.
Disadvantages
 Power consumption is more.
 Wear and tear is high and hence life is less
compared to belt conveyor.
3. Bucket elevators:
The two types of bucket conveyors are shown in
Fig.1.64. These conveyors are used for vertical lifts. In this,
the buckets are fixed to a chain which moves over two wheels.
The coal is loaded at bottom and unloaded at the top. The
continuous type elevator carries more coal than the
centrifugal type. The maximum height and inclination to the
. .
.
. .. .. . .
.. .. .. .. . .. .. . . . .
. .. .. ..... . . .. . .... .
.. .. . .. .. .. . ..
.. . .
.. . .
.
.
.
.. .
.. .
.
.
.. ..
.. . .
C o al O ut
C o al O ut
.. . .
.. . .
.. .. .. . . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .
.. . .
.. . .
C o al
.. . .
in C o al in
.. . .. . .. . .. .
.. . .
.. . .. .
.. . .
.. . .
... . ..... . . . ..
.. . .... . . .
.. . . .
.. . . .
. ... . .
. . ..
. . ..
.. . .. .
(a) C entrifu gal (b) C on tinu ou s
Fig:1.64 B u cket C on ve yo rs
horizontal are 30.5 m and 60 respectively. The speed of

centrifugal and continuous bucket conveyors are 75m/min and
35m/min respectively for about 60 tonnes capacity per hour.
4. Grab Bucket Conveyor
C rane
G rab B ucket
F ig:1.65 G rab B ucket C o nveyors

Grab bucket conveyor does both lifting and

transferring of coal from one point to another. A bucket
operating over a distance of 60m transfers nearly 100
tonnes of coal per hour. It’s initial cost is high but operating
cost is low.
5. Scraper (or) Flight conveyor:
This conveyor is used for transferring of coal and
filling number of storage bins situated under the conveyor.
It has one or two strands of chain, to which steel scrapers
are attached. The scraper scraps the coal through a trough
and then it is discharged in the bottom of the trough as
shown in Fig.1.66.
Scrap er
C hain R olle r
..
. . . .... . ...... ...... .....
..... .
...........
... .
o utlet F ig:1.66 Scraper or Flight C on veyo r
Advantages:
1. It requires less space.
2. In order to suit the requirements, the speed of the
conveyor can be controlled.
3. Coal handling as well as ash handling can be done
by using this flight conveyor.
Disadvantages:
1. The conveyor life is short because there is a
scrapping action resulting in excessive wear and
tear.
2. High maintenance cost.
3. High speed cannot be allowed in order to reduce the
abrasive action of the material handled.
4. Power consumption is more due to dragging action.
1.13.2 Ash handling and dust collecting system:
A general layout of ash handling and dust collecting
system is shown in Fig.1.67.
Ash handling system is classified into four groups.
1. Mechanical handling system.
2. Hydraulic system.
3. Pneumatic system.
4. Steam jet system.
Ash handling system is needed
(i) To remove the ashes from the furnace ash hopper.

(ii) To convey the ashes from furnace ash-hopper to a
storage.
(iii) To dispose the ashes from the storage.
1. Mechanical handling system:

This system is used for low capacity power plants.
The hot ash from the furnace falls on the belt conveyor
and it is continuously carried to the overhead bunker or
dumping site. With the help of trucks, the ash is carried
from ash bunker to dumping site. The control valve is used
Fly as h w ith E xh au s t G a se s
D u st C olle ctor
M olte n C h im ne y
S lag
-------- -----
-------- -----
I.D .Fa n B o iler F urna ce s
. .. . .
. .. .. .
.. . ...... ........
. .
.
.
D u st + S oo t
+ Fly- A sh Ash
W a ter Tro ug h
Ash
B e lt C on veyer B u nke r
H an ding
C o ntrol
system
valve
M ec hanical A sh Tru ck
Fina l as h disp os a l H andling Sy stem .
A s h co llection A s h D is cha rge

E q uipm e nts
F ig:1 .6 7 G eneral Layo ut of A s h H an dling and D u st C olle ction Sy stem
to load the trucks, manually. The maximum capacity of this

plant is 5 tons per hr. It has low power consumption.
2. Hydraulic ash handling system:

In this system, the ash is carried by the water with
high velocity through a channel and dumped fully to the
sump. This system is classified into two types: 1. Low
velocity system (low pressure), 2. High velocity (high
pressure) system.
(a) Low velocity system (Low pressure system):

The ash from the grate is made to fall into the system
of water at lower velocity and it is carried to the sump
with water.
The velocity of water in trough is between 3 to 5

m/sec. The ash and water are separated when it reaches
to the sump. The separated water is again used for the
Bo ilers
Water Ash
Su m p
Water- Tro ug hs Su m ps a re
U sed Alterna te ly
for S etting out
Water Ash
Su m p
Bo ilers
Bo ilers
O ne Stand by Trough to
Water
P erm it R epairs
Water Troughs Su m p
Water
Bo ilers F ig:1.68 Low - P ressu re A sh H an dling

H y draulic Sys tem
same and the ash collected in the sump is sent out through
carriages. The ash carrying capacity is 50 tons/hr and
distance covered is 500 mts.
(b) High velocity system (high pressure system):
In this, the water nozzles are fitted at the top and
on the sides of the hoppers below the boiler. The top nozzle
is used to quench the ash and the side nozzles are provided
to carry the ash through trough. The ash with high velocity
is sent to the sump by trough. Water is separated and
recirculated. The ash carrying capacity is 120 tonnes and
distance covered is 1000 mts. The troughs and sumps are
made of corrosion and wear resistant materials. This
system can also be used for pulverized fuel plants.
Furn ace
N ozzle
w ater je t
H ig h pressure A sh
. .. . .. . .. . .
w ater
stoker
H ig h pressure H ig h pressure
w ater w ater
N ozzle
cast iron w alls
N ozzle
Tro ugh ca ring
w ater & A sh
. .
. .. . . .
....... . . .
. .. .
.. .
. .
.
S ettled Ash
M ain su m p
Fig:1.69 High pressure Ash Handlin g Hydraulic System
Advantages:
1. Most suitable for higher capacity thermal power
plants since its ash carrying capacity is large.
2. It can be handled easily with steam of molten ash.
3. It can discharge the ash for long distance from
plant.
4. The whole system is clean, dustless and totally
enclosed.
5. Absence of working parts in contact with ash is the
most important feature of this system.
3. Pneumatic ash handling system

This has been designed in such a way that it can
handle abrasive ash and fine dust materials i.e., fly ash
and soot. The high velocity of air stream, created by an
B o ille rs
C ru sh e rs
Ash . ... Filte r

