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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434

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International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpvp

Analysis of stresses in pipes indented by long external indentations and


subsequent stress variations due to pressure fluctuations
T.H. Hyde, R. Luo, A.A. Becker*
Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The residual hoop stresses in pressurised pipes caused by long external indentations and the subsequent
Received 8 February 2008 stress variations caused by internal pressure fluctuations are investigated for a range of residual
Received in revised form indentation depths, support positions, pressure magnitudes and indenter radii, 7using the Finite Element
29 August 2008
(FE) method, including initial stress and geometrical non-linearity effects. Three materials are used in the
Accepted 6 January 2009
investigation to assess the effects of material properties on the stress variations. A semi-empirical
formulation is developed, based on an imperfect, indented pipe model and the results of the FE analyses,
Keywords:
to predict the variations of the residual stresses in the pipes.
Indentation
Plasticity Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Pressurised pipes
Finite element analysis

1. Introduction stress fluctuations due to internal pressure variations are


investigated.
Buried pipelines are widely used for transmitting gases and
liquids from their production sites to houses and industrial
2. Materials
organisations. If these pipelines should leak or rupture, there is
a potential danger due to fires or explosions. Failure due to
Three materials were chosen for the FE analyses. The tensile stress–
indentation damage caused by diggers during construction,
strain curves for the materials are shown in Fig. 1 and some of the
earth movement, corrosion, fatigue etc. has to be taken into
material properties are given in Table 1. The materials chosen are X65
consideration in predicting the safe lifetime of the pipes, see, e.g.
SAW which is a typical pipe steel, grade B which is a 24 in thin wall line
[1–7].
pipe material, and grade X52 which is an 18 in thin wall seamless line
Previous work by the authors on indented pipes has
pipe material. The ultimate tensile stresses shown in Table 1 and the
concentrated on radial and offset indentations in unpressurised
stresses on Fig. 1 all are true stresses. In the FE analyses, all of the three
and pressurised pipes [8–11] using FE analyses, experimental
materials are assumed to obey an isotropic hardening rule.
tests and analytical methods. For pressurised pipes, since the
contact with the indenter causes the primary stresses to exceed
the material’s yield strength, residual stresses will be locked in 3. Geometry, loading and boundary conditions
after the indenters are removed This paper presents the results
of an investigation of the residual hoop stresses caused by long The indenters are assumed to be sufficiently long in the axial
external indentations and the subsequent stress variations due direction for two-dimensional plane strain conditions to be appli-
to pressure fluctuations, in the vicinity of the indentations, using cable. The pipes have an outer diameter (D) of 914.4 mm and D/t
the FE method. The effects of the residual indentation depth, ratios of 72, 50.8, 41.56, 35.17 and 30.48, where t is wall thickness.
internal pressure at the time of indentation, indenter and pipe The pipes are indented by a radial load, as shown in Fig. 2. A rigid
geometry and support conditions on the residual hoop stress and indenter which has a radius in the range of 6–100 mm, is used to
cause the indentation. The angular support positions are defined by
the angle q, as shown in Fig. 2; q is varied from 5 to 90 .
To determine the stresses caused by the indentation and the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ44 115 951 3791; fax: þ44 115 951 3800. subsequent stress variations due to pressure fluctuations in the
E-mail address: a.a.becker@nottingham.ac.uk (A.A. Becker). pipes, the loading is applied in four steps, as follows:

0308-0161/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijpvp.2009.01.001
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 429

Table 1
Notation Material properties.

