Lecture

2: Physico-Chemical Processes in the Environment o Spreading of solute over a greater region

that would be predicted solely from
Environmental Engineering – Key Elements: average groundwater velocity vectors
• Based on Chemistry o Hydrodynamic dispersion refers to the
o Environmental quality described by sum of molecular diffusion and mechanical
chemical composition dispersion
• Quantitative 𝐷 = 𝐷+() + 𝐷+,VW
o Numerical description and evaluation of • Diffusion
problem and solution o Describes the spread of particles through
random motion from regions of higher
Concentration Units concentrations to regions of lower
• Liquids concentration
o Mass of substance per unit volume of 𝑑𝐶
𝐹Y = 𝐷+()
mixture (ppm, ppb) 𝑑𝑥
o Molar concentration (mol/L) • Mechanical Dispersion
• Solids o Spreading of solutes as a result of
o Mass ratios deviations of actual velocity from seepage
o Weight percent velocity
• Gases o Since mechanical dispersion depends on
o Volume of pollutant/volume of air the flow, it is expected to increase with
'()*+, (- ./0,(*0 1())*2/32 increasing flow speed.
o 1 𝑝𝑝𝑚𝑣 =
456 '()*+, (- /78 𝐷+,VW = 𝛼𝑣
o Mass per unit volume • Sorption
o 𝑃: 𝑉/ = 𝑛/ 𝑅𝑇: o Mass transfer process between the
+? 11+' BA CD?
o = contaminants dissolved in groundwater
@A 456 E:A
F? 3? and the contaminants sorbed on porous
o = 𝑁H@
@A @A media, including absorption and
adsorption
Box Model for Dispersion of a Contaminant in the
Atmosphere








L = length of box
W = width of box
H = height of box
Vbox = volume of box
m = mass of contaminant
ug = wind speed
Q = source strength of contaminant
F = flux of contaminant
C = concentration of contaminant

𝑄4
𝐶J =
𝑢. 𝑊𝐻

Contaminant Transport
• Advection
o Refer to the movement of solutes in
flowing groundwater with average
seepage velocities
o Usually the dominant process for
migration of solutes in the subsurface
𝐾 𝑑ℎ
𝑣=−
𝑛, 𝑑𝑥
• Dispersion


Lecture 3: Biogeochemical Cycle Sulfur Cycle
- The source of sulfur is geosphere (earth’s crust)
Biogeochemical Cycle - Sulfur enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide
- Involves the movement of elements and (H2S) during fossil fuel combustion, volcanic
compounds among the land (geosphere), organisms eruptions, gas exchange at ocean surfaces, and
(ecosphere), air (atmosphere) and the oceans decomposition
(hydrosphere) - Sulfur undergoes chemical and biochemical
changes going from inorganic to the organic form
1. Global geochemical cycles are assessed in terms of and back
fluxes and reservoirs. Typical fluxes range > - SO2 and water vapor makes H2SO4 which is then
12
teragrams (10 g) per year. carried to Earth in rainfall
2. The different cycles of the elements (P, S, N, C) vary - Sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
in terms of their major reservoirs, rates of flux, and and incorporated into amino acids such as
biological interaction. cysteine. It then travels through the food chain and
3. Change in valence (redox state) caused by biological is eventually released through decomposition.
processes greatly influence elemental paths in
several biogeochemical cycles. Abiotic Processes in Earth Systems
4. Human activities are influencing the flux within - The transfer and incorporation of substances in
some elemental cycles on the same scales as all the water mass in the precipitation and
natural processes combined (P, N, S). sedimentation of inorganic insoluble organic
substances
Hydrologic Cycle - Emission of volatile substances to the atmosphere;
- The transfer of water from oceans to the equilibrium with the atmosphere of the reaction
atmosphere to the land and back to the oceans gases (O2 consumption or loss of CO2, N2, etc.)
• Involves evaporation of water from oceans - Photochemical reactions in the troposphere:
• Precipitation on land characteristic of organic molecules,
• Evaporation from land organochlorines (intramolecular reaction in the
• Runoff from streams, rivers and groundwater excited state)