. ..
S e pa ra tors . . ..
. E x ha u ster
.
. .
A ir F rom A tm o sph ere . .
A s h H op pe r
E x ha u st to
A tm o s ph ere
Ash
Tru ck C a rrying
Tru ck
exchauster at the discharge end, carries the ash and dust

from discharge point. Ash from ash hopper is passed
through the ash crushers into air stream. The ash is
separated in two stages i.e. separated in the primary and
secondary cyclone separators and the ashes are collected in
the hopper. The separated clean air is exhausted to the
atmosphere through filters. The power requirement of an
exhauster is 5.H.P per ton (approx) of material.
Advantages:
1. Dustless operation is possible as the materials are
handled totally in an enclosed conduit.
2. There is no freezing or sticking in the storage bins
as the ash is conveyed in a dry state.
3. Cost of the ash removal system is less than that of
other system.
4. There is no rehandling and spillage.
5. The system has greater flexibility.
Disadvantages:
1. Pipe lines wear out quickly.
2. Maintenance cost is high.
3. It is noisy operation than other types.
4. Blockage of pipe line.
4. Steam jet system

In this, a steam jet is used to carry dry solid
materials of considerable size along with it. In this system,
the direction of steam and ash travel are same. The ash is
deposited in the ash hopper.
Advantages:
1. Ash removal is economical for a horizontal distance
of 200 meters and vertical distance of 30 metres.
2. Capital cost is less.
3. It can be positioned in backward position.
4. It requires less space.
Disadvantages:
1. Greater wear in pipe line by ash.
2. System operation is noisy.
3. Capacity of the system is limited to 15 tons per
hour.
5. Dust collector:
Mechanical Dust Collectors:
(a) Gravitational separators:

Three different types of dust separators are shown in
Fig. 1.71. (a), (b) and (c). The arrangement shown in Fig
1.71(a) has the increasing cross sectional area. When the
dust laden gases are passed at high velocity at the
increasing cross section, the velocity is reduced and the

dust particles falls down.
a b c
Fig:1.71 G ravitational S ep ara tor.
In the arrangement shown in Fig. 1.71 (b), the

direction of flow of the gas is suddenly changed. By this,
the heavier particles settle down quickly.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 1.71(c) has baffles.

When the gas passed over this, the dust particles are
knocked out and settles down.
(b) Bag house dust collector

When low sulphur content coal and higher efficiency
of the dust collection is required, fabric filters are used as
an alternative to electrostatic precipitator.
The flue gas is sent inside the bags, then through the
cloth into the house and then out. To avoid excess fabric
friction, reverse flow of air is periodically supplied to clean
the bag. Bag house dust collector has an efficiency of 99.9%
and the efficiency is independent of amount of dust in the
flue gas. It requires more maintenance. H 2SO 4is formed
when SO3 combines with water vapour. The flue gas
temperature should be maintained at a temperature above
dew point temperature of sulphuric acid in order to avoid
its attack on the system. Dew point temperature of acid
varies from 60C to 170C.
There are three types of bag house filters, as given

below.
(i) Open pressure type
Fig. 1.72(a) shows this arrangement, In this, the fan
is located on the dust loaded side and it can be operated
with open sides, with the protection provided from weather.
It is constructed with corrugated steel (or) asbestos cement
sheets. It can have open grating at the cell plate level and
no hopper insulation is required.
C le a ned Ga s C le a ned Ga s
O utle t O utle t
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
C orrugated . . . . .
H ousing . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . O pe n
. . . . . G ra ting
. . . . .
. . . . . . . .
Flue
G as . . . . . . .
from Fa n . . . . .
. . . .
. . . ..
. . .
. .
Fig:1.72 (a) Open Pressure Bag House Filter
(ii) Closed pressure types:

It is used for gases having high Dew point
temperature. The arrangement is shown in Fig. (b). It is
an air tight system and fan is located to inlet side of bag
C le a ne d G a s C le a ne d G a s
O utle t O utle t
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . C o rrug ated
. . . . . H o usin g
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . . C lo sed
. . . . . . . .
Flue . . . . . . .
G as . . . . .
Fro m Fa n . . . .
. . . ..
. . .
. .
Fig:1.72 (b ) C losed Pressu re Bag H ou se F ilter
house similar to open system. The structure walls and

hopper are insulated and the floor of the unit is closed.
(iii) Closed suction type.
The arrangement is shown in Fig. (c). It is same as
that of closed pressure type but in this, the fan is located
at the outlet of bag house clean gas side. In this, the floor,
walls and hopper are insulated. It is suitable for gases
having dew point temperature ranging 75C to 85C .
C le a n G a s C le a n G a s
to Fa n to Fa n
C lo sed a ll
W elded
H ousing
. . ..
Flue G a s
..
from . .. . .
. .
P rocess . ..
. .. .. . ...
. . ..
. .
Fig:1.72 (c) Closed Suction Bag House
Advantages of the baghouse filters:

1. Its efficiency remains constant irrespective of gas
resistivity because cleaning mechanism is not
electrostatic in nature as an electrostatic
precipitator.
2. It has high collection efficiency usually more than
99.9%.
3. Cheaper than the electrostatic precipitators.
6. Cyclone Separators (Cyclone dust collector):
The high velocity flue gas with dust particles enter
tangentially into a conical shell with high velocity. A
whirling motion is imparted to the gas within the shell. By
this, the heavier dust particles are thrown to the sides of
shell the dust particles fallen down and is collected in the
dust collector. The gas is then passed through the
C le a ned Ga s O ut
S eco nda ry C ha m be r
... . ... .
... ...
.. .. .
...... ...... . G as in
..... .. ....
.... ..
....
...
..
.. ... ..
... .. ....
.... ..
.. .. .
...
.....
....
........
.......
... .
... . .. C olle cted F ly - A sh
.... .
.... . . ............ . .. ... .
.. . . . .
Fig:1.73 Cyclon e Dust Collecto r
secondary chamber where dust particles, if any, are

separated. Now the clean gas comes out of the chamber.
This is most suitable for pulverised fuel firing units.
1.14 DRAUGHT
Draught is an essential part in thermal power plant.
The functions of the draught are:
1. To supply required quantity of air to the furnace

for combustion of fuel.
2. To draw the combustion products through the

system.
3. To remove burnt products from the system.
Draught is defined as the small pressure difference

required between the fuel bed (furnace) and out side air to
maintain constant flow of air and to discharge the gases
through chimney to the atmosphere. Draught can be
obtained by using chimney fan, steam (or) air jet (or)