Material E sy sUTS Poisson’s ratio


a angular position X65 SAW 223 GPa 448 MPa 675 MPa 0.3
ddent applied indentation depth Grade B 144 GPa 287.7 MPa 588 MPa 0.3
dr residual indentation depth X52 180 GPa 360 MPa 616 MPa 0.3
q angular position of the supports
sy, sf, sUTS yield, flow and ultimate tensile stresses
sr residual hoop stress after indentation 8-node or 6-node, plane strain, reduced integration elements. Fig. 3
Ds hoop stress variation caused by pressure changes shows the FE mesh refinement in the vicinity of the indentation
D outer pipe diameter region. As shown in a previous publication [13], the predicted
M0, M1, M2, M3 bending moments residual stresses in the indented pipes, after the indenter is
N circumferential forces at section A removed, are sensitive to mesh refinement and hence very fine
p initial internal pressure before indentation meshes in the indenter regions are required. All of the FE models
p1, p2 internal pressures after pressure changes used have 32 elements through the wall thickness in the indenter
Dp pressure range defined as p–p1 or p–p2 regions of the pipes. Most of the FE calculations are performed
r radius of indenter using the X65 SAW material properties. Two FE calculations are
R mean radius of pipe/ring carried out with grade B and X52 material properties to assess the
t wall thickness effect of material properties on the resulting behaviour.
U complementary strain energy In total, 41 FE analyses are performed as defined in Table 2,
where the X65 SAW material is used for 39 cases (FE1S to FE39S),
grade B for one case (FE40S) and X52 material for one case (FE41S).
Step 1: Internal pressure, p, is applied Some of the symbols used in Table 2 are defined in the notation; r
Step 2: The indenter load is applied to cause a predetermined represents the radius of the indenter, the pressure ranges Dp1 and
indentation depth, ddent Dp2 are p–p1 and p–p2, respectively, dr and sr are the residual
Step 3: The indenter is removed indentation depth and residual hoop stress and Ds1/Dp1 and Ds2/
Step 4: The internal pressure is changed, to reflect pressure Dp2 are the first and second normalised stress variations, caused by
fluctuations, from p to one of two predetermined levels, p1 and Dp1 and Dp2, respectively.
p2, to determine the resulting stress variations.

It should be noted that the hoop stress remaining in the pres- 5. Finite element results
surised pipe after the removal of the indenter is referred to in this
paper as the residual hoop stress, sr, and the remaining indentation The results presented in this paper mainly relate to the central
after removing the indenter from the pressurised pipe is referred to contact point between the indenter and the pipe on the outer
as the residual indentation depth, dr. surface. The maximum tensile residual hoop stress values after
removing the indenter from the pressurised pipe always occur at
this position. Since the residual stresses and stress variations
4. Finite element modelling associated with the internal pressure fluctuations are affected by

The ABAQUS FE software [12] is used for the analyses. For all of
the cases, it is only necessary to model one half of the pipes, due to (moving down)
the symmetry. All of these symmetric models consist of 4240,
Indenter
1000

A
α
t y
800

R
True Stress (MPa)

600 x
o
Grade B
θ
400 X65 θ

X52 B
200

0 C
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
True Strain
Fig. 1. True stress–strain curves for X65 SAW, grade B and X52 pipe steels. Fig. 2. Indented pipe geometry.
430 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434

Also, it can be seen that even when the pressure deceases by 1.28 or
2.56 MPa, the residual hoop stress distribution changes are rela-
tively small and they remain positive on the outer surface and
negative on the inner surface. Therefore, since fatigue damage is
most likely to occur in regions where variations of the tensile
residual stresses occur, the results presented in this paper are
mainly associated with the residual hoop stresses on the outer
surfaces of the indented pipes, at the a ¼ 0 position. Fig. 4 also
indicates that the peak value of 886 MPa of the residual hoop stress
Fig. 3. FE mesh in the region of the indentation used in the indented ring analyses.
is much higher than the ultimate tensile stress (675 MPa) of the
X65 Saw material. This is because the maximum stress value of the
true stress versus strain curve shown in Fig. 1 is much higher than
the residual indentation depth, the pipe geometry, the angular that of the corresponding ultimate tensile stress. Also, since the von
support positions and the indenter radius, all of these parameters Mises yield criterion is used in the FE analyses, some stress
are investigated separately. components, e.g. the hoop stress value, may in some cases be
higher than the corresponding von Mises stress value whose
maximum value is the same as that of true stresses in Fig. 1. This can
5.1. Typical residual hoop stress distributions be seen from Figs. 5–9 in Section 5.2.

The results of FE analysis FE12S, shown in Fig. 4 provides typical


residual hoop stress distributions on the outer and inner circum- 5.2. Residual hoop stresses
ferential surfaces of the pipe. In this case, the internal pressure,
p ¼ 7.68 MPa, is reduced in two stages to achieve pressure 5.2.1. Effect of indentation depth
decreases, Dp, of 1.28 and 2.56 MPa. It can be seen, from Fig. 4, that The magnitude of the indentation depth has a significant effect
the residual hoop stresses in the indentation region (e.g. jaj < 15 ) on the magnitudes of the residual hoop stresses created in the
are positive on the outer surface and negative on the inner surface. pipes. The variations of the residual hoop stresses with residual

Table 2
Dimensions, boundary conditions, loading conditions and some FE results.

