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Article history: The residual hoop stresses in pressurised pipes caused by long external indentations and the subsequent
Received 8 February 2008 stress variations caused by internal pressure fluctuations are investigated for a range of residual
Received in revised form indentation depths, support positions, pressure magnitudes and indenter radii, 7using the Finite Element
29 August 2008
(FE) method, including initial stress and geometrical non-linearity effects. Three materials are used in the
Accepted 6 January 2009
investigation to assess the effects of material properties on the stress variations. A semi-empirical
formulation is developed, based on an imperfect, indented pipe model and the results of the FE analyses,
Keywords:
to predict the variations of the residual stresses in the pipes.
Indentation
Plasticity Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Pressurised pipes
Finite element analysis
0308-0161/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2009.01.001
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 429
Table 1
Notation Material properties.
It should be noted that the hoop stress remaining in the pres- 5. Finite element results
surised pipe after the removal of the indenter is referred to in this
paper as the residual hoop stress, sr, and the remaining indentation The results presented in this paper mainly relate to the central
after removing the indenter from the pressurised pipe is referred to contact point between the indenter and the pipe on the outer
as the residual indentation depth, dr. surface. The maximum tensile residual hoop stress values after
removing the indenter from the pressurised pipe always occur at
this position. Since the residual stresses and stress variations
4. Finite element modelling associated with the internal pressure fluctuations are affected by
The ABAQUS FE software [12] is used for the analyses. For all of
the cases, it is only necessary to model one half of the pipes, due to (moving down)
the symmetry. All of these symmetric models consist of 4240,
Indenter
1000
A
α
t y
800
R
True Stress (MPa)
600 x
o
Grade B
θ
400 X65 θ
X52 B
200
0 C
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
True Strain
Fig. 1. True stress–strain curves for X65 SAW, grade B and X52 pipe steels. Fig. 2. Indented pipe geometry.
430 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434
Also, it can be seen that even when the pressure deceases by 1.28 or
2.56 MPa, the residual hoop stress distribution changes are rela-
tively small and they remain positive on the outer surface and
negative on the inner surface. Therefore, since fatigue damage is
most likely to occur in regions where variations of the tensile
residual stresses occur, the results presented in this paper are
mainly associated with the residual hoop stresses on the outer
surfaces of the indented pipes, at the a ¼ 0 position. Fig. 4 also
indicates that the peak value of 886 MPa of the residual hoop stress
Fig. 3. FE mesh in the region of the indentation used in the indented ring analyses.
is much higher than the ultimate tensile stress (675 MPa) of the
X65 Saw material. This is because the maximum stress value of the
true stress versus strain curve shown in Fig. 1 is much higher than
the residual indentation depth, the pipe geometry, the angular that of the corresponding ultimate tensile stress. Also, since the von
support positions and the indenter radius, all of these parameters Mises yield criterion is used in the FE analyses, some stress
are investigated separately. components, e.g. the hoop stress value, may in some cases be
higher than the corresponding von Mises stress value whose
maximum value is the same as that of true stresses in Fig. 1. This can
5.1. Typical residual hoop stress distributions be seen from Figs. 5–9 in Section 5.2.
Table 2
Dimensions, boundary conditions, loading conditions and some FE results.
FE No. Material D/t d mm r mm q q1 p MPa Dp1 MPa Dp2 MPa dr mm sr MPa Ds1/Dp1 Ds2/Dp2
FE1S X65 72 20 12.7 45 0 0 – – 0 0 – –
FE2S X65 72 40 12.7 45 0 0 – – 7.72 385 – –
FE3S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 0 – – 21.5 591 – –
FE4S X65 72 80 12.7 45 0 0 – – 37.6 670 – –
FE5S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 0 – – 54.6 713 – –
FE6S X65 72 120 12.7 45 0 0 – – 72.1 720 – –
FE7S X65 72 140 12.7 45 0 0 – – 89.9 727 – –
FE8S X65 72 20 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 0.801 338.5 52.5 53.6
FE9S X65 72 40 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 4.42 621.2 92. 94.9
FE10S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 6.77 763.6 116 120
FE11S X65 72 80 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 8.55 829.3 134 139
FE12S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.77 886 141 147
FE13S X65 72 120 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 12.3 937.5 161 169
FE14S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 1.28 1.28 ** 35.4 760 519 **
FE15S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 2.56 1.28 2.56 25.3 778 377 375
FE16S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 3.84 1.28 2.56 19 800 235 246
FE17S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 5.12 1.28 2.56 15 824 186 201
FE18S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 6.4 1.28 2.56 12 854 158 168
FE19S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 9.0 1.28 2.56 7.89 946 151 153
FE20S X65 72 100 6. 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.83 905 166 174
FE21S X65 72 100 20 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.72 872 133 138