combination of these.
1.14.1 Classification of Draught

1. Natural draught: In this, only chimney is used for
producing the draught.
2. Artificial draught: In this, the draught is produced

by steam jet or by fan.
(a) Steam jet draught: Steam jet is used for creating

draught in the system.
(b) Mechanical draught: Fan or blower is used for creating

draught in the system.
(i) Induced draught: The flue gas is sucked through the

system by a fan or steam jet.
(ii) Forced draught: The air is forced into the system by

a blower or steam jet.
1.14.1.1. Natural draught

In natural draught, a tall chimney is erected. The
chimney is a vertical tubular masonry structure or
Pa Pa
C h im ney
H H
Co mb ustion
C h am ber
G ra te Le ve l
Fig:1.74 Natural D raug ht

reinforced concrete. It is constructed for enclosing a column

of exhaust gases to produce draught. The flue gases are
discharged at enough height so that the air pollution is
prevented. The natural draught created by the tall chimney
is due to the temperature difference between hot gases in
the chimney and cold atmospheric air outside the chimney.
Let H  height of the chimney above the grate level
in m
N
P a  atm. pressure in
m2
w a and w g  weight densities of atm air and hot gases
N
The pressure at grate from chimney side in
m3
P 1  P a  w gH
The pressure at grate from atmospheric side.
P 2  P a  w aH
Since, the density varies along the height of the

chimney, the average density is considered for calculation.
The net pressure acting on the grate is given by
P  P 2  P 1 as w a  w g
 P a  w aH  P a  w gH
N
 H w a  wg
m2
 H a  g m m of w ater head.

The pressure difference in chimney should be between

10 to 12 mm of water head.
Merits of natural draught:

1. No external power is required.
2. Since the gases are discharged at high level, air
pollution is less.
3. Maintenance cost is practically low.
4. It has longer life.
5. Capital cost is less than the artificial draught.
Demerits of natural draught:

1. Maximum pressure available for producing draught
is less.
2. Flue gases have to be discharged at high
temperature for better draught resulting in wasting
of heat.
3. Heat cannot be extracted for economizer,
superheater (or) air-pre heater since the effective
draught would be reduced.
4. Overall efficiency of the plant is reduced because the
gases are discharged at high temperature.
5. Poor combustion and increased specific fuel
consumption.
6. Not flexible under peak load.
1.14.1.2. Artificial draught:

In modern power plants, the draught should be
flexible to meet the fluctuating loads and it should be
independent of atmospheric conditions. Nowadays, the
modern power plants produce 20,000 tons of steam per
hour. To achieve this, the aid of draft fans become must
and by employing the draft fans, the height of the chimney

would be reduced. The artificial draught is more economical
when the required draught is above 40 mm of water. The
artificial draught is classified into forced draught, induced
draught and balanced draught.
1.14.2 Forced draught:
B o iler
To E xh a ust
B low e r
S tack or
A ir C h im ne y
P re he a ter
Fu rn ace
G ra te
F ig:1.75 Forced D raugh t E con o m ise r
In this system, the blower is located at the base of

the boiler near the grate. The blower is driven by steam
or electricity.
Air is forced to the furnace by forced fan and the flue

gases are forced to chimney through economiser and air
preheater. This system is known as positive draught system
since the pressure of air and hot gases in this system are
above atmospheric pressure. The chimney discharges the
hot gases at higher level to prevent air pollution.
Merits:
1. Since the fan handles cold air, the fan size and the
power required is less.
2. No need of water cooled bearings because the air
being handled is cold air.
3. Pressure throughout the system is above

atmospheric pressure so the air leakage into the
furnace is reduced.
Demerit:
The furnace cannot be opened for firing and inspection
because while opening, the high pressure air will try to
blow out suddenly and furnace may stop.
1.14.3 Induced draught:
In a induced draught, a blower is placed near (or) at
the base of the chimney. The fan is driven by steam or
electricity. The fan sucks the flue gas from the furnace
creating a partial vacuum inside the furnace. Thus
atmospheric air is induced to flow through the furnace to
aid the combustion of fuel. The flue gases drawn by the
fan passes through chimney to the atmosphere.
Fig. 1.76. In duced Draught
Merits:
1. The gases could be discharged at lower temperature
after recovering most of their heat in economizer
and air pre heater.
2. The chimney height can be reduced since it

discharges flue gases only.
Demerits:
1. The furnace can not be opened for firing and
inspection because while the furnace is opened the
cold air enters the furnace and dilute the
combustion and hence the heat may be lost.
2. Water cooled bearings are needed for the fan to with
stand high temperature of the flue gases.
3. Air leakage into the furnace is possible since the
pressure inside the furnace is below atmospheric
pressure.
1.14.4 Balanced draught:
To E xh a ust
B oiler
C him ne y
B low er E con om ise r
B low er
Furn ace
G ra te
A ir P re hea ter
Fig:1.77 Balanced Draugh t
In this induced draught system, when the furnace is

opened for firing, the cold air enters the furnace and dilute
the combustion. In the forced draught system, when the
furnace is opened for firing, the high pressure air will try
to blow out suddenly and furnace may stop. Hence the
furnace cannot be opened for firing or inspection in both
the systems, if they are used separately.
Balanced draught which is a combination of induced

and forced draught is used to overcome the above stated
difficulties.
In this, one blower is located at the base of the boiler
and other is placed at the base of the chimney. The
pressure distribution in the balanced draught is uniform.
The pressure of air below the grate is above atmospheric
pressure. This helps uniform combustion. The pressure of
air above the grate is below atmospheric. This helps in
removing hot flue gases quickly from the combustion zone.
The pressure inside the furnace is nearly atmospheric.
Hence, there is no blow out of flames or no entry of outside
air into the furnace if the doors are opened for firing and
inspection.
1.15 STOCKERS:
There are two common methods used for burning coal.
1. Stocker firing 2. Pulverised fuel firing.
C O 2+ O 2+N 2+H 2 O
Flam e
S e co n da ry
Air
G re en C o al
V M + C O +C O 2 +N 2 +H 2
. . .... . . . ..
. .. ... .. .. .
.. . . . .
.. .. . .
. . .. .
. .. . .. ..
. . .. .
. . .. .
. . .. .
In can de sce nt
. . .
.. . .
. . .
. . .
C o ke C O + C O 2 + N 2 +H 2
.
.
.
A sh
G ra te
P rim ary a ir
Fig:1.78 P rinciple o f O verfeed Sto ker
The stocker firing method is used for firing solid coal

where as pulverised firing method is used for firing
pulverised coal.
Stockers are generally used to fire solid fuels in the

furnace. Stockers carry the fuel into the furnace for
combustion. They discharge the combustion products to the
appropriate place. The different types of stokers are:
1. Over feed stokers
(a) Travelling grate stockers
(b) Spread stockers
2. Under feed stockers
(a) Single retort stoker,
(b) Multi retort stoker
1.15.1 Overfeed stokers:

Combustion mechanism:
In overfeed stockers, the coal is fed on the grate above
the entry point of the air. The primary air is forced through
bottom of the grate by the forced draught fan. The air gets
heated while it passes through grate openings and ash.
Then it passes through a layer of incandescent (glowing
with heat) cock, where the oxygen O 2 reacts with coke
(carbon) to form carbon-di-oxide CO 2. The water vapour in
the air reacts with incandescent coke and forms
carbon-di-oxide CO 2, carbon monoxide (CO) and free
hydrogen (H 2). The raw coal is continuously supplied over
the fuel bed, the volatile matters are removed by the heat
of the incandescent coke by distillation. The gases leaving
the surface of the fuel bed are CO 2, CO, N 2, H 2, H 2O and

combustible volatile matter. Secondary air is supplied over
the surface of the fuel bed for burning the combustible
gases. During incandescent, carbon in the fuel is lost by
oxidation and only ash remains. The ash settles down at
the bottom of the grate.
(a) Travelling grate stokers:
Travelling grate stoker is of two types 1. Travelling
chain grate stoker and 2. Travelling bar grate stoker.
1. Travelling chain grate stoker:
O ver Fire O r
S eco nda ry Air P orts
B oiler
H opp er
Furn ace
A dju stab le
Fuel G a te . ... . . . .. . ... . .. .. . ... . .. . . ... .
.. .
. ..
. .. .
. .. . ... ..
...
. .. .. ...
........ ... .... .
E ndless cha in P rim ary Air .
E xha ust
A sh
Fig:1.79 Traveling Chain Grate S toker
In this type, the grate surface is made up of a series

of cast iron links connected by pins to form an endless
chain. This chain forms the fuel bed support. The chain
travels over two sprocket wheels, one at the front of the
furnace and another at the back. The front wheel is driven
by a variable speed drive mechanism.
Working:
By gravity, the coal is fed to the travelling chain from
the hopper. The depth of the fuel bed is adjusted by
adjusting the fuel grate opening. According to the
combustion, the speed of the chain is controlled.
Through the air inlets, the primary air required for
combustion enters. The air duct under the grate is divided
into sections to enable air supply to different ports of the
stoker. The secondary air is supplied through the ports
provided in the furnace walls. Both primary and secondary
air supplied provides turbulance required for rapid
combustion. The ash falls down at the rear end of the
stoker and deposited in the ash pit.
Advantages:
1. Simple in construction.
2. Ash crusher is not required since no ash clinker is
formed.
3. Heat releasing rate can be controlled by adjusting
the speed of the chain.
4. Low initial cost and maintenance cost.
5. High heat release per unit volume of the furnace.
Disadvantages:
1. Since the amount of coal carried on the grate is less,
this cannot be used for high capacity boilers.
2. Some coal is lost in the form of fine particles with
ashes.
3. Pre heated air temperature is limited to 180C
2. Travelling bar grate stoker:

Chain grate stoker and bar grate stoker differ only
in construction. The grate surface of bar grate stoker is
made up of a series of cast iron grate bars. The bar grate
stoker is used to burn lignite and small size anthracite coal
etc.
(b) Spreader stoker
C oal
Fura nce
C oal
h op per
.. . ... ... . . .. .
. ..
.. . ... ... . . .. . .. .. . . . .
..
Feed er . .. .
.
. .. . . .. . . .. ... . . . . . . .. .. . ...... .. . . . .... . . .. .. . . .. .

. ..
. .. . .. .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. . .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . .
S pread er . .... .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . ... . .... .... ..... .. . .
. . . .. .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. .
. . . .. . Fuelbe d . . . ... . ... ... ..
..
A ir
Fig:1.80 Spreader stoker
Spreader stoker consists of a hopper, feeder, spreader

and openings for admitting air. In front of furnace wall,
the coal feeding and distributing mechanism is located. The
feeder is a rotating drum which consists of number of small
blades. Spreader consists of a fast rotating shaft carrying
twisted blades. Both travelling and stationary grates are
used with spreader stoker.
Working: By gravity, the coal is fed to the feeder from

hopper. According to the combustion requirement, the
feeder supplies the coal to the spreader.
The fast rotating blades of the spreader receives the
coal particles coming from the feeder and distributes the
coal uniformly over the grate. A part of coal is burnt in
suspension and the remaining is burnt in the grate. Forced
draught fan is used for supplying the required amount of
air through grate openings.
Advantages:
1. Wide variety of coal can be burnt easily.
2. The clinkering problem is reduced by the spreading
action.
3. Flexible to load changes since most of the heat is
released by burning coal in suspension.
4. Fuel burns rapidly.
Disadvantages:
1. An efficient dust collecting equipment is needed.
2. It does not work satisfactorily for varying size of
coal.
1.15.2 Under feed stokers:

In this type, both the fuel and air are fed from the
bottom to the top in the same direction. The primary air
passes through raw coal first. By the heat of incandescent
fuel bed, combustible volatile matter is formed from the
raw coal. The mixture of air and volatile matter passes
through the ignition zone and then enters the incandescent
coke. Hence the combustion process is highly efficient and
gives high rate of heat release. The reactions that take
place in incandescent coke is same as over feed stoker.

Secondary air is supplied to burn the volatile matters.
(a) Single retort stoker
B o iler
Flam e C O 2+ O 2+N 2+H 2 O
S e co n da ry air
V M +C O +C O 2 +N 2+ H 2
A sh
........
.... .....
.................
.... .............
... ..........
... ...
. ...........
Tu ye re s
.........
....... ..
........
... .. .
.........
... ....
In ca n de sce nt
.
H o pp er
c oke stea m
G re en coa l cylin de r
Ram p ushe rs
R e tort
U nd er Feed Stoker
F ig:1.81 Sin gle retort sto ker
This consists of a hopper, a cylinder fitted with ram,