FE No. Material D/t d mm r mm q q1 p MPa Dp1 MPa Dp2 MPa dr mm sr MPa Ds1/Dp1 Ds2/Dp2
FE1S X65 72 20 12.7 45 0 0 – – 0 0 – –
FE2S X65 72 40 12.7 45 0 0 – – 7.72 385 – –
FE3S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 0 – – 21.5 591 – –
FE4S X65 72 80 12.7 45 0 0 – – 37.6 670 – –
FE5S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 0 – – 54.6 713 – –
FE6S X65 72 120 12.7 45 0 0 – – 72.1 720 – –
FE7S X65 72 140 12.7 45 0 0 – – 89.9 727 – –
FE8S X65 72 20 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 0.801 338.5 52.5 53.6
FE9S X65 72 40 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 4.42 621.2 92. 94.9
FE10S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 6.77 763.6 116 120
FE11S X65 72 80 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 8.55 829.3 134 139
FE12S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.77 886 141 147
FE13S X65 72 120 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 12.3 937.5 161 169
FE14S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 1.28 1.28 ** 35.4 760 519 **
FE15S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 2.56 1.28 2.56 25.3 778 377 375
FE16S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 3.84 1.28 2.56 19 800 235 246
FE17S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 5.12 1.28 2.56 15 824 186 201
FE18S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 6.4 1.28 2.56 12 854 158 168
FE19S X65 72 100 12.7 45 0 9.0 1.28 2.56 7.89 946 151 153
FE20S X65 72 100 6. 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.83 905 166 174
FE21S X65 72 100 20 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.72 872 133 138
FE22S X65 72 100 30 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.65 860 125 130
FE23S X65 72 100 50 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.6 839 119 125
FE24S X65 72 100 70 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.5 824 115 120
FE25S X65 72 100 100 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.3 802 109 114
FE26S X65 50.8 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 22.9 841 148 155
FE27S X65 41.6 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 34 822 153 160
FE28S X65 35.2 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 46 804 152 157
FE29S X65 30.5 100 12.7 45 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 56 799 145 148
FE30S X65 50.8 100 12.7 45 0 11 1.28 2.56 15.7 900 118 123
FE31S X65 41.6 100 12.7 45 0 13.6 1.28 2.56 19.8 910 107 111
FE32S X65 35.2 100 12.7 45 0 16.2 1.28 2.56 23.5 918 97 101
FE33S X65 30.5 100 12.7 45 0 18.9 1.28 2.56 27.4 928 91 94.3
FE34S X65 72 100 12.7 5 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10.5 1018 188 197
FE35S X65 72 100 12.7 25 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10.6 954 165 172
FE36S X65 72 100 12.7 65 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 9.52 815 123 127
FE37S X65 72 100 12.7 90 0 7.68 1.28 2.56 10 722 103 106
FE38S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 4.92 1.28 2.56 7.02 497 115 123
FE39S X65 72 60 12.7 45 0 6.17 1.28 2.56 6.68 608 114 120
FE40S Grade B 72 60 12.7 45 0 4.92 1.28 2.56 7.02 497 115 123
FE41S X52 72 60 12.7 45 0 6.17 1.28 2.56 6.68 608 114 120
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 431

On outer surface 950


900

Residual hoop stress (MPa)


On inner surface 900
700
Residual hoop stress (MPa)

500 850

300 800

100
750
-100
0 60 120 180 700
-300
650
-500 P=7.68 MPa
600
-700 P-P1=1.28 MPa 1.28 3.28 5.28 7.28
-900 P-P2=2.56 MPa Pressure (MPa)

Fig. 6. Residual hoop stress versus internal pressure for material X65, D/t ¼ 72,
Angular position (α)
t ¼ 12.7 mm, ddent ¼ 100 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 .