Carbon Cycle Metabolism of Pollutants
- Carbon (C) enters the biosphere during - Biochemical processes
photosynthesis - Biological processes
𝐶𝑂J + 𝐻J 𝑂 → 𝐶] 𝐻4J 𝑂] + 𝑂J + 𝐻J 𝑂
- Carbon is returned to the biosphere in cellular Physiological Functions of Soil Microorganisms
respiration - Putrefactive microorganisms
𝑂J + 𝐻J 𝑂 + 𝐶] 𝐻4J 𝑂] → 𝐶𝑂J + 𝐻J 𝑂 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 • Provide any rotting organic matter and
- Carbon occurs in the ocean in several forms decomposition of urea
• Dissolved CO2, carbonate and bicarbonate - Nitrifying bacteria
• Marine organisms and their products, CaCO3 • Oxidize ammonia to nitrous acid to form
- Enters the ocean by nitrites
• Simple diffusion then dissolves - Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
• Transfer from land in rivers as dissolved carbon • Absorb nitrogen from the air, making nitrogen
• Wind available to plants
- Fermentation bacteria
Nitrogen Cycle • Form methane
- N is essential to life because it is necessary for the - Bacteria involved in the elements cycles: sulfur,
production of proteins and DNA iron, phosphorus and others
- Nitrogen fixation – process of converting
- +
atmospheric N to NO3 and NH4 Microbiocenosis Functions
- Denitrification – process of releasing fixed N back • Microorganisms-destructors
to molecular N o Perform the destruction of the organic
- Almost all organisms depend on N for converting substrate into forms of large molecular
bacteria insoluble compounds (mineralization)
- Industrial process can now convert molecular N • Hydrolytic microorganisms
into compounds usable by plants o Transfer large molecular insoluble
- N combines with O at high temperatures compounds into soluble low molecular
weight compounds and use them for food
Phosphorus Cycle • Microorganisms of the scattering
- Often a limiting factor for plant and algal growth o Use part of the resulting low molecular
- Enters biota through uptake as phosphate eaten weight compounds
by plants, algae and some bacteria
- Guano deposits major source of P for fertilizers
Air Microflora Lecture 4: Water and Wastewater Treatment
• The source of bacterial contamination of the
atmosphere – dust and water droplets of different Why do we need to treat wastewater?
origin • Domestic and industrial processes use and pollute
• Atmospheric composition of microflora is water
determined by: • Minimize effects of discharge on environment
o Degree of contamination with mineral and • Remove pollutants for recycling and/or reuse of
organic aerosols water
o Temperature
o Humidity Objectives:
o Speed of movement of air masses • Ensure good water quality in natural environment
• Remove pollutants most efficiently and
Microbial Transformations economically
• Degradation • Avoid or minimize other environmental impacts
o Initial substrate no longer exists like:
• Mineralization o Solid disposal
o Complete conversion of the organic o Gas emission
structure to inorganic form o Odor
• Detoxification
o Transformation of the compound to some Water Quality Criteria:
intermediate form that is not toxic • Traditional approach
• Activation o Based on oxygen balance in receiving
o The process of forming toxic end products water
or intermediate products o Focus on point sources
o Mainly concerned with local effect
o Definition of maximum limits (BOD, SS,
Temperature, pH, nutrients, etc.)
• Modern Approach
o Based on use
§ A – drinking, environmentally
sensitive
§ B – bathing, fish-life
§ C – fish life, agricultural, irrigation
§ D – navigatable water

Steps:
1. Identify wastewater sources and flows
2. Specify likely key pollutants
3. Select suitable sampling strategies
4. Measure pollutant concentrations
5. Calculate pollutant loads
6. Identify main components to be removed

Types of Pollutants
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biological

Measurement Parameters:
• Solids
o Solids separated by filtration into non-
soluble and by high temperature oxidation
into non-volatile
• Odor
o Olfactometer determines dilution
necessary until no odor is detected
• Temperature
o Effluent temperature is usually specified in
limits