FE22S X65 72 100 30 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.65 860 125 130
FE23S X65 72 100 50 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.6 839 119 125
FE24S X65 72 100 70 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.5 824 115 120
FE25S X65 72 100 100 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.3 802 109 114
FE26S X65 50.8 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 22.9 841 148 155
FE27S X65 41.6 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 34 822 153 160
FE28S X65 35.2 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 46 804 152 157
FE29S X65 30.5 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 56 799 145 148
FE30S X65 50.8 100 12.7 45 0 11 1.28 2.56 15.7 900 118 123
FE31S X65 41.6 100 12.7 45 0 13.6 1.28 2.56 19.8 910 107 111
FE32S X65 35.2 100 12.7 45 0 16.2 1.28 2.56 23.5 918 97 101
FE33S X65 30.5 100 12.7 45 0 18.9 1.28 2.56 27.4 928 91 94.3
FE34S X65 72 100 12.7 5 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10.5 1018 188 197
FE35S X65 72 100 12.7 25 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10.6 954 165 172
FE36S X65 72 100 12.7 65 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.52 815 123 127
FE37S X65 72 100 12.7 90 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10 722 103 106
FE38S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 4.92 1.28 2.56 7.02 497 115 123
FE39S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 6.17 1.28 2.56 6.68 608 114 120
FE40S Grade B 72 60 12.7 45 0 4.92 1.28 2.56 7.02 497 115 123
FE41S X52 72 60 12.7 45 0 6.17 1.28 2.56 6.68 608 114 120
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 431
500 850
300 800
100
750
-100
0 60 120 180 700
-300
650
-500 P=7.68 MPa
600
-700 P-P1=1.28 MPa 1.28 3.28 5.28 7.28
-900 P-P2=2.56 MPa Pressure (MPa)
Fig. 6. Residual hoop stress versus internal pressure for material X65, D/t ¼ 72,
Angular position (α)
t ¼ 12.7 mm, ddent ¼ 100 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 .
Fig. 4. Typical residual hoop stress distributions on the inner and outer surfaces of the
pressurised pipe, for X65 SAW material, with r ¼ 12.7 mm, D/t ¼ 72, q ¼ 45 and
p ¼ 7.68 MPa. 5.2.3. Effect of D/t ratio
Typical plots showing the effect of wall thickness on the residual
indentation depth, for pressurised and unpressurised pipes, are hoop stresses, are given in Fig. 7. The results presented represent
shown in Fig. 5. For the unpressurised pipe, it can be seen that the either constant internal pressure (p ¼ 7.68 MPa) or a pressure that
residual hoop stresses increase rapidly as the residual indentation causes a mean hoop stress of 0.617 sy in the pipe. The curve pre-
depth increases, for the small dr/D ratios, i.e. less than 0.022. sented in Fig. 7 for the constant internal pressure case, i.e.
However, the residual hoop stresses increase more slowly with an p ¼ 7.68 MPa, relates to a situation in which the pressure induced
increase of the residual indentation depths for large dr/D ratios; this hoop stress (in a plain pipe) increases in proportion to D/t as D/t
is because the plastic deformation zone and contact area both increases (s ¼ pD/(2t)). The curve presented in Fig. 7 for which the
increase as dr/D increased, thus limiting the magnitude of the mean hoop stress is kept constant at 0.617 sy represents a case in
residual stress that occurs. For the pressurised pipe, the residual which the pressure reduces as D/t increases. In the case in which
hoop stresses are much higher than the corresponding values for the hoop stress is held constant at 0.617 sy, the residual indentation
the unpressurised pipe, at the same residual indentation depth. depths, for the larger D/t ratios (e.g. 72) are larger than those for
Therefore, the pressurised pipe would be more likely to be punc- small D/t ratios, for an applied indenter depth of 100 mm. From the
tured at a relatively small indentation depth, particularly in high results in Fig. 7 and those in Table 2, it can be seen that for the same
pressure circumstances. indentation depth, the variations in the residual stresses with D/t
ratio are relatively constant, for an equivalent pressure level (i.e.
5.2.2. Effect of internal pressure a pressure level which produces the same mean hoop stress in the
The effects of the internal pressure on the residual hoop plain pipe with different D/t ratios).
stresses, for D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 , for
ddent ¼ 100 mm, are shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the residual 5.2.4. Effect of angular support position
hoop stresses increase as the internal pressure is increased. Typical residual hoop stress versus angular support position, q,
results are shown in Fig. 8. This indicates that as the support angle
increases, the residual hoop stresses reduce. Also the relationship
1000
900
960 mean hoop stress=0.6 σy
800
Residual hoop stress (MPa)
p= 7.68MPa
Residual stress (MPa)
700 920
600
500 880
400
p=0 MPa 840
300
p=7.68 MPa
200
800
100
0 760
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 30 46 62
Ratio of residual dent depth over outer D/t ratio
diameter (δr/D)
Fig. 7. Residual hoop stress versus D/t ratio curves for material X65, with p ¼ 7.68 MPa
Fig. 5. Residual hoop stress versus residual indentation depth curve for material X65 or with a mean hoop stress of 0.617 sy, ddent ¼ 100 mm, D ¼ 914.4 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and
SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, for p ¼ 0 and p ¼ 7.68 MPa, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 . q ¼ 45 .