tuyeres for air and pushers.
The coal is fed into the cylinder by gravity. Then the
coal is forced into the bottom of the horizontal trough by
the reciprocating ram. The pushers push the coal into the
grate. The air is supplied through tuyeres provided along
the grate. The ash and clinkers are collected in the ash pit
for removal.
(b) Multi retort stoker:
Multi retort stoker consists of a series of alternate
retorts and tuyere box. Each retort is fitted with pusher
plate for uniform coal distribution. The coal is fed by
gravity. This coal is pushed forward by the stoker ram.
Then the pushers force the coal down to the entire stoker.
Through tuyeres, the primary air is supplied. The ashes
are collected at the lower end of the stoker.
In ca n de sc e nt Zo ne
Tu ye re s
S tok er
D istillation Z on e .. . Ram
. ................
G re en C o al . . . .. . .. . ..................
. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . ......
. . . . .. . . ... .
.. .. . ... .. .
. . .
...............
...... .
...
..
.... ....
.
E x fe nsio n . .
.. .......
. .. . .
. . . . ..
.. .
. .. . . . . . . .
.. .
G rate
.. ......
.
. ...
. . . .
..
. ..
.
. .
.. ..
. . . ..
....
. . ..
.. .. .. .
.. ...
.
.. ..
. . .
... .
. .
...
... .
.
.. . .
..
P u sh e rs
..
.
W ind B ox
.
.
. ..
.. .
Damper
In le t
D ischa rge
Damper
Ash
Fig:1.82. U nde r F eed M ulti - R eto rt Stoker
1.15.3 Pulveriser:
To increase the surface exposure, the coal is
pulverised. This enables rapid combustion. The pulverised
coal is produced by grinding the raw coal in pulverizing
mills. There are different types of pulverising mills namely
1. ball mill, 2. hammer mill and 3. bull and race mill
A ball mill consists of steel balls partly filled in a
drum. The drum is rotated slowly. The raw coal is fed to
the feeding hoppers. The coal moves to the drum through
the classifiers and screw conveyors. As the drum rotates,
there is a continuous impact between coal and the steel
balls. Thus the coal is powdered. Hot air is passed through
the drum. This air picks up the powdered coal with it. The
coal air mixture enters the classifiers. In classifier oversized
coal is returned back to the drum. The powdered coal and
A ir o ut A ir o ut
E x ha u st H o pp er E x ha u st
M otor Fa n Fa n
M otor
M ixtu re
o f H o t A ir
& F ine C o al
G ea rs M otor
C la s sifie r C la s sifie r
B e aring
B e aring
R o tatin g
D ru m
S c re w C o nveyo r
fo r C o al
H o t A ir from A ir P reh ea te r
F ig:1 .8 3 D oub le C lassifier B a ll M ill.
air mixture is drawn by the exhaust fan and supplied to

the burners.
Pulverised fuel firing system:
There are two methods of pulverised fuel firing
system.
1. Unit or direct system,
2. Bin or central system.
R aw C o al
P rim ary C rusher
M ag ne tic S ep arator
C oal D rier
C oal B u nkers
Central system
C oal S cale
Feede r
Fig:1.84. Pulverized Coal

Handling Plant
1.15.3.1 Unit (or) direct system:

A line diagram of unit system is given in the
Fig.1.84(a) and 1.85.
The raw coal is supplied to the feeder from the coal

bunker. Hot air (or) flue gas is passed through the feeder
Bu rner
A ir + P ow d ered C oa l
R a w C o al Bunker
. . .. ... ........ . . Fu rnace
.. . . .. . . . ... .
. ......
. . .. .... . .
Se pa ra tor
Fe ed er
Pre hea ted
Pu lverisin g M ill I.D . F an Se co ndary A ir
Pre hea ted A ir or

Flue G a se s
in F or C oa l D rying Fig:1.85 Unit- System
to dry the coal. The dried coal is fed into the pulverising
mill and powdered. The induced draught fan brings primary
air to the pulverising mill. This air carries coal with it and
supplies to the burner through pipe. The secondary air is
added in the burner before the fuel enters the combustion
chamber.
Advantages:
1. The layout is simple and economical.
2. It gives direct control of combustion.
3. Coal transportation system is simple.
4. Maintenance cost is less.
Disadvantages:
1. Power consumption is more at part loads by the poor
performance of the pulverizing mill.
2. Plant capacity is higher than central system.
3. Fan blades are subjected to wear and tear

excessively as they handle mixture of air & coal
particles.
1.15.3.2 BIN (or) Central System
R aw C o al B u nker
I.D .Fan
C yclone
S epa rater S eco nda ry
A ir
M ill
.
. . .. ..
.
....
.....
...
.....
..
C old Air .. . .. . .. .. ..... ... ..
O ut Feed er
...............
..............
C onveyo r ....... ...
.
C entral
H ot A ir In P ulverised
Fuel Bu nke r
P ulverised Fu el F ee der
F.D .fan
Fig:1.86 Central Or Bin System
A line diagram of bin system is shown in Fig.1.84(b)

and 1.86. By gravity, the coal is supplied to the feeder or
drier from the raw coal bunker. The coal is dried by passing
hot gases, preheated air or bleeder steam. Then it is fed
to the pulverising mill where it is pulverised.
An induced draught fan draws coal powder and air
from the pulveriser and then it is passed through cyclone
separator where air is separated from coal. The separated
coal is transferred to the central fuel bunker (bin) by the
conveyor system. Then the powdered coal enters the feeder.
A forced draught fan supplies primary air into the feeder
and the mixture of air and powdered coal is supplied to

the burner.
Advantages:
1. More flexible system changes can be made according
to the demand.
2. Quantity of fuel & air can be controlled separately.
3. Break down in the coal supply will not affect the
functioning of the boiler for some time.
4. Less power consumption.
5. Less labour requirement.
6. Burner operation is independent of coal preparation.
7. Sometimes the pulveriser can be made idle, if there
is sufficient fuel in bunker.
Disadvantages:
1. Capital coal is high.
2. Space requirement is more.
3. Driers must be used.
4. There is possibility of fire hazard of stored pulveriser.
5. Coal transportation system is more complicated.
6. Operational and maintenance cost is high.
1.16 FEED WATER TREATMENT

Raw water coming from different sources contains
dissolved salts and un-dissolved or suspended impurities.
Therefore it is necessary to remove harmful salts dissolved
into the water before feeding it to the boiler.
1.16.1 Need for feed water treatment

1. Scaling on the inside wall of different
heat-exchangers due the deposition of dissolved salts
and suspended impurities will form and thus these

will create excessive pressure and thermal stress
inside the heat-exchangers, which may lead to the
explosion and serious hazards for boilers.
2. The dissolved salts may react with various parts of
boiler through which it flows, thereby corrode the
surfaces.
3. Corrosion damage may occur to turbine blades.
Hence, feed water treatment is very much required to
remove such dissolved and suspended impurities from water
before feeding it to boiler.
1.6.2 Arrangements for Feed Water Treatment