• Salinity
o Reduces O2 solubility
o Restricts reuse applications
 • Color and turbidity Lecture 5: Wastewater Treatment
o Light brown to gray: fresh, oxic
o Dark brown to black: old, anoxic Why do we treat wastes?
• Organic matter • To remove organic matter from the sewage which
o Largest component group in most causes pollution
wastewater • To remove pathogens (disease causing organisms)
o Composition is highly industry dependent which pose serious health risks
o Carbohydrates, proteins, oil and grease
What do we remove?
Priority Pollutants (Synthetic Organic and Inorganic • Coarse materials (grit, sand, gravel, plastics)
Compounds) • Suspended materials (fecal matter, oil, and grease)
• Organic toxic chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, • Dissolved and colloidal materials (pathogens,
solvents) organic matter)
• Inorganic substances (As, Se, heavy metals)
General Scheme of Wastewater Treatment
Impacts: • Preliminary and Primary Treatment
• Cadmium poisoning • Secondary Treatment
• Mercury poisoning • Tertiary Treatment
• Effects of agent orange (dioxin)
• Effects of DDT Preliminary Treatment
• Arsenic poisoning • Includes screening, comminution, grit removal
• Designed to remove solid objects, along with grease
Measurement of Organic Content and oil, which impede efficient wastewater
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) treatment and are undesirable in the end product
o Oxygen uptake by microorganism during • Removal of solid objects is also undertaken to
aerobic growth in wastewater sample protect machinery and to prevent blockages in
• Chemical Oxygen Demand smaller piper and channels, which transport the
o Also measures oxygen required, but for wastewater around the treatment plant
chemical oxidation of organics • Reduces the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of
o Chemical oxidants used for oxidation to the wastewater. BOD is a measure of the strength
CO2, H2O, and NH3 or pollution potential of the wastewater.
• Measurement and sampling at the inlet structure
Wastewater Rule of Thumb o A flow meter continuously records the
• Equivalent Person (EP): Average wastewater volume of water entering the treatment
amount produced per person plant
• 200-250 L/Day per person for domestic households o Water samples are taken for
• Average dry weather flow (ADWF): Average flow determination of suspended solids and
over 7 days without rain BOD
• Peak Dry Weather Flow (PDWF): Maximal Flow § A measure of the amount of
during day (1.5-3x ADWF) oxygen required to aerobically
decompose organic matter in the
water

Bar Screen
• Catches large objects that get into sewer system
such as bricks, bottles, pieces of wood, etc.

Comminutor
• To chop solids between ¼ - 3/8 inch to prevent
pumps from being clogged

Grit Chamber
• Removes rocks, gravel, broken glass, etc.
• Grit is removed to prevent abrasion of pumps and
to reduce deposits in pipe lines, channels, and
digesters
o Mesh Screen
§ Removes diapers, combs, towels,
plastic bags, etc
o Square clarifier
o Aerated tank

Other factors: Lecture 6: Physical Processes in Wastewater Treatment
• Equalization
o Smooth out fluctuations in flow rate Screening
o Results in more consistent treatment • process of removing coarse suspended and floating
• Flow Measurement solids which are present in a wastewater stream
o Flow rate information needed for efficient and which are retained on bar racks or screens.
operation, chemical addition, etc. • To protect downstream mechanical plant from
damage or obstruction due to large objects in the
Primary Treatment wastewater flow
• Reduces the suspended solids and the BOD of the • To separate and remove the larger material which
wastewater might interfere with the efficient operation of
• From the primary treatment tanks, water is wastewater treatment process
pumped to the aeration basin for secondary • To ensure the absence of unsightly floating matter
treatment at outfalls or in receiving waters

Sedimentation/Settling
Primary Clarifier • Discrete settling
• To remove settleable organics and floating scum o Sand and grit
(grease and oils) • Flocculant settling
• Similar to sedimentation basins used in water o Settling particles join together increasing
treatment except that scum removal is always their density and settling ability
provided in addition to sludge collection • Hindered settling
o Associated with the settlement of
Sludge Quantities activated sludge
Quantity of sludge collected in the primary clarifier depends • Compression settling
on: o Compression of particles is very slow
• Specific gravity of the dry solids
• % moisture Grit chamber
• efficiency of settling • Specific gravity between 1.5 and 2.7

𝑃c 𝑃D Clarification
1 100 100
= + • To remove settleable organics and floating scum
𝑆 𝑆0 𝑆D (grease and oils)

The volume of sludge can be determined from the following Flotation
relationship:
• when applied to wastewater treatment, use
7.48𝑊c
𝑉= methods of air injection in such a way that small air
%𝑃c
×𝛾×𝑆 bubbles should be formed
100
• Natural flotation
o Material particles lighter than the water
(oils, greases) eventually associated with
gas bubbles have the tendency to raise to
the stationary liquid surface
• Air flotation
o Materials particles heavier than the water
are transported to the liquid surface by
attaching them with air bubbles