432 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434
1200 5
4.5
Residual hoop stress (MPa)
800 3.5
3
600
2.5
400 p-p1=1.28MPa
2
p-p2=2.56MPa
1.5
200
1
0 0.5
5 25 45 65 85
Angular position of the support (θ°) 0
0 5 10 15
Fig. 8. Residual hoop stress versus angular support position curve for material X65 Residual dent depth (mm)
SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, ddent ¼ 100 mm and r ¼ 12.7 mm.
Fig. 10. Effect of residual indentation depth, dr, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm,
r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 , Dp ¼ 1.28 (p–p1) and 2.56 (p–p2) MPa (Ds/sh)
between the support position and the residual hoop stress is (sh ¼ RDp/t).
approximately linear.
much more significant for small indenter radii. From Fig. 13, it can
5.2.5. Effect of indenter radius
be seen that the normalised hoop stress changes decrease as the
A typical variation of residual hoop stress with indenter radius
support angle, q, is increased.
size is shown in Fig. 9 where it can be seen that the residual hoop
stress increases with decreasing indenter radius size.
5.3.2. Grade B material and X52 material
A comparison of the results from the analyses for grade B and
5.3. Stress variations in indented pipes due to pressure fluctuations X52 pipe materials with those for X65 SAW material, under the
same conditions, allows the effects of material properties, on the
5.3.1. X65 SAW material normalised hoop stress changes to be assessed. All three materials
Typical variations of normalised hoop stress variation, (Dst)/ are of practical importance, but the yield stresses for grade B
(DpR), due to pressure fluctuations, versus residual indentation (287 MPa) and for X52 (360 MPa) are significantly different from
depth, dr, angular support position, q, indenter radius size, r, and that of X65 SAW material (i.e. 448 MPa). For these analyses, internal
wall thickness, t, are shown in Figs. 10–13, respectively. pressures of 7.68, 4.92 and 6.17 MPa, which produce hoop stresses
Figs. 10 and 11 indicate that the normalised hoop stress change in the plain pipe of 0.617 times the respective yield stresses, were
increases with increasing residual indentation depth, but decreases used together with an applied indentation depth of 60 mm. The
with the wall thickness in the same conditions (see cases FE26S to normalised stress changes for D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, q ¼ 45 ,
FE33S). However, this change is relatively independent of wall r ¼ 12.7 mm, pressure ranges, Dp ¼ 1.28 and Dp ¼ 2.56 MPa, are
thickness if the comparison is based on a situation in which the given in Table 3, from which it can be seen that the material
internal pressure is changed at the same time as the wall thickness properties do not significantly affect the stress changes which occur
so as to maintain a constant mean hoop stress. From Fig. 12, it can due to the internal pressure changes. This indicates that it may be
be seen that for large indenter radii, the normalised stress changes
are relatively independent of indenter radius, but the variations are
5
920
Normalised hoop stress change
4.5
Residual hoop stress (MPa)
900 4
3.5
880
3
860 2.5
840 2
1.5 p-p1=1.28MPa, p=7.68MPa
820 p-p2=2.56MPa, p=7.68MPa
1 p-p1=1.28MPa, mean hoop stress
p-p2=2.56MPa, mean hoop stress
800 0.5
0
780 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
0 20 40 60 80 100 Wall thickness t (mm)
Indenter radius (mm)
Fig. 11. Variations of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with wall thick-
Fig. 9. Residual hoop stress versus indenter radius curve for material X65, with D/ ness, t, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, D ¼ 914.4 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 ,
t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, ddent ¼ 100 mm and q ¼ 45 . Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm.
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 433
6 Table 3
p-p1=1.28MPa The normalised stress changes for three materials, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, q ¼ 45 ,
Normalised hoop stress
5 p-p2=2.56MPa r ¼ 12.7 mm and the mean hoop stress is 0.617 sy (Analyses are for X65 except FE40S
for grade B and FE41S for X52).