Fig. 4. Typical residual hoop stress distributions on the inner and outer surfaces of the
pressurised pipe, for X65 SAW material, with r ¼ 12.7 mm, D/t ¼ 72, q ¼ 45 and
p ¼ 7.68 MPa. 5.2.3. Effect of D/t ratio
Typical plots showing the effect of wall thickness on the residual
indentation depth, for pressurised and unpressurised pipes, are hoop stresses, are given in Fig. 7. The results presented represent
shown in Fig. 5. For the unpressurised pipe, it can be seen that the either constant internal pressure (p ¼ 7.68 MPa) or a pressure that
residual hoop stresses increase rapidly as the residual indentation causes a mean hoop stress of 0.617 sy in the pipe. The curve pre-
depth increases, for the small dr/D ratios, i.e. less than 0.022. sented in Fig. 7 for the constant internal pressure case, i.e.
However, the residual hoop stresses increase more slowly with an p ¼ 7.68 MPa, relates to a situation in which the pressure induced
increase of the residual indentation depths for large dr/D ratios; this hoop stress (in a plain pipe) increases in proportion to D/t as D/t
is because the plastic deformation zone and contact area both increases (s ¼ pD/(2t)). The curve presented in Fig. 7 for which the
increase as dr/D increased, thus limiting the magnitude of the mean hoop stress is kept constant at 0.617 sy represents a case in
residual stress that occurs. For the pressurised pipe, the residual which the pressure reduces as D/t increases. In the case in which
hoop stresses are much higher than the corresponding values for the hoop stress is held constant at 0.617 sy, the residual indentation
the unpressurised pipe, at the same residual indentation depth. depths, for the larger D/t ratios (e.g. 72) are larger than those for
Therefore, the pressurised pipe would be more likely to be punc- small D/t ratios, for an applied indenter depth of 100 mm. From the
tured at a relatively small indentation depth, particularly in high results in Fig. 7 and those in Table 2, it can be seen that for the same
pressure circumstances. indentation depth, the variations in the residual stresses with D/t
ratio are relatively constant, for an equivalent pressure level (i.e.
5.2.2. Effect of internal pressure a pressure level which produces the same mean hoop stress in the
The effects of the internal pressure on the residual hoop plain pipe with different D/t ratios).
stresses, for D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 , for
ddent ¼ 100 mm, are shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen that the residual 5.2.4. Effect of angular support position
hoop stresses increase as the internal pressure is increased. Typical residual hoop stress versus angular support position, q,
results are shown in Fig. 8. This indicates that as the support angle
increases, the residual hoop stresses reduce. Also the relationship
1000
900
960 mean hoop stress=0.6 σy
800
Residual hoop stress (MPa)

p= 7.68MPa
Residual stress (MPa)

700 920

600
500 880

400
p=0 MPa 840
300
p=7.68 MPa
200
800
100
0 760
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 30 46 62
Ratio of residual dent depth over outer D/t ratio
diameter (δr/D)
Fig. 7. Residual hoop stress versus D/t ratio curves for material X65, with p ¼ 7.68 MPa
Fig. 5. Residual hoop stress versus residual indentation depth curve for material X65 or with a mean hoop stress of 0.617 sy, ddent ¼ 100 mm, D ¼ 914.4 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm and
SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, for p ¼ 0 and p ¼ 7.68 MPa, r ¼ 12.7 mm and q ¼ 45 . q ¼ 45 .
432 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434

1200 5

4.5
Residual hoop stress (MPa)

Normalised hoop stress change


1000
4

800 3.5

3
600
2.5

400 p-p1=1.28MPa
2
p-p2=2.56MPa
1.5
200
1
0 0.5
5 25 45 65 85
Angular position of the support (θ°) 0
0 5 10 15
Fig. 8. Residual hoop stress versus angular support position curve for material X65 Residual dent depth (mm)
SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, ddent ¼ 100 mm and r ¼ 12.7 mm.
Fig. 10. Effect of residual indentation depth, dr, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm,
r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 , Dp ¼ 1.28 (p–p1) and 2.56 (p–p2) MPa (Ds/sh)
between the support position and the residual hoop stress is (sh ¼ RDp/t).