Filtration
• The movement of water into the ground and
through soil particles, which helps in filtering the
groundwater, and this principle is applied to
wastewater treatment
• Filtration is performed by a rapid sand filter
• As the sand filter removes impurities, the sand
grains get clogged and must be cleaned
• Used mainly for dewatering, sludge thickening
o Belt filter press
§ Operates on the theory of
incrementally increasing the
stability of the sludge by
increasing applied pressure
 o Filter press Lecture 7 – Chemical Processes in Wastewater Treatment
§ Operates in the theory of a pump
feeding solids into a fixed volume Chemical Processes
press, which causes an increase in • Neutralization
pressure within the press. • Coagulation/Flocculation
• Precipitation
Membrane Separation • Chemical Oxidation/Advanced Oxidation Processes
• Used for tertiary treatments/disinfection • Chemical Reduction
• Membranes are thin films of synthetic organic or • Disinfection
inorganic (ceramic) materials, which can bring
about a very selective separation between a fluid Neutralization
and its components • To adjust the pH value to meet the requirements of
the different processing units in the wastewater
Pressure-driven Membrane Processes treatment system
• Reverse Osmosis • To treat acid wastewaters containing metals, the
• Nanofiltration method of increasing the pH of the acid waste by
o Designed to remove multivalent ions but addition of an alkaline reagent
can remove sodium and chloride fairly as • Conducted before the clarification
well
o Organic control Coagulation and Flocculation
• Ultrafiltration • Coagulation is the destabilization and initial
o Clarification and disinfection operation coalescing of (negatively charged) colloidal particles
o Membrane is porous and rejects most present in water
macromolecules, microorganisms, and all • Flocculation is the formation of larger particles
types of particles (flocs) from smaller particles
• Microfiltration • Coagulation-flocculation is an enhanced water
o Major difference between MF and UF is treatment facility by addition of chemicasls such as
pore-size FeCl3
o Primary application is particulate removal • These coagulants reduce the repulsive electric force
between particles and create a net attractive force
Application of Membranes in Wastewater Treatment • These coagulants can lead to charge neutralization
• Pressure driven solid liquid separation processes and floc precipitation
• Tertiary treatment of wastewaters following
secondary sedimentation Chemical Precipitation
• Production of high quality effluent in re-use • Removal of heavy metals due to toxicity,
schemes accumulation in the biosphere, and concerns in
• Alternative to sedimentation tank for solid/liquid urban and industrial areas
separation in: • Precipitate is in the metal hydroxide or sulfide form
o Aerobic biological treatment • The ionic metals are converted to an insoluble form
o Anaerobic biological treatment (particle) by the chemical reaction between the
soluble metal compounds and the precipitating
Advantages of Membrane Processes: reagent. The particle formed by this reaction are
• They are usually continuous removed from solution by settling and/or filtration.
• Comparatively low energy utilization
• No phase change of contaminants Chemical Oxidation
• Small temperature change • Removal of electrons from an element or
• Modular design compound
• Minimum of moving parts • Process to chemically oxidize pollutants to terminal
• Physical separation of contaminants end products or more readily biodegradable
intermediates

Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)
• Near ambient temperature and pressure water
treatment processes which involve the generation
of hydroxyl radicals in sufficient quantity to effect
water purification
• The hydroxyl radical is a powerful, non-selective
chemical oxidant which acts very rapidly with most
organic compounds

Chemical Reduction

 • Process used to remove soluble pollutants by phase Lecture 8 – Physico-Chemical Processes in Wastewater
transfer Treatment
• Used for removal of inorganic compounds
Physico-Chemical Processes
Disinfection • Used for substances/compounds that are difficult
• To substantially reduce the number of to remove biologically
microorganisms in the water to be discharged back o Adsorption
into the environment o Ion-exchange
o Electrochemical process

Adsorption
• Surface phenomenon involving the adhesion of
molecules to interfaces with which they are
brought into contact
• During the adsorption process, dissolved species
diffuse into the porous solid adsorbent granule and
are then adsorbed onto the extensive inner surface
of the adsorbent
• Takes place in either fixed-bed or suspended-media
contactors
• Commonly used to remove synthetic organic
chemicals, color-forming organics and disinfection
by-product precursors
• Excellent removal of endocrine disrupting
compounds (EDCs) and pharmaceutical and
personal care products (PPCPs)

Adsorption Isotherms
• Langmuir
o Isotherm is based on monolayer, uniform,
and finite adsorption site assumptions
𝑞+(3 𝐾m 𝐶,
𝑞, =
1 + 𝐾m 𝐶,
• Freundlich
o Describes non-ideal sorption onto
heterogeneous surfaces involving
multilayer sorption
4
𝑞, = 𝐾n 𝐶,3

Mass Balance:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑
+ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑉𝐶5 = 𝑀𝑞 + 𝑉𝐶