For continuous supply of feed water to boiler, after
removing impurities, there are two types of plant generally
incorporated. These are:
1. Chlorination
2. Demineralization plant (DM plant)
3. Reverse Osmosis plant (RO plant)
1. Chlorination
Chlorine (C12) has been used for many years to treat
municipal and industrial water and waste waters to control
microorganisms because of its capacity to inactivate most
pathogenic microorganisms quickly. The effectiveness of
chlorine is dependent on the chlorine concentration, time of
exposure, and the pH of the water. Chlorine is used for
treating potable water where a residual chlorine
concentration near 0.5 mg/L is commonly used. In a water
treatment scheme, fouling of water intake lines, heat
exchangers, sand filters, etc., may be prevented by
maintaining a free residual chlorine concentration of 0.5 -

1.0 mg/L or higher, dependent on the organic content of
the incoming water. Chlorination for RO treatment has
been applied usually where biological fouling prevention is
required (i.e., typically for surface waters). Chlorine is
added continuously at the intake, and a reaction time of
20-30 min should be allowed. A free residual chlorine
concentration of 0.5 - 1.0 mg/L is allowed. A free residual
chlorine concentration of 0.5 - 1.0 mg/L should be
maintained through the whole treatment line.
Dechlorination upstream of the membranes is required,
however, to protect the membranes from oxidation.
2. Demineralization Plant
The function of demineralization plant is to remove
dissolved salt by ion exchange method (chemical method)
and there by producing pure feed water for boiler
Wa ter P ath
D egasser
Source
R e servoir
S tain er
S and
W ater
R aw
R aw S and
Wa ter Filte r
Tan k
D /M P la nt
Fig:1.87 Dem ineralization Plant
The salts which make the water hard are

generally-chloride, carbonates, bi-carbonates, silicates &
phosphates of sodium, potassium, iron, calcium and

magnesium.
In DM plant, there are three types of resin used for
boiler feed water treatment process –
1. Cation exchange resin
2. Anion exchange resin
3. Mixed Bed resin
Cation Exchange Resin

NaC l  RSO 3H  RSO 3 Na   HCl
Thus H 2SO 4, H 2CO 3 are also produced.
We have removed Na  but the water has become

acidic.
Anion Exchange Resin

HCl  R 4NOH  R 4NCl  H 2O
This way we have eliminated Cl and thus acidity of

the water is avoided.
Similar reaction for H 2SO 4 also.

D e ga sse r
Tow e r
W a te r Pa th D e ga sse r
S and F ree S um p
W a te r
Strong B ase
W ea k B ase
M ixed Be d
W e ak A cid
S tro ng A cid
To D ea era to r
C a tio n
A n io n
A n io n
C a tion
R esin
D /M W ate r
S tora ge Tan k
Fig:1.88 D - M Plant
Mixed Bed Resins

These mixed bed resins are used in Demineralization
plant of feed water treatment, to remove the ions (especially
Na  and SO 23  ) which may further present in the water
after forgoing process of purification.
Degasser
The function of degasser tower is to remove carbonate
ions by forming cabon-di-oxide. In degasser tower, stream
of water is poured from top & air is blown from bottom to
top. In the pressure of air, the carbonic acid H 2CO3
present in the water dissociates into H 2O and CO 2.
H 2CO 3  H 2O  CO 2
This CO 2 is free to mix with air.
3. Reverse Osmosis Plant (RO Plant)

Like demineralization plant, there is another stage of
water treatment which is known as reverse osmosis
plant (RO plant). It uses the process known as reverse
osmosis to produce salt-free water. The theoretical aspect
is described below:-
P>
Se m i - Permeable
M em bran e
H2O
Fig:1.89 R everse O s m osis

Reverse Osmosis: On the higher density solution (lower

density solvent) if a pressure (P), greater than osmotic
pressure  is applied, then the solvent molecules pass
through the semi-permeable membrane from higher density
solution to lower density solution. This phenomenon is
called reverse osmosis. This one is the important stage for
boiler feed water treatment process.
Reverse Osmosis Plant
In RO plant using reverse osmosis phenomenon
salt-free water is taken out from raw water after the sand
filtration. Purity of the salt-free water depends on
effectiveness of the permeable membrane.
The layout of a typical Reverse Osmosis Plant is
given below
So urce of Ba sket F ilter

Wa te r
R o Feed
P um p
NAOH
H rpo
HC L
M ulti G rade
Filter D e ga sser Tow er U FC
H P Pum p
Stag e R O
Stage R O
M B in
M CF
D e ga sser
2 nd
1 st
DM
Tank
Plant
S M BS
HCL
To R aw
AS
Wa te r
Tank
Fig:1.90 Reverse Osm osis Plant
Steam air pre-heater require some steam which will

reduce the efficiency of the power plant.
The procedure is described below:
1. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is injected to raw

water to kill the algae or bacteria present in the
raw water. Otherwise they may cause harm to the
multi grade-filter (MGF).
2. The multi-grade filter is the primitive type of filter
where sand, stone-chips, stones are used in stacks
to remove the large size suspended particles from
the raw water.
3. The net filter again removes medium-size suspended
particles, where the raw water passes through the
net minute vents.
4. Then by ultra-filtration very small suspended
particles are removed. After long usage of
ultra-filtration unit, it requires back-wash, and then
it is back washed with water & three chemicals, viz.
HCL, NaOH and NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite). HCl
Removes iron by dissolving it. It also removes the
basic salts those are rejected on UFU.
NaOH  It helps to remove acidic salt.
NaOCl  To kill algae and bacteria inside the UFU.
5. After ultra-filtration the water is stored into RO

feed tank & then pumped with RO feed pump of
Reverse Osmosis Plant. In the channel the water is
mixed with HCL (for pH controlling, as the water
coming from RO plant or RO permeate water should
have pH around 6.0) and SMBS (sodium meta
bi-sulphate) [Na 2S 2O 5]. Due to the presence of
sodium hypochlorite, the water is chlorinated. To
remove excess chlorine SMBS is used. If excess
chlorine is not removed, then the semi-permeable

membrane may get damaged. It is also mixed with
anti-scaling reagent (AS), which reacts with those
chemicals which form scale inside the channel.
6. Then the water is passed through micro-cartridge
filter (MCF) which removes the other suspended
particles & the precipitate formed by the reaction of
anti-scaling reagent with the scaling chemicals.
7. In this stage of boiler feed water treatment, the
water is fed to RO unit by HP pump, where after
successive filtration by 1st & 2nd stage, RO it is fed
to degasser unit.
8. After degasification, the water is passed through DM
plant - MB (Mixed bed) resin & stored into DM
water storage tank.
1.17 BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE

The maximum efficiency is achieved in carnot cycle.
Tmax  T min T 1  T2
The Carnot cycle efficiency  
Tmax T1
To increase the efficiency of the actual engine, ie to

approach the carnot cycle efficiency, the total heat should
be supplied at constant temperature T 1 and rejected at
T2. This can be achieved only by using wet vapour and not
by using superheated vapour.
The thermal efficiency depends on only higher

temperature T 1 since lower temperature T2 is fixed by the
natural sink to which heat is rejected. So T 1 should be
maximum to the possible extent.
M ercury
Tu rbine M ercury Steam Steam
Electric Tu rbine Electric
a G ene rator G ene rator
a
1
M ercury
b Su pe r H e ater Su pe r
G ene rator
Steam H e ated 2
(M ercury
6 Steam
heater)
M ercury C on den se r o r
d Steam G enera tor
5 Steam
Wa te r 3
c 4 C o nd en ser
M ercury Econ omizer Wa te r

Fe ed P um p Fe ed P um p
Fig :1.91 Schem atic Diagram of Binary Vap our Cycle.
Mercury, Diphenyl ether

C 6 H 52 O , Aluminium
bromide and Ammonium chloride are the working fluids
having desirable thermodynamic properties like high critical
temperature and low critical pressure. Among the above
fluids, mercury is having desirable high critical temperature
588.4 C and low critical pressure (21 bar).
But we can not use mercury alone since its saturation

temperature at atmospheric pressure is high 357C. So
binary vapour cycle using two fluids - mercury and water
are used to increase the thermal efficiency.
The mercury vapour leaving the mercury turbine is
condensed and the heat released during this condensation
is utilized to heat and evaporate the feed water to become
steam and this steam is expanded in the steam turbine to
produce work. Mercury turbine also produces work.
Thus, two fluids, T

m kg a
mercury and water are used
in binary vapour cycle. Heat M ercu ry
C ycle
1
rejected by mercury is d
c b
utilized by water in this 5 1 kg 6
cycle.
Ste am
The schematic 4 C ycle
2
diagram of binary 3
S
vapour cycle is shown in Fig:1.92 M ercury - Steam
Bin ary Cycle
Fig.1.92. T.S. diagram is
also shown.
Refer the diagram. The binary vapour cycle consists
of mercury cycle and water (steam) cycle.
MERCURY CYCLE (TOPPING CYCLE)
The mercury cycle a b c d is a simple Rankine cycle.

In this cycle, mercury is expanded in the mercury turbine
(process a  b ) and work is produced. The mercury leaving
the mercury turbine is condensed (process b  c in the
mercury condenser (steam generator) where heat is released
to heat and evaporate the feed water into steam. The
condensed mercury is pumped (process c  d to mercury
generator. Thus mercury cycle is completed.
STEAM CYCLE (BOTTOMING CYCLE)
As already stated, the heat rejected in the mercury

condenser heats and evaporates the (process 5 - 6) feed
water into steam. This steam is further heated by external
sources in the superheater (process 6 - 1) and become
superheated steam. This superheated steam is expanded in
the steam turbine (process 1-2) and is then condensed
(process 2 - 3). The condensate (feed water) is thus pumped

(process 3 -4), and is then preheated in the economizer
(process 4 - 5) and is then sent to mercury condenser (or)
steam generator and thus steam cycle is completed.
mass flow rate of mercury in mercury cycle
m
1 kg of steam in steam cycle
Heat supplied Q s  m ha  hd  1 h1  h6  h6  h4
Heat rejected Q r  h2  h3
Turbine work W T  m ha  hb  1 h1  h2
Pump work W P  m hd  hc  1 h4  h3
Qs  Qr W net WT  WP
 cycle   
Qs Qs Qs
3600 kg
SSC. Specific Steam Consumption  in
W net kWhr
Heat rejected by mercury = Heat absorbed by water

to become steam.
m hb  hc  h6  h5  h6  h3
. h6  h3
m
hb  hc
BINARY VAPOUR CYCLE PROBLEMS

Problem 1.18: A binary vapour cycle operates on mercury and
steam. Saturated mercury vapour at 4.5 bar is supplied to the
mercury turbine, from which it exhausts at 0.04 bar. The
mercury condenser generates saturated steam at 15 bar which
is expanded in a steam turbine to 0.04 bar. (i) Calculate the
overall efficiency of the cycle.
The properties of standard saturated mercury are

given below.
vf m3/kg vg P  bar tC hf kJ/kg hg kJ/kg sf kJ/kgK sg kJ/kgK
79.9  106 0.068 4.5 450 62.93 355.98 0.1352 0.5397
76.5  10 6 5.178 0.04 216.9 29.98 329.85 0.0808 0.6925
Solution
o m kg
4 50 c a
4 .5 ba r
Hg
d
o 0 .04
2 16 .9 c
c b ar b
o 1 kg
2 00 .4 c 1
1 5 bar
H 2o
3
0 .04 b ar 2
S
Fig. 1.93
The binary vapour cycle is shown in fig. 1.93

Mercury Cycle:
ha  hg at 4.5 bar  355.98 kJ/kg; sa  sb (isentropic

expansion)
sa  sg at 4.5 bar  0.5357  sb
sb  0.5357  sf  xb sfg at 0.04 bar
 0.0808  xb 0.6925  0.0808 
xb  0.744
hb  hf  xb hfg at 0.04 bar
 29.98  0.744 329.85  29.98   253 kJ/kg
Mercury turbine work W Tm  ha  hb
 355.98  253  103 kJ/kg
Mercury pump work W pm  hd  hc  vf P a  P b  100

0.04
. .
[ . To make P a and P b in kPa, multiply by 100]
 76.5  10  6 4.5  0.04 100  3.41  10  2 kJ/kg
W net m  W T  W Pm  103  3.41  10  2  102.97 kJ/kg
Heat supplied in mercury generator  Q sm  ha  hd
W p m  3.41  10  2  hd  hc
hd  3.41  10  2  hc
hd  3.41  10  2  29.98  30 kJ/kg