approximately linear.
much more significant for small indenter radii. From Fig. 13, it can
5.2.5. Effect of indenter radius
be seen that the normalised hoop stress changes decrease as the
A typical variation of residual hoop stress with indenter radius
support angle, q, is increased.
size is shown in Fig. 9 where it can be seen that the residual hoop
stress increases with decreasing indenter radius size.
5.3.2. Grade B material and X52 material
A comparison of the results from the analyses for grade B and
5.3. Stress variations in indented pipes due to pressure fluctuations X52 pipe materials with those for X65 SAW material, under the
same conditions, allows the effects of material properties, on the
5.3.1. X65 SAW material normalised hoop stress changes to be assessed. All three materials
Typical variations of normalised hoop stress variation, (Dst)/ are of practical importance, but the yield stresses for grade B
(DpR), due to pressure fluctuations, versus residual indentation (287 MPa) and for X52 (360 MPa) are significantly different from
depth, dr, angular support position, q, indenter radius size, r, and that of X65 SAW material (i.e. 448 MPa). For these analyses, internal
wall thickness, t, are shown in Figs. 10–13, respectively. pressures of 7.68, 4.92 and 6.17 MPa, which produce hoop stresses
Figs. 10 and 11 indicate that the normalised hoop stress change in the plain pipe of 0.617 times the respective yield stresses, were
increases with increasing residual indentation depth, but decreases used together with an applied indentation depth of 60 mm. The
with the wall thickness in the same conditions (see cases FE26S to normalised stress changes for D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, q ¼ 45 ,
FE33S). However, this change is relatively independent of wall r ¼ 12.7 mm, pressure ranges, Dp ¼ 1.28 and Dp ¼ 2.56 MPa, are
thickness if the comparison is based on a situation in which the given in Table 3, from which it can be seen that the material
internal pressure is changed at the same time as the wall thickness properties do not significantly affect the stress changes which occur
so as to maintain a constant mean hoop stress. From Fig. 12, it can due to the internal pressure changes. This indicates that it may be
be seen that for large indenter radii, the normalised stress changes
are relatively independent of indenter radius, but the variations are

5
920
Normalised hoop stress change

4.5
Residual hoop stress (MPa)

900 4
3.5
880
3
860 2.5

840 2
1.5 p-p1=1.28MPa, p=7.68MPa
820 p-p2=2.56MPa, p=7.68MPa
1 p-p1=1.28MPa, mean hoop stress
p-p2=2.56MPa, mean hoop stress
800 0.5
0
780 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
0 20 40 60 80 100 Wall thickness t (mm)
Indenter radius (mm)
Fig. 11. Variations of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with wall thick-
Fig. 9. Residual hoop stress versus indenter radius curve for material X65, with D/ ness, t, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, D ¼ 914.4 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 ,
t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, ddent ¼ 100 mm and q ¼ 45 . Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm.
T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434 433

6 Table 3
p-p1=1.28MPa The normalised stress changes for three materials, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, q ¼ 45 ,
Normalised hoop stress

5 p-p2=2.56MPa r ¼ 12.7 mm and the mean hoop stress is 0.617 sy (Analyses are for X65 except FE40S
for grade B and FE41S for X52).

4 Material ddent (mm) dr (mm) DP1 ¼1.28 MPa DP2 ¼ 2.56 MPa
change

X65 SAW 60 6.77 116 120


3 Grade B 60 7.02 115 123
X52 60 6.68 114 120
2

1
where M1, M2 and M3 are moments on straight segment AB, arc BC
0 and arc CD and R1, R2 and s are given by:
6 26 46 66 86 9
Indenter radius (mm) R1 ¼ R  pþ2d
4 r=
R2 ¼ R þ p2d
4 r;
(2)
Fig. 12. Variations of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with indenter s ¼ p2 dr
radius, r, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa, q ¼ 45 ,
Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm. Assuming that the contributions of the axial and shear forces, to
the strain energy in the ring beam, are negligible, the strain energy
is given by:
possible to use the results for one material to predict the stresses
for other materials. 2
Z s Z p=2
12 6 2
U ¼ 34 ðM1 ðxÞÞ2 dx þ ðM2 ðqÞÞ R1 dq
Et 0 0
6. Semi-empirical formulation for stress variation 3
Z p=2
As the internal pressure fluctuates, the stress changes which 2 7
þ ðM3 ðqÞÞ R2 dq5 (3)
occur in the indented pipes are elastic for the unloading and 0
loading processes. This behaviour can be approximated to that of an
imperfect pipe undergoing elastic stress changes when internal Applying Castigliano’s theorem and ignoring small, high order
pressure is applied. The imperfect pipe model shown in Fig. 14 has terms, it can be seen that the form of the equation for the stress at
been used to investigate stress concentration in imperfect pipes section A is given by:
[14]. The same imperfect pipe model has been used in this paper, as  2 
the basis for the development of a semi-empirical formulation to p c1 dr þ c2 Rdr pðc3 dr þ c4 RÞ
provide an approximate relationship for the stress variation with
s¼ þ (4)
t2 t
respect to the ring geometry and residual indentation depth.
where c1, c2 and c3 are constants. However, since the actual shapes
Assuming the axial tensile force and moment at section A are
of the indentations in the rings are more complex than the assumed
denoted by N and M0, it can be shown that the moment distribution
shape, shown in Fig. 14, then predictions based on equation (4) will
is given by:

9
M1 ðxÞ ¼ 12px2  M0 >
=
s  2
M2 ðqÞ ¼ ps 2 þ R1 sin q  pR1 ð1  cos qÞ þ NR1 ð1  cos qÞ  M0 (1)
       >
M3 ðqÞ ¼ p2 pR1 R2 sin p4 þ q  s sin p4  ps R2 cos q  2s  pR22 ð1  cosqÞ þ NðR1 þ R2 sin qÞ  M0 ;

s
6
δr
Normalised hoop stress

A B
5
θ
4
y
change

R1
3
p-p1=1.28MPa C
2 x
p-p2=2.56MPa
O
1
R2 θ
R
0
5 25 45 65 85
Angular position of the support (θo)

Fig. 13. Variation of normalised stress change (Ds/sh) (sh ¼ RDp/t) with angular D
support position, q, for X65 SAW, D/t ¼ 72, t ¼ 12.7 mm, r ¼ 12.7 mm, p ¼ 7.68 MPa,
Dp ¼ 1.28 and 2.56 MPa and applied indentation depth, ddent ¼ 100 mm. Fig. 14. Imperfect pipe model used in elastic stress response analysis.
434 T.H. Hyde et al. / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 86 (2009) 428–434

170 situations. Also, in reality the angular support positions are asso-
P-P1=1.28 MPa ciated with the soil quality around the pipe. The determination of
this angular position can only be completed through a series of
Finite element data

P-P2=2.56 MPa
140
tests. In previous work [8–11], the relationships between the
angular support position and the force-deflection curve or the limit
110 load have been determined. Hence, an estimation of the likely
support conditions can be made. In this paper the semi-empirical
formulation (5) or (6) can closely address the relationship of the
80 pipe dimensions, support, residual stress variation and pressure
Slope=1 change. This is important as the deformation of the indented pipes
with plasticity is complicated. So far, there are no analytical
50
50 80 110 140 170 methods for predicting the primary stresses and residual stresses
Empirical data after indentations.
Therefore, using the information available at the time of
Fig. 15. The stress variation obtained from the FE and empirical data. indentation (residual indentation depth, material properties, pipe
geometry, estimated support conditions and pressure), the results
presented in this paper can be used to obtain predictions of the
only provide an approximate solution for the stresses. In an attempt residual stress and stress changes due to pressure fluctuations. This
to improve the accuracy of the prediction of stress variations, it is will allow a fatigue life assessment to be carried out. However, the
assumed that the form of the equation will be the same for ‘‘real’’ accuracy of this approach has not yet been validated by comparison
indentation shapes, but that the constants (c1, c2, c3 and c4) in with experimental pipe fatigue tests.
equation (4) are replaced by new constants c01 , c02 , c03 and c04 , so that
the stress change Ds due to the pressure fluctuation Dp, becomes:

" 2

 0 # Acknowledgements
c01 dr þ c02 Rdr c3 dr þ c04 R
Ds ¼ Dp þ (5)
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support and
t2 t
technical direction of Advantica and the University of Nottingham,
The new constants c01 to c04 have been obtained by optimising the c01 for this work, through the University/Advantica joint scholarship
to c04 values, to fit the results of the FE analyses, given in Table 2. The awarded to Mr. Luo. The opinions expressed in this paper do not
resulting semi-empirical formulation is: necessarily represent those of Advantica.

Ds  r 0:1413
¼ ð0:253q þ 0:840Þ
Dp R References
! (6)
2
1:334R þ 55:11dr 2:12Rdr  11:074dr
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