For a continuous plug-flow operation (operating line):
𝑄
𝑞= 𝐶 −𝐶
𝑀8 5

Ion Exchange
• Involves the exchange of an ion in the aqueous
phase for an ion in the solid phase
• Ex: water softening aiming – to reduce calcium and
magnesium content
• A key difference between ion exchange and
adsorption is that the capacity of ion exchange
media is used much more quickly.
• Advantages:
o No sludge generated
o Less labor intensive than chemical
treatment
 o Columns ship easily and are usually Lecture 9 – Biological Processes
considered non-hazardous
o Much smaller space requirements than a Biological Processes
chemical treatment system • Removal of soluble organic matter
o Ion exchange resin is easily regenerated on • Stabilization of insoluble organic matter
site, whereas adsorption media typically 𝑂𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝑂J → 𝐶𝑂J + 𝐻J 𝑂 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
has to be replaced or taken offsite for • Transform or remove nutrients
regeneration • Remove specific trace constituents
• Processes based on growth
Electrochemical Process o Suspended growth
• Consists of anodes and cathodes in parallel mode § Bacteria are grown in suspension
• Used in textile and plating wastewater in the reactor without providing
o Electroflotation any media support (ex. Activated
o Electro-oxidation sludge)
o Electrocoagulation o Attached growth
§ Microorganism growth occurs as
a biofilm formed on the media
surface provided in the reactor
(ex. Trickling filter)
• Processes based on oxygen availability
o Aerobic
§ Pollutants are stabilized by
microorganisms in the molecular
presence of molecular oxygen
o Anaerobic
§ Pollutants are stabilized by
microorganisms in the molecular
absence of molecular oxygen

Activated Sludge Process
• Wastewater is introduced into an aerated tank of
microorganisms which are collectively referred to
as activated sludge or mixed liquor
o Activated sludge: microbial consortium
consisting of algae, bacteria, fungi,
rotifers, viruses, protozoa
• Aeration is achieved by the use of submerged
diffused or surface mechanical aeration or
combinations, which maintain the activated sludge
in suspension
• After the aeration tank, the wastewater/activated
sludge mixture is lead to a secondary settling tank
in which the biologically activated sludge settles
and separates from the treated wastewater
• The activated sludge is continuously returned to the
aeration tank, where once more it is mixed with
new wastewater
• Result of sludge return is a maintained high
concentration of biomass in the aeration tank

• Factors to consider in ASP
o Characteristics of inflow including

hydraulic and organic loading rates
o The amount of solids in the aeration tank
o The amount of oxygen needed to satisfy
the respiratory requirements of the
organisms present
o The volume of the aeration tanks and
secondary settlement tanks required to

accommodate seasonal variations

• Advantages:

o Flexible, can adapt to minor pH, organic

and temperature changes
 o Small area required • Untreated wastewater is mixed with recycled
o Degree of nitrification is controllable sludge solids and then digested in a sealed reactor
o Relatively minor odor problems • The mixture is separated in a clarifier
• Disadvantages • Advantages
o High operating costs o Methane recovery
o Generates solids requiring sludge disposal o Small area required
o Some process alternatives are sensitive to o Volatile solids destruction
shock loads and metallic or other poisons o Lower sludge production
o Requires continuous air supply • Disadvantages
o Effluent in reduced chemical form
Sequencing Batch Reactor required further treatment
• Variation of the activated sludge process o Requires skilled operation
• Both treatment and settling occur in one tank
• Advantages
o Elimination of clarifier
o High tolerance
o Low MLSS washout
o Good settling conditions
o Process flexibility

Attached Growth Processes
• Advantages
o Less energy required
o Simpler operation
o No problems of bulking sludge in
secondary clarifiers
o Better sludge thickening properties
o Less equipment maintenance needs

Trickling Filters
• Trickling filters are filled almost entirely with
packing material made up of lava slag, gravel, or
other suitable material
• A rotary distributor arms spread the influent
wastewater over the upper layer of the media and
then the wastewater trickles down over and in
between the packing material through the filter

Biofilm
• Develops on the surface of the packing material of
a stabilized trickling filter
• Consists of aerobic and anaerobic layer
• Made up of a slimy substance in and on which, apart
from bacteria and other organisms, the residues
from lysed cells and other non-biodegradable or
slowly biodegradable compounds occur

Recirculation in TFs
• Advantages
o Diluting of concentrated wastewater
o Eliminating of peak supply and peak
concentrations
o Reducing the influence of biodegradable
toxic substances through dilution
o Longer average residence time for the
wastewater in the trickling filter

Rotating Biological Contactors
• Allow the growth of a biofilm on large diameter
discs or structured modules

Anaerobic Contact Process
Lecture 10 – Activated Sludge Process: Mass Balance and • Food to Microorganism Ratio
Calculations o Also termed sludge loading rate (SLR)
o Ratio between the mass of food entering
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) the treatment plant and the mass of
• Solids present in the aeration tank microorganisms in the aeration tank
• Indication of microbial population o An important control parameter as the
• Usually between 2000 and 5000 mg/L quantity of biomass present will influence
• Maintained by adjusting WAS the removal efficiency

Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids (MLVSS) 𝐹 𝑆5 ×𝑄5
=
• Usually ranges from 0.7-0.8 of MLSS 𝑀 𝑀𝐿𝑉𝑆𝑆×𝑉
§ 𝑆5 = influent BOD concentration
Kinetics of bacterial growth (mg/L)
• During the oxidation of organic matter in the § 𝑄5 = wastewater flow rate
activated sludge process, the following reaction (m3/day)
occurs § 𝑀𝐿𝑉𝑆𝑆 = MLVSS concentration
(mg/L)
𝐶𝐻𝑂𝑁𝑆 + 𝑂J + 𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 § 𝑉 = volume of aeration tank (m3)
→ 𝐶𝑂J + 𝑁𝐻y + 𝐶z 𝐻{ 𝑂J 𝑁
+ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 • Sludge Loading Rate
• The rate of biomass increase during the log growth o Treatment efficiency
is directly proportional to the initial biomass o Sludge growth
concentration, which is represented by the o Sludge age and with that the degree of
following first order equation stabilization of the sludge
𝑑𝑋 o Nitrification and denitrification
= 𝜇𝑋 o Oxygen requirement of the sludge
𝑑𝑇
o
~•
= growth rate of biomass (mg/Ld)
~:
• Assumptions:
o 𝑋 = biomass concentration (mg/L)
o The biomass concentration in the influent
o µ = specific growth rate constant (d-1)
is negligible

o There is complete mixing in the aeration
𝑋 = 𝑋5 𝑒 €2
tank

o The substrate concentration in the influent
• Monod’s Equation for biomass growth rate
wastewater remains constant
𝑆
𝜇 = 𝜇+ o Waste stabilization occurs only in the
𝐾c + 𝑆
aeration tank. All reactions take place in
o S = limiting substrate concentration (mg/L)
the aeration basin so that the substrate in
o 𝜇+ = maximum biomass growth rate (d-1)
the aeration basin is of the same
o 𝐾c = half saturation constant, i.e. substrate
concentration as the substrate in the
concentration at one half maximum
secondary clarifier and in the effluent
growth rate
o There is no microbial degradation of
• Biomass Yield organic matter and no biomass growth in
o If all the substrate (organic food, S) could
the secondary clarifier
be converted to biomass, then the
o Steady state conditions prevail throughout
substrate utilization rate is
the system
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑋
− = o The volume used for calculation of mean
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑇 cell residence time includes volume of the
o However, all the substrates cannot be
aeration tank only
converted to biomass because of catabolic
reaction • Biomass Mass Balance
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
o A yield coefficient (Y<1) is introduced such
= 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
that the substrate utilization rate is higher
+ 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
than the biomass growth rate

𝑑𝑆 1 𝑑𝑋
− = 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑡 𝑌 𝑑𝑇 𝑄5 𝑋5 + 𝑉 = 𝑄5 − 𝑄D 𝑋, + 𝑄D 𝑋E
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑆 1 𝜇+ 𝑋𝑆
− = § 𝑄5 = influent flow rate (m3/d)
𝑑𝑡 𝑌 𝐾c + 𝑆 § 𝑋5 = influent biomass
§ Y = yield coefficient i.e. fraction of
concentration (mg/L)
substrate converted to biomass
§ 𝑉 = volume of the aeration basin
§ The value of Y varies from 0.4 to
(m3)
0.8 mg VSS/BOD in aerobic
§ 𝑄D = flow rate of waste sludge
systems
(m3/d)
 § 𝑋, = effluent biomass § Caused by denitrification in
concentration (mg/L) clarifier
§ 𝑋E = biomass concentration in § N2 bubbles attach to flocs and
the return sludge (mg/L) rise
o It is assumed that the biomass § Controlled by low nitrate or COD
concentration in the influent wastewater effluent concentration
and in the effluent from the clarifier is
negligible, i.e. 𝑋5 = 𝑋, = 0