4 Material ddent (mm) dr (mm) DP1 ¼1.28 MPa DP2 ¼ 2.56 MPa
change
1
where M1, M2 and M3 are moments on straight segment AB, arc BC
0 and arc CD and R1, R2 and s are given by:
6 26 46 66 86 9
Indenter radius (mm) R1 ¼ R pþ2d
4 r=
R2 ¼ R þ p2d
4 r;
(2)
Fig. 12. Variations of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with indenter s ¼ p2 dr
radius, r, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 ,
Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm. Assuming that the contributions of the axial and shear forces, to
the strain energy in the ring beam, are negligible, the strain energy
is given by:
possible to use the results for one material to predict the stresses
for other materials. 2
Z s Z p=2
12 6 2
U ¼ 34 ðM1 ðxÞÞ2 dx þ ðM2 ðqÞÞ R1 dq
Et 0 0
6. Semi-empirical formulation for stress variation 3
Z p=2
As the internal pressure fluctuates, the stress changes which 2 7
þ ðM3 ðqÞÞ R2 dq5 (3)
occur in the indented pipes are elastic for the unloading and 0
loading processes. This behaviour can be approximated to that of an
imperfect pipe undergoing elastic stress changes when internal Applying Castigliano’s theorem and ignoring small, high order
pressure is applied. The imperfect pipe model shown in Fig. 14 has terms, it can be seen that the form of the equation for the stress at
been used to investigate stress concentration in imperfect pipes section A is given by:
[14]. The same imperfect pipe model has been used in this paper, as 2
the basis for the development of a semi-empirical formulation to p c1 dr þ c2 Rdr pðc3 dr þ c4 RÞ
provide an approximate relationship for the stress variation with
s¼ þ (4)
t2 t
respect to the ring geometry and residual indentation depth.
where c1, c2 and c3 are constants. However, since the actual shapes
Assuming the axial tensile force and moment at section A are
of the indentations in the rings are more complex than the assumed
denoted by N and M0, it can be shown that the moment distribution
shape, shown in Fig. 14, then predictions based on equation (4) will
is given by:
9
M1 ðxÞ ¼ 12px2 M0 >
=
s 2
M2 ðqÞ ¼ ps 2 þ R1 sin q pR1 ð1 cos qÞ þ NR1 ð1 cos qÞ M0 (1)
>
M3 ðqÞ ¼ p2 pR1 R2 sin p4 þ q s sin p4 ps R2 cos q 2s pR22 ð1 cosqÞ þ NðR1 þ R2 sin qÞ M0 ;
s
6
δr
Normalised hoop stress
A B
5
θ
4
y
change
R1
3
p-p1=1.28MPa C
2 x
p-p2=2.56MPa
O
1
R2 θ
R
0
5 25 45 65 85
Angular position of the support (θo)
Fig. 13. Variation of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with angular D
support position, q, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa,
Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm. Fig. 14. Imperfect pipe model used in elastic stress response analysis.
434 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434
170 situations. Also, in reality the angular support positions are asso-
P-P1=1.28 MPa ciated with the soil quality around the pipe. The determination of
this angular position can only be completed through a series of
Finite element data
P-P2=2.56 MPa
140
tests. In previous work [8–11], the relationships between the
angular support position and the force-deflection curve or the limit
110 load have been determined. Hence, an estimation of the likely
support conditions can be made. In this paper the semi-empirical
formulation (5) or (6) can closely address the relationship of the
80 pipe dimensions, support, residual stress variation and pressure
Slope=1 change. This is important as the deformation of the indented pipes
with plasticity is complicated. So far, there are no analytical
50
50 80 110 140 170 methods for predicting the primary stresses and residual stresses
Empirical data after indentations.
Therefore, using the information available at the time of
Fig. 15. The stress variation obtained from the FE and empirical data. indentation (residual indentation depth, material properties, pipe
geometry, estimated support conditions and pressure), the results
presented in this paper can be used to obtain predictions of the
only provide an approximate solution for the stresses. In an attempt residual stress and stress changes due to pressure fluctuations. This
to improve the accuracy of the prediction of stress variations, it is will allow a fatigue life assessment to be carried out. However, the
assumed that the form of the equation will be the same for ‘‘real’’ accuracy of this approach has not yet been validated by comparison
indentation shapes, but that the constants (c1, c2, c3 and c4) in with experimental pipe fatigue tests.
equation (4) are replaced by new constants c01 , c02 , c03 and c04 , so that
the stress change Ds due to the pressure fluctuation Dp, becomes:
" 2
0 # Acknowledgements
c01 dr þ c02 Rdr c3 dr þ c04 R
Ds ¼ Dp þ (5)
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support and
t2 t
technical direction of Advantica and the University of Nottingham,
The new constants c01 to c04 have been obtained by optimising the c01 for this work, through the University/Advantica joint scholarship
to c04 values, to fit the results of the FE analyses, given in Table 2. The awarded to Mr. Luo. The opinions expressed in this paper do not
resulting semi-empirical formulation is: necessarily represent those of Advantica.
Ds r 0:1413
¼ ð0:253q þ 0:840Þ
Dp R References
! (6)
2
1:334R þ 55:11dr 2:12Rdr 11:074dr
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