. .
[ . hc  hf at 0.04 bar  29.98 ]
Q sm  ha  hd  355.98  30  325.98 KJ/Kg
W net 102.97
 mercury cycle    31.59 %
Qs 325.98
Steam Cycle:
For 15 bar and t  300C, from superheated steam

table, h1  3038.9 kJ/kg
h1  hg at 15 bar  2789.9 kJ/kg; s1  s 2 isentropic

expansion
s1  sg at 15 bar  6.441 kJ/kg K  s2
s2  6.441  sf  x2 sfg at 0.04 bar.
 0.423  x2 8.053 
6.441  0.423
x2   0.7473
8.053
h2  hf  x2 hfg at 0.04 bar
 121.4  0.7473 2433.1  1939.66 kJ/kg
Steam turbine work  WTs  h1  h2  2789.9  1939.66
 850.24 kJ/kg
Water pump work  Wps  h4  h3  vf P 1  P 2  100
 0.001 15  0.04  100
 1.496 kJ/kg
h4  h3  1.496
h4  h3  1.496  121.4  1.496  122.9 kJ/kg
. .
[ . h3  hf at 0.04 bar  121.4 kJ/kg]
Q ss  h1  h4  2789.9  122.9  2667 kJ/kg
W net s  WTs  W Ps
 850.24  1.496  848.74 kJ/kg
W net 848.74
 steam cycle    0.3182  31.82%
Qs 2667
Overall efficiency of Binary cycle overall

overall   mercury  steam  mercury  steam
 0.3159  0.3182  0.3159  0.3182  0.534  53.4%
Aliter: To find  overall in easy way. Write energy balance

equation.
Heat rejected by mercury = heat absorbed by (water)
m hb  hc  1 h1  h4
where m  amount of mercury circulating for 1 kg of steam.
h1  h4 2667
m   11.96 kg
hb  hc 253  29.98
Q stotal  m ha  hd  11.96  325.98  3898.3 k J/Kg
. .
[ . ha  hd  325.98 ]
. .
W T Total  m ha  hb  1 h1  h2 [ . Wp is
neglected]
 11.96 103  1 850.24   2082.12 kJ/kg

. .
[ . ha  hb  103 and h1  h2  850.24 ]
W net WT 2082.12
 overall     0.5341  53.41%
Qs Qs 3898.3
1.18 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY/

COGENERATION SYSTEM
Waste heat is the heat which is not at all used and
exhausted out as a waste product. Waste heat is normally
available from the industry in the form of process steam
and water at high temperature. In every type of industry,
the waste heat is also discharged with the exhaust gases.
Heat from the waste hot streams is recovered either
in the form of sensible heat or latent heat. When the heat
is recovered in the form of sensible heat, the fluid used for
carrying heat is either air (or) water.
The latent heat recovery is the most common and
versatile method of waste heat recovery when used for
power generation.
In thermal and nuclear power plants, large quantity
of heat at around 70C is discharged into the atmosphere.
The following are the applications developed to use large
amounts of very low temperature waste heat.
1. Agriculture
2. Green houses
3. Animal shelters
4. Aquacultural uses
5. Waste heat utilization for waste water treatment.
The following are the applications developed to use
large amounts of very low temperature waste heat.
1. Agriculture
2. Green houses
3. Animal shelters
4. Aquacultural uses
5. Waste heat utilization for waste water treatment.
The following are the waste material which can be
used as fuel for power generation.
1. Municipal waste.
2. Industrial waste
3. Paper waste
4. Rubber waste.
These wastes create dumping problems and pollution
problems. With the increasing prices of conventional fuels,
the use of these wastes as fuel are considered as economic
proposal for power generation.
The energy content in the most of the waste material
is high and great amount of energy content can be
recovered if used as fuel.
Waste Heat Boilers

The waste heat boilers use the waste heat of gases
coming out of diesel engines and gas turbines at high
temperature (or) use the waste as a fuel in the incinerators.
Some boilers use the industrial dirty gases for power
generation.
Normally, fire tube boilers are used to recover the

waste heat from low pressure gases exhausted by diesel
engines (or) gas turbines.

Power Plant Engineering

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(For B.E.

Mechanical Engineering Students)

(As per New Syllabus of Leading Universities)

Dr. S.Ramachandran, M.E., Ph.D.,

AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

Unit 1: Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

Unit 2: Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle

Unit 3: Nuclear Power Plant

Unit 4: Power from Renewable Energy

Unit 5: Energy, Economic and Environmental issues

I. Coal Based Thermal Power Plants

1.8.1 Conversion of Oil fired boilers to fluidized

1.8.2 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion system. 1.63

(ii) Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion

(iii) Pressurised Fluidised Bed

1.9 Steam Turbines ............................................................... 1.72

1.9.3.2 Degree of reaction ......................................... 1.79

1.11.13.3 Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers1.107

1.11.13.4 Air Cooled or Dry-type Cooling

2. Diesel, Gas Turbine and Combined Cycle Power

2.16.3 Regeneration.................................................... 2.65

3. Nuclear Power Plant

4. Power From Renewable Energy

4.5 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines............................. 4.26

4.11.3 Characteristic of a good wind power

2. Closed cycle MHD .................................................4.122

5. Energy, Economic and Environmental Issues of

4. Block meter rate ......................................... 5.22

5.8.3 Water Pollution By Thermal Power Plant

5.8.4.2 Automatic controls for feed water.... 5.52

COAL BASED THERMAL

1.1 RANKINE CYCLE (Simple Steam Power Cycle)

Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the

H ig h Pre ssure S team

pumped to the boiler

W T  h1  h2 kJ/kg

h1 and h2 can be taken from steam table for

(p1  high pressure (or) boiler pressure (or) inlet to

2 - 3 Constant pressure condensation

h3  hf at low pressure p2.

 vfp1  p2 kJ/kg

where vf for p2 from steam table

 W T If W p is negligib le

Thermal Efficiency: It is the ratio of net work done to

4 - 1 Heat Supplied in Boiler: Q supply

From Mollier diagram,

Problem 1.2: In a rankine cycle, the steam flows to turbine

Isentropic expansion. So, s1  s2

So, s2  6.123 kJ/kg K T

But at 0.2 bar,

it is wet steam at exit p 2 = p 3 =0.2ba r

6.123  0.832  x27.077 

Dryness fraction at the exit of turbine x2  0.748

h2  hf  x2hfg for 0.2 bar  251.5  0.748 2358.4 

vf3  0.001017 m 3/kg for 0.2 bar.

W p  vf3p1  p2  0.001017 35  0.2  10 2  3.54 kJ/kg

h4  251.5  3.54  255.04 kJ/kg

To Find Pump Work

To Find Turbine Work

To Find Rankine Efficiency

Q s  h1  h4  2802  255.04  2546.96 kJ/kg

W net  W T  W p  787.28  3.54  783.74 kJ/kg

To Find Condenser Heat Flow Q rej