𝑑𝑋
𝑉 = 𝑄D 𝑋E
𝑑𝑡

• Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
𝑉
𝜃=
𝑄5
o Usual practice is to keep the retention
period between 3-5 hours while treating
sewage
o Volume of aeration tank is also decided by
considering the return sludge which is
about 25-50% of the wastewater volume
o HRT is lower than the SRT as a fraction of
the sludge is recycled back to the aeration
basin
• Sludge Age/Solids Retention Time
o Average residence time of the sludge in
the system
o Total mass of sludge contained in the
aeration tank divided by the total mass of
sludge wasted daily
𝑉𝑋
𝜃=
𝑄… 𝑋E
• Sludge Recycling/Recirculation Ratio
o The recirculation ratio is estimated as
stated below considering the mass of
microorganisms entering aeration tank
and leaving the aeration tank

𝑄E 𝑋
=
𝑄 𝑋E − 𝑋

• Operational Issues
o Bulking sludge
§ Filamentous bacteria which are
slow setting
§ Due to low DO or F/M ratio
§ Difficult to control and reduce
§ Common in many ASPs
o Pin-point flocs
§ Small, dispersed particles in
sludge
§ Slow settling due to small size
§ More common in ASPs with long
SRT
§ Sometimes due to lack of
protozoa
o Foaming
§ Often caused by filamentous
bacteria
§ Can be enhanced by detergents
§ Controlled by water sprays in
mild case
o Rising sludge
Lecture – Appropriate Technologies for wastewater Lecture – Stream Visual Assessment Protocol (SVAP)
treatment in developing countries
SVAP
• Sewage treatment processes in developing • Qualitative and meant to be conducted with the
countries should input and assistance of the landowner
o Be effective, low-cost and simple to • Allows relatively fast assessment of meaningful
construct and operate stream and riparian characteristics
o Need little imported equipment • Provides the basics for planning stream and riparian
• Appropriate technologies conservation practices
o Waste stabilization ponds • All protocols, indices, and assessment tools used to
§ Simple to build characterize stream condition
§ Reliable and easy to maintain • Vary significantly in required scale, expertise and
§ Low-cost data intensity
§ Require little or no imported • Summary
mechanical equipment o Assess stream reach 12 X bankfull width
§ Require large amount of land – o Score a maximum 15 elements; use those
only disadvantage applicable to your site
• Biochemical Oxygen Demand o Assign a rating for each element -
o BOD contribution per person = 40g per intermediate scoring is OK
person per day in tropical countries o Calculate overall score
• Seepage control o Determine the narrative rating
o Seepage should never exceed 10% of o Describe potential causes of poor
inflow conditions and recommendations for
o Use asphalt or bitumen improving them
o Less costly methods are polyethylene
sheeting put between layers of fill material
o Alternatively, a clay lining
• Embankments
o Soil must be impermeable to enable
construction of embankments
o Side slopes should be banked at a ratio of
one to three
o Embankment crest should be wide enough
so vehicles can drive to all parts of the
pond system
o The free board above the normal water
level should be about half a meter
• Maintenance
o The only major operation is desludging
o Removal of scum mats from facultative
and maturation ponds
o Tall vegetation should be removed to
encourage mixing of pond layers and to
discourage mosquito breeding along the
water’s edge

*CALCULATIONS















Lecture 11 – Air Quality and Pollution 𝑑 𝑇 Γ/~
Γc = − =
𝑑 𝑍 𝐿𝑑(𝑊)
1+
Air Pollution 𝐶B 𝑑(𝑇)
• Air pollution occurs when gases or aerosol particles, • Another important physical meteorological
emitted anthropogenically, build up in consideration is potential temperature (θ)
concentrations sufficiently high to cause direct or • θ - the temperature of an air parcel if it expands or
indirect damage to humans, plants, animals, other compresses adiabatically from its initial state to a
life forms, ecosystems, structures, or works of art pressure, P0, of 1000 mb
• The presence of substances in the atmosphere,
5.Jˆˆ
particularly those that do not occur naturally 𝑃Ž
• Emissions 𝜃=𝑇
𝑃
o The amount of pollutant coming from a
pollution source or area over some time ∆𝜃 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
= −
• Primary air pollutants ∆𝑍 ∆𝑍 ,3' ∆𝑍 /~
ƥ
o Materials that, when released, pose health o if < 0 unstable atmosphere
∆‡
risks in their unmodified forms or those ƥ
o if = 0 neutral atmosphere
emitted directly from identifiable sources ∆‡
ƥ
§ Carbon monoxide o if > 0 stable atmosphere
∆‡
§ Sulfur oxides • The wind velocity profile is another important
§ Nitrogen oxides characteristic of the atmosphere. The wind’s
§ Hydrocarbons/VOCs velocity depends on height above ground, stability
§ Particulate matter of the atmosphere, and roughness of the earth’s
§ Air toxics surface.
• Secondary air pollutants • Another aspect of atmospheric stability is the
o Tropospheric ozone maximum mixing depth (MMD). MMD describes
o Stratospheric ozone the maximum height at which the convective
• Effects mixing layer would be limited. Such information
o Health effects provides how high the convective mixing layer may
o Photochemical smog rise for a given day. Maximum MMDs are expected
o Ozone depletion during the summer and minimum MMDs are
o Acid deposition expected during the winter.
• A wind rose is another technique used to describe
the atmosphere at a particular location. A wind rose
provides the wind speed, wind direction, and the
frequency of the wind’s speed and direction.
Lecture – Meteorology


• Once particulate and gaseous contaminants are
emitted into the atmosphere, they are transported Lecture – Atmospheric Dispersion of Gaseous and
until they are removed from the atmosphere by wet Particulate Contaminants
or dry deposition mechanisms or transformed to
other materials
• The atmosphere is described by layers with the Box Model
troposphere existing within the lowest 10 km of the • The model considers a contaminant that is emitted
atmosphere into the atmosphere with some source of strength
• The stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (Q1) and flux (F1) into a box that has a certain length
exist above the troposphere. The troposphere (L), width (W), and height (H). The wind has a
contains approximately 80% of the atmosphere’s constant speed (ug) as it passes through the box as
mass and virtually all of its H2O. The stratosphere is presented below. The resulting downwind
very stable and has been extensively studied concentration of contaminant i as predicted by the
because of its ability to absorb UV radiation. box model is defined as C2.

‡
†
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑒 ˆ.y ‰+
• Pressure decreases exponentially with height as
confirmed in the following schematic for the lowest
100 km of the atmosphere.
• The dependence of temperature on height of the
atmosphere can be described with the first law of
thermodynamics and the hydrostatic equation.
• For Γc = saturated adiabatic lapse rate:
•
Lecture 14 – Control of Gaseous Contaminants o Main specific difference of biotrickling
filters when compared with biofilters is the
Physical Treatment presence of a continuous recycling liquid
• Separation and removal of particulate phase as well as the use of a synthetic
contaminants from gas streams packing material that is chemically inert
o Settling chambers (gravitational force)
o Cyclones (centrifugal force) Chemical Treatment
o Wet collectors and fabric filters (diffusion, • Wet Scrubbing/Absorption
interception, and impaction) o Scrubbing is a physical process whereby
o Electrostatic precipitators (electrostatic particulates, vapors, and gases are
force) controlled by either passing a gas stream
• Assumptions through a liquid solution or spraying a
o Particle concentration is uniform in any liquid into a gas stream
plane perpendicular to the direction of gas • Adsorption
flow o Involves the molecular attraction of gases
o Gas velocity is uniform throughout or vapors (VOCs) onto the surface of
o Particles are all at their terminal settling certain solids
velocity o Activated carbon, which possesses the
o No particles reentrain from the bottom of large internal surface area needed to
the chamber absorb large quantities of gases within its
o No particles interact with each other structure, is often used to remove VOCs
• Collection efficiency from flue gases
• Catalytic reactors
∆𝑍 o Thermal or catalytic combustion
𝜂=
∆𝐻 techniques can convert organic pollutants
into a mixture of CO2 and H2O via catalytic
𝑉21 𝐴V()),V27(3 reactions
𝜂=
𝑄. • Thermal incinerators
o Involves the high efficiency combustion of
• The turbulent flow model assumes well mixed certain solid, liquid, or gaseous wastes
conditions in the vertical direction, reintrainment of • Advanced Oxidation Processes
particles is negligible, and the particles are moving o Applied for treatment of different types of
in the horizontal direction with the gas stream. wastewaters because the strong oxidants
that can readily degrade recalcitrant
†@“” H•–——˜•“™–š
›œ
organic pollutants and remove certain
𝜂 =1−𝑒 inorganic pollutants in wastewater

Biological Treatment
• Basic pollutant removal mechanisms of all the
bioreactors are similar but the differences exist in
the use of microorganisms, packing media and
pollutant concentration
• Lower environmental impact and operating costs
compared to their physical-chemical counterparts
• Biofilters
o Operate to destroy VOCs and odors by
microbial oxidation of these problem
compounds
• Biofiltration
o A biofilter consists of bed of soil or
compost beneath which is a network of
perforated pipe
o Contaminated air flows through the pipe
and out of the many holes in the sides of
the pipe thereby being distributed
throughout the bed
• Activated sludge diffusion
o The contaminated air is collected from the
source and transferred to the activated
sludge tank diffusers, which limits its
application to WWTPs
• Biotrickling Filtration